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Rapid Prototyping and Manufacturing: A Review of Current Technologies

Conference Paper · January 2009

DOI: 10.1115/IMECE2009-11750

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 Proceedingsof
Proceedings of the
the ASME
2009 ASME International Mechanical
2009 International Mechanical Engineering
Engineering Congress
Congress && Exposition
Exposition
IMECE 2009
IMECE2009
November 13 -19,13-19,
November 2009, Lake
Lake Buena
Buena Vista,
Vista, Florida,
Florida, USA
USA

IMECE2009-11750

RAPID PROTOTYPING AND MANUFACTURING: A REVIEW OF CURRENT TECHNOLOGIES

Hugo I. Medellín-Castillo, Joel Esau Pedraza Torres
Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí,
Av. Manuel Nava No. 8, Zona Universitaria, 78290, San Luis Potosí, S.L.P., México.

ABSTRACT blank geometries, set-ups, consider material handling, jigs,

The idea to develop processes capable to produce fixtures and clamping, or to design moulds and dies.
physical components quickly and without requiring tooling,
led to the development of the “free form fabrication” (FFF) or The applications of RP technologies have been in the
“rapid prototyping” (RP) technologies in the early 1980s. RP production of near net shape (NNS) prototypes, which are
systems generally build up a prototype directly from the brought into the required tolerance by a finishing operation.
computer-aided design (CAD) data by using an additive “layer Some NNS products can be used directly (as a part requiring
by layer” method. The RP technologies have brought several none or little finishing) others however require considerable
advantages to the manufacturing industry in such a way that post-processing. The RP technologies have brought several
these technologies are evolving toward the production of end- advantages to the manufacturing industry in such a way that
use parts. This paper presents a review of rapid prototyping these technologies are evolving toward the production of end-
and manufacturing (RP&M) technologies from their origins. use parts. When this occurs, RP technologies are also referred
The review includes commercially available RP systems and to as rapid manufacturing (RM) technologies. On the other
RP technologies that are still at the development stage or that hand, when RP is used to manufacture production tools such
have been proposed. The operating principles and the features as molds, dies, etc., the RP techniques are also known as
of these technologies are presented. Process parameters such Rapid Tooling (RT) techniques.
as accuracy, layer thickness, operation speed are given. An
extended classification of RP&M technologies is also included From the origin of the RP technologies, more than 25
in this paper. years ago, several methods have emerged, some of them have
Keywords: rapid prototyping (RP), rapid manufacturing (RM), become commercially available, other never became
layer by layer. commercially available and others are still in development.
During these years, there have been several research works
regarding the review of those RP technologies [2]-[5]. These
1 INTRODUCTION works have explained each RP technique, together with their
The need for rapid physical construction of models main features, advantages, disadvantages and limitations.
before full-scale production has emerged as a consequence of
the constant drive to reduce cost whilst demanding increasing RP technologies have still some limitations and problems
speed, accuracy, quality and overall dimensions of the final which limit their use for the manufacture of functional parts.
product [1]. Rapid Technologies (RTs) have emerged to In general, the problems and limitations of RP processes can
“allow” the fulfilment of this need. Two basic characteristics be summarized in nine categories as shown in Table 1. On the
of RTs are: 1) their independence from the shape of the object other hand, shape related limitations of RP technologies can
to be manufactured, and 2) their dependence on physical be classified in seven categories [6]: cavities; distortion,
principles, materials and target applications. Rapid shrinkage and warping; feature damage; feature size;
Prototyping, as rapid technology, was introduced for the rapid overhangs; surface finish; and volume. Based on these
construction of physical objects directly from digital data in a limitations, the Design for Rapid Prototyping (DFRP) can be
computer-aided design (CAD) system. The RP technologies defined as the condition of optimal shapes and structures to
were introduced to allow better visualization of forms during satisfy functional needs while ensuring manufacturability in
the conceptualisation and design stage of products, and RP machines, [6]-[7]. In other words, the DFRP refers to the
consequently, to reduce the uncertainties that accompany the consideration of the problems and limitations of RP
start of full-scale production. RP helps to shorten the design techniques during the design stage of a product, particularly if
process by reducing the time required for building prototypes the product is intended to be produced by an RP technique.
so that engineers can test and evaluate a design faster. The
main advantage of RP is the fact that there is no need to define

1 Copyright © 2009 by ASME

 Category Problems & limitations
- Limited resolution along the build axis. The general procedure to construct a component in a
- Facet approximation and staircase effect. RP&M technique can be described as follows: 1) a part is
Part accuracy
- The dimensional accuracy and the surface quality is in
and surface
general less than CNC machining and injection modeled by a CAD system to produce a 3D model of the
finishing component, 2) the CAD model is then decomposed (sliced)
moulding processes.
- Shrinkage and distortion. into a series of parallel cross-section layers, 3) the RP&M
Cost of system reproduces the sliced data, and 4) a physical
- The costs of materials and RP machines are still
materials and
equipment
relatively high. representation of the CAD model is obtained. Figure 1
- The build rate of RP systems is typically slow. The illustrates this RP&M general procedure to construct a
Production production of an average-size model may take few component.
time hours. Large components are produced in many hours
or even days.
- The materials are limited to plastics, ceramics, heavy-
duty paper, and a limited range of metals from
Range of stainless steel to titanium.
materials - RP systems build prototypes from basically just one
material.
- The production of heterogeneous prototypes is limited.
- Depending on the RP method, prototypes tend to be
Mechanical
weak and fragile compared to those made
performance
conventionally from metals and engineering plastics. Fig. 1. RP&M general procedure to construct a component.
Size - The maximum size of parts is relatively small.
Post - Depending on the application and the RP technique,
processing prototypes could require a post processing process. Most of the RP&M technologies build a component
- The physical representation of assembly models that layer-by-layer from the bottom to the top until the final
Prototyping
involve the assembly of multiple parts has not been geometry is obtained. However, the materials and the way in
addressed by RP technologies. which the layers are produced vary significantly among the
of assemblies
- Volume based construction is not commercially
available yet. different RP&M techniques. Depending on the particular case,
Ecology - Contamination for the use of toxic materials. a component produce in an RP&M system can be used as a
Table 1. Problems and limitations of RP technologies. concept model, a functional or semi-functional component, a
master pattern, or even a tooling [5].
This paper presents a review of the current state and
capabilities of the rapid prototyping and manufacturing 3 CLASSIFICATION
(RP&M) technologies from their origins. This review attempts There are many RP&M technologies which can be
to include the most important commercially available systems, classified in several ways. According to the type of prototype
no-commercially available systems and technologies that are being manufactured, the RP&M techniques can be classified
still in development. The operating principles and main in four groups [4]: visual prototype, functional prototype,
features of these technologies are presented. Process material prototype and production prototype. Since this
parameters such as accuracy, layer thickness, operation speed classification is defined by the type of prototype and not by
and costs are also provided. Also, an extended classification of the RP&M technique, it does not appropriate for the purposes
RP&M techniques is proposed in this paper. of this paper. RP&M techniques can be also classified by the
manufacturing process used [5]: curing process, sheet process,
The rest of the paper is structured as follows: section 2 dispensing process, sintering process, and binding process.
describes with more detail the rapid prototyping and This classification is also limited to just the RP&M techniques
manufacturing technology principles; section 3 presents an that are based on the addition of material. A more general
extended classification of the RP&M technologies; section 4 classification is based on two main categories [3]: process
presents the RP&M technologies reported in the literature involving the addition of material and process involving the
together with a brief description of each of them; and last, removal of material. Additionally, RP&M techniques can also
section 5 draws some conclusions. be divided by the state of the prototype material before part
formation [3]: liquid, discrete particles and solid sheets.
2 RAPID PROTOTYPING AND MANUFACTURING
The proposal to develop processes capable to An extended classification of the RP&M techniques is
manufacture physical components quickly and without proposed in this paper as shown Figure 2. This classification
requiring tooling, led to the development of the “free form extends those presented in the literature by including new
fabrication” (FFF) or “rapid prototyping” (RP) technologies in methods and by combining different methods of classifying
the early 1980s. RP systems generally build up a prototype the RP&M techniques. The proposed classification is based on
directly from the computer-aided design (CAD) data by using four main groups: additive processes, subtractive processes,
an additive “layer by layer” method. When a part constructed formative processes and hybrid processes. Additive processes
in an RP technique can be used directly as an end-use part, the are those in which the prototype is created by adding material,
RP technique is also referred as a rapid manufacturing subtractive processes are those in which the prototype is
technique (RM). Thus, RP&M is a generic term that refers to a created by removing material, formative processes are based
group of technologies that enable the construction of on deforming the material to obtain the prototype, and hybrid
components directly from the computer and without the need processes are those which combine the addition, removal or
of conventional tooling. formation of material to create the prototype. Additive

