Diagram

Tabulation

Name of the No. of pollen No. of pollen Percentage of

flower grains observed grains germinated germination

1
Exp. No.: 1

Date:

STUDY OF POLLEN GERMINATION ON A SLIDE

AIM:

To study the pollen germination on slide.

REQUIREMENTS:

Fresh seasonal flowers, slide, coverslip, beakers, microscope,

sucrose, boric acid, magnesium sulphate, potassium nitrate.

PROCEDURE:

i. Prepare a nutrient solution by dissolving 10g of sucrose, 10g of

boric acid, 30mg of magnesium sulphate and 20 mg of nitrate in
100 ml of water.
ii. Take a few drops of this solution on a clean slide and dust a few
pollen grains from the stamen of a mature flower on it.
iii. Observe the slide in the microscope after 5 minutes and then
observe it regularly for about half an hour.

OBSERVATION:

i. In the nutrient medium the pollen grain germinates.

ii. The tube cell enlarges and comes out of pollen grain through one of
the germ pores to form a pollen tube.
iii. The tube nucleus descents to this tip of the pollen tube. The
generative cell also passes into it.
iv. The generative cell soon divides into two male gametes. Each male
gamete is lenticular to spherical in outline.

PRECAUTIONS:

i. Flowers should be freshly plucked.

ii. Use clean slides to observe the pollen grains.

INFERENCE:

Number of pollen grain germinated out of 30 pollen grains observed is 3.

So the percentage of germination is 10%.

2
Diagram

3
Exp. No.: 2

Date:

STUDY OF POLLEN GERMINATION AND GROWTH OF POLLEN TUBE

AIM:

To study the pollen germination and growth of pollen tube in a

permanent slide.

REQUIREMENTS:

Permanent slide/picture showing pollen germination and

microscope.

PROCEDURE:

Place the permanent slide under the high power of microscope and
draw the diagrams of different stages of pollen germination.

OBSERVATION:

Different stages of the germinating pollens are observed in the

stigma and style regions of the carpel. Some pollens are in their initial stage of
germination, others have quite long pollen tube containing tube nucleus and
two male nuclei.

4
Diagrams

5
Exp. No.: 3

Date:

STUDY OF GAMETE DEVELOPMENT IN TESTIS AND OVARY OF MICE

AIM:

To study and identify the stages of gamete development in mouse

i.e. T.S. of Testis and L.S. of Ovary through permanent slides.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

Permanent slides of T.S.of Testis and L.S. of Ovary and Microscope.

PROCEDURE:

The permanent slide is fixed under microscope. First it is observed

under low power and then in high power.

OBSERVATION:

T.S. OF TESTIS:

i) The testis of mouse is covered by a thick fibrous tissue called

Tunica albuginea.
ii) The testis consists of numerous seminiferous tubules embedded in
the interstitial tissue.
iii) Various types of germinal cells are present from outside towards
lumen in the following sequence spermatogonia
spermatocytes spermatid
Spermatozoa sperms.
iv) Between the germinal cells, pyramid shaped cells called
sertoli cells are present.
v) A large number of spermatozoa with their heads embedded
in sertoli cells are present in the lumen of seminiferous
tubules.
vi) The interstitial tissue also contains leydig’s cells which
produce the male sex hormone testosterone.

6
Diagrams

7
L.S. OF OVARY:

i. A mouse ovary is a solid structure bounded by germinal

epithelium followed by a thick layer of fibrous tissue tunica
albuginea
ii. The ovary consists of outer cortex and inner medulla.
iii. The medulla consists of many oval/round bodies called ovarian or
graafian follicles.
iv. The medulla contains blood vessels, nerve fibres and some
smooth muscles.
v. Each follicle contains a large ovum surrounded by many
granulosa cells.
vi. The cortex contains young and mature follicles.
vii. Cortex also contain a large mass of yellow cells called corpus
luteum found in a empty graafian follicle after the release of its
ovum.

