SUMMER TRAINING REPORT

ON

“SIGNAL ENGINEERING AND TELECOMMUNICATION”

(Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY)

NORTH CENTRAL RAILWAY,

KANPUR CENTRAL

SUBMITTED TO SUBMITTED BY:

MR. AMIT KUMAR KATIYAR APOORV NIGAM
MR. OMPAL CSJMA16001390078
MR. ATUL KUMAR AGNIHOTRI ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION
(Seminar In-charges)
ENGINEERING

U.I.E.T (C.S.J.M. UNIVERSITY ,KANPUR)

 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Apoorv Nigam of B.Tech, Electronics & Communication Engineering, IV
year has delivered his summer training seminar on “Railway Telecommunication” in a
successful and satisfactory manner under our guidance and supervision. This seminar report is
requirement for the partial fulfillment of his B.Tech course from U.I.E.T, C.S.J.M University,
Kanpur.

Er. Anand Gupta Er. Amit Kumar Katiyar

(Head of Department) Er. Ompal

Er. Atul Agnihotri

(Seminar In-charges)

(i)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The opportunity given to us by Indian Railways to learn and study about their signaling and
communication techniques over local area network and their state of the art devices and
telecommunication devices like modems, routers, batteries and their optical fiber network splicing
techniques will make a real difference in our engineering aptitude, knowledge and abilities.

I would like to thank all those who helped me by giving their valuable thoughts and information
without which it would have been difficult for me to complete this project. I am obliged and
honored in expressing the deep sense of gratitude to my training instructor Mr. A. K. SINGH,
Divisional Signal & Telecom Engineer, Kanpur Central Railway for his helpful guidance and
suggestion at all stages of this report.

Place: Kanpur Apoorv Nigam

B. TECH, 4th year
ECE 2K16

(ii)
 ABSTRACT

This report takes a pedagogical stance in demonstrating how results from theoretical electronics
science may be applied to yield significant insight into the behavior of the devices electronics
systems engineering practice seeks to put in place, and that this is immediately attainable with the
present state of the art.

The focus for this detailed study is provided by the type of solid state signaling and various
communication systems currently being deployed throughout mainline railways. Safety and
system reliability concerns dominate in this domain. With such motivation, two issues are
tackled: the special problem of software quality assurance in these data-driven control systems,
and the broader problem of design dependability. In the former case, the analysis is directed
towards proving safety properties of the geographic data which encode the control logic for the
railway interlocking; the latter examines the fidelity of the communication protocols upon which
the distributed control system depends.

(iii)
LIST OF CONTENTS: PAGE NO.
CERTIFICATE (i)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT (ii)

ABSTRACT (iii)

LIST OF FIGURES

1. INTRODUCTION OF INDIAN RAILWAYS 01

2. IMPORTANT FACTS ABOUT RAILWAYS 01

3. ELECTRIFICATION IN RAILWAYS 01

4. ORGANIZATION OVERVIEW 02
5. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN RAILWAY 03

6. INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION 03
6.1. WIRED COMMUNICATION 04
A. TWISTED PAIR WIRE 04
B. COAXIAL CABLE 04
C. OPTICAL FIBRE 05

6.2 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION 05

A. RADIO WAVES COMMUNICATION 06
B. MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION 06
C. SATELLITE COMMUNICATION 07
7. OPTICAL FIBRE 08
7.1. INTRODUCTION 08
7.2. PRINCIPLE OF OPTICAL FIBRE 09
7.3. INDEX OF REFLECTION 09
7.4. TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION 10
7.5. MODES OF OPTICAL FIBRE 11
A. SINGLE MODE FIBRE 11
B. MULTI-MODE OPTICAL FIBRE 12
7.6. OPTICAL SPLICING 13
A. MECHANICAL SPLICING 13
B. FUSION SPLICING 13

7.7. ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBRE 16

 7.8. DISADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBRE 17

7.9. APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBRE 18

8. EXCHANGE IN TELECOMMUNICATION 19

8.1. INTEGRATED SERVICE DIGITAL NETWORK (ISDN) 19

8.2. PLESIOCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY (PDH) 23

8.3. SYNCHRONOUS DIGITAL HEIRARCHY (SDH) 24

8.4. DSL TECHNOLOGY 27

9. CONTROL COMMUNICATION 28

9.1. TRACTION POWER CONTROL (TPC) 28

9.2. RAILWAY SIGNALING 28

9.3. COMMUNICATION BASED TRAIN CONTROL (CBTC) 29

10. DATA COMMUNICATION 30

10.1. OPEN SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION MODEL (OSI) 31

10.2. USES OF DATA COMMUNICATION 35

A. INTERACTIVE VOICE RESPONSE SYSTEM (IVRS) 35

B.PASSENGER RESERVATION SYSTEM (PRS) 36

C. COACH GUIDANCE SYSTEM 37

D.AUTO ANNOUNCEMENT SYSTEM 38

E. DISPLAY BOARD 38
 F. TOUCH SCREEN SYSTEM 39

G. TRAIN TIMING DISPLAY BOARD 39

H. DIGITAL CLOCKS 40

11. CONCLUSION 41

12. REFERENCES 42
LIST OF FIGURES: PAGE NO.

1. TWISTED PAIR WIRE 04

2. COAXIAL CABLE 05
3. OPTICAL FIBRE 05
4. SATELLITE COMMUNICATION 07
5. OPTICAL FIBRE 08
6. TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION 10
7. SINGLE MODE OPTICAL FIBRE 11
8. MULTIMODE OPTICAL FIBRE 12
9. MECHANICAL SPLICING 13
10. FUSION SPLICING 14
11. FUSION SPLICER 14
12. PLECIOCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY 23
13. RAIL SIGNALING 28
14. PROCESS OF OSI MODEL 34
15. PASSENGER RESERVATION SYSTEM 36
16. COACH GUIDANCE SYSTEM 37
17. DISPLAY BOARD 38
18. TRAIN TIMING DISPLAY BOARD 39
19. DIGITAL CLOCK 40
1. INTRODUCTION OF INDIAN RAILWAYS:
Indian Railways is an Indian state-owned enterprise, owned and operated by the Government of
India through the Ministry of Railways. It is one of the world's largest railway networks comprising
115,000 km of track over a route of 65,000 km and 7,500 stations. Railways were first introduced
to India in 1853 from Bombay to Thane. In 1951 the systems were nationalized as one unit, the
Indian Railways, becoming one of the largest networks in the world. Its operations cover 29 states
and 7 union territories of India and also provide limited international services to Nepal, Bangladesh
and Pakistan. Indian Railways, the premier transport organization of the country is the largest rail
network in Asia and the world's second largest under one management.

