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Steel
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, and sometimes other elements. Because of its high
tensile strength and low cost, it is a major component used in buildings, infrastructure,
tools, ships, trains, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons.

Iron is the base metal of steel. Iron is able to take on two crystalline forms (allotropic
forms), body centered cubic and face centered cubic, depending on its temperature. In
the body-centered cubic arrangement, there is an iron atom in the center and eight
atoms at the vertices of each cubic unit cell; in the face-centered cubic, there is one
atom at the center of each of the six faces of the cubic unit cell and eight atoms at its
vertices. It is the interaction of the allotropes of iron with the alloying elements,
primarily carbon, that gives steel and cast iron their range of unique properties.
The steel cable of a colliery
In pure iron, the crystal structure has relatively little resistance to the iron atoms
winding tower
slipping past one another, and so pure iron is quite ductile, or soft and easily formed. In
steel, small amounts of carbon, other elements, and inclusions within the iron act as
hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations.

The carbon in typical steel alloys may contribute up to 2.14% of its weight. Varying the amount of carbon and many other
alloying elements, as well as controlling their chemical and physical makeup in the final steel (either as solute elements, or
as precipitated phases), slows the movement of those dislocations that make pure iron ductile, and thus controls and
enhances its qualities. These qualities include the hardness, quenching behavior, need for annealing, tempering behavior,
yield strength, and tensile strength of the resulting steel. The increase in steel's strength compared to pure iron is possible
only by reducing iron's ductility.

Steel was produced in bloomery furnaces for thousands of years, but its large-scale, industrial use began only after more
efficient production methods were devised in the 17th century, with the introduction of the blast furnace and production of
crucible steel. This was followed by the open-hearth furnace and then the Bessemer process in England in the mid-19th
century. With the invention of the Bessemer process, a new era of mass-produced steel began. Mild steel replaced wrought
iron.

Further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS), largely replaced earlier methods by further
lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the final product. Today, steel is one of the most common
manmade materials in the world, with more than 1.6 billion tons produced annually. Modern steel is generally identified
by various grades defined by assorted standards organizations.

Contents
Definitions and related materials
Material properties
Heat treatment
Steel production
History of steelmaking
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Ancient steel
Wootz steel and Damascus steel
Modern steelmaking
Processes starting from bar iron
Processes starting from pig iron

Steel industry
Recycling
Contemporary steel
Carbon steels
Alloy steels
Standards
Uses
Historical
Long steel
Flat carbon steel
Weathering steel (COR-TEN)
Stainless steel
Low-background steel
See also
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links

Definitions and related materials

The noun steel originates from the Proto-Germanic adjective stahliją or stakhlijan (made of steel), which is related to
stahlaz or stahliją (standing firm).[1]

The carbon content of steel is between 0.002% and 2.14% by weight for plain iron–carbon alloys.[2] These values vary
depending on alloying elements such as manganese, chromium, nickel, tungsten, and so on. In contrast, cast iron does
undergo eutectic reaction. Too little carbon content leaves (pure) iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents
higher than those of steel make a brittle alloy commonly called pig iron. While iron alloyed with carbon is called carbon
steel, alloy steel is steel to which other alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of
steel. Common alloying elements include: manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium,
tungsten, cobalt, and niobium.[3] Additional elements, most frequently considered undesirable, are also important in
steel: phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and traces of oxygen, nitrogen, and copper.

Plain carbon-iron alloys with a higher than 2.1% carbon content are known as cast iron. With modern steelmaking
techniques such as powder metal forming, it is possible to make very high-carbon (and other alloy material) steels, but
such are not common. Cast iron is not malleable even when hot, but it can be formed by casting as it has a lower melting
point than steel and good castability properties.[3] Certain compositions of cast iron, while retaining the economies of
melting and casting, can be heat treated after casting to make malleable iron or ductile iron objects. Steel is
distinguishable from wrought iron (now largely obsolete), which may contain a small amount of carbon but large amounts
of slag.

