Control System

TEE -
 Introduction
• Control System is an interdisciplinary field covering
many areas of engineering and sciences.
• Control system exists in many systems of
engineering, sciences and in human body.
• In recent years, control systems have assumed an
increasingly important role in the development and
advancement of modern civilization and
technology.
• Control systems are found in abundance in all
sectors of industry.
• Even the control of inventory, social and economic
systems may be approached from the theory of
automatic control.
 History
• 18th Century James Watt’s centrifugal governor
for the speed control of a steam engine.
• 1920s Minorsky worked on automatic controllers
for steering ships.
• 1930s Nyquist developed a method for
analyzing the stability of controlled systems
• 1940s Frequency response methods made it
possible to design linear closed-loop control
systems.
• 1950s Root-locus method due to Evans was
fully developed.
• 1960s State space methods, optimal control,
adaptive control and robust control.
• 1980s Learning controls are begun to
investigated and developed.
• Recent application of modern control theory
includes such non-engineering systems such as
biological, biomedical, economic and socio-
economic systems.
 Definition
Control system is that means by which any
quantity of interest in a machine, mechanism,
equipment or any process is maintained or
altered in accordance with a desired manner.
For example, water flow control, pressure
control, temperature control, light intensity
control, humidity control, automobile control,
traffic control, space shuttle control, robotics,
etc.
Any control system consists of three
essential components, namely input, system or
plant and output.
 Such type of configuration is known as
Open-Loop Control Systems. In these systems
output remains constant for a constant input
provided the external conditions and internal
parameters remain unaltered. The output may
be changed to any desired value by
appropriately changing the input.
It is represented by the block diagram:
 However if a feedback link is employed
along with a comparator (error detector) it
becomes a Closed-Loop Control System.

Input is generally termed as ‘Reference

Input’ while output as ‘Desired or Controlled
Output’.
 A closed loop control system is represented in
block diagram form as:

G(s) – Feed Forward Gain H(s) – Feedback Gain

R(s) – Reference Input C(s) – Controlled Output
B(s) – Feedback Signal E(s) – Error Signal

The above system is known as negative feedback

system and also as degenerative feedback system.
C(s) = G(s)E(s), B(s) = H(s)C(s), E(s) = R(s) – B(s)
E(s) = R(s) – H(s)C(s) → C(s) = G(s)[R(s) – H(s)C(s)]
→ C(s) + G(s)H(s)C(s) = G(s)R(s)
→ [1 + G(s)H(s)]C(s) = G(s)R(s)

If the feedback signal is fed with positive sign, we have

positive feedback system or regenerative feedback
system. In that case transfer function is
 Positive feedback is generally avoided as the
negative sign in the denominator indicates
possibility of the denominator becoming zero
thereby giving infinite output for a finite input which
is the condition of instability.
The purpose of feedback element is:
• To convert the unit of output to that of input.
• To convert the scale of output to that of input.
If both are same then we have unity feedback system.

Here, H(s) = 1
Effect of feedback
Suppose due to parameter variation G(s) changes
to G(s) + ∆G(s) [∆G(s) << G(s)], then for open loop
C(s) + ∆C(s) = [G(s) + ∆G(s)] R(s)
or, ∆C(s) = ∆G(s)R(s)
For closed loop,

As, ∆G(s) << G(s)

which is very small as compared to open loop case.

 Transfer Function
In control theory, functions called ‘Transfer
Functions’ are very often used to characterize the
input – output relationships of linear time invariant
systems.
The transfer function of a linear time invariant
system is defined as the ratio of the laplace
transform of the output (response function) to the
laplace transform of the input (driving function),
under the assumption that all initial conditions are
zero, i.e.
 All the systems are characterize by the set of
mathematical equations, generally, differential
equations. These set of equations is called model of
the system.
Once the model of the system is known, the
transfer function can be derived using laplace
transform. Considering the differential equation
Taking laplace,

Where, a’s and b’s are constants and for any physical
system n ≥ m.
Properties of transfer function are:
• It is ratio of two polynomials in ‘s’.
• It does not depend upon input and output but
depends upon the system elements.
• It assumes zero initial conditions.
• Coefficients of the power ‘s’ in the numerator as well
as the denominator are real constants.
• In all physical systems, the order of the denominator
is higher or at the most equal to the numerator.
• The concept of transfer function is applicable to
linear time invariant systems only.
• The highest power of ‘s’ in the denominator is equal
to the order of the highest derivative term of the
output. If the highest power of ‘s’ is equal to ‘n’, the
system is called an nth order system.
‘s’ is a complex variable having two components: a
real component and an imaginary component
i.e.
Analytical Functions:
A function G(s) of complex ‘s’ is said to be analytical
in a region if G(s) and all its derivatives exist in that
region.
Singular Points:
Those points in s – plane where the function G(s) in
not analytic.
Poles: The singular points at which the function G(s)
approaches infinity.
We know,

This function will approach infinity when P(s) = 0.

Zeros: The singular points at which the function G(s)
approaches zero, i.e. Q(s) = 0.
The solution of these equations give only finite poles
and zeros. For a rational function, the number of
poles are equal to the number of zeros. The
remaining zeros of the function lie at infinity.
Moreover, more than one pole or zero may lie at a
point. If ‘r’ such poles (or zeros) are there at a point,
then we have multiple poles (or zeros) at that point
with multiplicity ‘r’.
The concept of poles and zeros is very important as
these frequencies influence the stability and
transient behaviour of the system.
Examples:

For poles: s(s+1)(s+5) = 0; For zeros: (s+3)(s+4) = 0

Poles are at s = 0, -1 and -5; Zeros are at s = -3 and -4

Here, at origin i.e. at s = 0 there is a pole of multiplicity 2.