2. IMPORTANT FACTS ABOUT RAILWAY:

1. Total track kilometers: 108,706km.

2. Broad Gauge (1676mm): 86,526km.
3. Meter Gauge (1000mm): 18,529km.
4. Narrow Gauge (762/610mm): 3651km.
5. Total Route Kilometers: 63,028km.
6. Electrified Route: 23,541km.
7. Total trains run daily: 11,000 (7000 passenger and 4000 goods trains).
8. Computerized reservation system started in Delhi in 1986.

3. ELECTRIFICATION IN RAILWAY:

The advent of electrification of railways has not only made the railways cleaner and more eco-
friendly but also took a big leap towards energy conservation. With progressive replacement of
steam traction by diesel and electric traction, the energy consumption for goods services has come
down from 36.4 kg of coal equivalent per thousand gross ton kilometers (GTKM) in 1970 to 17.92
kg in 2001. As the expenditure on fuel is about 25% of working expenditure of the Indian railways,
its control is vital for the financial health of the organization. Electrification has also helped the
railways provide some basic passenger amenities. In the sixties, the lighting system was 24V. It
has been replaced by 110V system.

1
4. ORGANISATION OVERVIEW
5. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN RAILWAY:

Now, to further improve upon its services, the Indian Railways have embarked upon various
schemes, which are immensely ambitious. The railway has changed from meter gauge to broad
gauge and the people have given it a warm welcome. Now, there are the impressive-looking
locomotives that haul the 21st-century harbingers-the Rajdhanis and Shatabdis at speeds of 145
KMPH with all amenities and comfort. With these, the inconvenience of changing to a different
gauge en route to a destination will no longer be felt. The Research, Designing, and Standardizing
Organization at Lucknow- the largest railway research organization in the world- was constituted
in 1957. It is constantly devising improvements in the signaling systems, track design and layout,
coach interiors for better riding comfort and capacity, etc., along with improvements in
locomotives. Improvements are being planned by engineers.
The workshops of the railways too have been given new equipment to create sophisticated coaches
at Perambur and Kapurthala and diesel engine parts at Patiala. Locomotives are being made at
Chittaranjan and Varanasi. This is in sharp contrast to the earlier British conviction that only minor
repairs would be possible in India, so all spare parts including nuts and bolts for locomotives would
have to be imported from England. More trains and routes are constantly being added to the railway
network and services. The British legacy lives on in our railway system, transformed but never
forgotten. Long live the Romance of the Rails! The network of lines has grown to about 62,000
kilometers. But, the variety of Indian Railways is infinite. It still has the romantic toy trains on
narrow gauge hill sections, meter gauge beauties on other and broad gauge bonanzas as one visits
places of tourist interest courtesy Indian Railways! They are an acknowledgement of the Railways
that tourism as an industry has to be promoted and that India is full of unsurpassed beauty.

The Calcutta Metro is a fine example of highly complex engineering techniques being adopted to
lay an underground railway in the densely built-up areas of Calcutta city. It is a treat to be seen.
The Calcutta keep it so clean and tidy that not a paper is thrown around! It only proves the belief
that a man grows worthy of his superior possessions. Calcutta is also the only city where the Metro
Railway started operating from September 27, 1995 over a length of 16.45 km. There is also a
Circular Railway from Dum Dum to Prince Ghats covering 13.50 km to provide commuter trains.

3
6. INTRODUCTION OF COMMUNICATION:

The Communication Medium plays an important role in Networks. If the medium works well and
properly, then the speed of transferring data is good but if the medium is not working properly,
then your data would be delayed or would not be sent or even can be lost during transmission.
There are two types of communication medium: -
A. Wired communication
B. Wireless communication

6.1. WIRED COMMUNICATION:

Wired communication refers to the transmission of data over a wire based communication
technology. Wired communication is a broad term that is used to describe any type of
communication process that relies on the direct use of cables and wiring to transmit data. Wired
communication considered to the most stable of all types of communication services. They are
relatively impervious to adverse weather conditions. The wired network is mostly set up using
Ethernet cable. This can be done using 3 technologies.

A. TWISTED PAIR WIRE:

Twisted Pair is a transmission medium that uses two conductors that are twisted together to form
a pair. The concept for the twist of the conductors is to prevent interference. Ideally, each
conductor of the pair basically receives the same amount of interference, positive and negative,
effectively cancelling the effect of the interference.

Fig 1. Twisted Pair Wire

4
B. COAXIAL CABLE:

Coaxial cables same as twisted wire cables consists of two copper wire. But in this, the two wires
are concentric to each other. Coaxial cables has a wire conductor in the Centre, a circumferential
outer conductor known as foil shield and an insulating medium called the dielectric separating
these two conductors. The outer conductor is protected in an outer jacket. Coaxial cables with
this type of formation and special insulation and shielding, can achieve high data transmission
rates.

Fig 2. Coaxial Cable

C. OPTICAL FIBRE:

An optical fibre is a flexible, thin, transparent fibre made of high quality glass or plastic, slightly
thicker than a human hair. Fibre optics can generate high Data Rates, so these are used for long
distance communications that require high speed and least data loss. Optical fibres have no
electromagnetic interference and can process data at very high rates amounting to gigabytes per
second in speed. This makes long run data transfers feasible.

Fig 3. Optical Fibre

5
6.2 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION:

In wireless communication system, signals are propagated as electromagnetic waves through free
space. Wireless signals are transmitted by a transmitter, and received by a receiver. Wireless
systems are inexpensive because no wires need to be installed to transmit the signal, but wireless
transmissions are susceptible not only to EM interference, but also to physical interference.
Wireless communication system are of mainly following types.

A. RADIO WAVES COMMUNICATION:

Radio waves are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths greater than infrared radiations.
There frequency varies from as high as 300 GHz to as low as 3 KHz. They travel by speed of
light. Radio waves can be natural and artificial also. Natural Radio Waves occur due to lighting
and Artificial Radio waves are used in mobile, radio communication, radar systems etc. Radio
waves don’t need any physical medium to travel. They can penetrate through air, through walls
and windows and can be used to deliver long distances messages.

C. MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION:
Microwave transmission also requires line of sight in order to work properly. In order to
allow two way communications two frequencies are used. However, this does not mean that
there has to be two antennas because the frequencies can be dealt with by one antenna at both
ends. The distance covered by microwave signals is based upon the height of the antenna. In
order to increase this coverage each antenna has a built-in repeater that regenerates the signal
before passing it on to the next antenna in line. The placement of the antenna to do this is
approximately 25 miles. The main drawback of microwave signals is that they can be affected
by weather, especially rain.

D. SATELLITE COMMUNICATION:

A communication satellite links two or more transmitter or receiver that are situated on Earth,
called as Ground Stations. The satellite receives the message or transmission on one frequency
band, reproduce the signal using a repeater and transmits the signal or the message on another
frequency.