Precautions:

First observe the slide under low power and then under high power
of a microscope.

Use fine adjustment of the microscope for focusing the slide under
high power.

8
Diagrams

9
Exp. No.:

Date:

STUDY OF ADAPTATIONS IN PLANTS

XEROPHYTICS ADAPTATION IN PLANTS

Acacia arabica (Babool or Kikar)

IDENTIFICATION:

The specimen kept for identification is identified as Acacia Arabica

(Babool or Kikar)

COMMENTS:

1. It is a drought enduring xerophytes.

2. The older parts of the stem are covered over by thick brown corky
bark.
3. The leaves are bipinnate to reduce transpiration.
4. The stipules are modified into spines to reduce transpiration and
prevent grazing.

HYDROPHYTIC ADAPTATION IN PLANTS (AQUATIC ADAPTATION)

Opuntia

Identification

The specimen kept for identification is identified as Opuntia dellini (Cactus)

1. It is succulent or drought resisting xerophytes, which grows wild in arid

areas.
2. The leaves are caduceus. They fall down soon after their formation to
reduce transpiration.
3. The stem is jointed, flattened and green called phylloclades. It is green
and takes over the function of photosynthesis.
4. The stem becomes fleshy due to storage of water. The stored water is
used throughout the unfavorable periods.
5. The stem possesses abundant mucilage, which helps in retaining water.
6. Phylloclades bear several nodes or areoles. The areoles have one or more
spines which represent the leaves of axillary branches.

10
Diagrams

11
 7. Besides there are a number of bristles to reduce transpiration and
prevent grazing.

Eichhornia (Water Hyacinth or Jalkumbhi)

IDENTIFICATION:

The specimen kept for identification is identified as Eichhornia (Water

Hyacinth or Jalkumbhi)

COMMENTS:

1. It is a free-floating hydrophyte that grows in ponds, lakes and water

bodies containing freshwater.
2. When the level of water is low, the plan gets rooted in the soil.
3. The stem is offset that grows prostrate below the surface of water. It is
spongy and stores air.
4. The leaves arise at the node in clusters. The petioles of the leaves are
inflated that keep the leaves out of water.
5. The nodes also bear clusters of brown adventitious roots in water. They
act as balancers.
6. The emerged leaves have waterproof, waxy and cuticular coating to
prevent wetting.

UTRICULARIA (BLADDER WORT)

IDENTIFICATION:

The specimen kept for identification is identified as Utricularia (bladder

wort)

Comments:

1. It is a floating hydrophyte that grows abundantly in tanks and lakes.

2. The stem is horizontal, soft and spongy. The roots are absent.
3. The leaves are highly segmented. They do not provide much resistance to
water currents.
4. The plant bears small sub-sessile bladders on its segmented leaves. The
catch and digest small aquatic animals.
5. The whole plant is covered with the mucilage to prevent decaying by
water.

12
13
ADAPTATION IN ANIMALS

KANGAROO RAT:

IDENTIFICATION:

The picture kept for identification is identified as Kangaroo Rat.

Comments:

1. It is a xerocole rodent, which avoid heat by adopting nocturnal

habits.
2. It conserves water by excreting solid urine and can live from birth to
death without drinking water.
3. It seal its burrow by day to keep its chamber moist.
4. It obtains water from its own metabolic processes and from
hygroscopic water in its food.

14
15
CAMEL:

IDENTIFICAITON:

The picture kept for identification is identified as Camel.

COMMENTS:

1. It is a xerocoles animal adapted to the desert condition.

2. It is able to tolerate wide range of temperature fluctuations and is
able to maintain blood moisture even doing hard period.
3. It excretes concentrated urine and can withstand dehydration up to
25% of its body weight.
4. It accumulates its fat in the hump rather than all over the body.
This speeds heat flow away from the body and its thick coat
prevents the flow of heat inwards to the body.
5. Its feet has to toes each with fleshy pad below which spread the
load on sand enable it to move on hot and slippery sand.
6. Its slender snout bears a cleft upperlip, long eye lashes and
muscular nostrils which can be closed for protection from sand
storm.