2 Copyright © 2009 by ASME

processes may be subdivided into the following manufacturing
processes: On the other hand, the subtractive processes can be
- Curing processes. Those where a photo-sensitive subdivided into two main groups: CNC machining and robotic
material is exposed to a light source to harden it. machining. CNC machining refers to those systems that
- Sheet processes. Those where thin sheets of material are remove material from the workpiece as in traditional CNC
cut to shape and stacked on top of each other. machining (e.g. turning and milling). Robotic machining are
- Dispensing processes. Those where a material is melted those systems that use an industrial robot to move a cutting
or vaporized and then deposited as a filament or droplets. tool such as a mill to remove the material from the workpiece.
- Sintering processes. Those where a powdered material is Formative processes are those RP systems in which the
sintered together using a heat source, typically a laser prototype is created by deforming the raw material. Currently
beam. there is one RP system based on a formative process,
- Binding processes. Those where a liquid binder is robotyping. Hybrid RP&M techniques may combine additive,
deposited onto powdered material to bind the powder. subtractive and formative processes to fabricate the
- Assembly processes. Those where a material or materials component.
are assembled to construct the prototype.
- Organism processes. Those where live units such as live
cells are assembled to make live tissues and organs.

RP&M technologies 

Additive Processes Subtractive Processes Formative  Hybrid 

Processes Processes

Curing Sheet Dispensing Sintering Binding Assembly Organism   CNC  Robot    Laser   Robotyping 3DWM, 
Processes Processes Processes Processes Processes Processes Processes Machining Machining Machining SDM, DLD‐
CNC, 
HPDM, 
SLA, DLP,  LOM,  FDM,AJS,  SLS,  3DP,MJM, CC,RBC,  LDM, TSMS,  DM, HSM,  RPS. LC, LML, 
LGHSM, 
LTP, BIS,  CAM‐ 3DW,GPD,  DLMS,EBM, HVJ,IP,LAE RPBLOX,  GTCF, LISC,  RLM, CNC‐ LDM.
NCD, RMS,
SGC,HIS,E LEM,  MAPLE,BMP,E SLM,SMS,SI ,LIBWE,LC OCBLOX. OP. RP. UC, 3DMW.
S,SF,SFP,L CLOM. FAB,  S,ELM,HSS, RHLS.
L,NSL,  LENS,FDC,MJS LMS,µ‐
UVRM,  ,MJ,FIB,DLDM SLS,SLMS,H
STGL, NIL,  ,MS,PEM,MBS FSEDS,MM
EBL, SEM,  ,MIMIC,LPIM, SLS,RPBPS,
RSLA. TSLR,EDSSM,E SLPR. 
FF,EPDFF,FFF,
MesoSDM, 
MoldSDM, 
LCVD,PLD,PPD
,SALD,SADVI,C
M,MDM,RFP.
Fig. 2. RP&M technologies classification.

4 CURRENT TECHNOLOGIES across the part cross section, re-coating it with new fresh
There are many RP&M technologies commercially material and the laser draws the next slice on a fresh layer of
available, others are under current development and some liquid polymer. This slice of the part solidifies and adheres on
others have just been proposed. The following paragraphs top of the previous set slice. When all the slices have been
provide a description of most of these RP&M technologies. traced by the laser, the platform is removed from the vat and
the completed part is then finally cured in an ultraviolet oven.
ADDITVE PROCESSES Direct Light Processing (DLP)
Curing processes The process builds parts from an acrylate based photocurable
Stereolithography (SLA) resin, but it does so by using a two-dimensional matrix of
Utilizing a UV laser and a vat of liquid UV-curable mirrors rather than a ‘1D’ array of print heads to selectively
photopolymer resin contains a platform on which the part is cure the material [18]. In order to selectively cure a layer, the
built [8]. The platform moves until it is just below the surface process makes use of digital mirror devices (DMD)
of the liquid polymer. On each layer, the laser beam traces a technology developed by National Instruments to selectively
part cross-section pattern on the surface of the liquid resin. switch on and off mirrors that reflect UV light from a source
Exposure to the UV laser light cures, or, solidifies the pattern on to the build area. With a build speed of 10–15 seconds per
traced on the resin and adheres it to the layer below. After the layer the process is well suited to building parts quickly, but
pattern has been traced, the SLA’s elevator platforms descends the use of a single DMD with a finite matrix of pixels limits
by a single layer thickness, then, a resin-filled blade sweeps the process to small parts if a fine resolution is maintained.

