[PTRL13H05/EAX_6_293] Enhanced Hydrocarbon Recovery

Reservoir Drive Mechanisms

and Producing Characteristics
� Module Code: PTRL13H05/EAX_6_293
� Title: Enhanced Hydrocarbon Recovery
� Modular weight: 10
� Examination weighting: 70 %
� Prerequisite modules: PTRL02H03.
� Reassessment: No restrictions.
� Internal Examiner/Module Leader:
� Semester taught: One
� Date of latest revision: August-2012
Content
o Revision of Primary recovery
o Secondary recovery; fractional flow and frontal advance equations,
o waterflood recovery calculations in homogeneous and stratified reservoir;
o Factors Influencing waterflood performance,
o factors affecting production performance; wettability, oil and water viscosities, formation
dip and Rate, Initial Gas Saturation, Stabilized and Variable Zones, Areal Sweep Efficiencies,
Vertical and volumetric sweep efficiencies,
o fundamentals of enhanced oil recovery;
o Enhanced Hydrocarbon Recovery Methods;
o Chemical Methods ( Polymer flooding, Alkaline flooding, Surfactant
o flooding and Alkaline Surfactant Polymer flooding approaches, design
o and performance and new techniques in chemical methods;
o Thermal Methods ( Steam injection , cyclic steam, and in-situ-combustion and new techniques in thermal
methods )
o Microbial Enhanced Hydrocarbon Recovery
o miscible displacement of CH4 by CO2 in depleted gas reservoirs;
o screening and selection of EOR methods and environmental factors
o associated with oil recovery.
o evaluating and monitoring of EOR projects , design a pilot project and
o example of case studies
 Assessment:

1. A 180 minute unseen written examination. This counts for

70% of the total mark and assesses learning outcomes 1, 2,
3, 4, 6, 8.

2. Oral presentation in EHR (15%) and in class coursework in

water flooding (15%) . This method carries 30% of the total
mark and assesses learning outcomes 1.5, 7,8,9
 Reading List
o S. Rose, J.Buckwalter and R.Woodhall” The Design Engineering Aspects of
Waterflooding” SPE monograph series, volume II, 2010.
o H. K. van Poollen and Associates, Inc , "Fundamentals of Enhanced Oil
Recovery",PennWell Books, ISBN: 0878141448 (1980)
o J. Papay, "Development of Petroleum Reservoirs", Ajademiai Kiado, Budapest,
ISBN: 9630579278 (2003)
o P.A. Dickey, "Petroleum Development Geology", Penn Well Books, ISBN: 0-87814-307-
6(1986)
o Robert C.Laudon, "Principles of Petroleum Development Geology", Prentice
Hall, ISBN:0136494684 (1995)
o E.Donaldson, G.Chilingrian, and T.Fu yen "Enhanced oil Recovery,II Processes
and Operations", Elseveir science publishers, ISBN: 0-444-42933-6 vol. 17 B
(1989)
o L.W.Lake,”Enhanced Oil Recovery”ISBN 0-13-281601-6 (1989)
Revision of Primary recovery
 Outline
� Major reservoir drive mechanisms for oil and
gas reservoirs
� Typical production characteristics for the
major drive mechanisms
� Typical recovery factor ranges for the different
drive mechanisms
 Reservoir Drive Mechanisms
• Oil
– Solution-gas drive
– Gas-cap drive
– Water drive
– Combination drive
– …….
• Gas
– Volumetric reservoir (gas expansion drive)
– Water drive
 Reservoir Energy Sources
� Liberation, expansion of solution gas
� Influx of aquifer water
� Expansion of reservoir rock
� Expansion of original reservoir fluids
� Free gas
� Interstitial water
� Oil, if present
� Gravitational forces
Solution-Gas Drive in Oil Reservoirs

Oil producing wells

Oil

A. Original Conditions

Oil producing wells

B. 50% Depleted

Cross Section
 Solution-Gas Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Reservoir type
• Only oil phase exists at original conditions.
• Pure solution-gas drive reservoir has no original
gas cap or aquifer.
Main source(s) of reservoir energy
• Liberation and expansion of dissolved (solution)
gas
• Expansion of reservoir rock, interstitial
(original) water, and oil are always present but
usually minor sources of reservoir energy for oil
reservoirs.
 Solution-Gas Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Reservoir behavior characteristics
� Reservoir rock/liquid expansion (oil and original water)
are main sources of reservoir energy in oil reservoirs
above pb.

� There is no free gas (original gas cap) present above the

pb

� Pressure reduction below pb of oil causes evolution and

expansion of dissolved (solution) gas.

� Liberated dissolved gas may segregate from oil phase

under gravity forces and form a secondary gas cap.
Solution-Gas Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Formation of a Secondary Gas Cap

Wellbore

Secondary
gas cap
 Solution-Gas Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Typical Production Characteristics
800 400
Oil production rate, STB/D

400

Gas/oil ratio, SCF/STB

600 300
Pressure, psia

Gas/oil
ratio 300

400 200
Reservoir 200
pressure
200 100 Oil production rate
100

0 0
0

Time, years

Recovery = 5 to 30% of OOIP

 Solution-Gas Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Reservoir pressure behavior

Initial reservoir
pressure

Bubblepoint
pressure

0 5 10 15
Oil recovery, % of OOIP
Gas-Cap Drive in Oil Reservoirs

Oil producing well

Oil Oil
zone Gas cap zone

Cross Section
 Gas-Cap Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Reservoir Type
• Free gas phase exists as an original gas cap above oil
zone
• Pure gas-cap drive reservoir has no aquifer

