Parts of Speech

speech function or example example sentences

"job" words

Verb action or have, do, like, Jogging is a good exercise.

state work, sing, can, I like you.
must

Noun thing or pen, dog, work, This is my dog. He lives in my

person music, town, house. We live in London.
London,
teacher, John

Adjective describes a a/an, the, 2, I have two dogs. My dogs

noun some, good, are big. I like big dogs.
big, red, well,
interesting

Adverb describes a quickly, silently, My dog eats quickly. When he

verb, well, badly, is very hungry, he eats really
adjective or very, really quickly.
adverb

Pronoun replaces a I, you, he, Tara is Indian. She is beautiful.

noun she,we,they,It,
you

Preposition links a noun to, at, after, on, Wewent to school on Monday.
to another but
word

Conjunction joins clauses and, but, when I like dogs and I like cats. I like
or sentences cats and dogs. I like dogs but I
or words don't like cats.

Interjection short oh!, Ouch! That hurts! Hi! How are

exclamation, ouch!, you?
sometimes hi!,
inserted into well
a sentence

Nouns
A noun is a word used to describe a person, place, thing, event, idea, and so on.
Nouns represent one of the main elements of sentences, along with verbs,
adjectives, prepositions and articles.
Nouns usually function as subjects or objects within sentences, although they can
also act as adjectives and adverbs.

Here is a list with the different types of nouns:

1. Proper nouns
Used to describe a unique person or thing, proper nouns always start with a capital
letter. Examples include Mary, India, and Manchester United.

2. Common nouns
Common nouns are used to describe persons or things in general. Examples
include girl, country, and team

3. Concrete nouns
Nouns that can be perceived through the five senses are called concrete nouns.
Examples include ball, rainbow and melody.

4. Abstract nouns
Nouns that cannot be perceived through the five senses are called abstract nouns.
Examples include love, courage, and childhood.

5. Countable nouns
Countable nouns can be counted. They also have both a singular and a plural form.
Examples include toys, children and books.

6. Non-countable nouns
These nouns (usually) can not be counted, and they don’t have a plural form.
Examples include sympathy, laughter and oxygen.

7. Collective nouns
Collective nouns are used to describe groups of things. Examples include
flock, committee and murder.

Pronouns
Pronouns are used to replace nouns within sentences, making them less repetitive
and mechanic. For example, saying “Mary didn’t go to school because Mary was
sick” doesn’t sound very good. Instead, if you say “Mary didn’t go to school because
she was sick” it will make the sentence flow better.

There are several types of pronouns, below you will find the most common ones:
1. Subjective personal pronouns. As the name implies, subjective pronouns act as
subjects within sentences. They are: I, you, he, she, we, they, and it.

Example: I am going to the bank while he is going to the market.

2. Objective personal pronouns. These pronouns act as the object of verbs within
sentences. They are: me, you, him, her, us, them and it.

Example: The ball was going to hit me in the face.

3. Possessive personal pronouns. These pronouns are used to indicate

possession, and they are placed after the object in question (as opposed to
possessive adjectives like my and your, which are placed before the object). They
are: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs and its.

Example of possessive pronoun: This car is mine.

4. Reflexive pronouns. This special class of pronouns is used when the object is the
same as the subject on the sentence. They are myself, yourself, himself, herself,
ourselves, themselves and itself.

Example: I managed to cut myself in the kitchen.

5. Interrogative pronouns. As you probably guessed these pronouns are used to

ask questions. They are what, which, who, whom and whose.

Example: What are the odds?

6. Demonstrative pronouns. These pronouns are used to indicate a noun and

distinguish it from other entities. Notice that demonstrative pronouns replace the
noun (while demonstrative determiners modify them). They are: this, that, these,
those.

Example of a demonstrative pronoun: This is the right one.

7. Indefinite pronouns. As the name implies, indefinite pronouns do not refer to a

specific thing, place or person. There are many of them, including anyone, anywhere,
everyone, none, someone and so on.

Example: Everyone is going to the party.

Adjectives
An adjective is a word that describes a noun. There are two kinds: attributive
and predicative.