3 Copyright © 2009 by ASME

Liquid thermal polymerization (LTP) ink by a knife. This material is also UV cured and the
This process is similar to SL except that the resin is complete layer planarized. The entire process is then repeated
thermosetting and an infrared laser is used to create the voxels. until the desired thickness is reached. Finally the resulting
This difference means that the size of the voxels may be green body is debindered and sintered in controlled
affected through heat dissipation, which may also cause atmospheres to obtain the final microdevice, [20].
unwanted distortion and shrinkage in the part. However, the Solid foil polymerisation (SFP)
problems are apparently no worse than those caused by SL In this process the part is built up using semi-polymerised foils
and are controllable. This system is still being researched [19]. [19]. On exposure to UV light, the foil solidifies and bonds to
Beam interference solidification (BIS) the previous layer. It also becomes insoluble. Once the cross-
This process uses two laser beams mounted at right angles section has been illuminated, a new foil can be applied. The
which emit light at different frequencies to polymerise resin in areas of foil which do not constitute the eventual part are used
a transparent vat. The fist laser excites the liquid to a to support it during the build process, but remain soluble and
reversible metastable state and then the incidence of the so are easy to remove. Once the part is complete, the non-
second beam polymerises the excited resin. To date, there are bonded pieces can be dissolved to leave the finished part. No
no commercial applications of this technology because there commercial systems are available yet.
are still technical difficulties to be solved [19]. Laser lithography (LL)
Solid Ground Curing (SGC) This is the most straightforward approach to a maskless
This system utilizes photopilymerising resin and light [19]. lithography. The lithography process itself remains the same;
Data from the CAD model is used to produce a mask which is only the photomask exposureis replaced by a scanned
placed above the resins and surface. The entire layer can then exposure with a switched focused laser beam [20]. Still, a
be illuminated with a UV lamp. Once the layer has been cured, photoresist material has to be spun onto the wafer, prebaked,
the excess resin is wiped away and any spaces are filled with illuminated by the laser, developed and postbaked. For most
wax. The wax is cooled with a chill plate, milled flat and chips wet chemical etching processes, the resist pattern has
removed. A new layer of resin is applied and the process subsequently to be transferred into a previously deposited etch
repeated. The mask itself is a sheet of glass which is prepared resistant mask. This leaves the maskless fabrication as the
whilst the current layer is being waxed, cooled and milled. only benefit for laser lithography. The generation of sub-
The negative image of each subsequent layer is produced micron features on a single 4 inch wafer may take up to 1 day
electrostatically on the glass and developed using a toner in a of scan time on a system with an X-Y table.
similar manner to laser printing. All the resin within a layer is Nanostereolithography (NSL)
completely cured by this method, and so no postcuring is Besides the application of the later described nanoimprinting
required. The disadvantages of this system are that it is noisy, techniques, the direct stereolithographic generation of
large and heavy and needs to be constantly manned. It wastes submicron or nanosized structures is of particular interest
a large amount of wax which cannot be recycled. especially for photonic or life science applications. The use of
Holographic interference solidification (HIS) vapour pressure arc lamps or standard laser sources limits a
A holographic image is projected into the resin causing an further reduction of the accessible structural details due to the
entire surface to solidify [19]. Data is still obtained from that diffraction limit, [20].
CAD model, although not as slices. The build space is 300 x UV Reaction Molding (UVRM)
300 x 300 mm. There are no commercial systems available The UV process can be used for the fabrication of sensitive
yet. lens structures or deflecting prisms with low aspect ratios on
Solidification of an electroset fluid: electrosetting (ES) silicon wafer substrates using a modified mask aligner [20].
Electrodes are printed onto a conductive material such as The lens diameters range from 5 up to 300 μm, lens sag from 1
aluminum [19]. Once all the layers have been printed, they are to 100 μm and with a smallest distance around 2 μm.
stacked, immersed in a bath of electrosetting fluid and Microstructured prototypes with an aspect ratio up to 5 can be
energized. The fluid which is between the electrodes then realized with UV embossing technique using modified curable
solidifies to form the part. Once the composite has been acrylates.
removed and drained, the unwanted aluminum may be Stereo-thermal-lithography (STLG)
trimmed from the part. Advantages of this technology are that The process begins with the curing reaction of a
the part density, compressibility, hardness and adhesion may photosensitive polymer characterized by chemical cross-
be controlled by controlling the voltage and current applied to linking reactions that create an infusible, insoluble and highly
the aluminum. Parts may be made from silicon rubber, cross-linked three-dimensional network [34]. During this
polyester, polyurethane or epoxy. reaction, two main events occur: gelation and vitrification.
Spatial Forming (SF) The formation of a glassy solid material occurs due to an
It was developed to enable the formation of complex metallic increase in both the cross-linking density and the molecular
microdevices using offset printing techniques. The CAD weight of the polymer being cured, and usually follows. From
model is sliced into thin cross-sections, which are used for the vitrification, the rate of reaction will undergo a significant
patterning of a chrome mask by an E-beam pattern generator. decrease and the reaction becomes very slow as it becomes
The mask is then imaged to a lithographic printing plate, controlled by the diffusion of the reactive species.
which is used for the printing of a UV curable organic ink. Other processes: Nanoimprint Lithography (NIL), Electron
After printing a series of approximately 0.5 μm thick layers, in Beam Lithography (EBL), Scanning Electron Microscope
which each layer is individually cured with UV light, the (SEM), [20]. Refrigerative Stereolithography (RSLA), [8].
resulting reverse structure is filled with a powder containing

4 Copyright © 2009 by ASME

 Sheet processes the formation of micro- and nano-sized pores; and the
Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) avoidance of porogens in processing make of this technique a
A layer of material (generally paper) with plastic coating on feasible technology. The flow of materials is controlled by a
the bottom side of the paper is placed on the platform, pneumatic-based controller. In addition, the material is
adhesive side down [8]. A heated roller passes over the dispensed in a cryogenic chamber, in which the temperature is
material and sticks the material to the platform. A laser beam critically controlled and maintained by a refrigerated
then traces the outline of one slice of the part by an optics circulator.
system that is mounted to an X-Y stage, cutting through the Three dimensional welding (3DW)
layer of the material. The laser beam then crosshatches the This experimental system uses an arc-welding robot to deposit
material that does not form part of the cross-section, again weld material on a platform as simple shapes which may then
cutting through the layer. The platform is then lowered one be built into more complex structures [19]. Unlike most RP
layer thickness, another layer of material is stuck onto the technologies, therefore, the prototypes are not built using
previous layer and the procedure is repeated with the next sliced CAD files. Parts with a resolution of a few millimeters
cross-section slice of the part. When all cross-section slices have been made which may be used for sand casting or
have been added, the solid block of material is removed from directly as tooling. Several problems still remain to be solved.
the platform and the crosshatched areas of the block are then Another system which is being researched deposits the weld
broken away to reveal the final part. In general, the finish, material in layers. Feedback control is established by the use
accuracy and stability of paper objects are not as good as for of thermocouples which monitor the temperature and operate
materials used with other RP methods. However, material an on-line water cooling system. There is a grit blasting nozzle
costs are very low, and objects have the look and feel of wood to minimize the oxidization of the part and a suction system.
and can be worked and finished in the same manner. Gas phase deposition (GPD)
Other processes: Computer Aided Manufacturing – In this process, the molecules of a reactive gas are
Laminated Engineering Materials (CAM-LEM), Curved decomposed using either light or heat to leave a solid result of
Laminated Object Manufacturing (CLOM), [8]. the decomposition then adheres to a substrate to form the part
[19]. Three slightly different methods of constructing the part
Dispensing processes are currently being researched. In the first, called SALD
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) (selective Area Laser Deposition), the solid component of the
Laying down material in layers, a plastic or metal filament of decomposed gas is all that is used to form the part. It is
material is extruded out of a fine nozzle and deposited onto a possible to construct parts made from carbon, silicon, carbides
platform [8]. The nozzle is preheated to melt the material and and silicon nitrides in this way. The second method, SALDVI
can be moved in the X-Y plane by a numerical controlled (Selective Area Laser Deposition Vapour Infiltration), spreads
mechanism. The platform is then lowered relative to the a thin covering of powder for each layer. Then the
nozzle and the next slice of the part is deposited on top of the decomposed solids fill in the spaces between the grains. In the
previous slice. As the extruded filament is hot, it bonds to the third method, SLRS (Selective Laser Reactive Sintering), the
material in the previous slice. The model or part is produced laser initiates a reaction between the gas and the layer of
by extruding small beads of thermoplastic material to form powder to form a solid part of silicon carbide or silicon
layers as the material hardens immediately after extrusion nitride. A resolution of 1µm is expected.
from the nozzle. A second nozzle is used to extrude a different Matrix Assisted Pulsed Laser Evaporation (MAPLE)
material in order to build-up support structures. MAPLE DW (direct write) was invented by researchers at the
Air-Pressure Jet Solidification (AJS) Naval Research Laboratory, Washington. It uses a high-
The system is an integration of NC control and proper repetition-rate, 355nm UV laser beam which is focused on a
building materials. The refined DS (denatured sucrose) is fed transparent material or ‘ribbon’ that has a 1–10 mm thick layer
into two controllable jets and melted into a semi-molten state of build material on the underside. As the laser energy is
by heating systems. Each jet has a small nozzle on the tip, the directed to the ribbon the build material transfers to the
diameter of the nozzle is0.2mm. The jet connects with an air receiving substrate. This is analogous to a typewriter ribbon.
compressor through a high pressure-resistant pipe on its top Ballistic particle manufacturing (BPM)
[11]. Fine filaments can be extruded through the nozzle by A stream of molten material is ejected from a nozzle. It
applying compressed air. Under the control of a computer, the separates into droplets which hit the substrate and immediately
on-off operation of the compressed air can be controlled by cold weld to form the part [19]. If the substrate is rough,
electromagnetic valves, and a 3D working platform moves thermal contact between it and the part is increased which will
according to the slicing data of the part. reduce stresses within the part. The stream may be a drop-on-
Cryogenic Prototyping (CP) demand system or a continuous jet. In this process, the
The material is extruded out of a fine nozzle; the deposited supports are usually made from a different material which
material is solidified in a cryogenic chamber to avoid facilitates their subsequent removal from the part. Advantages
collapsing of scaffold structures [13]. Subsequent removal of of the BMP are that it is cheap and environmentally safe and
ice crystals formed during the CP process with a controlled that metal parts made using this technology have a finer grain
freeze drying process will result in controlled micro-porosity structure than the equivalent cast parts. A disadvantage is the
of the scaffold. Furthermore, this method allows the small range of commercial material available to construct the
fabrication of temperature-sensitive polymeric scaffolds. The prototypes.
unique and novel method to control the formation of Electrochemical Fabrication (EFAB)
crystalline structures by rapidly frozen solvents to manipulate

