Chapter 5:

Errors in Chemical Analyses

Source:
 Measurements invariably involve errors and uncertainties.
 it is impossible to perform a chemical analysis that is totally free of errors or
uncertainties
 We can only hope to minimize errors and estimate their size with acceptable
accuracy
 Errors are caused by faulty calibrations or standardizations or by random
variations and uncertainties in results.
 Frequent calibrations, standardizations, and analyses of known samples can
sometimes be used to lessen all but the random errors and uncertainties.

The term error has two slightly different meanings.

1) error refers to the difference between a measured value and the “true”
or “known” value.
2) error often denotes the estimated uncertainty in a measurement or
experiment.

“ We can only hope to minimize errors and estimate their size with acceptable
accuracy”
Every measurement is influenced by many uncertainties, which combine to
produce a scatter of results.
Figure 5-1 Results from six
replicate determinations of iron in
aqueous samples of a standard
solution containing 20.0 ppm
iron(III). Note that the results range
from a low of 19.4 ppm to a high of
20.3 ppm of iron. The average, or
mean value, x , of the data is 19.78
ppm, which rounds to 19.8 ppm

Because measurement uncertainties can never be completely eliminated,

measurement data can only give us an estimate of the “true” value.
However, the probable magnitude of the error in a measurement can often be
evaluated. It is then possible to define limits within which the true value of a
measured quantity lies with a given level of probability.
Before beginning an analysis ask, “What maximum error can be tolerated in the
result?”
The answer to this question often determines the method chosen and the time
required to complete the analysis.
5A Some important terms
To improve the reliability and to obtain information about the variability of
results, two to five portions (replicates) of a sample are usually carried
through an entire analytical procedure.
Replicates are samples of about the same size that are carried through an
analysis in exactly the same way.

 Individual results from a set of measurements are seldom the same

 Usually, the “best” estimate is considered to be the central value for the set.
 The central value of a set should be more reliable than any of the individual
results.
 Usually, the mean or the median is used as the central value for a set of
replicate measurements.
An analysis of the variation in the data allows us to estimate the uncertainty
associated with the central value.
The Mean and the Median N

The mean, also called the arithmetic mean or the average, is obtained
x i

by dividing the sum of replicate measurements by the number of

x i 1

N
measurements in the set:
 The symbol xi means to add all of the values xi for the replicates; xi represents the
individual values of x making up the set of N replicate measurements.
 The median is the middle value in a set of data that has been arranged in numerical
order.

 The median is used advantageously when a set of data contain an outlier. An outlier is a
result that differs significantly from others in the set.

 An outlier can have a significant effect on the mean of the set but has no effect on the
median.
Precision
* Precision describes the agreement among several results obtained in the same
way. Describes the reproducibility of measurements.
* Precision is readily determined by simply repeating the measurement on
replicate samples.
* Precision of a set of replicate data may be expressed as standard deviation,
variance, and coefficient of variation.
* di, deviation from mean, is how much xi, the individual result, deviates from the
mean. d  x x
i i

Accuracy
•Accuracy indicates the closeness of the measurement to the true or accepted
value and is expressed by the error.
• Accuracy measures agreement between a result and the accepted value.
• Accuracy is often more difficult to determine because the true value is usually
unknown. An accepted value must be used instead.
• Accuracy is expressed in terms of either absolute or relative error.
Figure 5-2 Note that we can have very precise results (upper right) with a
mean that is not accurate and an accurate mean (lower left) with data
points that are imprecise.
Absolute Error

* The absolute error of a measurement is the difference between the measured

value and the true value. If the measurement result is low, the sign is negative; if
the measurement result is high, the sign is positive.

E  xi  xt

Relative Error
The relative error of a measurement is the absolute error divided by the true
value.
Relative error may be expressed in percent, parts per thousand, or parts per
million, depending on the magnitude of the result.

xi  xt
Er   100%
xt
Types of Errors in Experimental Data
• Results can be precise without being accurate and accurate without being precise.
• Each dot represents the error associated with a single determination.
• Each vertical line labeled (xi - xt) is the absolute average deviation of the set from
the true value.

Figure 5-3 Absolute error in the micro-Kjeldahl determination of nitrogen.

Chemical analyses are affected by at least two types of errors:

1. Systematic (or determinate) error, causes the mean of a data set to differ
from the accepted value.
2. Random (or indeterminate) error, causes data to be scattered more or
less symmetrically around a mean value.

A third type of error is gross error.

 These differ from indeterminate and determinate errors.
 They usually occur only occasionally, are often large, and may cause a
result to be either high or low.
 They are often the product of human errors.
 Gross errors lead to outliers, results that appear to differ markedly from
all other data in a set of replicate measurements.
5B Systematic errors
 Systematic errors
 have a definite value,
an assignable cause, and
are of the same magnitude for replicate measurements made in the same
way.
 They lead to bias in measurement results.

There are three types of systematic errors:

• Instrumental errors.

