Torsion Test

1) Objective
i. To determine the modulus of rigidity, maximum shearing stress, maximum shearing
strain and Poisson’s ratio for the tested specimens
ii. To study the linearly elastic behavior of the tested specimens under torsion and to obtain
the relationship between torsional load and angle of twist for a full range of strain until
failure.

2) Introduction
In mechanics, torsion is defined as the twisting of an object due to the applied torque or
moment which will produce rotation along the longitudinal axis of an object. When the
applied torque is acted on a member, shear stress and deformation develop in response.
Torsion is a concern in the designing stage of axles or shaft which is use in power
generation and ultimately transmission. To achieve the specified objectives, the applied
torque is measured with respect to its angle of twist and using torsion formula, the shear
modulus, modulus of rupture and limit of proportionality will be determined. The failure
conditions were found via this experiment and comparisons were made between the
effectiveness between hollow and solid circular shaft respectively.

3) Background

3.1 Torque

Torque is simply the product of two parameters i.e. force and its perpendicular distance to a
point of turning. With torque administered, it produces torsion and hence rotation. It arises from
a force or forces acting tangentially to a cylinder or about a point. With a couple, consisting of
two equal, parallel and in oppositely directed forces, a torque or moment about the central point
will be produced.

In a circular rigid structure, when torque is engaged, there will be a resisting force. This force shall
be known as resisting torque for which is equivalent to the applied torque. It is the internal shear
 forces about the neutral axis expressed in terms of the sectional dimensions and the stresses. A
general expression for resisting torque is as stated in Equation (1).

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐽
𝑇= Equation (1)
𝑐

Where 𝑇 = Applied torque (Nm)

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Maximum shear stress acting perpendicular to radius at 𝑅 (N/m2)

𝑐 = Radius of circular structure (m)

𝐽 = Polar moment of inertia of the section (m4)

3.2 Torsion

Torsion, when experienced by a member, the principle maximum stress acting on the member is
inclined 45° to the axis of the bar being twisted as shown in Figure 1 i.e. minimal principle stress
experienced would be perpendicular to the inclined 45°, at 45° to the bar axis. This minimal
principle stress, σmin, should be equal to the negative of σmax. This hence indicates that the
member is being compressed; torsion puts member into compression state. When a member is
undergoing torsion, all planes that are either parallel or perpendicular to the axis will be having
a maximum shear stress. This means that the stresses are being spread throughout the twisted
member and hence, exhibiting ductility.

Figure 1 Stress elements Figure 2 Torsion failure along a 45 o helical surface

oriented at 45 o

A member is said to be ductile when it depicts having the capacity to deform before fracture. The
opposite is true for brittle member which demonstrate little capacity for plastic deformation
before fracture.
3.3 Hooke’s Law

Hooke’s law, law of elasticity, states that for relatively small deformations of an object, the
displacement or size of the deformation is directly proportional to the deforming force or load.
Under these conditions the object returns to its original shape and size upon removal of the load.
Within the elastic limit, shear stress, τ, can be acquired using the Equation (4) which relates it to
the angle of twist.

𝜏 =𝐺×𝛾 Equation (4)

Where 𝜏 = Shear stress (N/mm2)

𝐺 = Modulus of rigidity (N/mm2)

𝛾 = Helical angle (radians)

Alternatively, if one is to expressed it in terms of torsional angle,

𝑐
𝜏 = (𝐿)𝐺𝜑 Equation (5)

Where 𝜏 = Shear stress (N/mm2)

𝐺 = Modulus of rigidity (N/mm2)

𝜑 = Torsional angle (radians)

c = Radius of cylindrical shaft (mm)

L = Length of cylindrical shaft (mm)

The maximum shear stress applied i.e. at the external surface of the member, τ max = 16T/πD3
where T is the externally applied twisting moment.

From Figure 8, the stress-strain curve from the origin to point M is a straight line within the elastic
range is also known as the proportional limit (Hooke’s Law). Within the proportional limit, the
stress is directly proportional to strain i.e. 𝜎 ∝ 𝜖 or 𝜎 = 𝑘𝜖 where 𝜎 is the shear stress, 𝜖 is the
shear strain and 𝑘 is known as the modulus of elasticity or the Young’s modulus which is equals
to the slope of the stress-strain diagram when the member is in the elastic range.