FISH

IDENTIFICATION:

The picture/specimen kept for identificaiton is identified as fresh water

fish (Carp)

COMMENTS:

1. Its body is compressed laterally to reduce friction and to allow swift

passage in water while swimming.
2. It possesses fins that help in swimming.
3. It has air bladder or swim bladder which maintains buoyancy.
4. It possesses gills as organs of respiration for the exchange of gasses in
water.
5. The body is covered with water impermeable scales to prevent osmotic
entry of water in the body.

16
Diagrams
(Emaculation & Bagging)

17
 Exp. No.:
Date:
EXERCISE ON CONTROLLED POLLINATION

AIM:

To comment on the exercises of hybridization (emasculation, tagging and

bagging) through chart/pictures.

EMASCULATION:

IDENTIFICATION:

Forceps or scissors method of emasculation.

COMMENTS:

1. The method is employed in the crops having flowers of sufficiently

large size lint cotton.
2. The instrument used in this method include pocket lens, forceps,
needle, scissors, scalpel, camel hair brush etc.,
3. In this process anthers are removed from the flowers before their
maturation.
4. The anthers are cut with the help of sterilized forceps or scissors.

IDENTIFICATION:

Hot or cold water and alcohol emasculation.

COMMENTS:

1. This method of emasculation is employed for the crops having small

flowers like paddy, sorghum etc.
2. In this method, the penicles (clusters of flowers) are dipped in hot water
(40o C – 45o C) for 1-10 minutes to kill the anthers.
3. In the same way emasculation is done with cold water or alcohol.

IDENTIFICATION:

Bagging, tagging and labeling.

18
Diagram

19
COMMENTS:

1. After emasculation, the flowers are covered with small bags to prevent
pollination with undesired pollen grains.
2. These bags are made up of polythene, paper and muslin cloth or
parchment paper.
3. The bags are punctured or made perforated so as to provide aeration to
the flowers.
4. The flowers of male parents are also protected in bags to prevent mixing
of their pollen grains with foreign pollens.
5. After dusting of the desired pollen grains on the emasculated flower, the
bags are retagged.
6. A label of paper is tagged on the plant which displays the date of
emasculation, crossing and brief account of the parents.

20
Diagrams

Percentage
Amount of Water
Water held of water
Weight of water collected in
by the soil holding
Sample soil taken added to the
sample (y- capacity
(x) the funnel measuring
z) (y-z/x)
(y) cylinder (z)
x100
Sample A 50 gm 100 ml

Sample B 50 gm 100 ml

21
Diagrams

Date:
Exp. No.:

WATER HOLDING CAPACITY OF SOIL

AIM
To study the water holding capacity of the given soil samples.
Requirements
Soil samples, measuring cylinders, funnels, filter papers beakers,
weighing machine.
Procedure

 Take two funnels and line them with filter paper. Label them as
A and B. Insert the stem of the funnel into the measuring
cylinders separately.
 Take 50 grams of each of the soil sample in the funnel lined and
labeled with filter paper separately.
 Now pour 100 ml of water to the funnel separately.
 Record the volume of water in the measuring cylinder when the
dripping of water stops from the funnel.
Conclusion
Sample _____________ has higher water holding capacity than the
sample _____________ because the sample ___________ has larger
quantities of sand particles compared the sample _________. (sample
A-garden soil & sample-B is roadside soil)

22
23
Precaution

 Weighing of soil samples should be done accurately.

 Pour water slowly and gently on the soil in the funnel.
 Record the volume of collected water in the measuring cylinder
carefully.