5 Copyright © 2009 by ASME

This process is a repeated sequence of electroplating a Metal Jet (MJ)
patterned layer, deposition of a support material and This is a method where patterned layers are formed by
planarization of the layer [20]. With EFAB, it is possible to droplets of a molten metal. This mechanism is similar to an
fabricate very complex 3-D microdevices by stacking thin ink jet printer. But unlike the 2D-printing, a 3D-structure is
layers which can have a thickness of only 2 to 10 μm in a high formed by the repetition of a layerwise deposition of patterns
deposition rate. Each layer consists of a structural material e.g. [20]. The molten metal drops are jetted out of a metal nozzle
copper and a sacrificial material e.g. nickel. Structural and by a piezoelectric actuator which moves a diaphragm. Drops
sacrificial materials are deposited by electroplating. For the have a speed of 1 m/s and a frequency of ejection of 4–20 Hz.
structural material a selective deposition process is used called With a 50 μm nozzle, droplet sizes of 80 μm were realized.
“Instant Masking”. In this process an initial photomask is This size is comparable with the ink droplet size of
created by standard lithographic methods. The photomask is commercial ink jet printers. When the droplets collide with the
then used to make the “Instant mask” formed by a metal anode surface, they are still liquid. This reduces the accuracy of the
and a conformable insulator material. The Instant Mask is parts but enhances the packing density of the deposited layer.
pressed against the substrate within an electrochemical bath. Focused Ion Beam (FIB)
Now the structural material is selectively deposited on the FIB is a versatile technique which enables imaging, maskless
substrate by an applied current. The mask is removed and the milling and the deposition of conducting and insulating
substrate is placed into a second bath where the sacrificial material with high local precision [20]. It has the ability to
material is blanket-deposited over the whole substrate. Then fabricate structures which have a feature size below 1 μm. A
both materials are polished to a planar layer with the desired FIB system operates similar to a scanning electron microscope
thickness and the process is repeated as many times as (SEM). Both instruments use charged particles from a source,
required. Finally, after finishing the complete stack, the focus them into a beam through electromagnetic/electrostatic
sacrificial material is removed in an etching bath. Timescale lenses and scan them across small areas of the sample. FIB
of fabrication is in the range of a few weeks. However, due to differs from an electron microscope by using charged ions
the small size of microdevices it is possible to build a high from a field emission liquid metal ion (FE-LMI) source. In the
number and a large variety of devices simultaneously on the deposition process, a precursor gas is sprayed onto the surface
same substrate. The features that can be built by EFAB can of the substrate by a fine nozzle, where it adsorbs. The
have a minimal size of 20 μm. adsorbed layer is hit by the ion beam which locally
Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS) decomposes the precursor. By scanning the ion beam across
The process is also known as Laser Cladding or Laser the surface a layer of material with defined shape is created
generating. In the process, the particles are fused together by a and by depositing layers on top of each, a 3D-object is
laser beam [20]. Unlike SLS the particles are not spread as a produced. In case of the deposition of metals, FIB is primarily
layer but fed through a nozzle in to the laser focus. Nozzles used for making connections in integrated circuits.
may be mounted on one side of the object or coaxially with Direct laser deposition modeling (DLDM)
the laser beam. In the focal point of the high power laser a This process uses a focused laser beam as a heat source to
molten pool of material is produced into which the powder is create a molten pool on an underlying substrate [21]. Powder
injected. The object to be built is moved below the laser beam material is then injected into the molten pool through nozzles.
to fabricate the desired cross-sectional geometry. The process The incoming powder is metallurgically bonded with the
is repeated by adding consecutive layers thereby producing a substrate upon solidification. The part is fabricated in a layer
3D-part. LENS is able to produce fully dense metal parts. by layer manner in a shape that is dictated by the CAD solid
Materials processed include steels, aluminum, titanium alloys, model, which is sliced into thin layers orthogonal to the z-axis.
nickel based alloys and metal matrix composites. It is used for Metal Spray (MS)
functional prototypes but it can also be used for repairing and With metal spray, droplets of molten metal are sprayed on a
modifying existing parts and tools. The extremely rapid master model [28]. Commonly used materials are zinc and
cooling creates a fine grained microstructure, resulting in a steel. The largest problem with metal spray is thermal stress
high tensile strength and high ductility for most deposited causing warping. In the UK, this problem has been
metals. Parts fabricated by LENS are near net shape but investigated successfully and the results are patent pending.
generally will need surface finishing. The accuracy of the From the information currently available, it can be expected
process is also in the range of 0.1–0.2 mm. that metal spray has become a particularly interesting process,
Fused Deposition of Ceramics (FDC) especially for larger moulds (small holes are difficult to fill
Based on the FDM where ceramic loaded polymer filaments with metal spray).
are used to fabricate green ceramic components. This direct Precise extrusion manufacturing (PEM)
approach and the indirect method were particularly By using different sprayers and software, PEM system allows
investigated to fabricate piezocomposite, [20]. the use of a variety of thermoplastic materials. The PEM
Multi-jet solidification (MJS) process builds physical objects layer by layer directly driven
Which is related to the FDM process and is able to build parts by 3D CAD data [30]. The thermoplastic material feeds into a
from a mixture of thermoplastic binders and metal or ceramic heated extrusion sprayer capable of moving in X-Y directions.
powders with solid contents of up to 50 vol.%. The powder- The sprayer extrudes fine filament of the material onto a
binder mixture is heated above the melting temperature and working platform capable of moving in the Z direction. A
squeezed out through a nozzle. Using different nozzles with computer, based on the sliced data of the object, controls the
diameters between 0.5 and 2 mm, the process is suitable for moving of the sprayer and the platform so the material is
producing medium sized parts, [20]. extruded and deposited layer by layer in areas defined by

