Water Supply and Treatment 15CV64

Module – 2
Water Treatment

2.0 Objectives
2.1 Methods of treatment of water
2.2 Sources
2.3 Water borne diseases
2.4 Physical characteristics and examinations
2.5 Chemical characteristics and examination
2.6 Biological characteristics
2.7 Drinking water standards BIS &WHO guidelines
2.8 Recommended questions
2.9 Outcomes
2.10 Further Reading

2.0 OBJECTIVES
The aim of water treatment is to produce and maintain water i.e hygienically safe, aesthetically
attractive and palatable in an economical manner. Though the treatment of water would achieve
the desired quality, the evaluation of its quality should not be confined to the end of treatment
but should be extended to the point of consumers use. It may be desirable to treat water for a
number of reasons including removal of pathogenic organisms, unpleasant tastes and odors,
excessive colour or turbidity or potentially harmful toxic chemical impurities. goiter, dental
flourosis and skeletal flourosis are attributable to chemical impurities present in water.

2.1 METHODS OF TREATMENT OF WATER

The method of treatment to be employed depends on the nature of available water and the desired
standards of water quality. The unit operations in water treatment constitute.
i. Screening
ii. Aeration
iii. Plain sedimentation
iv. Sedimentation aided with coagulation
v. Filtration
vi. Disinfection
vii. Softening
viii. Miscellaneous treatment such as fluoridation, recarbonation, Liming, desalination,
defluoridation, etc…..

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The complete purification of water is achieved by the following:

1. SCREENING: It is used to remove floating matter. This is accomplished just at the intake.
2. AERATION: This process is employed where element causing tastes and odour have to be
removed.
3. PLAIN SEDIMENTATION: In this process suspended impurities like silt, clay and sand etc
are removed.
4. SEDIMENTATION WITH COAGULATION: Fine suspended ad colloidal impurities and
some bacteria are removed.
5. FILTRATION: This process is employed to remove very fine particles and colloidal matter
which might have escaped from sedimentation process micro-organisms are largely removed
hence.
6. DISINEFCTION: To render safe against disease producing bacteria disinfection is necessary.
7. OTHER PROCESS: In order to make the water fit for a particular use, any special treatment
(tertiary) may be used such as
i) Softening: It is the process of removing excess calcium and magnesium salts. Although
hardness generally poses no threat , it causes scale formation in plumbing fixtures.
ii) Fluoridation and deflouridation: Fluoride has proved to be effective in reducing dental caries.
In case fluoride is present in excess it is removed to meet the standards of drinking water quality
by the process of defluoridation.

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2.2 SOURCES
All the sources of water can be broadly divided into,
 Surface sources and
 Sub surface sources
Surfaces sources
 Lakes and Streams
 Ponds
 Rivers
 Impounding reservoirs etc
Sub surface sources
 Infiltration galleries
 Infiltration wells
 Springs
 Wells &Tubewells (Borewells)

Natural ponds and lakes:

The quantity of water available from pond or lake is however generally small though they are not
considered as principal sources of water supply. It depends on the catchment area of the Lake
Basin, annual rainfall and geological formations. The quality of water in lake is generally good
and does not need much purification. Larger and older lakes however provide comparatively pure
water then smaller and new lakes. Self-purification of water due to sedimentation of suspended
matter bleaching of colour, etc… makes the lake water pure and better when compared to stream
or river waters.

Streams and rivers: The quantity or discharge of the streams is generally low, sometimes even
go dry in summer season. Therefore they may be considered as source of water supply only for
small villages. The quality of water in streams is normally good except the first runoff. But
sometimes runoff water while flowing over the ground is mixed with silt, clay, sand and other
mineral impurities. This can be removed in a sedimentation basin upto certain extent. Rivers are
formed when the discharge of large number of springs and streams. Combine together. Rivers
(Perennial) are the most important sources of water for public w.s.s. Therefore most of the cities
are situated on the banks of the rivers the rivers may be perennial or non-perennial (seasonal).
Perennial rivers flow throughout the year getting their waters during summer from snow and from
rain in winter. Perennial rivers may be considered as water supply sources directly where as non
perennial rivers can be used as public water supplies by providing storage barriers across these
rivers.