6
Fig 4. Satellite Communication

7
7. OPTICAL FIBRES:

7.1. INTRODUCTION:

Optical fibres are very fine long glass fibres which allow light signals to travel through. They are
made of silica or silicon dioxide. To produce the fibres, malted solution of silica or silicon dioxide
with other materials such as arsenic, quartz etc. An optical fibre is a flexible, transparent fibre
made by drawing glass (silica) or plastic to a diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair.
Optical fibres are used most often as a means to transmit light between the two ends of the fibres
and find wide usage in fibre-optic communications, where they permit transmission over longer
distances and at higher bandwidth than wire cables. Fibres are used instead of metal wires because
signals travel along them with lesser amounts of loss; in addition, fibres are also immune to
electromagnetic interference.

Fig.5 Optical Fibre

Optical fibres typically include a transparent core surrounded by a transparent cladding material
with a lower index of refraction. Light is kept in the core by the phenomenon of total internal
reflection which causes the fibre to act as a waveguide. Optical fibre can be used as a medium for
telecommunication and computer networking because it is flexible and can be bundled as cables.
An optical fibre is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide made of low-loss materials such as silica
glass. It has a central core in which the light is guided, embedded in an outer cladding of slightly
lower refractive index.

8
7.2. PRINCIPLE OF OPTICAL FIBRE:

An optical fibre is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide (non-conducting waveguide) that transmits

light along its axis, by the process of total internal reflection. The fibre consists of a core
surrounded by a cladding layer, both of which are made of dielectric materials. To confine the
optical signal in the core, the refractive index of the core must be greater than that of the cladding.
The boundary between the core and cladding may either be abrupt, in step-index fibre, or gradual,
in graded-index fibre.

7.3. INDEX OF REFLECTION:

The index of refraction (or refractive index) is a way of measuring the speed of light in a material.
Light travels fastest in a vacuum, such as in outer space. The speed of light in a vacuum is about
300,000 kilometres (186,000 miles) per second. The refractive index of a medium is calculated by
dividing the speed of light in a vacuum by the speed of light in that medium. The refractive index
of a vacuum is therefore 1, by definition. A typical single mode fibre used for telecommunications
has a cladding made of pure silica, with an index of 1.444 at 1,500 nm, and a core of doped silica
with an index around 1.4475. The larger the index of refraction, the slower light travels in that
medium. From this information, a simple rule of thumb is that a signal using optical fibre for
communication will travel at around 200,000 kilometres per second. To put it another way, the
signal will take 5 milliseconds to travel 1,000 kilometres in fiber. Thus a phone call carried by
fiber between Sydney and New York, a 16,000-kilometer distance, means that there is a minimum
delay of 80 milliseconds (about 1/12 of a second) between when one caller speaks and the other
hears. The fibre in this case will probably travel a longer route, and there will be additional delays
due to communication equipment switching and the process of encoding and decoding the voice
onto the fibre.

9
7.4. TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION:

When light traveling in an optically dense medium hits a boundary at a steep angle (larger than the
critical angle for the boundary), the light is completely reflected. This is called total internal
reflection. This effect is used in optical fibres to confine light in the core. Light travels through the
fibre core, bouncing back and forth off the boundary between the core and cladding. Because the
light must strike the boundary with an angle greater than the critical angle, only light that enters
the fibre within a certain range of angles can travel down the fibre without leaking out. This range
of angles is called the acceptance cone of the fibre. The size of this acceptance cone is a function
of the refractive index difference between the fibre's core and cladding.

Fig 5. Total Internal Reflection

In simpler terms, there is a maximum angle from the fibre axis at which light may enter the fibre
so that it will propagate, or travel, in the core of the fibre. The sine of this maximum angle is the
numerical aperture (NA) of the fibre. Fibre with a larger NA requires less precision to splice and
work with than fibre with a smaller numerical aperture. Single-mode fibre has a small numerical
aperture.

10
7.5. MODES OF OPTICAL FIBRE:

There are two types of mode in optical fibre. These modes define the way the wave travels through
space, i.e. how the wave is distributed in space. Fibre optic cables can carry signals in a single
direction. Data is sent from one end of the cable and receives on the other end. Data signal is sent
using a LED or by using lasers. In order to send and receive signals to complete the round, we
need to have two strands of cables. Light signals are turned on and off in order to transmit data.
Different types of fibre optic cables are available. The two types of cable usually used are as
follows:

A. SINGLE MODE FIBRE:

A single-mode optical fibre (SMF) is an optical fibre designed to carry light only directly down
the fibre in the transverse mode. In single-mode fibres, where we can have waves with different
frequencies, but of the same mode, which means that they are distributed in space in the same way,
and that gives us a single ray of light. Although the ray travels parallel to the length of the fibre, it
is often called transverse mode. A typical single mode optical fibre has a core diameter between 8
and 10.5 µm and a cladding diameter of 125 µm.

Fig 7. Single Mode Fibre

11
B. MULTI-MODE OPTICAL FIBRE:

Multi-mode optical fibre is a type of optical fibre mostly used for communication over short
distances, such as within a building or on a campus. Typical multimode links have data rates of 10
Mbit/s to 10 Gbit/s over link lengths of up to 600 meters more than sufficient for the majority of
premises applications. Multi-mode fibres are described by their core and cladding diameters. Thus,
62.5/125 µm multi-mode fibre has a core size of 62.5 µm and a cladding diameter of 125 µm. The
transition between the core and cladding can be sharp, which is called a step-index profile, or a
gradual transition, which is called a graded-index profile.

Fig 8. Multimode Optical Fibre

Multimode fibre optic cable has a large diametric core that allows multiple modes of light to
propagate. Because of this, the number of light reflections created as the light passes through the
core increase, creating the ability for more data to pass through at a given time. Because of the
high dispersion and attenuation rate with this type of fibre, the quality of the signal is reduced over
long distances. The advantage of this type of cable is that we can transmit two or more signals
using a single fibre. The disadvantage of this type of cable is that data cannot be transmitted over
long distances using this cable. Since two or more signals are transmitted using one fibre, the
transmission speed is less than single mode optic fibre cable.

12
7.6. OPTICAL SPLICING:

Fibre splicing is the permanently joining two fibres together. Connecting two fibre-optic
cables requires precise alignment of the mated fibre cores or spots in a single-mode fibre-optic
cable. This is required so that nearly all the light is coupled from one fibre-optic cable across a
junction to the other fibre-optic cable. Actual contact between the fibre-optic cables is not even
mandatory. There are two principal types of splices:
A. Mechanical Splicing
B. Fusion Splicing.

A. MECHANICAL SPLICING:

A mechanical splice is a junction of two or more optical fibres that are aligned and held in place
by a self-contained assembly. Mechanical splices generally have higher loss and greater
reflectance because the fibres are crimped to hold them in place, do not have as good fibre retention
or pull-out strength. The splice component itself, which includes a precision alignment mechanism,
is more expensive.