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Material properties
Iron is commonly found in the Earth's crust
in the form of an ore, usually an iron oxide,
such as magnetite or hematite. Iron is
extracted from iron ore by removing the
oxygen through its combination with a
preferred chemical partner such as carbon
which is then lost to the atmosphere as
carbon dioxide. This process, known as
smelting, was first applied to metals with
lower melting points, such as tin, which
melts at about 250 °C (482 °F), and copper,
which melts at about 1,100 °C (2,010 °F),
and the combination, bronze, which has a
melting point lower than 1,083 °C (1,981 °F).
In comparison, cast iron melts at about
Iron-carbon equilibrium phase diagram, showing the conditions
1,375 °C (2,507 °F).[4] Small quantities of
necessary to form different phases
iron were smelted in ancient times, in the
solid state, by heating the ore in a charcoal
fire and then welding the clumps together with a hammer and in the process squeezing out the impurities. With care, the
carbon content could be controlled by moving it around in the fire. Unlike copper and tin, liquid or solid iron dissolves
carbon quite readily.

All of these temperatures could be reached with ancient methods used since the Bronze Age. Since the oxidation rate of
iron increases rapidly beyond 800 °C (1,470 °F), it is important that smelting take place in a low-oxygen environment.
Smelting, using carbon to reduce iron oxides, results in an alloy (pig iron) that retains too much carbon to be called
steel.[4] The excess carbon and other impurities are removed in a subsequent step.

Other materials are often added to the iron/carbon mixture to produce steel with desired properties. Nickel and
manganese in steel add to its tensile strength and make the austenite form of the iron-carbon solution more stable,
chromium increases hardness and melting temperature, and vanadium also increases hardness while making it less prone
to metal fatigue.[5]

To inhibit corrosion, at least 11% chromium is added to steel so that a hard oxide forms on the metal surface; this is known
as stainless steel. Tungsten slows the formation of cementite, keeping carbon in the iron matrix and allowing martensite to
preferentially form at slower quench rates, resulting in high speed steel. On the other hand, sulfur, nitrogen, and
phosphorus are considered contaminants that make steel more brittle and are removed from the steel melt during
processing.[5]

The density of steel varies based on the alloying constituents but usually ranges between 7,750 and 8,050 kg/m3 (484 and
503 lb/cu ft), or 7.75 and 8.05 g/cm3 (4.48 and 4.65 oz/cu in).[6]

Even in a narrow range of concentrations of mixtures of carbon and iron that make a steel, a number of different
metallurgical structures, with very different properties can form. Understanding such properties is essential to making
quality steel. At room temperature, the most stable form of pure iron is the body-centered cubic (BCC) structure called
alpha iron or α-iron. It is a fairly soft metal that can dissolve only a small concentration of carbon, no more than 0.005%
at 0 °C (32 °F) and 0.021 wt% at 723 °C (1,333 °F). The inclusion of carbon in alpha iron is called ferrite. At 910 °C, pure

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iron transforms into a face-centered cubic (FCC) structure, called gamma iron or γ-iron. The inclusion of carbon in gamma
iron is called austenite. The more open FCC structure of austenite can dissolve considerably more carbon, as much as
2.1%[7] (38 times that of ferrite) carbon at 1,148 °C (2,098 °F), which reflects the upper carbon content of steel, beyond
which is cast iron.[8] When carbon moves out of solution with iron, it forms a very hard, but brittle material called
cementite (Fe3C).

When steels with exactly 0.8% carbon (known as a eutectoid steel), are cooled, the austenitic phase (FCC) of the mixture
attempts to revert to the ferrite phase (BCC). The carbon no longer fits within the FCC austenite structure, resulting in an
excess of carbon. One way for carbon to leave the austenite is for it to precipitate out of solution as cementite, leaving
behind a surrounding phase of BCC iron called ferrite with a small percentage of carbon in solution. The two, ferrite and
cementite, precipitate simultaneously producing a layered structure called pearlite, named for its resemblance to mother
of pearl. In a hypereutectoid composition (greater than 0.8% carbon), the carbon will first precipitate out as large
inclusions of cementite at the austenite grain boundaries until the percentage of carbon in the grains has decreased to the
eutectoid composition (0.8% carbon), at which point the pearlite structure forms. For steels that have less than 0.8%
carbon (hypoeutectoid), ferrite will first form within the grains until the remaining composition rises to 0.8% of carbon, at
which point the pearlite structure will form. No large inclusions of cementite will form at the boundaries in hypoeuctoid
steel.[9] The above assumes that the cooling process is very slow, allowing enough time for the carbon to migrate.