6 Copyright © 2009 by ASME

CAD model to build a 3D object. Under the control of the Where the laser beam hits the slice powder, the affected
software, the sprayer will not scan the contour but only scan powder particles fuse (or sinter) together [8]. Another layer of
the filling-in network of the object, which ensures the open powder is then deposited on top of the previous layer using a
porous architecture of the scaffolds. roller mechanism, and another slice of the part is fused (or
Laser chemical vapor deposition (LCVD) sintered) onto the sintered material in the previous slice. The
A variant of chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is a process for unsintered material in each layer can act as a support structure
generating solid deposits on the surface of a substrate by for the part itself. When the part is complete, the unsintered
inducing chemical reactions in a suitable vapor reactant material can simply be blown or brushed off. Parts can often
through the use of a laser beam. LCVD has the added be built without additional support structures and parts in a
advantage of geometric control of the deposit, by controlling range of materials can be obtained directly.
the location of the laser beam. The feature size of the deposit Direct Laser Metal Sintering (DLMS)
is dependent on the spot size of the laser, which ranges from A process that could produce metal parts without the need for
approximately 5-500µm. Materials prepared by LCVD are a binder coating and the subsequent processing that would be
typically of high quality, [42]. required. Essentially the process involves either melting or
Rapid freeze prototyping (RFP) liquid phase sintering of the metal powder, which typically is a
This is a method that uses water freezing into ice as its mixture of various components having different melting
medium. The setup consists of a pressurized water points. The initial goal of direct metal laser sintering was to
containment unit, an X-Y table to control the plate to obtain produce tooling, but the process has been used for end-use
the correct part geometry, a Z-axis elevator to raise the nozzle Rapid Manufacture.
for the successive layers, a circuit driven nozzle and a freezer, Electron Beam Melting (EBM)
[43]. The process uses a similar approach to selective laser sintering
Multi-nozzle Deposition Manufacturing (MDM) but replaces a laser with an electron beam, this has interesting
The MDM system is an RP system that performs extrusion/ implications. Firstly, the electron beam may be directed by
jetting-based processes. Four nozzles at most can work orderly changing the electromagnetic field through which it passes.
in the same system controlled by a computer. To ensure This eliminates the need for scanning mirrors and can
extrusion/jetting of the solid state scaffolding materials, they significantly increase scanning speed (up to 1 km s-1).
should be transformed into liquid state. For the liquid Secondly, the power developed by the electron beam is very
materials with high viscosity, the nozzle has a high-pressure- high, allowing the process to fully melt a wide range of metals
air-extrusion design. The MDM technology builds scaffolds, including titanium alloy using a very fast scanning rate.
layer by layer, directly driven by three-dimensional digital However, the process is limited to conductive materials and
models in the computer. It is accomplished in low temperature surfaces, as with many other layer-based processes, often
environment under 0 ⁰C in the refrigerator. The computer require extensive finishing, especially for tooling applications.
controls the nozzles to move orderly in X–Y directions and Although the process uses a ‘0D’ scanning approach, the
deposit liquid materials onto the platform in the area defined speed of scanning coupled with no requirement for further
by the digital models. The layer of deposited materials is furnace processing may make the process a leading contender
frozen on the platform. Also, under the control of the for Rapid Manufacture.
computer, the platform moves down one layer height in Z Selective Laser Melting (SLM)
direction after the forming process of each layer. In this The process uses a laser to fully melt stainless steel parts in a
manner, the frozen scaffold is stacked up layer by layer. After similar manner to laser sintering. The process is particularly
the manufacturing process in the refrigerator, a freeze-drying adept at producing very small components, including ones
process is necessary to get the solvent and water out of the with complex lattice structures. SLM machines of metals
frozen scaffolds, [38]. claim that 100% densities may be achieved.
Other processes: Extrusion and Deposition of Semi-Solid Selective Masking Sintering (SMS)
Metals (EDSSM), Extrusion Freeforming (EFF), The process involves printing a mask of infrared radiation
Electrophotographic Powder Deposition for Freeform reflecting material on to a glass sheet and placing the sheet
Fabrication (EPDFF), Fast Freeform Fabrication (FFF), over a powder bed. Infrared radiation is then applied to the
Mesoscopic shape deposition manufacturing (Meso SDM), glass sheet and allowed to selectively pass through the mask in
Mold shape deposition manufacturing (Mold SDM), Laser order to sinter the powder directly below. This process
chemical vapour deposition (LCVD), Pulsed laser deposition eliminates the requirement for a laser and in instances where a
(PLD), Pointwise powder deposition (PPD), Selective area significant portion of the surface needs to be sintered. This
laser deposition (SALD), Selective area laser deposition and should dramatically reduce processing times when compared
vapour infiltration (SADVI), [8]. Micromolding In Capillaries with selective laser sintering. The SMS Machine claim that
(MIMIC), Low-Pressure Injection Molding (LPIM), [20]. each layer can be fully processed in 10–20 seconds and that
Thermal Spraying and Laser Remelting (TSLR), Mask Based the use of a mask in place of a laser ensures that build times
Spraying (MBS), [26]. Compression Molding [40]. are easy to predict and independent of part volume.
Consequently, this approach should have maximum benefits
Sintering processes when being used for Rapid Manufacture in high volumes.
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) Selective Inhibition Sintering (SIS)
In a controlled atmosphere, a layer of powdered material is The process seeks to combine the benefits of SLS (material
deposited on a platform or substrate. Then a laser beam traces properties) and jetting processes (build speed) to address two
out the cross-section of one slice of the part previously sliced. of the major concerns behind Rapid Manufacture [18].