Fig.9 Mechanical Splicing

Mechanical splices are most popular for fast, temporary restoration or for splicing multimode
fibres in a premises installation. The advantage of mechanical splices is they do not need an
expensive machine to make the splices. A relatively simple cleaver and some cable preparation
tools are all that's needed.

13
B. FUSION SPLICING:

Fusion splicing is the act of joining two optical fibres end-to-end using heat. The goal is to fuse
the two fibres together in such a way that light passing through the fibres is not scattered or
reflected back by the splice. The source of heat is usually an electric arc, but can also be a laser,
or a gas flame, or a tungsten filament through which current is passed.

Fig.10 Fusion Splicing

Fusion splicing is the most widely used method of splicing as it provides for the lowest loss and
least reflectance, as well as providing the strongest and most reliable joint between two fibres.
Fusion is done by Fusion splicer. The fibre ends are prepared, cleaved, and placed in alignment
fixtures on the fusion splicer. At the press of a button, the fibre ends are heated with electrodes,
brought together and fused.

Fig 11. Fusion Splicer

14
7.7. PROCESSES OF FUSION SPLICING:

Fusion splicing procedures comprise of:

A. Fitting of fibre protection sleeve

The fibre protection sleeve is used to protect optical fibres exposed at the splice. Make sure that
one of the optical fibres is passed through the protection sleeve before fusion splicing.

B. Removal of cover layers

Using a jacket remover, remove the cover layers to expose the fibre glass. After cover layer
removal, off-cuts are present in the jacket remover. Remove off-cuts from the jacket remover and
clean the blade. To remove cover layers from a fibre ribbon, use a heated jacket remover. For
successful removal, warm the cover layers for about 5 seconds before removal.

C. Fibre cleaning
After cover layer removal, clean the fibre glass with Isopropyl alcohol. Debris of cover layers if
remaining on the fibre glass can cause poor concentricity in fusion splicing or increased splice
loss. Clean the glass fibre thoroughly. In the case of a multi-fibre cable, fibre ends may stick
together due to alcohol, causing defective cleaving of fibres. Flip lightly with a finger to spread
out the fibres.

D. Fibre cleaving
Follow the optical fibre cleaver operating procedure to cut the fibre. The loss characteristic of a
fusion splice depends on the cleaving. To reduce cleaving defects, clean the fibre holder and blade
of optical fibre cleaver on a regular basis. Keep the cleaved end of an optical fibre away from an
object including your fingers to eliminate the causes of defective splices.

E. Fusion splicing
Fusion-splice optical fibres following the operation manual of the fusion splicer. Dirt in the V-
grooves or clamp of a fusion splicer can cause an unusual light loss due to poor concentricity.
Clean the fusion splicer thoroughly.

F. Splice reinforcing

Cover the optical fibre splice with the fibre protection sleeve. Reinforce the fibre with the sleeve
on the heater. Avoid bending or twisting the fibre when moving it so as not to break the fibre.
Position the fibre protection sleeve so that its midpoint is close to the centre of the splice. When
placing the reinforcement, make sure that the glass fibre is straight.
15
7.8. ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBRE:

A. WIDER BANDWIDTH:

The information carrying capacity of a transmission system is directly proportional to the

carrier frequency of the transmitted signals. The optical carrier frequency is in the range
1013 to 1015 Hz while the radio wave frequency is about 106 Hz and the microwave
frequency is about 1010 Hz. Thus the optical fiber yields greater transmission bandwidth
than the conventional communication systems and the data rate or number of bits per
second is increased to a greater extent in the optical fiber communication system. Further
the wavelength division multiplexing operation by the data rate or information carrying
capacity of optical fibers is enhanced to many orders of magnitude.

B. LOW TRANSMISSION LOSS:

Due to the usage of the ultra-low loss fibers and the erbium doped silica fibers as optical
amplifiers, one can achieve almost lossless transmission. In the modern optical fiber
telecommunication systems, the fibers having a transmission loss of 0.002 dB/km are used.
Further, using erbium doped silica fibers over a short length in the transmission path at
selective points, appropriate optical amplification can be achieved. Thus the repeater
spacing is more than 100 km. Since the amplification is done in the optical domain itself,
the distortion produced during the strengthening of the signal is almost negligible.

16
 C. DIELECTRIC WAVEGUIDE:

Optical fibers are made from silica which is an electrical insulator. Therefore they do not
pickup any electromagnetic wave or any high current lightning. Further the optical fibers
are not affected by any interference originating from power cables, railway power lines and radio
waves. There is no cross talk between the fibers even though there are so many fibers in a cable
because of the absence of optical interference between the fibers.

D.SIGNAL SECURITY:
The transmitted signal through the fibers does not radiate. Further the signal cannot be tapped
from a fiber in an easy manner. Therefore optical fiber communication provides hundred per cent
signal security.

E.SMALL SIZE AND WEIGHT:

Fiber optic cables are developed with small radii, and they are flexible, compact and
lightweight. The fiber cables can be bent or twisted without damage. Further, the optical
fiber cables are superior to the copper cables in terms of storage, handling, installation and
transportation, maintaining comparable strength and durability.

7.9 DISADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBRE:

A. PRICE:

Even though the raw material for making optical fibres, optical fibres are still more expensive per
meter than copper. Although one fibre can carry many more signals than a single copper cable and
larger transmission distances mean fewer repeaters are required.

B.F RAGILITY:

Optical fibres are more fragile than electrical wires.

1. AFFECTED BY CHEMICAL: The glass can be affected by various chemicals

including hydrogen gas (a problem in underwater cables).

2. REQUIRE SPECIAL SKILLS: Optical fibres cannot be joined together as easily as a

copper cable and requires skilled personnel.

17
7.10 APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBRE:

A. COMMUNICATION:

Optical fibre can be used as a medium for telecommunication and computer networking because
it is flexible and can be bundled as cables. It is especially advantageous for long-distance
communications, because light propagates through the fibre with little attenuation compared to
electrical cables. This allows long distances to be spanned with few repeaters. The per-channel
light signals propagating in the fibre have been modulated at rates as high as 111 gigabits per
second (Gbit/s) by NTT, although 10 or 40 Gbit/s is typical in deployed systems. In June 2013,
researchers demonstrated transmission of 400 Gbit/s over a single channel using 4-mode orbital
angular momentum multiplexing. Each fibre can carry many independent channels, each using a
different wavelength of light (wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)).This is because a single
fibre can carry much more data than electrical cables such as standard category 5 Ethernet cabling,
which typically runs at 100 Mbit/s or 1 Gbit/s speeds. Fibre is also immune to electrical
interference; there is no cross-talk between signals in different cables, and no pickup of
environmental noise. Non-armoured fibre cables do not conduct electricity, which makes fibre a
good solution for protecting communications equipment in high voltage environments.