An adjective is used attributively when it stands next to a noun and describes it.
For example: The black cat climbed a tree.
The usual place of the adjective in English is in front of the noun. You can have a
whole string of adjectives if you like:

The tall thin evil-lookingcowboy roped the short, fat, inoffensive calf.

Sometimes, for rhetorical or poetic effect, the adjective can come after the noun:
Sarah Plain and Tall (book title)
This is the forest primeval.

An adjective is used predicatively when a verb separates it from the noun or

pronoun it describes:
The umpire was wrong.
The crowd was furious.
She seems tired today.
This soup tastes bad.

Adjective Classifications
 qualitative: good, bad, happy, blue, French
 possessive: my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their
 relative and interrogative: which, what, whatever, etc.
 numeral: one, two, second, single, etc.
 indefinite: some, any, much, few, every, etc.
 demonstrative: this, that, the, a (an), such

Articles
The words a, an, and the are generally called articles and sometimes classed as a
separate part of speech. In function, however, they can be grouped with the
demonstrative adjectives that are used to point things out rather than describe them.

Definite Article
“The “ is called the definite article because it points out a particular object or class.
Examples:
This is the book I was talking about.
The dodo bird is extinct.

Indefinite Article
“A “ is called the indefinite article because it points out an object, but not any
particular specimen.
example: a book, a dog, a lawn mower

The indefinite article has two forms:

A is used before words beginning with a consonant sound or an aspirated h:
a car, a lamb, a hope, a habit, a hotel
An is used before words beginning with a vowel sound:
an ape, an image, an untruth, an honorable man

Verbs
English has three kinds of Verbs: transitive, intransitive, and incomplete.
1. Transitive Verbs
A verb is transitive when the action is carried across to a receiver:

The farmer grows potatoes.

Elvis sang ballads.

The receiver is called the direct object. It answers the question “What?” or “Whom?
after the verb. Grows what? Potatoes. Sang what? Ballads.

2. Intransitive Verbs
A verb is intransitive when the action stays with the verb. It is not carried across to a
receiver:

Corn grows.
Elvis sang.

Adding a prepositional phrase to modify the verb does not change the fact that the
action remains with the subject:

Corn grows in the fields. Elvis sang all over the world.

Both transitive and intransitive verbs are action verbs.

3. Incomplete Verbs
There are three types of incomplete verbs:
i. being verbs – also called linking or copulative verbs
to be, seem, become, taste, smell, sound, feel

Tip: Some of these verbs can also be used transitively. If in doubt, substitute a form
of to be for the verb. If the sentence still makes sense, the verb is being used as a
copulative verb:

He feels depressed. He is depressed.

He feels the wall. He is the wall.

ii. auxiliary verbs – also called helping verbs

be, have, shall, will, do, and may.

He could have gone earlier.

iii. semi-auxiliary verbs
must, can, ought, dare, need.
You must not go. You dare not go.

Verbs Voice
English verbs are said to have two voices: active and passive.

Active Voice: the subject of the sentence performs the action:

His son catches fly balls. Creative children often dream in class.

Note: Verbs in the active voice may be either transitive or intransitive.

Passive Voice: the subject receives the action:

The ball was caught by the first baseman.
The duty is performed by the new recruits.
The dough was beaten by the mixer.
The mailman was bitten by the dog.

Only transitive verbs can be used in the passive voice. What would be the direct
object of the verb in the active voice becomes the subject of the verb in the passive
voice:

Active voice: The dog bit the mailman. “bit” is a transitive verb. The receiver/direct
object is “mailman.”

Passive voice: The mailman was bitten by the dog. “bit” is now in the passive voice.
The “receiver” has become the subject of the verb.

A passive verb in either present or past tense will always have two parts: some form
of the verb to be (am, is, are, was, were), and a past participle (verb form ending in -
ed, -en, or any form used with have when forming a perfect tense).

Note: The mere presence of the verb to be does not indicate that a verb is in the
passive voice. The test of a verb in the passive voice is the two-part question:
Is the subject performing the action of the verb or is the subject receiving the action
of the verb?
If the subject is receiving the action, then the verb is in passive voice.
Sometimes the passive voice is the best way to express a thought. Used carelessly,
however, passive voice can produce a ponderous, inexact writing style.