24
DIAGRAMS

25
Date:
Exp. No.:
___________________________________________________________________
STUDY OF MITOSIS IN ONION ROOT TIP
___________________________________________________________________
AIM
To prepare temporary acetocarmine stained mount of root tip to
study various stages of mitosis.
Requirements
Onion bulbs, conical flasks/glass bottles, corked vial/tube,
petridishes, scissors, forceps, needles, methyl alcohol, acetic acid,
hydrochloric acid, acetocarmine, distilled water, spirit lamp,
microscope, slides, coverslips, blotting papers etc.,
Procedure

 Take a medium sized bulb of onion and trim off the old roots
from its base by means of a sharp blade.
 Place the onion on a conical flask/glass bottle full of water, with
its base touching the water. Keep it for a week to grow the roots.
 Cut 5mm from the tips of roots and put them into a glass vessel
containing a mixture of 1:3 acetic acid and methanol. Keep for
one hour. This process is called fixation.
 Remove 2 or 3 root tips and hydrolyse them by warming to 60oC
in 1N hydrochloric acid for 15 minutes.
 Remove the root tips and wash them thoroughly in water.
 Place a drop of acetocarmine on a slide. Put one hydrolysed root
in a drop and place coverslip on the root.
 Gently warm the slide over a flame for few seconds.
 Observe first under the low power under the microscope to
lovate the dividing cells. Examine the different stages of mitosis
under the high power microscope.

26
DIAGRAMS

27
OBSERVATIONS:
Under the low power of the microscope, rectangular cells with pink
nucleus are seen scattered. Under high power of the microscope
following stages become distinct.
INTERPHASE:
1. It is non-dividing phase of the cell cycle between successive cell
division.
2. Chromatin fibres appear in the form of a network with the
nucleus.
3. Nuclear envelope and nucleolus are distinct.
PROPHASE:
1. Chromatin material shortens and condenses into thread-like
structures called chromosomes.
2. Each chromosome consists of two chromatids, joined at a point
called centromere.
3. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus starts disintegrating and
disappear at the end of prophase.
METAPHASE:
1. A bipolar spindle develops in the cell. Chromosomes become
thick and two chromatids of each chromosome become clear.
2. Chromosomes become arranged at the equator of the spindle.
3. Each chromosome get attached to the spindle fibres at its
centromere.
ANAPHASE:
1. The two sister chromatids of each chromosome separate from
the centromere and move towards the opposite poles.
2. The daughter chromosomes (separated chromatids) appears V,
J, L and I shaped, depending upon the position of ventromere.

28
DIAGRAMS

29
TELOPHASE:
1. The spindle disappears and the daughter chromosomes uncoil
to form chromatin fibres at the two poles.
2. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappears and two daughter
nuclei.
3. Cytokinensis occurs by cell plate formation between the two
daughter nuclei.

30
DIAGRAMS

31
Exp. No.:

Date:
__________________________________________________________________________

TO STUDY THE TRANSVERSE SECTION OF BLASTULA

________________________________________________________________
Aim:
To study T.S. of Blastula through permanent slide.
Requirements:
Permanent slide of T. S. of Blastula and Microscope.
Procedure:
The slide of T. S. of Blastula is fixed under the microscope.
First, it is observed under low power and then under high power of
the microscope.
Observation:
1. It is a spherical mass of about 64 cells.
2. It is composed of an outer envelope of cells ( trophoblast or
trophoectoderm) and inner cell mass (embryoblast) .
3. Within the envelope there is a fluid filled cavity called
blastocoel.
4. The side of the blastocyst to which the inner cell mass is
attached is called the embryonic or animal pole. While the
opposite side is the abembryonic pole.
5. The inner cell mass is the precursor of the embryo.
Precautions:

 The slide should be first focused under low power and then
in high power of the microscope
 Fine adjustment knob must be used for focusing under
high power. Diagram