B. SENSOR:

Fibres have many uses in remote sensing. In some applications, the sensor is itself an optical fibre.
Depending on the application, fibre may be used because of its small size, or the fact that no
electrical power is needed at the remote location, or because many sensors can be multiplexed
along the length of a fibre by using different wavelengths of light for each sensor, or by sensing
the time delay as light passes along the fibre through each sensor. Time delay can be determined
using a device such as an optical time-domain reflectometer. Optical fibres can be used as sensors
to measure strain, temperature, pressure and other quantities by modifying a fibre. Extrinsic fibre
optic sensors use an optical fibre cable, normally a multi-mode one, to transmit modulated light
from either a non-fibre optical sensor—or an electronic sensor connected to an optical transmitter.

C. POWER TRANSMISSION:

Optical fibre can be used to transmit power using a photovoltaic cell to convert the light into
electricity. While this method of power transmission is not as efficient as conventional ones,
it is especially useful in situations where it is desirable not to have a metallic conductor as in
the case of use near MRI machines, which produce strong magnetic fields.

18
EXCHANGE IN TELECOMMUNICATION:

8.1. INTEGRATED SERVICE DIGITAL NETWORK (ISDN):

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is comprised of digital telephony and data-transport
services offered by regional telephone carriers. ISDN involves the digitization of the telephone
network, which permits voice, data, text, graphics, music, video, and other source material to be
transmitted over existing telephone wires. The emergence of ISDN represents an effort to
standardize subscriber services, user/network interfaces, and network and internetwork
capabilities. ISDN applications include high-speed image applications, additional telephone lines
in homes to serve the telecommuting industry, high-speed file transfer, and videoconferencing.
Voice service is also an application for ISDN.

ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system, which also provides access to packet
switched networks, designed to allow digital transmission of voice and data over ordinary
telephone copper wires, resulting in potentially better voice quality than an analog phone can
provide. It offers circuit-switched connections (for either voice or data), and packet-switched
connections, in increments of 64 kbit/s. A major market application for ISDN in some countries is
Internet access, where ISDN typically provides a maximum of 128 kbit/s in both upstream and
downstream directions.

Integrated services refers to ISDN's ability to deliver at minimum two simultaneous connections,
in any combination of data, voice, video, and fax, over a single line. Multiple devices can be
attached to the line, and used as needed. Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited, Reliance
Communications and Bharti Airtel are the largest communication service providers, and offer both
ISDN BRI and PRI services across the country.

This constitutes of-

❖
INTEGRETED SERVICE
O refers to ISDN’s ability to deliver two simultaneous connections, in any
combination of data, voice, video and fax over a single line. Multiple devices can
be attached to the line and used as needed. That means an ISDN line can take care
of most people’s complete communication needs, without forcing the purchase of
multiple analog phone lines at a much higher transmission rate.

19
 ❖
DIGITAL

O refers to its end-to-end digital transmission, as opposed to the analog transmission

of plain old telephone service. ISDN transmits data digitally, resulting in a very
clear transmission quality.
❖
NETWORK

O refers to the fact that ISDN is not simply a point-to-point solution like a leased line.
ISDN networks extend from the local telephone exchange to the remote user and
include all of the telecommunications and switching equipment in between. If the
ISDN equipment includes analog capabilities, we can also connect to analog
modems, fax machines and telephones, even though they may be connected to plain
telephone service.

ISDN supports data transfer rates of 64Kbps. Most ISDN lines offered by telephone
companies give two lines at once, called Bearer channels or B- channels. The user
can use one line for data and other for voice, or can use both the lines for data to
provide data rates of 128Kbps. Some switches limit the B channels to a capacity of
56Kbps. A data channel (D channel) handles signaling low-speed packet mode data
transfer at 16Kbps or 64Kbps, depending on ISDN link location.

ISDN SERVICES: BRI AND PRI

There are two basic types of ISDN interfaces:

❖
Basic Rate Interface (BRI)

Primary Rate interface (PRI).

used for analog telephones .Numerous ISDN devices can connect to this single line.

The BRI line provides two types of ISDN communication channels

❖
Two “bearer service” B-channels which carry data services at 64 kbps (or 2B-channels
i.e. 128 kbps) and

20
 ❖
A single 16 kbps D-channel which usually carries signaling and administrative
information used to set up and terminate calls.

ADVANTAGES OF ISDN

❖
SPEED:
The modem was a big breakthrough in computer communications. It allowed
computers to communicate by converting their digital information into analog
signals which could travel through the public phone network. There is an upper
limit to the amount of information that an analog telephone line can hold. Currently
it is about 56Kbps. Commonly available modems have a maximum speed of 56
Kbps, but are limited by the quality of analog connection and actual speed goes to
45 Kbps. ISDN is a replacement of plain old telephone service. ISDN allows
multiple digital channels to be operated simultaneously through the same regular
phone wiring used for analog lines. The main advantage here is that the telephone
company’s switch can support digital connections. Therefore, the same physical
wiring can be used, but a digital signal, instead of an analog signal is transmitted
across the line.
❖
MULTIPLE DEVICES:
O Before the advent of ISDN, it was necessary to have a separate phone line for each
device that had to be used simultaneously. One line each was required for
telephone, fax, computer, bridge/router and live video conferencing system.
Transferring a file to someone while talking on the phone or seeing their live picture
on a video screen would require several potentially expensive phone lines. With
ISDN it has become possible to combine many different digital data sources and
have the information routed to the proper destination. Since the line is digital, it is
easier to reduce the noise and interference while combining these signals.

❖
SIGNALLING:

O It provides a dedicated signal of channel which is common to all B-channels: this

is called
common channel signaling. Instead of Phone Company sending a ring voltage
signal to ring the bell on the phone “In Band signal”, it sends a digital packet on a
separate channel “Out of Band signal”. The out-of-band signal does not disturb
established connections, and call setup time is very fast.

21
ISDN APPLICATIONS

❖
INTERNET ACCESS:
O This is one of the most popular applications of ISDN. Compared with even the
fastest modem access, ISDN makes Web graphics appear almost immediately and
can reduce download times by over 75%. ISDN can even provide advantages over
shared, higher-bandwidth office connections.
❖
TELEPHONY:
O ISDN provides two exceptionally clear, all digital connections per BRI line.
Connections are established in 2 to 4 seconds, versus the 10 to 30 seconds required
for analog telephone connections. The digital ISDN telephone sets include
microprocessors that can drive features unavailable in regular telephones, such as
automated call-back and direct links to computer-based call centre applications.

❖
TELECOMMUNICATION:.