Verbs Tense
Modern English has six tenses, each of which has a corresponding continuous tense.
The first three tenses, present, past, and future, present few problems. Only third
person singular in the present tense differs in form:

Present tense of regular (weak) verbs:

Today I walk. Today he walks.
Yesterday I walked.
Tomorrow I shall/will walk.

The dwindling class of irregular (strong) verbs must be learned individually.

Today I go. Today he goes.
Yesterday I went.
Tomorrow I shall/will go.

The other three tenses, perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect, are formed with the
helping verbs have, has, and had.

perfect: used to express an event that has just finished, and to describe an event
which, although in the past, has effects that continue into the present.

Queen Elizabeth has reigned for 56 years.

pluperfect (past perfect): used to express an event that took place before another
action, also in the past.

I had driven all the way to Oklahoma when I realized my mistake.

future perfect: used to express an event that will have taken place at some time in
the future.
As of February 26, I shall have been in this job six years.

Adverbs
Adverbs are used to describe or modify a verb, adjective, clause, or another
adverb. Basically, they modify everything except nouns and pronouns (which are
modified by adjectives).

Example of an adverb modifying a verb: He was running fast. (fast modifiesrunning)

Example of an adverb modifying an adjective: She took a very small piece of the
cake. (very modifies small)

Example of an adverb modifying a sentence: Strangely, the man left the

room. (strangely modifies the whole sentence)

Usually adverbs answer to the questions “When?” (adverbs of time), “Where?”

(adverbs of place), and “How?” (adverbs of manner).
Adverbs can also be used to connect clauses and sentences (in this case they are
called conjunctive adverbs).

For example: It was dark. Therefore, we needed the torch. (therefore connects the
two sentences)

Prepositions
Prepositions are used to link nouns and pronouns to other words within a
sentence. The words linked to are called objects.
Usually prepositions show a spatial or temporal relationship between the noun and
the object, like in the example below:

The cat is under the table.

Cat is the noun. Under is the preposition. Table is the object.

Here is a list with the most common prepositions:

about, above, after, among, around, along, at, before, behind, beneath, beside,
between, by, down, from, in, into, like, near, of, off, on, out, over, through, to, up,
upon, under, and with.

Notice that you can also have a prepositional phrase, which is formed by the
preposition and its object. A preposition phrase can function as adverb, adjective or
noun.
For example:
The dog was running under the rain.
The prepositional phrase “under the rain” acts as an adverb, specifying where the
dog was running.

Conjunctions
A conjunction joins words and groups of words.
There are two classes of conjunction:
co-ordinate or coordinating andsubordinate or subordinating.

Co-ordinate conjunctions: and, but, either…or, neither…nor.

Subordinate conjunctions: that, as, after, before, since, when, where, unless, if.
Mother and Father are driving me to New Orleans. (and is a coordinate conjunction
joining words of equal significance in the sentence.

I painted the walls but Jack painted the woodwork. (but is a coordinate conjunction
joining clauses of equal significance in the sentence. Either clause could stand alone
as a sentence.)
Since you can’t get away, we’ll go without you.

(Since is a subordinate conjunction joining a less important thought to a more

important thought. The main clause, we’ll go without you, can stand alone as a
complete thought. The subordinate clause, Since you can’t get away, is an
incomplete thought. It is dependent upon the main clause for meaning.)

Note: The relative pronouns who, whom, which, and that are used in the same way
that subordinate conjunctions are. The difference is that the relative pronouns serve
three purposes at once:
1) they stand for a noun in the main clause
2) they connect the clauses
3) they serve as a subject or object word in the subordinate clause:

He is the man who invented the hula hoop. (who stands for man and is the subject
of invented)

Charles is the boy whom the other children tease. (whom stands for boy and is the
object of tease)

Give me the piece of string that is waxed. (that stands for string and is the subject of
is waxed)

There goes the horse which won the Derby. (which refers to horse and is the subject
of won)

The possessive adjective whose can also be used to join clauses:

That’s the bird whose plumage I admire. (whose refers to bird and describes
plumage)

Interjections
Interjection comes from from a Latin word that means “throw between.” It’s a word or
phrase that is thrown into a sentence to express an emotion:
Goodness, how you’ve grown!
Darn, I forgot my lunch!
Alas, will he never return?

