1

Chapter 1
Refrigeration

Air conditioniong (A/C) – control of temperature, humidity and air circulation (+ purity)

Refrigeration
 For A/C, temperature requirement 5 oC or higher
 Food processing/storage requires – 40 oC
 Industrial refrigeration requires – 100 oC
 Cryogenics; below – 150 oC

1.0 Revision

1.1 Definitions

Work done by a system is positive

Heat transferred to a system is positive

1.2 First Law

1.2.1 Closed system

Q  W  dU
where U = total internal energy = mu
Q12  W12  U 2  U 1

and for a cycle;  Q   W

1.2.2 Open systems
 
(a) Conservation of mass; m out
 m in

(b) Conservation of energy

1
q  w  dh  d (V 2 )  gdz
2

1.2.3 Applications
(a) Compressors, fans, pumps : power requirement is
 
W  m( houtlet  hinlet )

(b) Condensors, evaporators, heat exchangers. Rate of heat absorption is

 2

 
Q  m( houtlet  hinlet )

(c) Throttling – a restriction which causes a temperature drop is assumed as isenthalpic

houtlet  hinlet

(d) Turbines – the power output is:

 
W  m( hinlet  houtlet )

1.3 The second law

(a) cycle – a thermodynamic cycle is said to occur whenever a system undergoes a number of
prosesses and finally returns to its intial state.

(b) heat engine – produces work as a result of heat transfer from a high temperature body to a low
temperature body.

(c) thermal efficiency,

QC
 = 1
QH
where subscripts C and H refer to heat transfer to a cold reservoir and heat transfer from a hot
reservoir, respectively.

1.3.1 Statements of the second law

Clausius – “It is impossible to construct a system which will operate in a cylce and transfer heat
from a cooler to a hotter body without work being done on the system by the surrounding”

Kelvin-Plank statement :  < 1

1.3.2 Corollaries to the second law

1st corollary – “It is impossible to construct an engine which operates between two given
reservoirs and is more efficient than a reversible engine”

ie ………………..  irreversib le   reversible .

QH T
2nd corollary :  = f(TH, TC) and we can show that  H resulting in the efficiency of a
Qc TC
TC
reversible heat engine  rev = 1 
TH
 3

1.3.3 Entropy

For a reversible process, Q  Tds and can also be shown that

Tds = du + p.dv
Tds = dh – v.dp

1.4 Perfect gas

Equation of state : PV = mRT

1.5 Specific heat


 u  
 h 
   
at constant volume ; cv  T  v and at constant pressure ; cp  T  p
cp
and ratio of specific heats,  
cv

For perfect gases, du = cv dT, dh = cp dT and cp – cv = R which are

applicable for any process.

1.6 Reversible adiabatic (isentropic) process for perfect gas obeys

pv   constant

1.7 Reversed Carnot cycle

Transfers heat from the cold reservoir to hot reservoir as a result of work transfer to the system.

1.7.1 Refrigerator – Coefficient of Performance (COP) is

QC
COP =
Wnet
TC
Maximum theoretical COP is , COPmax =
TH  TC

1.7.2 Heat Pump – Performance Factor (PF) or COPHP is

QH
PF = COPHP =
Wnet

Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) is equivalent to COP

 4

Example

An ideal refrigerator provides cooling at (i) 0 C (ii) – 20 C (iii) – 40 C and rejects heat at 40 C.
Determine the COP and work input to provide 100 kW of cooling in each case.

Example

Heat pump rejects heat at 40 C and takes in heat at (i) 0 C (ii) – 20 C (iii) – 40 C. Determine PF
and work input for 100 kW of heating.