32
DIAGRAMS

33
Exp. No.
Date:
STUDY OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND pH OF DIFFERENT
SOILS
Aim:
To study the texture and moisture content of different soils.
Requirements:
Digger, polythene bags, hand lens, measuring cylinder, water,
meshes of diffenent pore sizes.
Study of soil texture:
1. The soil sample is examined by a hand lens.
2. The dried soil samples are placed on meshes of different pore
sizes and the amount of particles passed through them are
recorded.
3. 50 grams of soil is taken from a sample is measuring cylinder
200 ml of water is added and shaked well. The soil particles are
allowed to settle down.
4. The soil particles in the measuring cylinder are recorded and
their relative percentage is calculated.
5. The steps are repeated for different soil samples
Study of moisture content:
1. Small amount of soil from a sample is taken in a dry crucible
and weighed. The weight is recorded.
2. The crucible is heated on the burner to dry the soil and cooled.
The weight of dry soil is recorded. The process is repeated for
different soil samples.

34
 Study of pH of different types of soil samples

Soil sample Colour change pH value

observed

Sample A

Sample B

35
 Study of pH of different types of soil samples
Aim: To study the pH of different types of soil
Requirements:
Soil samples, test tubes, funnels, filterpapers, universal indicator,
beakers and distilled water.
Procedure:
1. I table spoon soil is dissolved from each soil sample in 100 ml of
distilled water in separate beakers.
2. The solution is stirred well and left undisturbed for about half
an hour to settle down the suspended particles. The solution is
filtered off in different test tube.
3. Now add 2 to 3 drops of universal indicator. Observe the colour
change and match it with the colour scale given in the universal
indicator container.
4. Record the values in the table.
Inference:
Soil with pH 5.5 to 6.5 support the growth of garden plants like
Rose, Jasmine and Hibiscus etc., and soil samples with pH more
than 7 support the growth of halophytes like Rhizophora, Avecenia
etc.,

36
 STUDY OF pH OF DIFFERENT WATER SAMPLES

Water Colour change pH value

sample observed

Sample A

Sample B

37
 STUDY OF pH OF DIFFERENT WATER SAMPLES
Aim:
To study the pH of different water samples.
Requirements:
Water samples, test tubes, universal indicator and beakers
Procedure:
1. Take the water samples in separate test tubes.
2. Now add 2 to 3 drops of universal indicator.
3. Observe the colour change and match it with the colour scale
given in the universal indicator container.
4. Record the values in the table.
Inference:
Soil with pH 5.5 to 6.5 support the growth of garden plants like
Rose, Jasmine and Hibiscus etc., and soil samples with pH more
than 7 support the growth of halophytes like Rhizophora, Avecenia
etc.,

38
DIAGRAMS

39
Exp. No.:

Date:
STUDY OF ACTION OF SALIVARY AMYLASE ON STARCH

AIM:

To study the action of salivary amylase on starch.

REQUIREMENTS :

Test tubes, test tube stands, pipettes, beakers, cotton, funnel, water
bath, burner, measuring cylinder, starch. NaCl, distilled water, Iodine
solution.

PREPARATIONS:

1.1% Starch Solution : 1 g. of soluble starch is dissolved in 10 ml of

distilled water and is then transferred to hot 90 ml of colled and fillered to get
1% starch.

2. 1% NaCl solution: 1 g of NaCl in 100 ml of distilled water.

3. Collection of saliva: Saliva from our mouth is collected. 1 ml of

saliva is added to 19 ml of water to get 1:20 dilution of the enzyme.

PROCEDURE:

1. Take two test tubes.

2. To the test tube add 5ml of 1% starch solution and 1 ml of 1%NaCland

the savefor control tubes.

3. now, put both in water both maintained at 37.C for about 10 minutes.

4. To experiment tube add 1 ml of dilute enzhyme and to the control tube

and 1 ml of water, with the help of the dropper.

5. Put drop of iodines on it and note the time.

6. After two minutes again drop from each test tube put it into tiles. Note
the change of colour of iodine not that: iodine for control tube always gives
blue colour.