All the impolite expressions that we call expletives are interjections.

Strictly speaking, an interjection is not a part of speech. It serves no grammatical
function but is rather “a noisy utterance like the cry of an animal” (F.J. Rahtz).

Interjections express feeling or emotion, not thought and have been called “the
miserable refuge of the speechless.”
Careful with Words Used as Noun and Verb

I do not approve of his cónduct. John Williams will condúct the symphony .

He subscribes to the Congressional Dígest. Some food is difficult to digést.

Charlie will be her éscort. He will escórt her to the Prom.

That last remark was an ínsult. How dare you insúlt your father?

Celery and tomatoes are fresh próduce. These factories prodúce the finest widgets.

That’s his fifth platinum récord. Let’s recórd the baby’s first word.

You will notice that for the noun the accent falls on the first syllable; for the
verb, on the second.

Some noun/verb pairs shift in pronunciation and in spelling. These are the
ones writers need to be aware of.

Take his advice with a grain of salt. Who will advise the king?

He likes a warm bath. They bathe in the river.

It’s cold enough to see our breath. Don’t breathe the chemical fumes.

The shoes are made of cloth. Feed the hungry and clothe the naked.

He felt grief at the death of the child. He must be allowed time to grieve.

Here, I’ll give you half. The new invention will halve production costs.

What is the proof of your contention? He worked night and day to prove his
innocence.

A prophecy of Merlin foretold the Maid. Prophesy unto the wind, for the wind will
listen.
VERB TENSE

Perfect Progressive
Simple Forms Progressive Forms Perfect Forms
Forms
present Take/s Am/is/are/ + ing Has/have taken Am/is/are/ + ing
past took Was/were + ing Had taken Was/were + ing
future Will/shall take Will be + ing Will have taken Will be + ing

SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

- to express the idea that an action is repeated or usual. The action can be a habit, a
hobby, a daily event, a scheduled event or something that often happens. It can also
be something a person often forgets or usually does not do.

Examples:

 I play tennis.
 She does not play tennis.
 Does he play tennis?
 The train leaves every morning at 8 AM.
 The train does not leave at 9 AM.
- facts and generalization about people and things

Examples:

 Cats like milk.

 Birds do not like milk.
 Do pigs like milk?
 California is in America.

- to talk about scheduled events in the near future. This is most commonly done
when talking about public transportation, but it can be used with other scheduled
events as well.

Examples:

 The train leaves tonight at 6 PM.

 The bus does not arrive at 11 AM, it arrives at 11 PM.
 When do we board the plane?
 The party starts at 8 o'clock.
 When does class begin tomorrow?

- to express the idea that an action is happening or is not happening now.

Examples:

 I am here now.
 She is not here now.
 He needs help right now.
 He does not need help now.

SIMPLE PAST TENSE

- Past tense expresses an action or situation that was started and finished in the past.
Most past tense verbs end in -ed. The irregular verbs have special past tense
forms which must be memorized.

Examples:

 I saw a movie yesterday.

 I didn't see a play yesterday.
 Last year, I traveled to Japan.
 Last year, I didn't travel to Korea.
 Did you have dinner last night?

- We use the Simple Past to list a series of completed actions in the past. These
actions happen 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and so on.

Examples:

 I finished work, walked to the beach, and found a nice place to swim.
 He arrived from the airport at 8:00, checked into the hotel at 9:00,
and met the others at 10:00.
 Did you add flour, pour in the milk, and then add the eggs?

- The Simple Past can be used with a duration which starts and stops in the past. A
duration is a longer action often indicated by expressions such as: for two years, for
five minutes, all day, all year, etc.

Examples:

 I lived in Brazil for two years.

 Shauna studied Japanese for five years.
 They sat at the beach all day.
 They did not stay at the party the entire time.
 We talked on the phone for thirty minutes.
- Habits in the Past

Examples:

 I studied French when I was a child.

 He played the violin.
 He didn't play the piano.

SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE

Future tense expresses an action or situation that will occur in the future. This tense
is formed by using will/shall with the simple form of the verb.

The speaker of the House will finish her term in May of 1998.

The future tense can also be expressed by using am, is, or are with going to.