Impounded reservoirs: During summer the water which is flowing in the river may not be
sufficient to feed the town and on the other hand during rainy season it may be difficult to operate
due to flood waters. Therefore hydraulic structures are constructed across these river valleys
forming impounded reservoirs. The quality of water in these reservoirs is not much different from
that of lake water while top waters prove to develop algae, bottom layers of water may be high in
turbidity Co2, iron and manganese and on occasions H2S.
UNDER GROUND SOURCES (OR) SUB-SURFACE SOURCES

1. INFILTRATION GALLERIES

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Infiltration galleries are the horizontal or nearly horizontal tunnels constructed at shallow
depths (3 to 5 meters) along the banks of rivers through the water bearing strata. They are
sometimes called horizontal wells.
These galleries are generally constructed of masonry walls with roof slabs, and extract water
from the aquifer by various porous lateral drain pipes located at suitable intervals in the
gallery. These pipes are generally covered with gravel, so as to prevent entry of fine sand
particles into the pipes. These tunnels or galleries are generally laid at a slope and the water
collected in them is taken to a sump well from where it is pumped, treated and distributed to
the consumers. These infiltration galleries are quite useful when water is available in
sufficient quantity just below the ground level or so. The infiltration galleries may have width
of about 1m , depth of about 2m and length varying from 10m to as long as 100m, depending on
the extent of the water field. They are deeper than 6m below the ground level.

2. INFILTRATION WELLS
In order to obtain large quantity of water, the infiltration wells are sunk in series in the
banks of river. The wells are closed at top and open at bottom. They are constructed
by brick masonry with open joints for the purpose of inspection of well, the manholes
are provided in the top cover. The water filtrates through the bottom of such wells and
as it has to pass through sand bed, it gets purified to some extent. The infiltration well
in turn are connected by porous pipes to collecting sump called jack well and the
water thus collected through the infiltration wells flows by gravity into the jack well.
The water from jack well is pumped to the purification plant for treatment.

3. SPRINGS

When ground water appears at the surface for any reason , the springs are formed.
They serve as source of water supply for small towns, especially near hills or bases of hills.
Some springs discharge hot water due to the presence of sulphur and other minerals in their

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formations. These hot springs cannot be used to supply water for domestic purposes. But the
hot water is found to cure some of the human disorders.

Types of Springs.

 Artesian springs.
 Gravity springs.
 Surface springs.

 Artesian springs.
In this type of spring, the ground water comes to the surface under pressure. The
artesian spring may also be formed due to presence of crack in impervious layer. The
crack should be continued upto the ground surface.

 Gravity Springs

This type of spring develops due to overflowing of the water table .The flow from a
gravity spring is variable with the rise or fall of water table. In order to meet with such
fluctuations, a trench may be constructed near such a spring. The trench acts as a storage
reservoir.

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 Surface springs

This type of spring is formed when subsoil water is exposed to the ground surface by
the obstruction of an impervious layer. The quantity of water available from surface springs
is quite uncertain and the cut-off walls may be constructed to develop such springs.

4. Wells:

A well is defined as an artificial hole or pit made in the ground for the purpose of
tapping water. The holes made for tapping oil are also known as the wells. The chief source
of water supply for most of the population is wells and it is estimated that 75 to 85 percent of
indian population has to depend on wells for its water supply.
The 3 factors which form the basis of theory of wells are as follows.
 Geological conditions of the earths surface.
 Porosity of various layers and
 Quantity of water which is absorbed and stored in different layers.

The following are different types of wells

1. Shallow wells
2. Deep wells

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1. Shallow Wells:
The shallow wells are constructed in the uppermost layer of the earth’s surface.
The diameter of shallow wells varies from 2 to 6 meters. They may be lined or
unlined from inside. The lining is also called the steining and its thickness
varies from 300mm and 500mm. The unlined wells are generally constructed
upto a maximum depth of about 7 meters or so. These wells are also sometimes
referred to as the draw wells or gravity wells or open wells or dug wells or
percolation wells.

2. Deep wells:

The Deep wells obtain their quota of water from an aquifer below the impervious
layer as shown in fig. The theory of deep well is based on the travel of water from the
outcrop to the site of deep well. The outcrop is the place where aquifer is exposed to
the atmosphere. The rain water entered at outcrop and gets thoroughly purified when it
reaches to the site of deep well. But it dissolves certain salts and therefore become
hard. In such cases, some treatment would be necessary to remove the hardness of
water.