7 Copyright © 2009 by ASME

However, SIS is likely to achieve better resolution and The process provides an improved resolution by a smaller
definition than the other process as the inhibiting material is laser beam spot. In order to fabricate microdevices, they use a
printed directly on to the powder and uses no mask that might Q-switched ND:YAG laser at 1064 nm and a power of 50W.
allow for light diffusion. The process uses a print head to jet In addition to that, a equipment was developed which
fluid to inhibit sintering on to selected areas of the build performs frequency doubling by the external resonant ring
volume. This is followed by using a radiating heat source to cavity. With this equipment, the wavelength was shifted to the
traverse the build area and sinter any powder that has not had green light (532 nm). Compared to a laser spot diameter of
the inhibitor printed on to it. Initial work used a single nozzle 28.3 μm with the fundamental frequency of 1064 nm, at the
to print around the edge of parts but the process could easily second harmonic generation of 532 nm a laser spot of only 13
be developed to simultaneously print the inhibiting material in μm was measured. The maximum average power output was
a ‘1D’ array or possibly a two-dimensional matrix. Unlike more than 10W with a conversion efficiency of 31%. For
most of the other powder sintering processes, SIS does not demonstration, micro Chinese characters were sintered from a
require that the material comprising the part be elevated to a Pb powder with a wall thickness of less than 100 μm and a
higher temperature than the material not to be sintered. height of about 2mm, [20].
Electrophotographic Layered Manufacturing (ELM) High frequency selective electrical discharge sintering
The process uses electrophotographic methods to deposit a (HFSEDS)
part powder and then a support powder for each layer [14]. This method is a layer-by-layer additive solid free form
Initial work focused around the idea of producing a green part fabrication technique that directly creates 3D fulfilled objects
by depositing separate part and support powders and then from their CAD models [23]. In HFSEDS, an object is created
using a furnace operation to sinter the part material in a by selectively fusing thin layers. Metal powders that are
separate step; this required that the support material had a coated with polymers are used as raw materials. A computer-
higher melt point than the part material. However, further controlled scanning high frequency plasma arc, as a
work has experimented with the idea of sintering each layer concentrated heat source that scans patterns, sinters the
before the next layer is deposited, as with other powder-based sequential layers corresponding to their slices in CAD model.
layer manufacturing processes. It seems that the process could Therefore, outer layer of the coated metal powders is melted
be suited to very high production rates but limited to smaller after absorbing a small amount of heat from the high
parts such as electrical components. frequency plasma arc and then releases the heat during the re-
High-Speed Sintering (HSS) solidification to form dense shapes. The manufactured fragile
HSS is aimed at taking advantage of the mechanical properties green part subsequently is postprocessed to fully dense
given by SLS while achieving an increase machine through condition by sintering and infiltration. Heat transfer processes
put and reduced machine cost by eliminating the need for a have a significant influence on the final microstructure quality
laser [18]. HSS defines the geometry of each layer by printing of the parts.
a material that promotes absorption of radiation (and hence Other processes: Multimaterial selective laser sintering
promotes sintering) on to the powder bed surface, rather like a (MMSLS), Rapid pattern based powder sintering (RPBPS),
negative of SIS. Research has shown that a high sintering rate Selective laser powder remelting (SLPR), [8].
results in minimal shrinkage and good edge definition but poor
mechanical properties, while slow sintering achieves better Binding processes
mechanical properties but at a cost of definition and accuracy. Three-dimensional printing (3DP)
By controlling sintering rates via techniques such as the use of The process starts by depositing a layer of powder at the top of
greyscale and materials that absorb energy at different rates a fabrication chamber [8]. A feed chamber which contains a
the goal of achieving good mechanical properties with good quantity of specially prepared corn starch, the vertical position
accuracy and surface finish is being pursued. of the upper surface of the build material can be varied by
Laser Microsintering (LMS) raising or lowering the feed piston. An adjacent build chamber
A technique, based on SLS. It enables the fabrication of operates in a similar manner whereby the vertical position of a
features with a structural resolution < 30 μm and aspect ratios piston determines the height of the build chamber. A
> 10. It is important to control the gas environment, powder horizontally reciprocating carriage, carrying a feed roller, the
layer homogeneity and the sintering regime. The complete roller then distributes and compresses the powder at the top of
process takes place in a vacuum tight chamber (vacuum SLS) the fabrication chamber; excess feed material is swept down
where sintering is performed by a Q-switched Nd:YAG laser an overflow chute. Also mounted on the carriage a binder
in the pulse regime at a gas pressure in the range of 10−5 Pa cartridge travels over the surface layer of the build chamber
up to 4 × 105 Pa, [20]. material depositing a binder solution to match the current slice
Micro Selective Laser Sintering (μ-SLS) of CAD data. Once a layer is completed, the fabrication piston
A process based in SLS. The objective of the work is to obtain moves down by the thickness of a layer, and the process is
a resolution and a roughness in the range of the grain size and repeated until the entire object is formed within the powder
the size of the focused laser spot. To overcome the problems bed. After completion, the object is elevated and the extra
arising from the spreading of fine powders in a thin layer, a powder brushed away leaving a "green" object. 3DP offers the
method is developed which deposits the powders from a liquid advantages of speedy fabrication and low materials cost. In
suspension. In this case, the liquid has to be evaporated prior fact, it's probably the fastest of all RP methods.
to the sintering step to ensure that the laser interacts with the Multi Jet Modelling (MJM) (aka Thermojet)
dry and compacted powder, [20]. It works similarly to an inkjet printer. A print head containing
Selective Laser Micro Sintering (SLMS) 96 tiny nozzles in a linear array passes in the X-Y plane over a

8 Copyright © 2009 by ASME

platform. Where material is to be deposited, a jet dispenses a where the dye molecules are excited collectively. The photo-
droplet of a thermo-plastic polymer [8]. Any number of the 96 activated layer interacts with the surface of the plate, resulting
jets can be activated simultaneously, giving a rapid dispense in microetching. Typical etch rate is around 10 nm pulse-1,
rate when all jets are active. The hot droplets of material bond indicating that as large as about 1 µms-1 is possible with the
to the previous slice of the part that has just been printed. Thin repetition rate of around 100 Hz, about two order larger than
support pillars must also be built-up slice by slice in the same ordinary plasma etching or HF etching.
material where they are needed. When the current slice of the Other processes: Local chemical reaction heat by laser
part (plus slice of support pillars) is completed the platform is scanning (LCRHLS), [8].
lowered relative to the print head and the next slice is printed.
When all the slices have been completed, the part is removed Assembly processes
from the machine and the support structure is broken off. Contour Crafting (CC)
High-Viscosity Jetting (HVJ) It’s a construction process, which uses a computer-controlled
The principle involves continuous change in a layer’s pattern crane or gantry to build edifices rapidly and efficiently without
(negative image of the layer) according to a very thin slice of manual labor [9]. It was originally conceived as a method to
the object to be printed. This uses a mechanism based on construct molds for industrial parts. Using a quick-setting,
displacing a small drop of a printable material (powder-filled concrete-like material, Contour Crafting forms the house's
polymer paste) to a desired location on a substrate. The walls layer by layer until topped off by floors and ceilings set
fundamental unit consists of a single jet, which is controlled in place by the crane. The system calls for the insertion of
by air jet pressure, the distance from the substrate and the structural components, like plumbing, wiring, utilities, and
length of the jetting pulse. It also has flexibility in the degree even consumer devices like audiovisual systems as the layers
of accuracy depending on the hole size being used for the jet. are built. With this system a complete home is probable built
A production speed similar to existing high-volume in a single day, and its electrically powered crane would
production methods will be possible and the paste can be produce very little construction material waste. Contour
loaded with any powder. Crafting could significantly reduce environmental impact.
Inkjet printing (IP) Robocasting (RBC)
Two main types of print heads are used for the inkjet printing: It is a slurry deposition technique that has been applied to
in continuous inkjet (CIJ) printers a continuous stream of highly concentrated colloidal suspensions. The process is
droplets is formed, whereas in drop-on-demand (DOD) commonly used for the fabrication of alumina components
technology the droplets are only generated when required [20]. from aqueous alumina-PVB gelcasting suspensions with solid
In CIJ printers a stream of an electroconductive fluid is volume fractions of about 0.5. The ceramic suspension and a
delivered through a nozzle and is thereby subjected to cross-linking agent were separately pumped into a mixing
vibrations by a piezoelectric actuator, which regulates the chamber located directly in front of the nozzle with a diameter
breakup of the stream into individual, uniform droplets with of 0.254–1.37 mm. The deposition of the suspension through
uniform spacing. As each drop passes through a charging nozzles with diameters of 200–400 μm was carried out under
electrode a controlled voltage can charge it. By passing high oil to prevent drying during assembly. The components were
voltage deflection plates, the charged droplets are deflected in subsequently sintered to nearly full density. The deposition
proportion to the charge carried and are used for the printing took place on a water-saturated plaster plate to prevent
process, while uncharged droplets are unaffected and are premature drying. During sintering the parts experienced a
collected in a gutter to be reused. linear shrinkage of 17% and attained a final density of 98% of
Laser Assisted Etching (LAE) theoretical density, [20].
For this purpose a laser beam—frequently a green, blue or UV RPBLOX
emission line from an Argon-Ion laser—is focused onto a RPBloX follows the use of conventional workshop machinery
silicon wafer through an atmosphere of e.g. molecular and technology, [35]. The RPBloX methodology involves a
chlorine. The laser focus heats the silicon to near-melting or cellular approach to building up a part. Rather than slicing up
melting temperatures. In the following, the chlorine gas reacts the CAD model into numerous thin sheets, RPBloX segments
with the heated silicon to form volatile compounds like SiCl2 the model into 3D cells (or Blox) of varying sizes. One of the
and SiCl4. This complete transition of silicon into the gas main advantages of the RPBloX system over other RP
phase allows a rapid, easy and complete removal from the techniques is the reduction of the build time especially when
wafer. The process takes additional benefit from the large and/or tick wall components are fabricated.
exceptionally high etch rate of molten silicon (up to 1000 μm Consequently, production costs could be significantly reduced
s-1) in comparison to a very low etch rate of the unaffected without the forfeiting accuracy and timeliness.
material. Only the locally molten silicon will react with the RPNNS also known as OCBLOX
chlorine thus providing a microfabrication technique for The RPNNS (rapid production of near net shapes) system [36]
silicon microstructures, [20]. works by subdividing a 3D model into cubes of various sizes
Laser-induced backside wet etching (LIBWE) using an Octree decomposition approach. An optimisation
A nanosecond (ns)-pulsed UV laser beam passes through a method to reduce the number of cubes required to approximate
photomask and a transparent plate to be absorbed by a dye the model is then performed. Once the Octree model has been
solution located at the rear surface of the plate [27]. Due to verified for physical fabrication, the system automatically
strong laser absorption by the solution, the laser energy is generates instructions for a robot assembly cell to construct
initially confined to a photo-activated micron scale thin layer the approximate prototype or NNS model.
at the interface between the transparent plate and the solution,