As the rate of cooling is increased the carbon will have less time to migrate to form carbide at the grain boundaries but will
have increasingly large amounts of pearlite of a finer and finer structure within the grains; hence the carbide is more
widely dispersed and acts to prevent slip of defects within those grains, resulting in hardening of the steel. At the very high
cooling rates produced by quenching, the carbon has no time to migrate but is locked within the face-centered austenite
and forms martensite. Martensite is a highly strained and stressed, supersaturated form of carbon and iron and is
exceedingly hard but brittle. Depending on the carbon content, the martensitic phase takes different forms. Below 0.2%
carbon, it takes on a ferrite BCC crystal form, but at higher carbon content it takes a body-centered tetragonal (BCT)
structure. There is no thermal activation energy for the transformation from austenite to martensite. Moreover, there is no
compositional change so the atoms generally retain their same neighbors.[10]

Martensite has a lower density (it expands during the cooling) than does austenite, so that the transformation between
them results in a change of volume. In this case, expansion occurs. Internal stresses from this expansion generally take the
form of compression on the crystals of martensite and tension on the remaining ferrite, with a fair amount of shear on
both constituents. If quenching is done improperly, the internal stresses can cause a part to shatter as it cools. At the very
least, they cause internal work hardening and other microscopic imperfections. It is common for quench cracks to form
when steel is water quenched, although they may not always be visible.[11]

Heat treatment
There are many types of heat treating processes available to steel. The most common are annealing, quenching, and
tempering. Heat treatment is effective on compositions above the eutectoid composition (hypereutectoid) of 0.8% carbon.
Hypoeutectoid steel does not benefit from heat treatment.

Annealing is the process of heating the steel to a sufficiently high temperature to relieve local internal stresses. It does not
create a general softening of the product but only locally relieves strains and stresses locked up within the material.
Annealing goes through three phases: recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth. The temperature required to anneal a
particular steel depends on the type of annealing to be achieved and the alloying constituents.[12]

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Quenching involves heating the steel to create the austenite phase then quenching it in water or oil. This rapid cooling
results in a hard but brittle martensitic structure.[10] The steel is then tempered, which is just a specialized type of
annealing, to reduce brittleness. In this application the annealing (tempering) process transforms some of the martensite
into cementite, or spheroidite and hence it reduces the internal stresses and defects. The result is a more ductile and
fracture-resistant steel.[13]

Steel production
When iron is smelted from its ore, it contains more carbon than is desirable.
To become steel, it must be reprocessed to reduce the carbon to the correct
amount, at which point other elements can be added. In the past, steel facilities
would cast the raw steel product into ingots which would be stored until use in
further refinement processes that resulted in the finished product. In modern
facilities, the initial product is close to the final composition and is
continuously cast into long slabs, cut and shaped into bars and extrusions and
heat treated to produce a final product. Today only a small fraction is cast into
ingots. Approximately 96% of steel is continuously cast, while only 4% is Iron ore pellets for the production of
produced as ingots.[14] steel

The ingots are then heated in a soaking pit and hot rolled into slabs, billets, or
blooms. Slabs are hot or cold rolled into sheet metal or plates. Billets are hot or cold rolled into bars, rods, and wire.
Blooms are hot or cold rolled into structural steel, such as I-beams and rails. In modern steel mills these processes often
occur in one assembly line, with ore coming in and finished steel products coming out.[15] Sometimes after a steel's final
rolling, it is heat treated for strength; however, this is relatively rare.[16]

History of steelmaking

Ancient steel
Steel was known in antiquity and was produced in bloomeries and crucibles.[17][18]