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Sampling:

We might imagine a satellite which could scan the earth’s surface and
provide a complete analysis of every part of the environment. This is, of course, in
the realm of science fiction. Instead, we must collect representative samples of a
small part of the environment in which we are interested, and analyze these to
provide information about the composition of the area. For example, it is obviously
impossible to analyze all the water in a lake, so portions of the water must be
collected and analyzed to determine the true concentrations of materials in the lake.
Similarly, to study contamination around a leaking underground gasoline tank,
numerous soil samples are needed to map the extent of the pollution.
We must keep in mind that only a small amount of sample (a few grams or
milliliters) is collected from a vast heterogeneous area. It is imperative that the
samples collected represent the environment as accurately as possible. Major
decisions are based on the results of the analyses. The steps involved in
environmental sampling are:
 Development of a sampling plan, including where and when samples will be
collected and the number of samples required.
 Collection of the samples.
 Preservation of samples during transportation and storage.

Grab sample: A grab sample is a discrete sample which is collected at a

specific location at a certain point in time. If the environmental medium varies
spatially or temporally, then a single grab sample is not representative and more
samples need to be collected.
Composite sample: A composite sample is made by thoroughly mixing
several grab samples. The whole composite may be measured or random samples
from the composites may be withdrawn and measured.
A composite sample may be made up of samples taken at different locations,
or at different points in time. Composite samples represent an average of several
measurements and no information about the variability among the original samples
is obtained. A composite of samples which all contain about the same
concentration of analyte can give a result which is not different from that obtained
with a composite made up of samples containing both much higher and much
lower concentrations. During compositing, information about the variability,
patterns, and trends is lost. When these factors are not critical, compositing can be
quite effective. When the sampling medium is very heterogeneous, a composite
sample is more representative than a single grab sample. For example, in a study of
the exposure to tobacco smoke in an indoor environment, a several hour composite
sample will provide more reliable information than several grab samples.

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Composite samples may be used to reduce the analytical cost by reducing

the number of samples. A composite of several separate samples may be analyzed
and if the pollutant of interest is detected, then the individual samples may be
analyzed individually. This approach can be useful for screening many samples. A
common practice, for example, in clinical laboratories screening samples for drug
abuse among athletes is to analyze a composite of about ten samples. If the
composite produces a positive result, then the individual samples are tested.
Integrated Sample: Sometimes samples are collected at the same location
but, due to horizontal or vertical variation in the composite of the river or lake,
they come from different points in the cross-section that are regarded with a
different relative importance. To evaluate the average composition, total load or
mass balance , integrated samples are collected, often in proportion to the river
flow of the areas of sample collection.

2.3. Water borne diseases

World health organization has observed that 80% of communicable diseases
that are transmitted through water. The diseases like cholera, gastroenteritis, typhoid,
amoebia, diarrhoea, polio, hepatitis (Jaundice) caused by bacteria. Excess of fluorides
present in water [above 1.5 mg/litre] cause diseases like dental flurosis,
sketetalflurosis. This is a permanent irresible disease that weakens the bone structure.
The patient becomes immobile and bedridden. Excess of nitrates in water causes
Mathaemoglobinaemia or blue baby symptoms in infants. It effects the hemoglobin in
the blood and reduces its capacity to transport oxygen to the cells. Nitrates in water
are caused by industrial effluents, agricultural runoff. Toxic ions of chromium, lead,
arsenic and pesticides in water cause diseases affecting the kidney, liver and high
blood pressure, paralysis, cancer etc. These toxic substances are due to industrial
effluents reaching the surface and ground water sources.

OBJECTS OR ADVANTAGES OF ANALYSIS OF WATER

1. By knowing the results of analysis, the outline of the treatment process may be framed.
2. Daily operation of the treatment plant is based on this analysis report.
3. To ascertain the quality of raw water to suggest the type of treatment to be given and the
degree of treatment necessary.
4. Water must also be analyzed at the end of the treatment to find out the efficiency or
performance of the treatment plant.

2.4.PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND EXAMINATIONS The various physical

characteristics and examinations are
i. Temperature
ii. Colour
iii. Turbidity
iv. Taste and odour

i)Temperature: The most desirable temperature for public water supply scheme is 100C.
Temperature above 260C are undesirable and above 370C are unfit for P.W.S.S. as they are not
palatable.