(Ans. Ex 1.1 (i) 6.83, 14.6 kW (ii) 4.22, 23.76 kW (iii) 2.91, 34.3 kW
Ex 1.2 (i) 7.83, 12.8 kW (ii) 5.22, 19.2 kW (iii) 3.91, 25.6 kW)

1.8 Production of low temperatures

1.8.1 Expansion of a liquid with flashing

Flashing occurs when part of a liquid is vaporized in an expansion process such as throttling. The
vaporized liquid cools the remaining liquid, thus lowering its temperature. During the expansion
process, the pressure drops, volume increases and entropy increases. Consider a saturated liquid
undergoing an irreversible expansion process,

T
p1
1 T1

T2 p2

s
1.8.2 Reversible adiabatic expansion of a gas

Permanent gas such as air initially at low temperature and high pressure is expanded adiabatically
and reversibly in an expander, doing work on the surroundings. For an ideal gas, for a pressure
drop from p1 to p2, the expansion is isentropic, it obeys
T
pV   C and  1 = C

P 
Thus, the final temperature is,
 5

 1
p  
T2  T1  2 
 p1 

1.8.3 Irreversible adiabatic expansion (throttling ) of a real gas

A real gas is initially compressed and cooled. It is then expanded irreversibly through a throttle
device (e.g. porous plug). For an adiabatic process, h2 = h1. For a perfect gas T2 = T1, but for a real
gas substantial temperature decrease is produced when its pressure is dropped via throttling. The
Joule-Thomson coefficient is defined as,

 T 
 J    = 
 p  h

J
<0 Heating ; T2 > T1
=0 T2 = T1
>0 Cooling ; T2 < T1

P2, T2 P1, T1 real gas

T
maximum inversion temperature (eg N2= 620K, He= 40K, air = 600K).
T2 2 pressure drop through plug
1
T1
h = constant

 J >0 J < 0

p2 p1 p
1.8.4 Thermoelectric cooling

Peltier in 1834 discovered that cooling is produced at one junction of two dissimilar metals, if
current is passed through them. At the same time heat is produced at the other junction.
QC
TC Cold end

. material A material B
QH QH
Hot end TH
current
 6

Chapter 2
Vapour Compression Refrigeration

2.1 The ideal cycle

3 2 1 – 2 isentropic compression
2 – 3 isothermal condensation
3 – 4 isentropic expansion
4 – 1 isothermal evaporation

4 1

2.1.1 Selection of operating temperatures

Qref TC
COP = =
Wnet TH  TC

(a) Selection of TC (operating or evaporating temperature)

Application TC (oC)
Air conditioning 0 to 10
Cold storage – 10
Domestic refrigeration – 15
Frozen food – 35
Freeze dry – 35 to – 45

Typical A/C system

T coil

Room 25 C Q 25 C

. air
. 15 C
coil fan supply air refrigerant
15 C (typical)
. TC  10 C
 7

(b) Selection of TH (condensing temperature)

Dependent on environment in which heat is rejected from the condenser, usually temperature
difference between TH and the environment is about 10 C.

(i) Air-cooled condensers can be found in refrigerators, water coolers, window-type A/C
and most package type A/C.
(ii) Water-cooled condensers are prevalent in large systems where large quantities of heat
are being rejected. The benefits of water include

 Available at much lower temperature than air

 Cp of water is about 4 times that of air; for the same condenser heat rejection rate
and the same T require ¼ mass flow rate.
 Convection heat transfer coefficient, h is greater for water than air. For same T ,
need smaller heat exchanger (A = heat rejection rate/h* T ).

. TH 10 C
. condenser T higher than ambient T of cooling medium

.evaporator T lower than cold T of cold room

.room temperature TC
. 5C

s
2.2 Limitations of ideal cycle
2.2.1 Throttling vs isentropic expansion

Isentropic expansion in turbine is impractical. Turbine is replaced by throttling device, resulting

in loss of refrigerating effect (h1 – h4) < (h1 – h4s) and loss of turbine work.

T
. 3

. 4s 4
s
 8

2.2.2 Dry vs wet compression.

Wet compression (1’ – 2’) is avoided because

 Liquid refrigerants trapped in the head of the cylinder
 Liquid refrigerant droplets may wash away lubricating oil from walls of compressor,
increasing wear.
With dry compression (1 – 2) additional compressor work is required.

