1

Nag Hammadi Library 1972 and 1984. Teams of scholars from various
parts of the world have collaborated to pro-
HAROLD W. ATTRIDGE
duce critical editions and translations. A team
of primarily American scholars led by Robin-
Nag Hammadi, a town in Upper Egypt, was the son produced a one-volume English transla-
site of a major discovery of ancient documents, tion and a series of annotated critical editions,
attesting various strands of religious thought published by E. J. Brill in the Netherlands in
from the first centuries of the Christian era. the Nag Hammadi Studies series, subsequently
Nag Hammadi and Manichaean Studies from
1971. A Francophone team, headquartered at
DISCOVERY AND PUBLICATION the Université Laval in Canada, produced texts,
studies, and research tools in the series
In December 1945 two peasants, Muhammad Bibliothèque Copte de Nag Hammadi from
and Khalifah ‘Ali, were digging near Nag 1977, and a German team, the Berliner
Hammadi in the sand at the edge of the Nile Arbeitskreise für Koptisch-Gnostische Schri-
valley seeking the nitrate-rich earth (sebakh) ften, published Nag Hammadi Deutsch in
used for fertilizer. Instead they found a jar 2001–3. Some sixty-five years after the discov-
containing a collection of ancient writings. ery, the entirety of the discovery is thus gener-
Believing the books to be Christian, the ally available to both specialists and
brothers entrusted them to a local Coptic nonspecialists.
priest, Basilius ‘Abd al Masih. The priest’s
brother-in-law took one of the volumes, CREATION OF THE CACHE
Codex III, to Cairo, where it was acquired
by the Coptic Museum in October 1946. The accidental discovery consisted of twelve
Muhammad ‘Ali’s widow, after using parts of codices, and pages from a thirteenth,
one of the codices for fuel, sold the rest, which containing fifty-two tractates, of which six
were ultimately acquired by an antiquities appear in multiple copies. The language used
dealer, Phokion J. Tano, in Cairo. One volume, in these codices was Coptic, the native tongue
Codex I, marketed through a Belgian antiqui- of Egypt, written in an alphabetic script
ties dealer, Albert Eid, to European and largely derived from Greek. The treatises were
American collectors in 1949, was finally probably not originally composed in Coptic,
acquired by the Jung Institute of Zürich in but translated from Greek into at least two
May 1952. The new Egyptian government Coptic dialects in the third or fourth century.
under Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the Portions of some of the treatises survive in
rest of the collection. Greek (The Gospel of Thomas, The Sophia
Publication proceeded slowly. Some impor- of Jesus Christ, Plato’s Republic, A Prayer of
tant documents such as the Gospel of Thomas Thanksgiving) or Latin (Asclepius). Moreover,
saw the light of day in 1959. The contents of linguistic features of many texts indicate their
Codex I, the Jung Codex, were published in six Greek origin.
volumes between 1956 and 1975. Pressure Evidence within the codices hints at the
from international scholars led to the estab- situation in which the translations were assem-
lishment in 1970 of a team sponsored by bled. The leather bindings of the codices
UNESCO charged with the publication of the were stiffened with a filler, cartonnage or
find. Led by James M. Robinson of Claremont “cardboard,” consisting of discarded documen-
Graduate University, the team produced a tary papyri. Once recovered, these papyri
facsimile edition of the whole collection that revealed fourth-century dates, 341, 346,
appeared in twelve volumes published between 348 CE, as well as names, including that of a

The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, First Edition. Edited by Roger S. Bagnall, Kai Brodersen, Craige B. Champion, Andrew Erskine,
and Sabine R. Huebner, print pages 4680–4684.
© 2013 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Published 2013 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah05122
2

monk, Sansnos, who tended the cattle of a mon- 2 The Gospel of the Egyptians (Also IV, 2)
astery. Such data fueled speculation that all or 3 Eugnostos the Blessed (Also V, 1)
part of the collection was associated with 4 The Sophia of Jesus Christ (also BG 8502, 3)
Pachomian monks, who had two establishments 5 The Dialogue of the Savior
nearby, their headquarters at Pabau, 8.7 km
from the site of the discovery, and a monastery
at Chenoboskion, 5.3 km away. While the con- Codex IV
nection remains possible, the cartonnage does 1 The Apocryphon of John (Also II, 1; III, 1;
not provide direct evidence of a connection with BG 8502, 2)
either monastery. The dated papyri, however, 2 The Gospel of the Egyptians (Also III, 2)
indicate that the codices were manufactured in
the late fourth century.