The surgeon is going to perform the first bypass in Minnesota.

We can also use the present tense form with an adverb or adverbial phrase to
show future time.

The president speaks tomorrow. (Tomorrow is a future time adverb.)

Progressive Forms
Present Progressive Tense

Present progressive tense describes an ongoing action that is happening at the same
time the statement is written. This tense is formed by using am/is/are with the verb
form ending in -ing.

The sociologist is examining the effects that racial discrimination has on

society.
Past Progressive Tense

Past progressive tense describes a past action which was happening when another
action occurred. This tense is formed by using was/were with the verb form ending
in -ing.

The explorer was explaining the lastest discovery in Egypt when protests
began on the streets.
Future Progressive Tense

Future progressive tense describes an ongoing or continuous action that will take
place in the future. This tense is formed by using will be or shall be with the verb
form ending in -ing.

Dr. Jones will be presenting ongoing research on sexist language next week.

Present Perfect Tense

Present perfect tense describes an action that happened at an indefinite time in the
past or that began in the past and continues in the present.This tense is formed by
using has/have with the past participle of the verb. Most past participles end in -ed.
Irregular verbs have special past participles that must be memorized.

Example Meaning
The researchers have traveled to many
At an indefinite
countries in order to collect more
time
significant data.
Women have voted in presidential Continues in
elections since 1921. the present

Past Perfect Tense

Past perfect tense describes an action that took place in the past before another past
action. This tense is formed by using had with the past participle of the verb.

By the time the troops arrived, the war had ended.

Future Perfect Tense

Future perfect tense describes an action that will occur in the future before some
other action. This tense is formed by using will have with the past participle of the
verb.

By the time the troops arrive, the combat group will have spent several weeks
waiting.

Perfect Progressive Forms

Present Perfect Progressive

Present perfect progressive tense describes an action that began in the past,
continues in the present, and may continue into the future. This tense is formed by
using has/have been and the present participle of the verb (the verb form ending
in -ing).
 The CEO has been considering a transfer to the state of Texas where profits
would be larger.
Past Perfect Progressive

Past perfect progressive tense describes a past, ongoing action that was completed
before some other past action. This tense is formed by using had been and
the present perfect of the verb (the verb form ending in -ing).

Before the budget cuts, the students had been participating in many
extracurricular activities.
Future Perfect Progressive

Future perfect progressive tense describes a future, ongoing action that will occur
before some specified future time. This tense is formed by using will have been and
the present participle of the verb (the verb form ending in -ing).

By the year 2020, linguists will have been studying and defining the Indo-
European language family for more than 200 years.

Words we try to spell with too few letters

balloon
dumbbell
embarrass
millennium
misspell
occurrence
possession
broccoli
occasionally
questionnaire
coolly
dissipate
difference
generally
incidentally
magically
success

Words that have double letters, but not as many as we think

deterrence
harass
personnel
recommend
referred
disappear
disappoint
finally
fulfill
necessary
occasion
occurred
parallel
sheriff
tomorrow

Words that don’t have double letters, but we want to add them
preferable
procedure
coliseum
labeled

WHETHER- (conjunction)to introduce a question

WETHER- a male sheep or ram
WEATHER- condition of the atmosphere
The farmer wondered whether the adverse weather had affected his wether.
VOCABULARY
Idiosyncrasy is:
Answer: a peculiar habit or characteristic of an individual or group

Someone with excessive concern for precision and formal rules is:
Answer: pedantic

Beleaguer means:
Answer: to harass

“John’s __________ was irritating. He was reluctant even to buy bread!”

Answer: parsimony

An ombudsman is:
Answer: an impartial person who watches for administrative abuses inside organizations

If something is in oblivion:
Answer: people have completely forgotten about it

The fights on the streets created a big:

Answer: turmoil

Mary was always able to recover quickly from misfortunes. She was very:
Answer: resilient
A Pyrrhic victory is:
Answer: a victory with huge losses

The ________ steps confirmed he was hiding from someone.

Answer: furtive

A bipartisan act:
Answer: is supported by both sides

Recoil means:
Answer: to move away or bounce back

Fred was in a hurry so he entered the room:

Answer: briskly

The __________ moon was shiny that night.