40
 OBSERVATIONS :

TIME (Min) REACTION WITH IODINE REACTION WITH

Experimental Tube IODINE
Control Tube

41
 7. Compare the series of experimental iodine test tube with control iodine
tube and also note the time taken for colour change in each one.

8. Perform Benedicts test for both the tubes. Only experimental tube will
develop orange colour on heating.

RESULT:

It takes six minutes for 1 ml of dilute enzyme to digest completely 5 ml of

1% strach solution to the achromic point.

At achromic point, experimental tube shows positive benedict's test

indicating the presence of simple sugars and absence of starch.

EXPLANATION:

The enzyme salivary amylase present in saliva acts on starch and convert it
into maltose starch gives blue colour with iodine.

In the experimental tube, we have both starch and the enzyme .NaCl acts as
an activator of the enzyme. The enzyme gradually acts on starch and convert
it into maltose. Starch keeps on giving blur colour with iodine till it is
completelly digested into maltose. At this point , no blue colour is formed .
This is the end of the point or achromatic point.

In the control tubes, we have only starch NaCl. Instead of enzyme, iml of
water has been added. Therefore, in this tube starch is not digested to
maltose. Hence blue colour keeps coming with iodine solution.

PRECAUTIONS:

* All the measuring should be done accurately.

* Uniform temperature is maintained throught the experiment.

* All the glassware's used must be thoroughly cleaned and dried

42
TABULATION

43
Exp. No.:

Date:
STUDY OF PLANT POPULATION BY QUADRAT METHOD

AIM :

To study population density and percentage of frequency of different plant

species of a given area.

REQUREMENTS :

Metre scale, string cord, nails, paper, pencil.

PROCEDURE:

(A) DETERMINATION OF SIZE OF QUADRAT:

* A 100 X 100 sq. cm. quadrat is prepared in a field.

* 10 X10 sq.cm. , 20 X20 sq.cm., 30 X30 sq.cm. and till 90 X90 sq.cm.
quadrats are drawn with in 100 X 100 sq.cm. quadrat using strings and
nails.

* Number of plant species occurring in each quadrat (10 X10 sq.cm. - 100
X 100 sq.cm) is recorded.

* A group is plotted using the recorded data.

* The point at which the cure starts flattening denotes the minimum size of
the quadrat suitable for the study of an area under consideration.

(B) DETERMINATION OF POPULATION DENSITY AND PERCENTAGE

FREQUENCY.

* Five quarats of 100 X100 sq.cm., are prepared randomly in an area /field.

* Five plant species are chosen and named as A, B, C, D and E.

* Number of plant species A is conted and recorded from all the five
quadrats.

* The above step is repeated for wher plant species.

* Using the recorded data, population density and frequency percentage

and found.
44
CONCLUSION:

S.N Plant No. of Total Total Total Populatio Frequenc

o Specie individual no.of no.of no.of n Density y
s s per individu quadrat quadrat (N/B) percentag
quadrat al in all s in s e
the which studied
quadrats the (B)
studied species A/B X
(N) (A) 100

45
 (i) Minimum size of the quadrat = 0.81 x 10 4cm2.

(ii) Population density of plant species

OBSERVATIONS:

A =27.8

B = 13.6

C = 10.6

D = 1.2

E = 3.4

(iii) Frequency percentage of plant species

A= B= C= 80%

D= 20%

E = 60 %

PRECAUTIONS :

* The measurements of quadrat should be accurate.

* One individual of a species should be counted only once in the quadrat.

* The string / cord used should not be very thick.

46
47
Exp. No.:

Date:

STUDY OF FLOWERS ADAPTED TO POLLINATION BY DIFFERENT

AGENCIES

AIM: To study of flowers adapted to pollination by different agencies i.e. wind,

insect and bird.

Requirements: Fresh flowers (maize, salvia and Bignonia)/pictures, forceps,

hand lens, slide and needle.

Procedure:

The given flower observed with the help of hand lens.

The adaptations of the flower meant for pollination by external agencies

are noted down.