9 Copyright © 2009 by ASME

 Organism processes the upper half of the sphere, which is visible from the
Grading-temperature control forming (GTCF) direction of the tool orientation; therefore the lower
Based on the thermal cross linking property of elastic material hemisphere is left uncut. If a similar set of tool paths rotated
solution, Tsinghua University developed a process to form 180 degrees about the x-axis is executed, the entire surface of
three-dimensional objects through controlling the forming the sphere can be created. Fixturing this type of part appears to
material to transform from flowing to solidifying status by the be an obvious problem, and a novel approach to solve this
grading-temperature control of the nozzle, [14]. problem is proposed by using multiple 3-axis tool paths, the
Layered in situ cross-linking (LISC) method is more likely to be automated than more complicated
Tsinghua University developed this process to assemble the 5- axis approaches.
droplets made of cells and extra-cellular matrix (ECM) Desktop milling (DM)
materials into 3D structures. A special in situ cross-linking This is a process which removes material from the workpiece
technique was designed to ensure the droplets to cross-link as in traditional machining processes instead of creating that
rapidly after being jetted out of the nozzle, [15]. part by gradual material buildup [19]. The prototypes can be
Thermo-sensitive materials solidification (TSMS) made with a high degree of accuracy because they do not
The joint group from Clemson University and South Carolina deform after they have been completed. If NC machining is to
Medical University developed this process to print be employed to manufacture the finished design, features
thermosensitive biodegradable gel to form 3D objects. They which are difficult to create will also be detected at this stage.
intend to apply this process to print cells to form tissues or Any CNC machine may be employed to make prototypes from
organs. They printed the cells on the thermosensitive an inexpensive material such as wax. There is a commercial
biodegradable gel slices, which can position the cells. After entry-level desktop milling system available which is capable
the accomplishment of printing and several days of subsequent of dealing with STL files, even those which contain gaps and
cell culture, the environmental temperature was adjusted to self-intersecting surfaces. The machine is inexpensive and can
remove the gels, [16]. handle a wide variety of materials. It generates the NC tool
Low-temperature deposition manufacturing (LDM) path automatically and may be operated with no NC training.
This process was developed to form the hierarchy of the Cutting speeds of 0.06-3.6 ms-1 an inexpensive entry level
scaffolds without destroying the biological properties of machine, with an accuracy of ±10µm.
materials. The LDM process built scaffolds in a low High speed milling (HSM)
temperature environment under 0 degrees in the refrigerator Since time-saving is an important issue, conventional
layer by layer directly computer driven by three-dimensional processes have also greatly improved. High-speed milling is
digital models. It integrates the multi-nozzle extrusion/jetting most certainly the best known. By increasing the rotation
process and the thermally induced phase separation process of speed of the mill from 5,000rpm to 50,000rpm, and by direct
the materials. Thus, complicated three-dimensional control from CAD data, products can be made very rapidly.
macroporous structures (large than 100mm in diameter) With milling, the surface quality is not a problem and neither
designed by computer models and microporous structures is the accuracy. Straight corners are more difficult (diameter
(small than 100mm in diameter) randomly formed by of the tool), tool path generation is time consuming and
thermally induced phase separation can be completed undercuts are not possible, [28].
simultaneously [17]. Other processes: Rapid Layer Milling (RLM), [20].
Organ printing (OP)
A computer-assisted deposition (‘printing’) of natural Robot machining
materials (cells or matrix) is done one layer at a time until a Robotic Prototyping System (RPS)
particular 3D form is achieved. This process is based on tissue The robotic prototyping uses a robot arm holding a milling
fluidity and on using layer by layer deposition of cell and/or tool to machine the prototype of a 3D solid model [32]. The
cell aggregates into a 3D gel with sequential maturation of the rough cut and finish cut NC tool path for the robot are
printed construct into perfused and vascularized living tissue generated automatically from the solid model of an object.
or organ. This definition of organ printing includes the many The user can specify the type and diameter of the cutter and
different printer designs and components of the deposition the desired accuracy of the prototype. A path file will then be
process such as, for example, jet-based cell printers, cell generated automatically from the solid model of the object. It
dispensors or bioplotters, the different types of 3D hydrogels is used to control the robot arm to mill the stock material into
and varying cell types. The procedure of organ printing can the final prototype. The milling tool axis is kept parallel to z-
be subdivided into three sequential steps: preprocessing, axis throughout the milling operation to simplify the
processing and postprocessing, [37]. algorithms. The stock is milled in a zig-zag fashion in two
stages, rough cut and finish cut. The system has a 40% of floor
SUBTRACTIVE PROCESSES space reduction over ordinary CNC devices.
CNC machining
CNC-RP Laser machining
The CNC-RP uses multiple sets of 3-axis machining code. Lasercaving (LC)
Each set of code is created using similar “layering” principles With lasercaving, a laser removes metal from the workpiece. It
as other RP methods, except that the part boundary on each is similar to milling, but instead of a cutter, a laser beam is
layer or “slice” represents the area that will be left after used [28]. Lasercaving has some interesting features. For
machining, rather than the area that is to be added [12]. instance, it can work directly on (hardened) steel and it does
Obviously this set of tool paths is only capable of machining not have the diameter problem for inner corners as in milling.