. 2’ 2

. 1’ 1
s

2.3 Theoretical vapour compression cycle (1, 2, 3, 4)

T
. qH 2 w = q H - qC
. 3

qC
.
. 4s 4 1
s

2.4 The pressure-enthalpy diagram

p T1 T2 s1 s2

v1
v2

y2 > y1
y=T,s,v
h

2.5 Analysis of the theoretical cycle

p
. 3 2
 9

Pcond

Pevap
. 4 1 compressor work

. refrigerating effect h

. heat rejected

Refrigerating effect, qC = h1 – h4
Heat rejected, qH = h2 – h3 per unit of mass, e.g. kJ/kg
Compressor work, w = h2 – h1

h1  h4 h2  h3
COP = refrigerator PF = heat pump
h2  h1 h2  h1

 
 refrigeration capacity
Refrigerant mass flow rate, m  Qref = Qref
refrigerating effect qc h1  h4

  Qref
Refrigerant volumetric flow rate, V1  m v1 = (also known as theoretical piston
h1  h4
displacement rate).
Example 1

A standard vapour compression cycle develops 50 kW of refrigeration, using R134a and

operating with a condensing temperature of 35.51 oC and an evaporating temperature of –10 oC.
Using a p-h diagram, for R134a, determine:
(a) refrigerating effect
(b) refrigerant mass flow rate
(c) specific work and power required by compressor
(d) COP
(e) volumetric refrigerant flow rate
(f) compressor discharge temperature
(g) the heat rejected in the condenser

p
. 3 35.51 C 2
Pcond

Pevap
 10

. 4 – 10 C 1

. h
h1 = hg,-10C = 244.51 kJ/kg, s1 = 0.93766 kJ/kgK
 0.93766  0.9327 
h2 = 274.17 + (284.77 – 274.17)   = 275.75 kJ/kg
 0.9660  0.9327 
h3 = h4 = hf 35.51C = 101.61 kJ/kg ; v1 = vg,-10C = 0.099516 m3/kg

(a) qref = h1 – h4 = 244.51 – 101.61 = 142.90 kJ/kg


 Q ref 50 kW
(b) m =  = 0.350 kg/s
q ref 142.90 kJ/kg
 
(c) w = h2 – h1 = 275.75 – 244.51 = 31.24 kJ/kg ; W = m w = 0.350(31.24) = 10.9 kW

Q ref 50
(d) COP = = = 4.59

10.9
W
 
(e) V1 = m v1 = 0.350(0.099516) = 0.0348 m3/s = 34.8 L/s

(f) t2 = 40 + (0.93766 – 0.9327)(50 – 40)/(0.9660 – 0.9327) = 41.5 C

 
(g) Q reject = m (h2 – h3) = 0.350(275.75 – 101.61) = 60.9 kW
Repeat example above with these data: The refrigerant leaves the condenser with 2 K subcooling
and exits the evaporator with 3K superheat. The compressor has an isentropic efficiency of 90%.
2.5.1 Effect of evaporator pressure

p
. 3, 3” 2 2”
Pcond

. 4 1
pe
pe”
. 4” 1”

. h
A decrease in evaporator pressure (pe to pe”) results in:
(i) decrease in refrigerating effect; (h1” – h4”) < (h1 – h4)
(ii) increase in specific volume of suction vapour; v1” > v1
(iii) decrease in volumetric efficiency*, due to increase in pressure ratio
(iv) increase in compressor work, due to increase in pressure ratio, as well as change from
steeper isentropic 1 – 2 to flatter isentropic 1” – 2”
(v) decrease in COP (refrigerating effect decreases, compressor work increases).

* volumetric efficiency;
 11

V1
v =
V swept
valid for positive displacement compressors only.

2.5.2 Effect of condenser pressure

. pc” 3” 2”
pc
. 3 2

.
pe
. 4 4” 1
.

. h
An increase in condenser pressure from pc to pc” results in:
(i) decrease in refrigerating effect; (h1 – h4” ) < (h1 – h4)
(ii) increase in compressor work
(iii) decrease in volumetric efficiency
(iv) decrease in COP

2.5.3 Effect of suction vapour superheat

Superheating of suction vapour is desirable in practice because:

(i) it ensures complete vaporization of liquid in evaporator, before it enters the
compressor
(ii) the degree of superheat is often used as a means of actuating and modulating the
expansion valve’s capacity

p
. 3 2 2”
Pcond

pevap
. 4 1 1”

. h
The superheating a vapour from t1 to t1” results in:
(i) increase in specific volume of suction vapour; v1” > v1
(ii) increase in refrigerating effect; (h1” – h4) > (h1 – h4)
(iii) inrease in specific compressor work; (h2” – h1”) > (h2 – h1)
(iv) COP may increase, decrease or remains unchanged
 12

In R12 systems, suction temperature in practice is between 15 to 25 C.