• Method errors

• Personal errors
Instrumental Errors
 are caused by nonideal instrument behavior, by faulty calibrations, or by
use under inappropriate conditions
 Pipets, burets, and volumetric flasks may hold or deliver volumes slightly
different from those indicated by their graduations.
 Calibration eliminates most systematic errors of this type.
 Electronic instruments can be influenced by noise, temperature, pH and
are also subject to systematic errors.
 Errors of these types usually are detectable and correctable.
Method Errors
 The nonideal chemical or physical behavior of the reagents and reactions
on which an analysis is based often introduce systematic method errors.

 Such sources of nonideality include the slowness of some reactions, the

incompleteness of others, the instability of some species, the lack of
specificity of most reagents, and the possible occurrence of side reactions that
interfere with the measurement process.

 Errors inherent in a method are often difficult to detect and hence, these
errors are usually the most difficult to identify and correct.
Personal Errors
 result from the carelessness, inattention, or personal limitations of the experimenter.
 Many measurements require personal judgments.
Examples include estimating the position of a pointer between two scale divisions, the
color of a solution at the end point in a titration, or the level of a liquid with respect to a
graduation in a pipet or buret.
Judgments of this type are often subject to systematic, unidirectional errors.
A universal source of personal error is prejudice, or bias.
Number bias is another source of personal error that varies considerably from
person to person.
The most frequent number bias encountered in estimating the position of a needle
on a scale involves a preference for the digits 0 and 5.
 Also common is a prejudice favoring small digits over large and even numbers over
odd.
 Digital and computer displays on ph meters, laboratory balances, and other
electronic instruments eliminate number bias because no judgment is involved in
taking a reading.
5B-2 The Effect of Systematic Errors on Analytical Results
 Systematic errors may be either constant or proportional.
Constant Errors
 The magnitude of a constant error stays essentially the same as the size of the
quantity measured is varied.
 With constant errors, the absolute error is constant with sample size, but the
relative error varies when the sample size is changed

 One way of reducing the effect of constant error is to increase the sample size
until the error is acceptable.

The excess of reagent needed to bring about a color change during a titration
is another example of constant error.
 This volume, usually small, remains the same regardless of the total volume of
reagent required for the titration. Again, the relative error from this source becomes
more serious as the total volume decreases.
 One way of reducing the effect of constant error is to increase the sample size
 Proportional Errors
 Proportional errors decrease or increase in proportion to the size of the sample.
 A common cause of proportional errors is the presence of interfering contaminants in
the sample.
 For example, a widely used method for the determination of copper is based on the
reaction of copper(II) ion with potassium iodide to give iodine. The quantity of iodine is
then measured and is proportional to the amount of copper. Iron(III), if present, also
liberates iodine from potassium iodide. Unless steps are taken to prevent this
interference, high results are observed for the percentage of copper because the iodine
produced will be a measure of the copper(II) and iron(III) in the sample.
 The size of this error is fixed by the fraction of iron contamination, which is
independent of the size of sample taken. If the sample size is doubled, for example, the
amount of iodine liberated by both the copper and the iron contaminant is also
doubled. Thus, the magnitude of the reported percentage of copper is independent of
sample size.

slideplayer.com/Fundamentals of
Analytical Chemistry, F.J. Holler,
S.R.Crouch
5B-3 Detection and Elimination of Systematic (Instrumental
and Personal) Errors
1. Periodic calibration of equipment is always desirable because the response of
most instruments changes with time as a result of component aging,
corrosion, or mistreatment.
2. Most personal errors can be minimized by careful, disciplined laboratory work.
3. It is a good habit to check instrument readings, notebook entries, and
calculations systematically.
4. Errors due to limitations of the experimenter can usually be avoided by
carefully choosing the analytical method or using an automated procedure.

5B-4 Detection of Systematic (Method) Errors

Bias in an analytical method is particularly difficult to detect.
 The best way to estimate the bias of an analytical method is by analyzing Standard
reference materials (SRMs).

Analysis of Standard Samples

The overall composition of a synthetic standard material must closely

approximate the composition of the samples to be analyzed.

Great care must be taken to ensure that the concentration of analyte is

known exactly.

A synthetic standard may not reveal unexpected interferences so that the

accuracy of determinations may not be known.
Independent Analysis

- If standard samples are not available, a second independent and reliable

analytical method can be used in parallel.

- The independent method should differ as much as possible from the one
under study.

- This practice minimizes the possibility that some common factor in the
sample has the same effect on both methods.

- Again, a statistical test must be used to determine whether any difference is

a result of random errors in the two methods or due to bias in the method
under study.
Blank Determinations
A blank contains the reagents and solvents used in a determination, but no analyte.
Often, many of the sample constituents are added to simulate the analyte environment,
which is called the sample matrix.
In a blank determination, all steps of the analysis are performed on the blank material.
The results are then applied as a correction to the sample measurements.
Blank determinations reveal errors due to interfering contaminants from the reagents
and vessels employed in the analysis.
Blanks are also used to correct titration data for the volume of reagent needed to cause
an indicator to change color.

Variation in Sample Size

As the size of a measurement increases, the effect of a constant error decreases.
Thus, constant errors can often be detected by varying the sample size.
 Suggested Problems
• 5.1, 5.3, 5.11, 5.12(a-d-f), 5.13(a-b-c)