O ISDN has made telecommuting a reality. With a single ISDN line and an ISDN
adapter, telephone, and fax machine, remote professionals can enjoy the same
communication capabilities as office-bound workers. Because of the high
transmission speed, ISDN succeeds in making remote LAN access seem very much
like being locally attached to the LAN. Because a single ISDN line can carry
simultaneous data and analog communications, such as telephone calls and faxes,
one line can turn the home desktop into an efficient, cost-effective communications
center.
❖
VIDEO CONFERENCING:

O ISDN also supports videoconferencing. One channel is used for voice and other
channel is
used for display of moving video communicate face-to-face with each other. Video
conferencing is an emerging ISDN application that’s growing faster in popularity
and ISDN is currently the only practical way of making it happen.

22
8.2 PLESIOCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY (PDH):

The term plesiochronous means "nearly synchronous". PDH supports a data transmission rate of
2048 Kbps. The data rate is controlled by a clock in the device that generates the data. The
plesiochronous digital hierarchy is a telecommunications network transmission technology
designed for the transport of large data volumes across large scale digital networks. The PDH
design allows the streaming of data without having isochronous to synchronize the signal
exchanges. PDH clocks are running very close, but not exactly in time with one another so that
when multiplexing, signal arrival times may differ as the transmission rates are directly linked to
the clock rate. PDH allows each stream of a multiplexed signal to be bit stuffed to compensate
for the timing differences so that the original data stream could be reconstituted exactly as it was
sent.

PDH allows transmission of data streams that are nominally running at the same rate, but allowing
some variation on the speed around a nominal rate. Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) was
the standard originally for telephone networks. PDH uses time division multiplexing. It was also
designed to support digital voice channels running at 64kbps, was designed to use a No Store and
Forward method which puts a strict restriction between the Transmitter (TX) and the Receiver
(RX). PDH networks evolved, as isolated links connecting analog switching systems for Public
Switched Telephone Networks.

Different standards were used in PDH which made it difficult to connect different networks. The
figure below shows the different hierarchy adopted in PDH for US and Europe. However, India
has adopted European hierarch.

23
E- Hierarchy (Europe, India)
LEVE LINE VOIC SPEEC MAINTA
L ORDER RATE E H IN SIGNAL
CHANN
EL
(IN Mbps)
E1 1st 2.048 32 30 1 1
E2 2nd 8.448 128 120 4 4
E3 3rd 34.000 512 480 16 16
E4 4th 140.000 2048 920 64 64
E5 5th 565.000 8192 7680 256 256

T- Hierarchy
(U.S.):

LEVEL ORDER LINE RATE CHANNEL

(In Mbps)
T
1 1st 1.544 24
T
2 2nd 6.312 96
T
3 3rd 45.000 672
T
4 4th 118.000 2688
T
5 5th 565.000 8064

24
LIMITATIONS OF PDH:

1) PDH is not flexible:

2) It is inefficient:
3) Lack of performance
4) Inefficiency in high bandwidth connections
5) PDH doesn’t support Hub.
6) Tolerance is allowed in bit rates.
7) PDH allows only Point-to-Point configuration.

8.3. SYNCHRONOUS DIGITAL HEIRARCHY (SDH):

Synchronous Digital Hierarchy is a standard technology for synchronous data transmission on

optical media. Synchronous Digital Hierarchy are standardized protocol that transfer multiple
digital bit streams synchronously over optical fibre using lasers or highly coherent light from
LED’s. At low transmission rates data can also be transferred via an electrical interface. The
method was developed to replace the Plesiochronous digital Hierarchy system for transporting
large amounts of telephone calls and data traffic over the same fibre without synchronization
problems.SDH was originally designed to transport circuit mode communication from a variety
of different sources, but they were primarily designed to support real time, uncompressed,
circuit-switched voice encoded in PCM format.

PAYLOD BANDWIDTH SPEECH CHANNELS

STM 1 155.520 Mbps 1890

STM 4 622.080 Mbps 7560

STM 16 2488.320 Mbps 30240

STM 64 9953.280 Mbps 120960

STM 256 39813.120 Mbps 483840

25
ADVANTAGES OF SDH:

• A more simplified multiplexing and de-multiplexing technique.

• Synchronous networking and SDH supports multipoint networking.
• Capability of transporting existing PDH signals.

• Easy growth to higher bit rates which enhances the administration and maintenance
process.

• It’s capable of transporting broadband signals.

• It’s multivendor and supports different operators.

• It provides network transport services on LAN such as video conferencing,

and interactive multimedia.

• Optical fibre bandwidth can be increased without limit in SDH.

• Switching protection to traffic is offered by rings.

8.4. DSL TECHNOLOGY:

The range of DSL technologies is quite broad, and this breadth can be somewhat confusing
to the uninitiated. This section briefly describes the different types of DSL technology that
have been developed or are currently under development. Much of this development has
taken place in various regional and global standards committees, for example, ANSI
committee T1E1.4 (Digital Subscriber Loop Access), ETSI Working Group TM6
(Transmission and Multiplexing), and ITU-T Study Group 15/Question 4, as well as in-
industry forums such as the DSL Forum.

In simple terms, DSL technologies can be subdivided into two broad classes:

❖
SYMMETRIC:

Within this class, the data rate transmitted in both directions (downstream and
upstream) is the same. This is a typical requirement of business customers.

26
❖
ASYMMETRIC:

In this case, there is asymmetry between the data rates in the downstream and upstream
directions, with the downstream data rate typically higher than the upstream (usually
appropriate for applications such as Web browsing). This division is quite crude however,
and, to confuse matters, some of the various technologies are capable of both asymmetric
and symmetric operation. To further complicate things, many DSL systems are capable of
multi-rate operation, which adds a further dimension of variability.

27
9. CONTROL COMMUNICATION:

9.1. TRACTION POWER CONTROL (TPC):

Railway electrification as a means of traction emerged at the end of the nineteenth century.
Electrical traction offered several benefits over the then predominant steam traction, particularly
in respect of its quick acceleration and power .Traction Power Control, control 25 kV power supply
for electric traction and shall be fully acquainted with all the traction power supply installations,
and sectionalizing arrangements. Traction Power Control maintain continuous contact with the
Power Supply Authorities and also maintain continuous contact with the Traffic Section
Controllers in regard to power supply affecting train movements, imposition of power blocks etc.
A Traction Power Control, is a typically function of the electronic stability control (ESP) on
railway.

9.2 RAILWAY SIGNALING:

Railway signaling engineers face a difficult distributed control problem. Train drivers can know
little of the overall topology of the network through which they pass, or of the whereabouts of
other trains in the network and their requirements. Safety is therefore invested in the control
system, or interlocking, and drivers are required only to obey signals and speed limits. The task of
the train dispatcher (signalman, or signal operator) is to adjust the setting of switches and signals
to permit or inhibit traffic flow, but the interlocking has to be designed to protect the operator from
inadvertently sending trains along conflicting routes.