2.5.4 Effect of liquid subcooling

p
. 3” 3 2
Pcond

pevap
. 4” 4 1

. h
Subcooling results in
(i) reduced flashing of liquid during throttling process; x4” < x4
(ii) increase in refrigerating effect; (h1 – h4”) > (h1 – h4)
(iii) increase in COP
(iv) reduced piston displacement and horsepower per ton for all refrigerants

In some systems, a subcooler is placed between the condenser and expansion valve. Cooling
water at temperature lower than condensing temperature is passed through the subcooler to
achieve subcooling of the refrigerant.

2.5.5 Using liquid-vapour regenerative heat exchanger

Combination of vapour superheating and liquid subcooling results in a liquid-vapour regenerative

heat exchanger.

. 2”
. condenser

. 3 1”

Liquid vapour regenerative

heat exchanger

. 3”

.
. 4” 1
. evaporator
 13

p
. 3” 3 2 2”
pcond

pevap
. 4” 4 1 1”

. h
Refrigerant vapour from evaporator is superheated in the heat exchanger with consequent
subcooling of the liquid from the condenser. Energy balance of the heat exchanger gives,

h1” – h1 = h3 – h3”

i.e. heat gained by refrigerant vapour equals heat loss from liquid refrigerant in the heat
exchanger. The refrigerating effect is,

qref = h1 – h4” or qref = h1 – h3”

and
q ref
COP =
h2"  h1"

Compared to the standard cycle, refrigerating effect increases but specific work also increases
because compression is carried out further into the superheat region. Consequently, COP
improvement if any is marginal. The heat exchanger probably offers no thermodynamic benefits,
but it is justified because:
(i) superheated vapour ensures that no liquid enters the compressor
(ii) subcooled liquid prevents bubbles of vapour from impeding flow of refrigerant
through expansion valve.

2.6 Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle (2nd meeting)

In real vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, irreversibilities are present due to fluid friction
(causes pressure drops) and heat transfer to or from the surroundings that occur across a finite
temperature difference.

In real cycles:
 The refrigerant leaves the evaporator (and enters the compressor) as superheated vapor.
This superheating increases power input to compressor since steady-flow work is
proportional to the specific volume.
 The compression process is not isentropic. The entropy may increase or decrease
depending on the direction of heat transfer during the compression process. It is desirable
to cool the refrigerant during the compression process since it lowers win
 14

 The refrigerant leaves the condenser as compressed liquid (subcooled). This is desirable
since the refrigerant can absorb more heat from the refrigerated space
 Pressure drops in the condenser and the evaporator

Example 2
Refrigerant-134a enters the compressor of a refrigerator as superheated vapor at 0.14 MPa and –
10 oC at a rate of 0.05 kg/s and leaves at 0.8 MPa and 50 oC. The refrigerant is cooled in the
condenser to 26 oC and is throttled to the evaporator pressure. Neglecting pressure drops in the
evaporator and condenser, determine (a) the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space, (b)
the power input to the compressor, (c) the isentropic efficiency of the compressor, and (d) the
COP of the refrigerator.

State 1 (0.14 MPa, – 10 C)

h1 = 246.36, s1 = 0.9724

State 2 (0.8 MPa, 50 C)

h2 = 286.69, s2 = 0.9802
s 2 s  s1 = 0.9724
 0.9724  0.9480 
h2 s  276.45    286.69  276.45
 0.9802  0.9480 
= 284.21

State 3 (0.8 MPa, 26 C)

h3  h f ,t 3 = 87.83
State 4
h3  h3 = 87.83
 
(a) The refrigeration load, Q L  m h1  h4   0.05 246.36  87.83 = 7.93 kW
 
(b) W in  m h2  h1   0.05 286.69  246.36 = 2.02 kW
ideal compressor work h  h1 284.21  246.36
(c)  c   2s  = 0.939 or 93.9 %
actual compressor work h2  h1 286.69  246.36
QL 7.93
(d) COPR    3.93
Win 2.02