The earliest known production of steel is seen in pieces of ironware excavated from an
archaeological site in Anatolia (Kaman-Kalehöyük) and are nearly 4,000 years old,
dating from 1800 BC.[19][20] Horace identifies steel weapons such as the falcata in the
Iberian Peninsula, while Noric steel was used by the Roman military.[21]

The reputation of Seric iron of South India (wootz steel) grew considerably in the rest
of the world.[18] Metal production sites in Sri Lanka employed wind furnaces driven by
the monsoon winds, capable of producing high-carbon steel. Large-scale Wootz steel
production in Tamilakam using crucibles and carbon sources such as the plant Avāram
occurred by the sixth century BC, the pioneering precursor to modern steel production
and metallurgy.[17][18]
Bloomery smelting during
The Chinese of the Warring States period (403–221 BC) had quench-hardened steel,[22] the Middle Ages
while Chinese of the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) created steel by melting together
wrought iron with cast iron, gaining an ultimate product of a carbon-intermediate steel
by the 1st century AD.[23][24]

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There is evidence that carbon steel was made in Western Tanzania by the ancestors of the Haya people as early as 2,000
years ago by a complex process of "pre-heating" allowing temperatures inside a furnace to reach 1300 to 1400°
C.[25][26][27][28][29][30]

Wootz steel and Damascus steel

Evidence of the earliest production of high carbon steel in India are found in Kodumanal in Tamil Nadu, the Golconda
area in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, and in the Samanalawewa areas of Sri Lanka.[31] This came to be known as Wootz
steel, produced in South India by about sixth century BC and exported globally.[32][33] The steel technology existed prior
to 326 BC in the region as they are mentioned in literature of Sangam Tamil, Arabic and Latin as the finest steel in the
world exported to the Romans, Egyptian, Chinese and Arab worlds at that time – what they called Seric Iron.[34] A 200 BC
Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama, in the South East of Sri Lanka, brought with them some of the oldest iron and steel
artifacts and production processes to the island from the classical period.[35][36][37] The Chinese and locals in
Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka had also adopted the production methods of creating Wootz steel from the Chera Dynasty
Tamils of South India by the 5th century AD.[38][39] In Sri Lanka, this early steel-making method employed a unique wind
furnace, driven by the monsoon winds, capable of producing high-carbon steel.[40][41] Since the technology was acquired
from the Tamilians from South India, the origin of steel technology in India can be conservatively estimated at 400–500
BC.[32][41]

The manufacture of what came to be called Wootz, or Damascus steel, famous for its durability and ability to hold an edge,
may have been taken by the Arabs from Persia, who took it from India. It was originally created from a number of different
materials including various trace elements, apparently ultimately from the writings of Zosimos of Panopolis. In 327 BC,
Alexander the Great was rewarded by the defeated King Porus, not with gold or silver but with 30 pounds of steel.[42]
Recent studies have suggested that carbon nanotubes were included in its structure, which might explain some of its
legendary qualities, though given the technology of that time, such qualities were produced by chance rather than by
design.[43] Natural wind was used where the soil containing iron was heated by the use of wood. The ancient Sinhalese
managed to extract a ton of steel for every 2 tons of soil,[40] a remarkable feat at the time. One such furnace was found in
Samanalawewa and archaeologists were able to produce steel as the ancients did.[40][44]

Crucible steel, formed by slowly heating and cooling pure iron and carbon (typically in the form of charcoal) in a crucible,
was produced in Merv by the 9th to 10th century AD.[33] In the 11th century, there is evidence of the production of steel in
Song China using two techniques: a "berganesque" method that produced inferior, inhomogeneous steel, and a precursor
to the modern Bessemer process that used partial decarbonization via repeated forging under a cold blast.[45]

Modern steelmaking
Since the 17th century, the first step in European steel production has been the smelting of iron ore into pig iron in a blast
furnace.[46] Originally employing charcoal, modern methods use coke, which has proven more economical.[47][48][49]

Processes starting from bar iron

In these processes pig iron was refined (fined) in a finery forge to produce bar iron, which was then used in steel-
making.[46]

The production of steel by the cementation process was described in a treatise published in Prague in 1574 and was in use
in Nuremberg from 1601. A similar process for case hardening armor and files was described in a book published in
Naples in 1589. The process was introduced to England in about 1614 and used to produce such steel by Sir Basil Brooke at
Coalbrookdale during the 1610s.[50]