Fig 13. Rail Signaling

28
9.3. COMMUNICATION BASED TRAIN CONTROL (CBTC):

A CBTC system is a continuous, automatic train control system utilizing high-resolution train
location determination, independent of track circuits. Communications-based train control
(CBTC) is a railway signaling system that makes use of the telecommunications between the train
and track equipment for the traffic management and infrastructure control.

In the modern CBTC systems the trains continuously calculate and communicate their status via
radio to the wayside equipment distributed along the line. This status includes, among other
parameters, the exact position, speed, travel direction and braking distance. This information
allows calculation of the area potentially occupied by the train on the track. It also enables the
wayside equipment to define the points on the line that must never be passed by the other trains
on the same track. These points are communicated to make the trains automatically and
continuously adjust their speed while maintaining the safety and comfort requirements. So, the
trains continuously receive information regarding the distance to the preceding train and are then
able to adjust their safety distance accordingly.

CBTC systems allow optimal use of the railway infrastructure as well as achieving maximum
capacity and minimum headway between operating trains, while maintaining the safety
requirements. CBTC systems normally have less wayside equipment and their diagnostic and
monitoring tools have been improved, which makes them easier to implement and, more
importantly, easier to maintain. CBTC technology is evolving, making use of the latest techniques
and components to offer more compact systems and simpler architectures. A CBTC system is a
"continuous, automatic train control system utilizing high-resolution train location determination,
independent of track circuits; continuous, high-capacity, bidirectional train-to-wayside data
communications; and train borne and wayside processors capable of implementing Automatic
Train Protection (ATP) functions, as well as optional Automatic Train Operation (ATO) and
Automatic Train Supervision (ATS) functions.", as defined in the IEEE 1474 standard. CBTC
systems allow optimal use of the railway infrastructure as well as achieving maximum capacity
and minimum headway between operating trains, while maintaining the safety requirements. These
systems are suitable for the new highly demanding urban lines, but also to be overlaid on existing
lines in order to improve their performance.

29
10. DATA COMMUNICATION:

10.1. OPEN SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION MODEL (OSI):

OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) is reference model for how applications can communicate over a
network. A reference model is a conceptual framework for understanding relationships. The purpose
of the OSI reference model is to guide vendors and developers so the digital communication
products and software programs they create will interoperate, and to facilitate clear comparisons
among communications tools.

The main concept of OSI is that the process of communication between two endpoints in a
telecommunication network can be divided into seven distinct groups of related functions, or
layers. Each communicating user or program is at a computer that can provide those seven layers
of function. So in a given message between users, there will be a flow of data down through the
layers in the source computer, across the network and then up through the layers in the receiving
computer. The model is a product of the Open Systems Interconnection project at the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO), maintained by the identification ISO/IEC 7498-1.

The seven Open Systems Interconnection layers are:

LAYER 7: Application layer

LAYER 6: Presentation layer

LAYER 5: Session layer

LAYER 4: Transport layer

LAYER 3: Network layer

LAYER 2: Data link layer

LAYER 1: Physical layer

Out of these, Application, Presentation and Session Layers are called the upper layers or the
software layers whereas Physical, Data link and Network Layers are called the lower layers or the
hardware layers.

30
APPLICATION LAYER:

This is the layer at which communication partners are identified network capacity is assessed and
that creates a thing to send or opens the thing received. It is responsible for providing network
services to the user. It is also known as Desktop Layer.

● The application layer is the OSI layer that is closest to the user.
● It provides network services to the user‘s applications.
● It differs from the other layers in that it does not provide services to any other OSI layer,
but rather, only to applications outside the OSI model.
● Examples of such applications are spreadsheet programs, word processing programs, and
bank terminal programs.

PRESENTATION LAYER:
This layer is usually part of an operating system and converts incoming and outgoing data from
one presentation format to another. This layer provides independence from data representation by
translating between application and network formats.

● The presentation layer ensures that the information that the application layer of one system
sends out is readable by the application layer of another system.
● If necessary, the presentation layer translates between multiple data formats by using a
common format.
● Provides encryption and compression of data.
● Examples: - JPEG, MPEG, ASCII, EBCDIC, HTML.

SESSION LAYER:
This layer sets up, coordinates and terminates conversations. Services include authentication and
reconnection after an interruption. It is responsible for establishing, maintaining and terminating
session.

● The session layer defines how to start, control and end conversations (called sessions)
between applications.
● This includes the control and management of multiple bi-directional messages using
dialogue control.
● It also synchronizes dialogue between two hosts' presentation layers and manages their
data exchange.
● The session layer offers provisions for efficient data transfer.
● Examples: - SQL, ASP (AppleTalk Session Protocol).

31
TRANSPORT LAYER:
This layer manages packetization of data, then the delivery of the packets, including checking for
errors in the data once it arrives. It is known as heart of OSI layer. An example of a transport-layer
protocol in the standard Internet stack is Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), usually built on
top of the Internet Protocol (IP).

● The transport layer regulates information flow to ensure end-to-end connectivity between
host applications reliably and accurately.
● The transport layer segments data from the sending host's system and reassembles the
data into a data stream on the receiving host's system.
● The boundary between the transport layer and the session layer can be thought of as the
boundary between application protocols and data-flow protocols. Whereas the application,
presentation, and session layers are concerned with application issues, the lower four layers
are concerned with data transport issues.

● Layer 4 protocols include TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram
Protocol).

NETWORK LAYER:
This layer handles the addressing and routing of the data, sending it in the right direction to the
right destination on outgoing transmissions and receiving incoming transmissions at the packet
level.

● Defines end-to-end delivery of packets.

● Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can be identified.
● Defines how routing works and how routes are learned so that the packets can be
delivered.
● The network layer also defines how to fragment a packet into smaller packets to
accommodate different media.
● Routers operate at Layer 3.
● Examples: - IP, IPX, AppleTalk.

32
DATA LINK LAYER:
This layer sets up links across the physical network, putting packets into network frames. This
layer has two sub-layers, the Logical Link Control Layer and the Media Access Control Layer.
Ethernet is the main data link layer in use.

● The data link layer provides access to the networking media and physical transmission
across the media and this enables the data to locate its intended destination on a network.
● The data link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical link by using the
Media Access Control (MAC) addresses.
● The data link layer uses the MAC address to define a hardware or data link address in order
for multiple stations to share the same medium and still uniquely identify each other.
● Concerned with network topology, network access, error notification, ordered delivery of
frames, and flow control.
● Examples: - Ethernet, Frame Relay, FDDI.