2.7 Multistage Compression Refrigeration System

Consider the following two-stage compression refrigeration system with a flash chamber

Warm environment

QH T
4
Condenser
5 4
 15

Expansion high-pressure 5 1
valve compressor
6 9 2
Flash . ... x 9
Chamber 3 Pi
7 2 7 6 3
Expansion low-pressure
Valve compressor (1-x)
8 1
evaporator 8 1

QL

Cold environment s

The intermediate pressure Pi is chosen so that the total compressor work required is minimum,
Pi  Pevaporator Pcondenser
Assuming an adiabatic flash chamber, we can write the following energy balance eqn.

qin  wout   hout   hin

h6  h7 h6  h f
0 – 0 = 1  x  h7  xh3  h6 x 
h3  h7 hg  h f
where hf and hg are evaluated at Pi

In other words, mass fraction of saturated vapor extracted from the flash chamber, x is equal to
the quality of mixture at point 6.

The specific enthalpy at point 9 is obtained from the adiabatic mixing eaquation,

1.h9  x.h3  1  x  h2

 The rerfrigerating effect, qin  1  x  h1  h8 

 Total compressor work (required), wtotal ,in  1  x  h2  h1    h4  h9 

Example 3
A two-stage compression refrigeration system operates between the pressure limits of 0.8 and
0.14 MPa. Refrigerant-134a leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid and is throttled to a flash
chamber operating at 0.32 MPa. Part of the refrigerant evaporates during this flashing process,
and this vapor is mixed with the refrigerant leaving the low-pressure compressor. The mixture is
then compressed to the condenser pressure by the high-pressure compressor. The liquid in the
flash chamber is throttled to the evaporator pressure and cools the refrigerated space as it
vaporizes in the evaporator. Assuming the refrigerant leaves the evaporator as a saturated vapor
and both compressors are isentropic, determine (a) the fraction of the refrigerant that evaporates
as it is throttled to the flash chamber, (b) the amount of heat removed from the refrigerated space
 16

and the compressor work per unit mass of refrigerant flowing through the condenser, and (c) the
coefficient of performance.

h1 = hg,0.14MPa = 239.16
s1 = 0.94456

P2 = 0.32 MPa, s2=s1 = 0.94456

 0.94456  0.9301
h2  251.88    258.69  251.88 = 255.93
 0.9544  0.9301 
h5 = hf,0.8MPa = 95.47, h6 = h5 = 95.47
h7 = hf,0.32MPa = 55.16, h8 = h7 = 55.16

h3 = hg,0.32MPa = 251.88

h6  h7 h6  h f 95.47  55.16
(a) x  = = 0.2049
h3  h7 hg  h f 251.88  55.16

h9  x.h3  1  x  h2 = 0.2049(251.88) + (1-0.2049)(255.93) = 255.10 kJ/kg

(b) q L  1  x  h1  h8   1  0.2049 239.16  55.16 = 146.3 kJ/kg

At state 9 , P9 = 0.32 MPa, h9 = 255.10 . Therefore

 255.10  251.88 
s9  0.9301    0.9544  0.9301 = 0.9416
 258.69  251.88 
At state 4, P4 = 0.8 MPa, s4 = s9 = 0.9416, Thus

 0.9416  0.9183 
h4  267.29    276.45  267.29  = 274.48
 0.9480  0.9183 
wtotal ,in  1  x  h2  h1    h4  h9  = (1 – 0.2049)(255.93 – 239.16) + (274.48 – 255.10)
= 32.71 kJ/kg

qL 146.3
(c) COPR   = 4.47
win 32.71

2.8 Absorption Refrigeration

Low-pressure vapour can be transformed into high-pressure vapour in refrigeration system by the
conventional vapour compression method or the absorption method.