Observations:

MAIZE FLOWERS ( anemophilous/wind pollinated flowers)

1. The maize plant is monoecious and bears unisexual flowers. The male
flowers are born in terminal inflorescence while the female flowers are
born in axillary inflorescence.
2. Flowers are small and inconspicuous.
3. The flowers are colorless, odorless and nectar less.
4. Flowers are produced above the foliage or placed or placed in hanging
position.
5. Both the stigma and anthers are exerted outside the flower.
6. Anthers are versatile and pollen grains are light, small and dusty.
7. The pollen grains are produced in very large number.

Salvia flowers (Entomophilous/insect pollinated flowers)

1. The flowers are showy or brightly colored for attracting pollination

insects.

2. The flowers are born in verticellaster inflorescence to become

conspicuous.

48
Diagrams

49
 3. Flowers secrete nectar to feed visiting insects. Nectar glands are placed
in such a position that an insect must touch anthers and stigmas.

4. The flowers have landing platform for the insects.

5. The flowers are protandrous with bilipped corolla and have turn pipe or
lever mechanisms.

6. Each stamen has long connective tissue which bears a fertile anther lobe
at the lower end. The two sterile anther plates block the path of insects.

7. As the insect moves inward a young flower in search of nectar, its head
pushes the anther plates and forces the fertile anther lobes to strike against
its backs.

8. In older flowers, the style brings the stigma in such a position that it
brushes against the back of insects and collect pollen grains brought by the
insect from a young flower.

BIGNONIA (Ornithophilous/Bird pollinated flowers)

1. The flowers are usually bright coloured- red, orange, yellow or blue.
2. The floral parts are commonly leathery.
3. In some cases, the corolla are leathery.
4. The flowers secrete abundant watery nectar or have edible parts.
5. The nectar is secreted in such abundance that drops of it can be brought
down by shaking branches.
6. The flowers are generally odorless or without fragrance.

50
DIAGRAM

51
Date

Exp. No.

STUDY OF MEIOSIS IN FLORAL BUDS OF ONION

OBJECTIVE :

To study meiosis in onion bud cells through permanent slide.

REQUIREMENTS :

Permanent slides of different stages of meiosis in onion bud cells,

Microscope.

PROCEDURE :

1. Fix the permanent slide under the microscope.

2. First observe the slide under the low - power and then under high- power
of the microscope.

OBSERVATION :

Under the high- power of microscope, following stages of meiosis are

distinctly observed.

MEIOSIS I

PROPHASE I

It is of long duration and has 5 stages.

LEPTOTENE

1. Chromatin fibers condense and form thick thread like structure called
chromosomes.

2. Nuclear envelope and the nucleolus are distinct.

ZYGOTENE

1. Homologous chromosomes from pairs called bivalent. This pairing is

called synapsis.

52
DIAGRAM

53
 2. The individual of a pair are similar in length and in position of their
centromere.

PACHYTENE

1. The two chromatids of each chromosome become visible, so that bivalent

becomes a tetrad.
2. Crossing over (exchange of chromatid segments between homologous
chromosomes) take place between non- sister chromatids of homologous
chromosomes.
DIPLOTENE
The two chromosomes of each bivalent move away and homologous are
held together at one or more points called chiasmata.

DIAKINESIS

1. Homologous chromosomes appear thick and ring- shaped.

2. Nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear and spindle begins to be

formed.

METAPHASE I

1. The bivalent (homologous chromosomes) arrange themselves at the

equator of the spindle.

2. The spindle get attached to the centromere of the chromosome.

ANAPHASE I

1. The two chromosomes of each bivalent moves to the opposite pole.

2. Each pole has half the number of chromosomes with the two
chromatids each.

TELOPHASE I

1. The chromosomes at each pole uncoil, and nucleolus and nuclear

envelope reappear.

2. Cytokinesis occurs to form two haploid daughter cells.

INTERKINESIS

A very short interphase may intervene between Meiosis and Meiosis II.

54