The reason for hiding the collection is Codex V
uncertain. One reasonable hypothesis holds 1 Eugnostos the Blessed (Also III, 3)
that it may have been a response to the Easter 2 The Apocalypse of Paul
letter of Athanasius, patriarch of Alexandria, 3 The First Apocalypse of James
in 367, in which the champion of Nicene 4 The Second Apocalypse of James
orthodoxy defined the “canon” of authorita- 5 The Apocalypse of Adam
tive scripture and encouraged the destruction
Codex VI
of heretical works. This letter may have led
1 The Acts of Peter and the Twelve Apostles
owners of the codices to sequester their prob-
2 The Thunder, Perfect Mind
lematic possessions.
3 Authoritative Teaching
4 The Concept of Our Great Power
CONTENTS
5 Plato, Republic 588A–589B
6 The Discourse on the Eight and Ninth
The codices contain the following works, des-
7 The Prayer of Thanksgiving
ignated by Codex and tractate number:
7a. Scribal Note
8 Asclepius
Codex I
1 The Prayer of the Apostle Paul
2 The Apocryphon of James Codex VII
3 The Gospel of Truth (Also XII, 2) 1 The Paraphrase of Shem
4 The Treatise on the Resurrection 2 The Second Treatise of the Great Seth
5 The Tripartite Tractate 3 The Apocalypse of Peter
4 The Teaching of Silvanus
Codex II 5 The Three Steles of Seth
1 The Apocryphon of John (Also III, 1; IV,
1 and BG 8502, 2) Codex VIII
2 The Gospel of Thomas 1 Zostrianos
3 The Gospel of Philip 2 The Letter of Peter to Philip
4 The Hypostasis of the Archons
5 On the Origin of the World (Also XIII, 2) Codex IX
6 The Exegesis on the Soul 1 Melchizedek
7 The Book of Thomas the Contender 2 The Thought of Norea
3 The Testimony of Truth
Codex III
1 The Apocryphon of John (Also II, 1; IV, 1; Codex X
BG 8502, 2) 1 Marsanes
 3

Codex XI poorly preserved, treatise. Other volumes have

1 The Interpretation of Knowledge more disparate contents.
2 A Valentinian Exposition, with On the Many of the texts are closely associated with
Anointing, On Baptism A and B, and On early Christian movements that came to be
the Eucharist A and B considered heretical. Some have clear affinities
3 Allogenes with groups labeled by heresiologists as “gnos-
4 Hypsiphrone tics” (see GNOSIS, GNOSTICS, GNOSTICISM). Hence
the collection as a whole has often been
Codex XII described as a gnostic library. Scholars have,
1 The Sentences of Sextus however, become increasingly cautious about
2 The Gospel of Truth (Also I, 3) using the polemical term for describing
3 Fragments ancient religious movements. Depending on
its definition, “gnostic” may well be appropri-
Codex XIII ate for some of the Nag Hammadi treatises, but
1 Trimorphic Protennoia when applied to the whole collection it masks
2 On the Origin of the World (Also II, 5) the considerable diversity of religious belief
and practice represented. The following offers
The treatises offer an array of religious a general classification of the traditions
literature from the early Christian period. They represented.