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ii)Colour: Colour in water is usually caused by the presence of organic matter in

colloidal and dissolved state. The colour can be measured by comparing the colour of water
sample with other standard glass tubes called NESLER‟S TUBES containing solutions of
different standard colour intensities. The standard unit of colour is that which is produced by one
milligram of platinum – cobaltus chloride dissolved in 1-litre of distilled water. For domestic
supplies the permissible limit is 20 colour units (CU) on platinum cobalt scale and should be
preferably less than to. For precise determination of small colour intensities, compact instrument
properly lighted from inside called TINTOMETER is used.

iii) Turbidity: It is the measure of inter frame given by insoluble process of soil
organics, micro-organisms and other materials for the passage of light through water the
standard unit is that which is produced by 1 milligram of finely divided silica in one litre of
distilled water the permissible limit of turbidity is 5 to 10 units on silica scale.

The turbidity may be measured in the laboratory by following instruments

i. Turbidity Rod
ii. Jackson’s Turbidity meter
iii. Nephelo Turbidity meter
iv. Baylis Turbidity meter
v. Hellige Turbidity meter

Turbidity rod :

Turbidity rod is used for measuring turbidity of water in the field. It consists of a
graduated aluminium rod, about 20.3 cm in length, at the upper end of which is
attached a graduated non-stretchable tape of about 12.2 cm long. At the lower end of
the aluminium rod, a screw containing a platinum needle and a nickel ring is inserted.
The graduated tape has a mark at its top end specifying the position of eye during the
test. In order to find the turbidity, the lower end of the rod is gradually immersed in
water whose turbidity is to be determined. Eye is kept constantly at the marked
position and the platinum needle is watched. The rod is moved slowly in water till the
platinum needle just disappears from the vision due to turbidity of water. The reading
of the graduated tape near the water surface directly gives turbidity in p.p.m. the rod
gives only rough value of the turbidity of water.

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Fig: Turbidity Rod

Jackson’s turbidity meter

It is the std. instrument for measuring turbidity. It essentially consists of a calibrated glass
tube, a metallic container tube (or holder), a standard candle and a metallic stand. The glass tube
is placed in the container and the candle or standard source of light is placed below the container.
The water sample B poured slowly in the glass tube until the outline of the candle flume is no
longer visible. Readings in terms of Jackson turbidity unit (JTU) are then taken directly from the
calibrated tube.

Fig:Jackson’s Turbidity meter

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iv) Taste and odour

The dissolved organic materials and inorganic salts or dissolved gases impart taste
and odours to the water but for the drinking water it must not contain any undesirable or
objectionable taste and odours. It is measured in terms of odours intensity which is related
with the threshold number. The Threshold number represents the dilution ration at which the
odours is hardly detectable. For domestic purpose the threshold odours number is limited
between 1 and 3.

CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND EXAMINATION

Chemical analysis of water is carried out in order to determine the chemical
characteristics of water. This involves tests for determining the total solids and suspended
solids , pH value , hardness , chlorine content , nitrogen content , iron , manganese, and other
metal contents, dissolved gases etc., These tests are described below:

i)Total solids and suspended soilds:

The total amount of solids present in water can be determined by evaporating a
sample of water and weighing the dry residue left. The suspended solids can be found by
filtering the water sample and weighing the residue left on the filter paper. The difference
between the total solids and the suspended solids will then represent nothing but the dissolved
solids.
The total permissible amount of solids in water is generally limited to 500 ppm ,
although higher amounts up to 1000rpm are also sometimes permitted , but likely to produce
certain psychological effects on human system.

ii)pH value :
pH value of water indicates the log of reciprocal of hydrogen ion concentration present in
water. It is thus indicator of the acidic and alkaline nature of water.

Since pH is the reciprocal of Log [H+] the higher values of pH means, lower [H+] ions
concentration and thus represents alkaline solutions, whereas the lower values of pH means
higher [H+] ion concentration and thus represents acidic solutions. Pure water is a balanced
combination of positively charged [H+] ions and negatively charged [OH-] ion concentration.
Therefore in water it has been found that the product of combinations of [H+] ion and
[OH-]ions in a water solution B constant. This constant has been found to be equal to 10-14
moles/lit. Therefore if [H+] ion and [OH-] ion concentrations are equal, virtually each will
have.

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pH value of water is generally determined by pH papers or by using pH meter.

pH can read directly on scale or by digital display using pH meter.