Vapour compression High-pressure vapour

1. Compressor condenser
 17

Absorption
1. Absorb vapour in liquid while removing expansion valve
heat
2. Elevate pressure of liquid with pump
3. Release vapour by applying heat evaporator
. Low-pressure vapour

In an absorption system, the low pressure vapour is first absorbed in an appropriate absorbing
liquid. During the absorption process, conversion of vapour into liquid (akin to condensation)
results in heat being rejected. The pressure of the liquid is then elevated with a pump. Finally,
heat addition causes the vapour to be released from the absorbing liquid.

A vapour compression is known as a work-operated cycle because pressure elevation of

refrigerant is accomplished by a compressor which requires work.

The absorption cycle is referred to as a heat-operated cycle, because most of the operating cost is
associated with the heat required to drive off vapour from the high-pressure liquid. The pump
work is negligibly small compared to that needed by a compressor in a vapour-compression
system.

2.8.1 The absorption cycle

. High-pressue vapour
. lean solution
Generator Condenser heat
heat

. rich
. solution Throttling valve Expansion valve

. Low-pressure vapour

Absorber Evaporator
heat
heat
pump
High-temperature heat enters the generator while low-temperature heat from the substance being
refrigerated enters the evaporator. Heat rejection from the cycle occurs at the absorber and
condenser at temperatures that allow heat rejection to atmosphere.

2.8.2 Ideal absorption cycle

The absorption cycle can be thought of as a combination of a power cycle and refrigeration cycle.
 18

qg Ts Ta qc

qa Ta Tr qe

Ts source temperature, Ta ambient temperature, Tr refrigerating temperature. For an ideal power

cycle,
qg Ts
 ……………………..……. (4.1)
W Ts  Ta
and for an ideal refrigerator,
qe Tr
 ………………………….….(4.2)
W Ta  Tr

Using the definition of COPabs for an absorption cycle,

refrigerat ion..rate
COPabs = rate..of ..heat..addition..at..generator ……… (4.3)

Thus, for an ideal absorption cycle,

qe WTr (Ts Ta) Tr (Ts Ta)

COP =   ……...……(4.4)

qg {Ta Tr ) WTs Ts(Ta Tr )

Example
What is the COP of an ideal heat-operated refrigeration system that has a source temperature of
heat of 100 oC, a refrigerating temperature of 5 oC, and an ambient temperature of 30 oC ?

(5  273.15)(100  30)
COP = = 2.09
(100  273.15)(30  5)

These trends are detectable from eq. 4.4:

1. As Ts increases, the COP increases
 19

2. As Tr increases, the COP increases

3. As Ta increases, the COP decreases

Typical absorbent-refrigerant pair includes LiBr-water which is most popular, while aqua-
ammonia pair (water as absorbent, ammonia as refrigerant) was used before LiBr-water was
discovered.

2.9 Gas cycle refrigeration

The gas cycle is used exclusively in air-conditioning of aircrafts; military and commercial. Often
referred to as air cycle refrigeration because air is the working fluid in the cycle. Its COP is lower
than that of conventional vapour compression cycle. It can work as an open or closed cycle. The
benefits of an air cycle includes:

(i) Small amount of leakages are tolerable since air is the refrigerant.
(ii) The simplest open system requires only one heat exchanger
(iii) Readily available refrigerant
(iv) Cabin pressurization and air-conditioning can be combined into one operation
(v) Initial compression of the air is obtained by the ram effect (conversion of the high
kinetic energy of ambient air relative to aircraft into enthalpy and ultimately pressure
rise). Refrigerated air capacity ranges from 3 to 70 kg a minute.

2.9.1 Simple air-cycle sytem for aircraft refrigeration

to combustion chamber cooling air exit

compressed air cooling air fan

jet compressor air cooler

ram air cooling turbine

cooling air to cabin

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 Compressed air after cooling in air-cooler is passed through a cooling turbine

 Turbine work is used to drive a fan which draws cooling air through the heat exchanger; ie
to overcome friction in air-cooler
 Air is dischaged from the turbine at a pressure slightly above cabin pressure
 Fan is located downstream, avoiding unnecessary temperature rise of cooling air
 Turbine work is not available for the compressor (compressor is driven by power turbine
downstream of compressor after the combustion chamber)