range across a wide diversity of genres, includ-
Sethian texts
ing sayings collections (The Gospel of Thomas,
The Teachings of Sylvanus, Sentences of Sextus), The texts labeled “Sethian” (see SETHIANISM)
anthologies (The Gospel of Philip), apocryphal contain a series of common mythical features
letters (The Epistle of James, The Letter of Peter including an account of the emanation of the
to Philip), apocalypses or revelatory treatises spiritual world of “aeons”; the fall of one of
(The Apocalypse of Paul, The Apocalypse of them, Sophia, who generates an inferior deity,
Adam, The First and Second Apocalypses of often called Ialdabaoth, who creates the mate-
James, The Apocalypse of Peter), accounts of rial world; a retelling of the story from Genesis
the teachings of the resurrected Jesus (The of the first human beings, all of which deni-
Apocryphon of John), homilies (The Gospel of grates the creator. In opposition stand four
Truth, The Interpretation of Knowledge), apos- angelic “Illuminators.” Versions of the account
tolic legends (The Acts of Peter and the Twelve appear in heresiological sources including
Apostles), prayers (The Prayer of the Apostle Irenaeus (Haer. 1.29), who calls these sectar-
Paul, The Prayer of Thanksgiving), and theo- ians “Barbeloites”; Epiphanius (Pan. 26,
logical treatises in an academic style (The Tri- 39–40), who calls them “Sethians” and
partite Tractate, The Valentinian Exposition). “Archontics”; Pseudo-Tertullian (Haer. 2);
Within the collection two distinct subsets and Filastrius (Haer. 3).
(Codices IV, V, and VIII, and Codices II, VI, The Nag Hammadi works with affinities to
IX, and X) are distinguished by the style of this complex tradition are Apocryphon of John,
binding and quality of papyrus. The remainder Hypostasis of the Archons, Gospel of the
with bindings (I, III, VII, XI) do not share Egyptians, Apocalypse of Adam, Three Steles
distinctive traits. Some volumes comprise of Seth, Zostrianos, Melchizedek, Thought of
related materials, such as Codex V, which Norea, Marsanes, Allogenes, and the Trimorphic
consists almost entirely of apocalypses; or Protennoia. A related work is the Untitled Text
Codex VI, which with a diverse collection has from the Bruce Codex, a Coptic CODEX now at
several Hermetic texts. The treatises of Oxford.
Codex I have a predominantly Valentinian fla- The Apocryphon of John (see JOHN,
vor. One Codex, X, has a single lengthy, but APOCRYPHON OF) survives in four copies, three
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from Nag Hammadi and one from another Rome (see VALENTINUS/VALENTINIANS). Several
codex discovered in the nineteenth century prominent disciples, Ptolemy, Heracleon, and
and now in Berlin (BG 8502). It reports Theodotus, generated the opposition of
a revelatory dialogue between the resurrected heresiologists of the second and third centu-
Jesus and John, containing the characteristic ries, Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, and
description of the supernal world and the rad- Origen. Valentinians in general developed
ical exegesis of Genesis, as well as questions and a more philosophical version of speculative
answers about soteriology. and mythological systems.
The Apocalypse of Adam is an account by Some of the important Valentinian texts
Adam to his son Seth of a revelation given to are the GOSPEL OF TRUTH, a meditative homily
him by three heavenly beings predicting the on the revelation of salvific “knowledge”;
future coming of various revealers. the Treatise on Resurrection, an essay using
The Hypostasis of the Archons, or “Reality Pauline texts as part of an interpretation of
of the Rulers,” provides a graphic reading of resurrection as a contemporary spiritual
Genesis that offers an etiology of the inimical reality; the Tripartite Tractate, a lengthy
rulers of the material world. theological treatise of the third century,
The Gospel of the Egyptians, perhaps responding to criticisms lodged against
a secondary title for a work also known as developed Valentinian theology; the Interpre-
the Book of the Great Invisible Spirit, involves tation of Knowledge, a homiletic application of
considerable ritual material with mysterious scriptural verses to the life of divided commu-
chants. nity; a Valentinian Exposition, which treats
Four texts – Allogenes, Marsanes, Zostrianos, controversial issues in the school’s theology;
The Three Steles of Seth – involve accounts of the Gospel of Philip, an anthology of varied
ascents to the heavenly world. Members of materials, including some distinctly Valentin-
the Platonic school in Rome who valued this ian sources, particularly interested in the way
literature aroused the ire of the school’s words and rituals signify deeper meaning.
leader, Plotinus, part of whose Enneads (2.9)
was composed “Against the Gnostics” around
Other Christian texts
265–6 CE. His student and biographer
Porphyry names several texts prized by these Some texts resist facile categorization.