Measurement of pH:
pH measurement is important since it provides means of classifying and of
correlating other characteristics or behaviors such as corrosive activity or other
interrelated factors controlling biological function in a body of water. Its knowledge is
also helpful in controlling softening and coagulation processes in water treatment.
There are two methods of determing pH value of water: (i) Colourimetric method,
and (ii) Electrometric method

1. Colourimetric method
This is probably the most single method in which some indicator is added to the
water sample, and the colour of the solution of known pH value. These standard
colours may be in the form of coloured liquids in glass tubes, coloured glass discs or
coloured charts supplied by the manufacturers, with each indicator. For acidic range,
the common indicators are thymol blue (acid range) bromophenol blue, methyl red
and chlorophenol red. For alkaline range, the common indicators are thymol blue
(alkaline range), phenolphthalein red and toyl red.

2. Electrometric method
In this method, a pH meter is used. The specimen of water is kept in a beaker and the two
electrodes of the instrument are dipped in water connected to a dry cell. The current passing
through the circuit indicates the pH value which is read directly on the dial. The electrodes
commonly used are made of calomel, glass or quinhydrone. In some of the latest pH meters,
the pH value is displayed electronically on the dial, upto second decimal place of the value.

iii) Hardness Definition:

Hardness is the property of water which prevents the formation of lather or foam and needs
large quantities of soap”. It forms scales in not water pipes, heaters, boilers where the
temperature of water is increased. Hardness is of two types.

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1. Temporary hardness: It is caused due to the presence of carbonates and sulphates of

calcium and magnesium. It is removed by boiling.
2. Permanent hardness: It is caused due to the presence of chlorides and nitrates of calcium
and magnesium. It is removed by zeolite method.

Hardness is usually expressed in gm/litre or p.p.m. of calcium carbonate in water.

Hardness of water is determined by EDTA method. For potable water hardness
ranges from 5 to 8 degrees.

There are three methods of determining total hardness of water

a. Clarke‟s method
b. Hehner‟s method
c. Versenate method

Clarke‟s method
This method is based on the premise that hardness-producing substances react
with soap and form insoluble compounds before latter is produced. Hence total
hardness is found by determing the standard soap solution required to obtain a
permanent lather with the water sample of known volume with constant shaking. this
method has become obsolete.

Hehner‟s method
In this method the temporary hardness is determined by titration with a
standard solution of sulphuric acid, using methyl orange indicator. To determine the
permanent hardness, standard sodium carbonate solution is added to the water
sample and evaporated to dryness. The amount of sodium carbonate in excess over
that required to convert the sulphates and chlorides into carbonates gives the
permanent hardness.

Versenate method

In this method, hardness is determined by titrating against Di-

Ethlenediaminetetraciticacid solution using Eri -chrome black T as indicator at pH 8.5 to
11. For potable water, hardness is objectionable because (i) great deal of soap is
Required for washing clothes etc., (ii) scale is formed in boilers and hot water heating
Systems and
(iii) Corrosion and incrustation of pipe lines and plumbing fixtures is promoted.

iv) Chlorides:
The chloride contents, especially of sodium chloride or salt, are worked out for a
sample of water. The excess presence of sodium chloride in natural water indicates pollution
of water due to sewage, minerals, edible oils mill operations, ice cream plant effluents,
chemical industries, sea water intrusion in coastal regions. The water has lower contents of
salt than sewage due to the fact that salt consumed in food is excreted by body. For potable
water, the highest desirable level of chloride content is 250mg/ltr and its maximum
permissible level is 600mg/ltr. It may be noted that there is no known evidence to show that
the chlorides constitute any human health hazard. It is for this reason that the public water
sources containing chlorides as much as 2000mg/ltr of water are used for domestic purposes

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because such water does not develop any adverse effect once the human body gets adjusted to
such water.

v) Dissolved Gases:
The water contains various gases from its contact with the atmosphere and
ground surfaces. The usual gases are nitrogen, methane, hydrogen sulphide, carbon dioxide
and oxygen. The content of these gases is worked out below.