P(s) = 0 is called the characteristic equation of the transfer
function.
Transfer Functions of Physical
Systems
 Mechanical Translational System
Spring-mass-dashpot system:
F(t) is input and x(t) is output
k: spring constant, f: viscous friction
constant. By Newton’s law:
m.a = ∑ F

Take laplace with zero initial conditions

 Mechanical Rotational System
Here, J → Moment of inertia
T → Applied Torque
f → Viscous friction coefficient
ɷ → Angular velocity
α → Angular acceleration
Jα = ∑ T → Jα = - fɷ + T → Jα + fɷ = T
α = → J + fɷ = T; ɷ = →
Taking laplace with zero initial conditions,
(Js + f) ɷ(s) = T(s)
R – L – C Circuit
 Analogous Systems
The differential equations for mechanical and
electrical systems are identical. Such systems are
called analogous systems. The corresponding
quantities are called analogous quantities. The
analogous system concept is very useful as
instead of building a mechanical system it’s
analogous electrical system can be studied which
is quite simple. We can have two types of
analogies.
1. Force – Voltage analogy
2. Force – Current analogy.
 Force – Voltage Analogy

Mechanical System Electrical System

• Force F (Torque T) • Voltage e
• Mass M ( M. of I. J) • Inductance L
• Viscous Fric. Coff. f • Resistance R
• Spring Constant k • Reciprocal of Capac. 1/C
• Displacement x • Charge q
Angular displacement θ
• Velocity • Current i
Angular Velocity
 Force – Current Analogy

Mechanical System Electrical System

• Force F (Torque T) • Current i
• Mass M ( M. of I. J) • Capacitance C
• Viscous Fric. Coff. f • Reciprocal of Res. 1/R
• Spring Constant k • Reciprocal of Ind. 1/L
• Displacement x • Mag. Flux Linkage
Angular displacement θ
• Velocity • Voltage e
Angular Velocity
Block Diagram Algebra
 Block Diagrams
• A control system consists of a number of components.
In order to show the functions performed by each
component block diagram approach is used.
• It is a pictorial representation of the functions
performed by each component and flow of signals.
• It also depicts the inter – relationship between the
various components.
• In a block diagram, all system variables are linked
through functional blocks.
• It is not unique and different block diagrams may be
drawn for a given system based upon the view point
of analysis.
Output of a block = Transfer function of block x input
Transfer function
between E(s)
and B(s) is called
Loop transfer
function.

Feed forward transfer function

Closed loop transfer function

 Closed loop system subjected to
disturbance

The two inputs i.e. Reference and Disturbance

are treated separately. Output for both of
them are then added to get total output.
First R(s) = 0
Then, → 0 ( No effect of disturbance).

and → ( Independent of and )

Both are the advantages of feedback systems.

 Procedure for drawing block diagrams
Consider the RC circuit,

Taking laplace,
 Block Diagram Reduction Rules
• Shifting of feedback signal

• Break up of summing point

 Examples

1.
2.
3.
 Signal Flow Graphs
• For complex systems, the block diagram method
can become difficult to complete.
• By using the signal-flow graph model, the reduction
procedure (used in the block diagram method) is not
necessary to determine the relationship between
system variables.
• A signal flow graph is a diagram which represents a
set of simultaneous linear algebraic equations. In
case of linear differential equations they must first
be converted to linear algebraic equations using
laplace transform.
• It consists of a network in which nodes are
connected by directed branches.
• Each node represents a system variable and each
branch connected between the two nodes acts as a
signal multiplier.
• In each branch, signal flows only in one direction i.e.
It is unilateral.
• So it depicts the flow of signals from one point of a
system to another and gives the relationship
between the signals.
• Unlike block diagrams, no reduction is required as a
direct formula known as Mason’s gain formula is
available.
 Basic Definitions
• Node: A node is a point representing a variable or a
signal.
• Branch: A branch is a directed segment joining the
two nodes.
• Transmittance: The gain between the two nodes or
the gain associated with the branch.
• Input Node or Source: A node having only outgoing
branches. This corresponds to the independent
variable.
• Output Node or Sink: A node having only incoming
branches. This corresponds to the final dependent
variable.
• Mixed Node: A node having both incoming and
outgoing branches.
• Path: A path is a traversal of connected branches in
the direction of the branch arrows. If no node is
crossed more than once, the path is open. If the
path ends at the same node from which it began
and does not cross any other node more than once,
it is closed. If a path crosses some node more than
once but ends at a different node from which it
began, it is neither open nor closed.
• Loop: A loop is a closed path.
• Loop Gain: Product of the branch transmittances
forming the path.
• Non – Touching Loops: Loops are no – touching if
they do not posses any common node.
• Forward Path: Path from the input node (source) to
the output node (sink) which does not cross any
nodes more than once.
• Forward Path Gain: Product of branch
transmittances forming the forward path.
Properties of Signal Flow Graphs
• It applies only to linear systems.
• A branch indicates the functional dependence of one
signal upon another.
• A node adds signals of all incoming branches and
transmits this sum to all out going branches.
• A mixed node may be treated as input node (source)
or output node (sink) by adding an incoming or
outgoing branch of unity transmittance.
• For a given system, a signal flow graph is not
unique.
Consider the algebraic equation:
Mason’s Gain Formula
Example - 1

Forward Paths:

Two Non-touching Loops:

Individual Loops:
Transfer Function
Example - 2

Forward Paths: Individual Loops:

Two Non-touching Loops:

Three Non-touching Loops:

Transfer Function
Example - 3

Forward Paths:
Forward Paths:

Individual Loops:
Forward Paths:

Individual Loops:
Two non-touching loops:

No possible combination of three non-touching loops.