philosophers, including Zostrianos and These include the Gospel of Thomas (see
Allogenes (Life of Plotinus 16). THOMAS, GOSPEL OF), a collection of sayings of
Trimorphic Protennoia is an account by the Jesus, some paralleled in the canonical Gospel
“First Thought” of her descent in three tradition and some previously unknown, pur-
forms into the material world to rescue her portedly written by Didymus Judas Thomas,
fallen members. The text displays interesting the twin of Jesus. The introductory sayings
parallels to the prologue of the Gospel of John. suggest that all the sayings of Jesus have deeper
Several texts have looser affinities with the meanings, but the text gives no explicit clues
Sethian corpus, including The Gospel of about what they might be. The work displays
the Egyptians, Eugnostos the Blessed, and an interest in the discovery of the divine within
The Sophia of Jesus Christ, which seems to be the self and in extreme asceticism, also evident
a Christian reworking of Eugnostos. in The Book of Thomas the Contender.
On the Origin of the World, The Exegesis
Valentinian texts
on the Soul, The Concept of Our Great Power,
Other texts reflect the teachings of Christians The SECOND TREATISE OF THE GREAT SETH draw eclec-
inspired by Valentinus, a theologian and poet tically on various Christian and Greek tradi-
of the mid-second century who, according to tions to tell tales of origins. The Paraphrase of
Tertullian, was once a candidate to be bishop of Shem offers a distinctive account of the origins
 5

of the material world with elaborate sexual and techniques of various philosophical and
imagery. religious traditions.
Interest in alternative readings of early Some texts reflect a school of religious
Christian traditions is evident in The philosophy associated with the name of the
Dialogue of the Savior, which expands on say- Greco-Egyptian god Hermes Trismegistos.
ings of Jesus, and The Apocalypse of Paul These Hermetica include Asclepius, also
(see PAUL, APOCALYPSE OF), which builds on attested in Latin, The Prayer of Thanksgiving,
Paul’s reference to his heavenly ascent in 2 and the Discourse on the Eighth and the Ninth.
Corinthians. Other texts, The Sentences of Sextus, the
The Apocalypse of Peter (see PETER, APOCALYPSE Teachings of Sylvanus, contain general prover-
OF) offers a docetic account of the death of bial wisdom and moral instruction with little
Jesus, in which the spiritual Christ is seen by Christian material. One fragmentary text con-
Peter laughing at those who crucify his flesh. tains a garbled translation of a passage from
Another Petrine document, the Epistle of Peter Plato’s Republic.
to Philip, is also engaged with the problem
of suffering.
The First and Second Apocalypses of James, REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS
elaborating accounts of the martyrdom of the
brother of Jesus around 65 CE, connect Dunderberg, I. (2008) Beyond gnosticism: myth,
lifestyle and society in the school of Valentinus.
this revered figure with later speculative tradi-
New York.
tions. Melchizedek attests to speculation on the
Layton, B. (1987) Gnostic scriptures. Garden
mysterious priest-king mentioned in Psalm City, NY.
110 and Genesis 14, and cited by the Epistle Meyer, M. (2007) Nag Hammadi Scriptures.
to the Hebrews as a type of Christ. San Francisco.
The Acts of Peter and the Twelve Apostles Meyer, M. (2005) Gnostic discoveries: The
imaginatively recounts Peter’s meeting with impact of the Nag Hammadi library. San
a heavenly being, Lithargoel, who turns out Francisco.
to be Christ. This legendary work has little to Pagels, E. (1979) Gnostic gospels. New York.
offend orthodox sensibilities. Robinson, J. M., ed. (1988) The Nag
Hammadi Library in English, revised ed.
San Francisco.
Thomassen, E. (2008) Spiritual seed: the church
Non-Christian texts of the Valentinians. Leiden.
Turner, J. D., (2001) Sethian gnosticism and the
Whether Sethian gnosticism is a Christian phe- Platonic tradition. Sainte-Foy, Québec.
nomenon remains controversial, and some of Turner, J. D. and Majercik, R. (2000) Gnosticism
the Sethian texts here display only a superficial and later Platonism. Atlanta.
Christian veneer. Other texts are clearly not Turner, J. D. and McGuire, A. (1997) The Nag
Christian and instead manifest the concerns Hammadi library after fifty years. Leiden.