The nitrogen is not very important. The methane concentration is to be studied for its
explosive property. The hydrogen sulphide gives disagreeable odour to the water even if its
amount is very small. The carbon dioxide content indicates biological activities, causes
corrosion, increases the solubility of many minerals in water and gives taste to the water.
The oxygen in the dissolved state is obtained from atmosphere and pure natural surface water
is usually saturated with in.

vi) Metals and other chemical substances:

Water contains various minerals or metal substances such as iron, manganese,
copper, lead, barium, cadmium, selenium, fluoride, arsenic etc. The concentration of
iron and manganese should not allow more than 0.3 ppm. Excess will cause
discolouration of clothes during washing and incrustation in water mains due to
deposition of ferric hydroxide and manganese oxide. Lead and berium are very toxic,
low p.p.m of these are allowed. Arsenic, Selenium are poisonous, therefore they must
be removed totally. Human beings are effected by presence of high quality of copper
in the water. Fewer cavities in the teeth will be formed due to excessive presence of
fluoride in water more than 1 p.p.m. A laxative effect is caused in the human body due
to excessive presence of sulphate in the water.

vii) Nitrogen and its Compounds:

The nitrogen is present in water in the following forms:

a) Free ammonia
b) Albuminoid ammonia
c) Nitrites
d) Nitrates.

The free ammonia is measured by simply boiling the water. The ammonia gas is then
liberated. Concentrations of ammonia above a certain level in water polluted either
due to sewage or industrial waste is toxic to fish.
The amount of free ammonia in potable water should not exceed 0.15 p.p.m and that
of albuminoid ammonia should not exceed 0.3 p.p.m. The term albuminoid ammonia
is used to represent the quantity of nitrogen present in water before the decomposition
of organic matter has started.
The presence of nitrites indicates that the organic matter present in water is not fully
oxidized or in other words, it indicates an intermediate oxidation stage. The amount of
nitrites in potable water should be nil.

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The presence of nitrates indicates that the organic matter present in water is fully
oxidized and the water is no longer harmful. For potable water, the highest desirable
level of nitrates is 45 mg per litre.

Fluorides
Excessive fluoride ions in drinking water cause DENTAL FLUOROSIS or MOTLING OF
TEETH. On the other hand, communities whose drinking water contains no fluoride have a high
prevalence of dental caries optimum fluoride concentrations provided in public water supplies
generally in range of 1-1.5mg/lit reduce dental caries to a minimum without causing noticeable
dental fluorosis. Several fluoride compounds are used in treating municipal water all of these
dissociate readily yielding fluoride ions (fluoridation).

Bio-chemical oxygen demand

If sufficient oxygen is present in water, the useful aerobic bacteria production will
flourish and cause the biological decomposition of waste and organic matter, thereby
reducing the carbonaceous material from the water. The amount of oxygen required in
the process until oxidation gets completed is known as BOD. Polluted waters will
continue to absorb oxygen for many months, till the oxidation gets completed, and it
is not practically possible to determine this ultimate oxygen demand. Hence, the BOD
of water during the first five days at 200C is generally taken as the standard demand.
This is determined by mixing or diluting a known volume of a sample of raw water
with a known volume of pure water saturated with a known quantity of dissolved
oxygen (in mg/ltr) and incubating it for a period of five days at 200C . The dissolved
oxygen is measured after the period of incubation. The difference between the original
oxygen content and the residual oxygen content will indicate the oxygen consumed by
the water sample in five days. The BOD5 in ppm is then worked out by using the
equation:
BOD5=BOD of 5 days = loss of oxygen in mg/ltr X dilution factor or dilution ratio
This test is known as the dilution method.
If BOD of water is zero, it means that no oxygen is required and thus no organic
matter is present.

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

The amount of oxygen required for the chemical oxidation of organic matter by strong
oxidizing agent under acidic condition is known as COD.
To measure the content of organic matter of sewage and natural waters, the chemical oxygen
demand test is sometimes carried out. In COD test a strong chemical oxidizing agent is used
in an acidic medium and the oxygen equivalent of the organic matter that can be oxidized is
measured. The test is carried out with potassium dichromate at a high temperature. To
accelerate the oxidation of certain types of organic compounds are added. In general, it can
be stated that the COD of sewage is higher than its BOD. The limiting value of COD
generally specified by various authorities is 250 ppm or mg/ltr. The COD test can be carried
out to measure organic matter present in industrial wastes having toxic compounds likely to
interfere with the biological life. COD results can be obtained in 3- 4 hrs as compared to 3-

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5days required for BOD test. For typical domestic waste, the ratio of COD/BOD is found to
vary from 1.2 to 1.5. If it is greater than 3, the sewage is considered difficult to biodegrade
and for non-biodegradable sewage it exceeds 10.