PHYSICAL LAYER:
This layer conveys the bit stream through the network at the electrical, optical or radio level. It
provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data on a carrier network.
● The physical layer deals with the physical characteristics of the transmission medium.
● It defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional specifications for
activating, maintaining, and deactivating the physical link between end systems.
● Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical data rates,
maximum transmission distances, physical connectors, and other similar attributes are
defined by physical layer specifications.
● Examples: - EIA/TIA-232, RJ45, NRZ.

33
Fig.14 Process of OSI Model

34
10.2 USES OF DATA COMMUNICATION:

A. INTERACTIVE VOICE RESPONSE SYSTEM (IVRS):

Interactive Voice Response System (IVRS) is a technology that allows a computer to interact with
humans through the use of voice and DTMF tones input via keypad. In telecommunications, IVR
allows customers to interact with a company’s host system via a telephone keypad or by speech
recognition, after which they can service their own inquiries by following the IVR dialogue. IVR
systems can respond with pre-recorded or dynamically generated audio to further direct users on
how to proceed. IVR applications can be used to control almost any function where the interface
can be broken down into a series of simple interactions. IVR systems deployed in the network are
sized to handle large call volumes.

The functionality of IVRS developed for Indian Railways are following:

A. Reservation system enquiry using PNR number.

B. Accommodation availability enquiry.

C. Train Arrival – Departure enquiry.

D. Trains detail enquiry.

ADVANTAGES OF IVRS:

• Automatically handle every call from customers.

• Answer calls on the first ring, 7 days a week, 24 hours a day.

• Speak to callers in human tone of voice.

• Optional multi-lingual prompts.

• Provide accurate and reliable information, up to date.

• Resources your present personnel for more productive work.

• Smoothens the status information process.

35
B. PASSENGER RESERVATION SYSTEM (PRS):
Indian Railway has got a full proof reservation system that is known as Passenger Reservation
System or PRS. It has got a vast network of reservation terminals and satellite reservation offices.
This is to help passenger get reservation easily. PRS started in 1985 as a pilot project in New Delhi.
The objective was to provide ticketing system for reserved accommodation on any train from any
counter, preparation of train charting and keeping a proper record of the money received. This was
implemented all over Indian Railway later on. With this implementation any passenger can get a
reserved ticket from one destination to another station of India Railway from any Passenger
Reservation Systems counter of Indian Railways. PRS networking of entire Indian Railways
completed in April, 1999. PRS is running currently at 1,200 locations, Deploying 4,000 terminals,
covering journeys of 3,000 trains and executing ONE MILLION passenger transactions per day.

Fig.15 Passenger Reservation System

36
C. COACH GUIDANCE SYSTEM:

Coach guidance display boards are used to indicate coach position at railway platform and it helps
passengers to locate their respective coaches. Individual coach display board across the platform
shows the position of the coaches like A1, B1, S1, S6 etc. and train number alternatively with a
time difference. Coach position of a particular train can be selected/ updated by software running
on computer. Operator can update the coach position if required and send to CGDB. Here are some
significant features of our Passenger Coach Guidance System:
A. Adjustable LED Brightness
B. Low Power Consumption (Specially Designed SMPS)
C. Easy to operate
D. User Friendly Software Interface

Fig 16. Coach Guidance System

37
D. AUTO ANNOUNCEMENT SYSTEM:
It is an integrated system to work as Auto Announcement PA System, Display system & Coach
Guidance announcing system. The system shall be capable of automatic announcement with pre-
recorded voice prompt, which shall be stored in the hard disk of the system. The Data is entered
by the data entry operator / Station Master by entering Train number, arrival / departure time and
status of the train in the screen format. The selected massage is scrolled on the monitor so that the
operator can know the announcement / Display being made on platform PA system and display
boards.

E. DISPLAY BOARD:
Train information display system includes arrival, departure schedule, coach position indicator,
advance and current reservation status displays, interactive touch screens, enquiry kiosks, and
platform digital clocks with duplex single and duplex display with master control system. Display
systems are controlled by the latest Micro Controller. Advantages of these displays board:

A. High visibility and wide viewing angle in most lighting conditions

B. Little or no power consumption while the display remains static

C. Distinct metallic flapping sound draws attention when the information is updated.

Fig.17 Display Board

38
F. TOUCH SCREEN SYSTEM:

A touchscreen is a bit like an invisible keyboard glued to the front of your computer monitor. To
understand how it works, it helps if you know something about how an ordinary keyboard works
first. You can find out about that in our article on computer keyboards, but here's a quick reminder.
Essentially, every key on a keyboard is an electrical switch. When you push a key down, you
complete an electric circuit and a current flow. When you press a key, you push the top conductor
layer down towards the bottom layer so the two layers meet and touch through the hole. A current flow
between the layers and the computer knows you've pressed a key. Little springy pieces of rubber
underneath each key make them bounce back to their original position, breaking the circuit when you
release them.

G. TRAIN TIMING DISPLAY BOARD:

It is a display device which gives the information regarding running of Train Arrival /Departure
timing and Platform No. etc. The system is either operated locally at a particular station or can be
fed from Central location. They are mainly provided at Platform and Public utility location.

Fig.18 Train Timing Display

39
H. DIGITAL CLOCKS:

Digital clocks with GPS synchronization are highly readable systems consisting of one master
clock and several slave clocks. Master clock system updates its time from precision GPS data and
sends syncs periodically to slave clocks for synchronization. Slave clocks can also work in
standalone mode by updating its time from GPS receiver.

Fig.19 Digital Clock

40
11. CONCLUSION:

Indian Railways, as an organization is a very vast centre of telecommunication in itself. Today the
telecommunicating world is getting its roots, grabbing the new era more firmly. We think that our
training was a success and we think that Indian Railways was an excellent training institute for
inquisitive emerging engineers. In Indian Railways, training is given to engineering aspirant
desiring to secure future in the dynamic world of Telecommunication.

The main achievements of the training at Indian Railways are that we got familiar with the latest
technologies and principles of networking. The training at Indian Railways cultivated the zeal of
inquisitiveness and the excitement to know more than more about this field in limited duration.

41
12. REFERENCES

▪ A.K. Jain and S. Pankanti, "A Touch of Money", IEEE Spectrum, pp. 22-27, July 2006

▪ A.K. Jain, A. Ross and S. Prabhakar, "An Introduction to Biometric Recognition", IEEE
Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology, Special Issue on Image- and
Video Based OPTICAL FIBRE, Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 4-20, January 2004.

▪ Anil K. Jain, Ruud Bolle and Sharath Pankanti, "OPTICAL FIBRE Personal
Identification in Networked Society", Kluwer Academic Pub; ISBN: 0792383451

▪ www.biometricgroup.com

▪ www.scribd.com/doc/12733359/-ID

▪ www.scribd.com/doc/3834277/OPTICAL FIBRE

▪ www.opticaltechnology.com

▪ www.slideshare.net/ajayspi/OPTICAL FIBRE

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