Main source(s) of reservoir energy

• Expansion of gas cap
• Liberation and expansion of solution gas in the oil zone
Gas-Cap Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Reservoir behavior characteristics
� As pressure declines, the gas cap expands downward and
lowers gas/oil contact.
� Expanding gas cap maintains original pressure at a higher
level than in a reservoir without an original gas cap
(solution-gas drive oil reservoirs).
� Higher reservoir pressure keeps dissolved gas in solution
longer; oil with more dissolved gas is less viscous and
moves more easily toward production wells.
� Expanding gas cap displaces oil downstructure and
effectively sweeps the portion of the reservoir occupied
previously by oil.
� Gas/oil ratios rise dramatically in wells overtaken by
expanding gas cap (wells "gas out“ or cone)
 Gas-Cap Drive in Oil Reservoirs Typical Production
Pressure, psia
Characteristics
1300
Reservoir pressure
1200
1100

Gas/oil ratio, scf/STB

1000
900 800
Gas/oil ratio
600
Oil production rate,

400
2 200
MSTB/D

0
Oil
1

Time, years

Recovery = 15 to 50% of OOIP

 Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Reservoir type
• Oil zone in communication with aquifer
• Pure water drive reservoir has no original gas
cap
Main source(s) of reservoir energy
• Influx of aquifer water
Types of aquifer
• Edge-water drive
• Bottom-water drive
 Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Reservoir behavior characteristics
• As reservoir pressure declines, aquifer water moves
into pore space vacated by oil.
• Pressure decline is relatively slow (stronger water
drive results in more significant pressure
maintenance).
• Gas/oil ratio is relatively low and stable.
• Majority of producing wells eventually experience
water breakthrough; water production increases.
• As wells produce water, oil production rate declines.
Many production wells eventually load up with
water and cannot be produced further.
Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Edgewater Drive

Oil producing well

Oil Zone

Water Water

Cross Section
Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Bottomwater Drive

Oil producing well

Oil Zone

Water

Cross Section
 Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Typical Production Characteristics
Pressure, psia

Gas/oil ratio, MSCF/STB

2300
2200 Reservoir pressure
2100
2000 Gas/oil ratio
2
1900 1 40

Water cut, %
0 30
Oil production rate,

100 Water
20
80 10
MSTB/D

60 0
Oil
40
20
0

Time, years

Recovery = 30 to 60% of OOIP

Combination Drive in Oil Reservoirs

Gas cap

Oil zone

Water

Cross Section
Basic drive mechanisms usually occur in combination.
� A large aquifer and a large gas cap can occur in a
reservoir simultaneously.
� Oil production pressure drop results in some
dissolved gas drive component in any oil reservoir
drive mechanism (even in water-drive and gas-cap
drive).

� Dominant drive mechanism depends on the

“strength" of each of the source(s) of reservoir
energy: size of original gas cap, "strength" of aquifer
(size and permeability), and degree of pressure
decline.
 Pressure and Gas/Oil Ratio Trends
100

Water drive
80
Reservoir pressure,
Percent of original

60

Gas-cap drive
40

20
Solution
-gas drive
0 0 20 40 60 80 100
Cumulative oil produced, percent of original oil in place
Reservoir pressure trends
Pressure and Gas/Oil Ratio Trends
5

Solution-
gas drive
4

Gas-cap drive
3

1
Water drive

0
0 20 40 60 80 100

Cumulative oil produced, percent of original oil in place

Gas/oil ratio trends
 Gas Reservoir Drive Mechanisms

� Volumetric reservoir (gas expansion drive)

� Water drive
 Volumetric Gas Reservoirs
Reservoir type
� Gas reservoir with no aquifer

Main source(s) of reservoir energy

� Expansion of original reservoir gas
� Reservoir rock and fluids expansion can be important sources
of reservoir energy for abnormally high-pressured gas
reservoirs.
Typical production characteristics
� Long flowing life.
� Slow decline in pressure
� Recovery = 70 to 90% of OGIP
 Water Drive in Gas Reservoirs
Reservoir type
� Communication with an aquifer
Main source(s) of reservoir energy
� Influx of aquifer water
� Expansion of original reservoir gas
Typical production characteristics
� Pressure declines more slowly than gas drive
� Can flow for a extended period until water production
occurs.
� Water production may cause the well to die.
� Recovery = 35 to 65% of OOIP
 Recovery factor

� The recovery factor is defined as the percentage

of the amount of hydrocarbon produced
(recovered) from the amount of hydrocarbon
initially in place.
 Average Recovery Factors
Oil Reservoirs

Average Oil Recovery

Drive Mechanism Factors,
% of OOIP
Range Average
Solution-gas drive 5 - 30 15
Gas-cap drive 15 - 50 30
Water drive 30 - 60 40
Gravity-drainage 16 - 85 50
drive
 Average Recovery Factors
Gas Reservoirs

Average Gas Recovery

Drive Mechanism Factors,
% of OGIP
Range Average
Volumetric reservoir 70 - 90 80
(Gas expansion drive)
Water drive 35 - 65 50
 Estimating Oil Recovery Factors

• Solution-gas drive - API study

 φ (1 − S )  0.1611  k  0.0979
ER = 41.8  wi
  
 B ob   µ ob 

0.1741
 pb 
(S wi )
0.3722
  
 pa  
 Estimating Oil Recovery Factors

• Water drive - API study

 φ (1 − S )  0.0422  kµ  0.0770
ER = 54.9  wi
  w
 B oi   µ oi 

− 0.2159 
 pi 
(S wi )
− 0.1903
  
 pa  
 Estimating Oil Recovery Factors

• Water drive - Guthrie-Greenberger study

ER = 0.272 log10 k + 0.256 S wi − 0.136 log10 µ o

− 1.538 φ − 0.0003 h + 0.114