2.6 BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND EXAMINATION SIGNIFICANCE OF

TERMS BACTERIA, E-coli and B - Coli Sewage contains many barn which are discharged
through excremental matter of intestines of man and warm blooded animals these organisms were
used to be called colon – bacilli and are known as coli forms. It is a full group of bacteria, but out
of them “ESCHIRICHIACOLI” (E – coli) are the most important The E-coli bacteria are
harmless organisms of coli form group, live longer in water than pathogenic bacteria, it is
generally presumed that the water will be safe and free from pathogens if no coli form bacteria
are present. The term BACTERIUM –COLI (B-coli) used to indicate a group of organisms that
include. The whole “Coli – aero gens” group. TEST OF BACTERIA.
The examination of water for the presence of bacteria is important for the water
supply engineer from the view point of public health. The bacteria may be harmless to
mankind or harmful to mankind. The former category is known as non-pathogenic
bacteria and the later category is known as pathogenic bacteria. Many of the bacteria
found in water are derived from air, soil and vegetation. Some of these are able to
multiply and continue their existence while the remaining die out in due course of
time. The selective medium that promote the growth of particular bacteria and inbuilt
the growth of other organisms is used in the lab to detect the presence of the required
bacteria, usually coliform bacteria. For bacteriological analysis the following tests are
done.

Plate count test

In this method total number of bacteria presents in a millitre of water is counted. 1 ml
of sample water is diluted in 99ml of sterilized water and 1ml of dilute water is mixed
with 10ml of agar of gelatine. This mixture is then kept in incubator at 37°C for 24
hours or 20°C for 48 hours. After the sample will be taken out from the incubator and
colonies of bacteria are counted by means of microscope. Drinking water should not
have more than 10 coliforms/100ml.

Multiple tube fermentation technique for coliform bacteria (MPN test):

In the multiple-tube method, a series of tubes containing a suitable selective broth
culture medium (lactose-containing broth, such as MacConkey broth) is inoculated
with test portions of a water sample. After a specified incubation time at a given
temperature, each tube showing gas formation is regarded as “presumptive positive”
since the gas indicates the possible presence of coliforms. However, gas may also be
produced by other organisms, and so a subsequent confirmatory test is essential. The
two tests are known respectively as the presumptive test and the confirmatory test. For
the confirmatory test, a more selective culture medium (brilliant green bile broth) is
inoculated with material taken from the positive tubes. After an appropriate incubation
time, the tubes are examined for gas formation as before. The most probable number
(MPN) of bacteria present can then be estimated from the number of tubes inoculated

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and the number of positive tubes obtained in the confirmatory test. Using specially
devised statistical tables. This technique is known as the MPN method.

Health significance of fluoride, nitrogen, Arsenic and lead

Fluoride ions have dual significant in water supplies. High concentration of Fluoride-
causes dental fluorosis (disfiguerment of the teeth). At the same time, a concentration
less than 0.8mg/L results in „dental caries‟. Hence, it is essential to maintain the
Fluoride-concentration between 0.8 to 1.0mg/L in drinking water. Among the many
methods suggested for the determination fluoride ion in water, the Colorimetric
method (SPANDS) and the ion selective electrode method are the most satisfactory
and applicable to variety of samples. Because all of the Colorimetric methods are
subject to errors due to presence of interfering ions, it may be necessary to distill the
sample before making the fluoride estimation. When the fluoride electrode is dipped
in sample whose concentration is to be measured, a potential is established by the
presence of fluoride ions by any modern pH meter having an expanded millivolt scale.

Nitrogen (Nitrate) (NO3-)

Determination of nitrate (NO3-) is difficult because of the relatively complex
procedures required, the high probability that interfering constituents will be present
and the limited concentration ranges of the various techniques. Nitrate is the most
highly oxidised form of nitrogen compounds commonly present in natural waters.
Significant sources of nitrate are chemical fertilizers, decayed vegetable and animal
matter, domestic effluents, sewage sludge disposal to land, industrial discharge,
leachates from refuse dumps and atmospheric washout. Depending on the situation,
these sources can contaminate streams, rivers, lakes and ground water. Unpolluted
natural water contains minute amounts of nitrate. Excessive concentration in drinking
water is considered hazardous for infants because of its reduction to nitrite
in intestinal track causing methemoglobinaemia. In surface water, nitrate is a
nutrient taken up by plants and converted into cell protein. The growth stimulation
of plants, especially of algae may cause objectionable eutrophication. Dissolved
organic matter, nitrite, hexavalent chromium and surfactants are interferences. The
latter three substances may be compensated for by independent analysis of their
concentrations and preparation of individual correction curves. Organic matter can
cause a positive but variable interference. The degree of interference depends on the
nature and concentration of the organic matter in the sample.