Figure 8 Relationship of Torque against Angle of Twist for linearly elastic materials

Modulus of Rigidity, G can be determined by using Equation (6) for which in most cases, torsion
test is necessary to determine the value of which.

𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑘

𝐺 = 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 2(1+𝜇) Equation (6)

Where 𝑘 = Modulus of elasticity, Young’s modulus

μ = Poisson’s ratio

Poisson’s Ratio. Within the elastic limit, when a material is subjected to axial loads, it deforms
not only longitudinally but also laterally. Under tension, the cross-section of a member decreases
and under compression, it increases. The ratio of the unit lateral strain to the unit longitudinal
strain is called the Poisson’s ratio.

Alternatively, by substituting in Equation (1) into Equation (5) and rearranging the terms,
Equation (7) will be formed. Assumption that the member is only subjected only to torque, pure
torsion will be experienced by the member which in turn produces pure stresses.

𝑇 𝐺𝜑 𝜏
= = Equation (7)
𝐽 𝐿 𝑅

Utilizing Equation (7) is possible only for circular shaft that experience pure torsion and has linear
elastic properties. The quantity L/GJ is known as the torsional flexibility and is defined as the
angle of rotation produced by a unit torque. Its reciprocal is known as the torsional stiffness, GJ/L.
The shear modulus of elasticity, G of the material can be thus determined from this equation. By
conducting a torsion test and measuring the angle of twist produced by a known torque, the
value of G can hence be determined.

Plastic range

When the torque for which is applied to a member exceeds a certain value resulting in member not being
able to return to its original dimension (permanent change in helical angle) when this load is removed
totally, the member is said to display plastic deformation. Therefore, plastic deformation can be defined
as deformation in which there is permanent change to its dimensions or shape after the removal of
external load.

Tensile Strength

For most metallic materials, in order to cause continual elongation, increasing load must be
added. Reason being the material becomes tougher as it is plastically deformed. However,
beyond a certain load and elongation, plastic deformation can be observed at a very localized
region and at this point onwards, the cross-sectional area will start diminishing. This
phenomenon is known as necking. Thereafter, with decreasing cross-sectional area, the amount
of load necessary to drive the elongation would hence vary proportionally with the cross-
sectional area. This term is more often known as the ultimate tensile strength and is computed
by dividing the maximum load by the original cross-sectional area of the specimen. Therefore, it
is not the true tensile stress, which increases continuously to fracture due to diminishing area
with increasing stress incurred.

Yield point

In ductile materials, at some point, the stress-strain curve deviates from the straight-line
relationship i.e. beyond the elastic range, and the strain increases faster than the stress. From
this point on which might be the commencement of materials displaying plastic properties,
permanent deformation occurs at some points in the specimen and the material is said to react
plastically to any further increase in load or stress. The material will not return to its original,
unstressed condition when the load is removed. In brittle materials, little or no plastic
deformation occurs and the material fractures near the end of the linear-elastic portion of the
curve.
4) Apparatus

Vernier caliper marker pen

WP 500 torsion testing machine hexagon sockets

specimen ( brass and steel )

5) Procedures
i. The diameter and the length of the test specimen has been measured.
ii. A straight line has been drawn using pen marker on the specimen length in order to
observe the effect of twisting. Fixed both end of the specimen into the specimen holder.
iii. The specimen mounted between the loading device and the torque measuring unit.
Made sure that the shifting specimen holder of the load is in the mid position.
iv. Made sure that the specimen is not initially loaded. Turned on the hand wheel clockwise
to provide the applied load. Switched on the measurement amplifier and set it to zero.
The read out values is in the applied torque.
v. For the first rotation choose an increment of a quarter rotation (900 ), for the second
and the third rotation of a half rotation (1800 ) and the fourth to 8𝑡ℎ rotation of one
rotation (3600 ). For the 9𝑡ℎ to specimen fracture, take the reading of the applied load
and angle of twist for each 5 or 10 rotations.
vi. To calculated the angle of twist at the specimen, divided the rotations at the input by
the reduction ratio of 62. Usually, the fracture will occurred between 100 to 200
rotations and 200 to 300 rotations of the mild steel and brass material respectively.