10 Copyright © 2009 by ASME

Steel of 60HRc and even ceramics can be processed. Research The process is based on the layered deposition of molten
is required to improve accuracy and surface quality. powder material using plasma arc [24]. The STL file of the 3D
Other processes include: Laser microchemical lathe (LML), CAD model of the product is imported into the HPDM
Laser diode manufacturing (LDM), [8]. software system, then the processing path and NC instructions
are automatically generated by the software. Based on these,
FORMATIVE PROCESSES the combination of plasma deposition and NC milling is
Robotyping realized by the hybrid machine. In the HPDM process, when a
There are two concepts for robotyping: first, the modelling of
layer is deposited, its top surface is machined used planar
free form layers onto pre-adjusted modular forms and, second,
milling to obtain a smooth surface with a certain thickness for
the consolidation of form material by submerging tools [33].
further deposition, and the internal and external surface profile
The starting point for the modelling of free form layers is the
is machined used contour milling with T-slot cutters to remove
production of ship propellers using flexible moulding boxes.
the remaining stair steps on the surface and to attain fine
At first, the form is roughly approached by modular elements
surface state of the near-net shape metal part.
which are either adjustable by rotating spindles or are put into
Laser generating and high-speed milling (LGHSM)
the box by the industrial robot. Second, the free form layer is
Fraunhofer Institute and Fockele & Schwarze have developed
applied and modelled using specific robot tools. In contrast to
a machine combining laser generating with high-speed milling
this approach, where the form material has to be dosed before
[28]. According to them this should be the future for mould
modelling, it works by filling up the box with form material
manufacturing. However, sharp inner corners will remain
and by submerging robot tools into the form material in order
difficult, due to the diameter of the milling tool.
to consolidate the prototype below the surface of the form
Nano Composite Deposition (NCD)
material. Here, the form material can be based on quartz sand
This deposition and machining system was constructed to
or can be a hardenable liquid.
offer high precision for micro-scale parts [29]. The nano
HYBRID PROCESSES composite was deposited into tens, hundreds micro-meter thin
3D Welding and Milling (3DWM) layers to form a near-net shape. Then net shape of the current
The process is based on the layered deposition of molten wire layer was obtained by micro machining. By repeating the
material using GMAW (aka Metal Inert Gas Welding MIGW) deposition and machining for each layer, final three-
which is the most economic way of depositing molten metals dimensional part with certain height (in z-direction) was
[10]. The welding result is independent from the change of the obtained.
relative movement between the wire nozzle and the X–Y Robot machining system (RMS)
table. First, a layer is built by depositing single beads side by The robot machining system uses an articulated robot with
side with bead offset. Combining the deposition with sixdegree- of-freedom mounted on a 2m long linear track [31].
subsequent face milling enables us to make changes in the A rotary platform with clamping fixtures is installed for
layer thickness between 0.1 and 1 mm. When the sequence of holding workpieces. The whole model is sliced into layers.
deposition and face milling is finished, surface finishing is The lower layer is machined first. Since the cavity on this
applied in the same setup to remove remaining stair steps on layer is much shallower than that of the original model, no
the surface. Any dimensional and geometrical inaccuracy collision among the tool, the tool holder and the model occurs.
resulting from the deposition can be completely compensated After the machining of the lower layer, another layer is glued
for by this final surface finishing. to it with homogeneity adhesive. Then the machining of a new
Shape deposition manufacturing (SDM) layer can be repeated without collision. In layer based
This still experimental layer-by-layer process involves machining, there must be a small overlap of the tool path
spraying molten metal in rear net shape onto substrate, then between the two consecutive stock layers. A machining layer
removing unwanted material via NC operations. Support is treated the same as that of conventional RP process. The
material is added in the same way either before or after the cutting tool moves along each machining layer to cut the
prototype material depending on whether the layer contains contour of the model.
undercut features. The added material bolsters subsequent 3D Micro Welding (3DMW)
layers. If the layer is complex, support material may need to It consists of four components: a forming station, an arc
be added both before and after the prototype material. Each control unit, system control computers, and a video-
layer is then shot-peened to remove residual which can monitoring device. The forming station consists of an X–Y
position the workpiece to within an accuracy of ±5µm. stage and a welding torch with Z movement. In the arc control
Droplets of 1-3 mm diameter are deposited at a rate of 1-5 unit, a micro-TIG welder is placed. All these components are
[19]. controlled by the computer system. A metal substrate is placed
Direct Laser Deposition and CNC (DLD-CNC) on an X–Y stage under a tungsten electrode for arc welding. A
In order to expand the applications of direct laser deposition small round metal bead of 0.4–1.0 mm diameter is formed by
processes, multi-axis capability is often needed. This process emitting a micro arc to the tip of a thin metal wire of 200µm
uses laser deposition for material deposition and CNC milling diameter. A fused bead is welded to a metal substrate or
for material removal [21]. It includes two major systems: a previously formed beads. By continuing this process and
laser deposition system and a CNC milling machine system. building up beads layer by layer under the control of the
The laser deposition system and CNC milling machine work computer system, a 3D metal object can be produced. The 3D-
in shifts in a five-axis motion mode. CAD data source is converted to a set of thin layers of 120 µm
Hybrid plasma deposition and milling (HPDM) in thickness by commercial slicing software, [39].
Ultrasonic consolidation (UC)

11 Copyright © 2009 by ASME

This process was developed for fabrication of metallic parts [8] Steve Upcraft and Richard Fletcher, The rapid
from foils. The process uses a high frequency ultrasonic prototyping Technologies, Assembly Automation,
energy source to induce combined static and oscillating shear Volume 23, Number 4, pp. 318–330, 2003
forces within metal foils to produce solid-state bonds and [9] Behrokh Khoshnevis, Melanie P. Bodiford, Kevin H.
build up a near-net shape part, which is then machined to its Burks, Ed Ethridge, and Dennis Tucker, Won Kim,
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subtractive fabrication approaches allowing complex parts to Development, American Institute of Aeronautics and
be formed with high-dimensional accuracy and surface finish, Astronautics Conference, pp. 1-12, 2005.
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RP&M technologies have considerably evolved from their [11] Zhongzhong Chen, Dichen Li, Bingheng Lu, Yiping
origin, more than 25 years ago. Several new RP&M systems Tang, Minglin Sun and Zhen Wang, Fabrication of
have been proposed during these years. RP&M research has artificial bioactive bone using rapid prototyping, Rapid
been focused on the development of systems to support new Prototyping Journal Volume 10 · Number 5, pp. 327–
materials, e.g. organism processes, systems to support micro 333, 2004
and nano fabrication, systems to fabricate end-user parts, [12] Sanjay B. Joshi, Richard A. Wysk, Matthew Frank,
systems based on new fabrication methods, and systems CNC-RP: A Technique for Using CNC Machining as a
combining different RP&M techniques. Although there are Rapid Prototyping Tool in Product/Process
many new proposed systems, few of them are commercially Development, Department of Industrial and
available; most of them are in development or have been Manufacturing Engineering, The Pennsylvania State
proposed without commercial success. However, the original University, pp. 1-5, 2002.
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