Answer: waxing

An algorithm is:
Answer: a procedure defined to solve a problem, usually structured in steps

If something is implied by actions or statements, it is:

Answer: tacit

They had mixed feelings about it; hence their comments weres:
Answer: ambivalent

In a meritocracy:
Answer: the advancement of individuals is based on their performance

Rhetoric is:
Answer: the skill of using language persuasively

Alice was in a conundrum. She had no:

Answer: choice

Beautiful Words
Amorphous: indefinite, shapeless
Beguile: deceive
Caprice: impulse
Cascade: steep waterfall
Cashmere: fine, delicate wool
Chrysalis: protective covering
Cinnamon: an aromatic spice; its soft brown color
Coalesce: unite, or fuse
Crepuscular: dim, or twilit
Crystalline: clear, or sparkling
Desultory: half-hearted, meandering
Diaphanous: gauzy
Dulcet: sweet
Ebullient: enthusiastic
Effervescent: bubbly
Elision: omission
Enchanted: charmed
Encompass: surround
Enrapture: delighted
Ephemeral: fleeting
Epiphany: revelation
Epitome: embodiment of the ideal
Ethereal: celestial, unworldly, immaterial
Etiquette: proper conduct
Evanescent: fleeting
Evocative: suggestive
Exuberant: abundant, unrestrained, outsize
Felicity: happiness, pleasantness
Filament: thread, strand
Halcyon: care-free
Idyllic: contentedly pleasing
Incorporeal: without form
Incandescent: glowing, radiant, brilliant, zealous
Ineffable: indescribable, unspeakable
Inexorable: relentless
Insouciance: nonchalance
Iridescent: luster
Languid: slow, listless
Lassitude: fatigue
Lilt: cheerful or buoyant song or movement
Lithe: flexible, graceful
Lullaby: soothing song
Luminescence: dim chemical or organic light
Mellifluous: smooth, sweet
Mist: cloudy moisture, or similar literal or virtual obstacle
Murmur: soothing sound
Myriad: great number
Nebulous: indistinct
Opulent: ostentatious
Penumbra: shade, shroud, fringe
Plethora: abundance
Quiescent: peaceful
Quintessential: most purely representative or typical
Radiant: glowing
Redolent: aromatic, evocative
Resonant: echoing, evocative
Resplendent: shining
Rhapsodic: intensely emotional
Sapphire: rich, deep bluish purple
Scintilla: trace
Serendipitous: chance
Serene: peaceful
Somnolent: drowsy, sleep inducing
Sonorous: loud, impressive, imposing
Spherical: ball-like, globular
Sublime: exalted, transcendent
Succulent: juicy, tasty, rich
Suffuse: flushed, full
Susurration: whispering
Symphony: harmonious assemblage
Talisman: charm, magical device
Tessellated: checkered in pattern
Tranquility: peacefulness
Vestige: trace
Zenith: highest point

Ugly Words
Cacophony: confused noise
Cataclysm: flood, catastrophe, upheaval
Chafe: irritate, abrade
Coarse: common, crude, rough, harsh
Cynical: distrustful, self-interested
Decrepit: worn-out, run-down
Disgust: aversion, distaste
Grimace: expression of disgust or pain
Grotesque: distorted, bizarre
Harangue: rant
Hirsute: hairy
Hoarse: harsh, grating
Leech: parasite,
Maladroit: clumsy
Mediocre: ordinary, of low quality
Obstreperous: noisy, unruly
Rancid: offensive, smelly
Repugnant: distasteful
Repulsive: disgusting
Shriek: sharp, screeching sound
Shrill: high-pitched sound
Shun: avoid, ostracize
Slaughter: butcher, carnage
Unctuous: smug, ingratiating
Visceral: crude, anatomically graphic

LETTER WRITING

1. If you don’t know the name of the recipient…

Yours faithfully is British usage. It is used when the recipient is not addressed by
name, as in a letter with a “Dear Sir” salutation.

Yours truly is the American equivalent of “yours faithfully” .

2. When you do know the name of the recipient…

Yours sincerely is also British. Americans tend to reverse the order and write
Sincerely yours.

Which words to capitalize…Only the first word is capitalized:

Yours faithfully,
Yours sincerely,
Sincerely yours,