Arsenic (As)
Severe poisoning can arise from the ingestion of as little as 100mg of Arsenic
trioxide. Chronic effects may result from the accumulation of arsenic compounds in
the body at low intake levels. Carcinogenic properties also have been observed to
arsenic compounds. For the protection of aquatic life, the average concentration of
As3+ in water should not exceed 72μg/L. And maximum should not exceed
140μg/L. FAO- recommended max level for irrigation water is 100μg/L. USEPA

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water standard is 0.05mg/L. BIS desirable limit is 0.05mg As/L.

Although certain metals, viz. chromium, cobalt, copper, mercury, molybdenum,
nickel, platinum, silver, and selenium influence the generation of arsine, their
concentrations in water seldom are high enough to interfere. H2S interferes, but the
interference is removed with lead acetate. Antimony is reduced to stibine, which
forms a coloured complex with absorption maximum at 510nm and interferes with
the arsenic determination. Methylarsenic compounds are reduced at pH 1to
methylarsines, which form coloured complexes with the absorber solution. If
methylarsenic compounds are present, measurements of total arsenic and arsenate
are unreliable. Methyl arsenic compounds do not influence the results for arsenite.

Lead (Pb)
Lead in a water supply may come from industrial, smelter discharges and
mine or from the dissolution of plumbing and plumbing fixture. Tap water that are
inherently not corrosive or not suitably treated may contain lead resulting from an
attack on lead service pipes, lead interior plumbing, brass fixtures and fittings on
solder pipe joints chiefly from galena (PbS). It is used in batteries, ammunition,
solder, piping, pigments, insecticides and alloys. Lead also was used in gasoline for
many years as an anti-knock agent in the form of tetraethyl lead. The Food and drug
administration regulates lead content in food and in house paints. Under the
leadcopper
rule, the US EPA drinking water standard for lead is 15μg/L. The BIS
desirable limit is 0.05mg/L.

2.7 Drinking water standards BIS &WHO guidelines

Type of characteristics Type of Impurities Max. Permissible limit

PHYSICAL Turbidity 5-10mg/lit (Silica scale)
Colour 10-20units (colour no count
scale)
Taste and odour Threshold Number b/n 1-3
Temperature 100-160
CHEMICAL Total solids 500-1000mg/lit
PH value 6.6-8.0
Hardness 7-115mg/litre as Caco3
Chlorides 250mg/lit
Nitrate 45mg/lit
Fe(Iron) 0.3mg/lit
Manganese 0.05mg/lit
Lead (PB) 0.05-0.1mg/lit
Arsenic selenium chromium 0.05mg/lit
silver
Barium 1mg/lit
Cadmium 0.01mg/lit
Copper(Cu) 1-3mg/lit

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Zinc(Zn) 15mg/lit
Magnesuim 125mg/lit
Biological &microorganism Sulphate 200-400 250mg/lit 1-1.5mg/lit
Radiological Fluoride 0.5-1.15 0.2mg/lit Nil Not to exceed
Cyanide 1colony/100ml of water or
BOD Cali form bacteria MPN less than (1400)ml

2.8 OUTCOMES
1. Estimate average and peak water demand for a community.
2. Evaluate available sources of water, quantitatively and qualitatively and
make appropriate choice for a community.
3. Evaluate water quality and environmental significance of various parameters and plan
suitable treatment system.
Design a comprehensive water treatment and distribution system to purify and distribute
water to the required quality standards.
2.9 ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
1. What are the sources and sub sources of water? Explain the different types of
sources of water?
2. What are the objectives of water quality management?
3. What are water borne diseases?
4. What are the characteristics of water? Explain each characteristic in detail?
5. What is turbidity? Explain different types of turbidimeter?
6. What is pH? Explain the methods to calculate pH?
7. Explain microbiological characteristics of water?
2.10 FURTHER READING
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_engineering
2. https://www.slideshare.net/gauravhtandon1/environmental-engineering
3. https://books.google.co.in/books?isbn=1118169654

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