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The raw material for this process were bars of iron. During the 17th century it was
realized that the best steel came from oregrounds iron of a region north of Stockholm,
Sweden. This was still the usual raw material source in the 19th century, almost as long
as the process was used.[51][52]

Crucible steel is steel that has been melted in a crucible rather than having been forged,
with the result that it is more homogeneous. Most previous furnaces could not reach
high enough temperatures to melt the steel. The early modern crucible steel industry
resulted from the invention of Benjamin Huntsman in the 1740s. Blister steel (made as
above) was melted in a crucible or in a furnace, and cast (usually) into ingots.[52][53]

Processes starting from pig iron

The modern era in steelmaking began with
the introduction of Henry Bessemer's A Bessemer converter in
Sheffield, England
Bessemer process in 1855, the raw material
for which was pig iron.[54] His
method let him produce steel in
large quantities cheaply, thus mild
steel came to be used for most
purposes for which wrought iron

A Siemens-Martin steel oven from was formerly used.[55] The

the Brandenburg Museum of Gilchrist-Thomas process (or basic
Industry. Bessemer process) was an
improvement to the Bessemer
process, made by lining the
White-hot steel pouring out of an
converter with a basic material to remove phosphorus.
electric arc furnace.
Another 19th-century steelmaking process was the Siemens-Martin process,
which complemented the Bessemer process.[52] It consisted of co-melting bar
iron (or steel scrap) with pig iron.

These methods of steel production were rendered obsolete by the Linz-Donawitz process of basic oxygen steelmaking
(BOS), developed in 1952,[56] and other oxygen steel making methods. Basic oxygen steelmaking is superior to previous
steelmaking methods because the oxygen pumped into the furnace limited impurities, primarily nitrogen, that previously
had entered from the air used,[57] and because, with respect to the open hearth process, the same quantity of steel from a
BOS process is manufactured in one-twelfth the time.[56] Today, electric arc furnaces (EAF) are a common method of
reprocessing scrap metal to create new steel. They can also be used for converting pig iron to steel, but they use a lot of
electrical energy (about 440 kWh per metric ton), and are thus generally only economical when there is a plentiful supply
of cheap electricity.[58]

Steel industry
The steel industry is often considered an indicator of economic progress, because of the critical role played by steel in
infrastructural and overall economic development.[59] In 1980, there were more than 500,000 U.S. steelworkers. By
2000, the number of steelworkers fell to 224,000.[60]

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The economic boom in China

and India caused a massive
increase in the demand for
steel. Between 2000 and
2005, world steel demand
increased by 6%. Since 2000,
several Indian[61] and
Chinese steel firms have risen
to prominence, such as Tata
Steel (which bought Corus
Group in 2007), Baosteel
Group and Shagang Group. Steel production (in million tons) by country in 2007
As of 2017, though,
ArcelorMittal is the world's
largest steel producer.[62] In 2005, the British Geological Survey stated China was the top steel producer with about one-
third of the world share; Japan, Russia, and the US followed respectively.[63]

In 2008, steel began trading as a commodity on the London Metal Exchange. At the end of 2008, the steel industry faced a
sharp downturn that led to many cut-backs.[64]

Recycling
Steel is one of the world's most-recycled materials, with a recycling rate of over 60% globally;[65] in the United States
alone, over 82,000,000 metric tons (81,000,000 long tons; 90,000,000 short tons) were recycled in the year 2008, for an
overall recycling rate of 83%.[66]

As more steel is produced than is scrapped, the amount of recycled raw materials is about 40% of the total of steel
produced - in 2016, 1,628,000,000 tonnes (1.602 × 109 long tons; 1.795 × 109 short tons) of crude steel was produced
globally, with 630,000,000 tonnes (620,000,000 long tons; 690,000,000 short tons) recycled.[67]

Contemporary steel

Carbon steels
Modern steels are made with varying combinations of alloy metals to fulfill
many purposes.[5] Carbon steel, composed simply of iron and carbon, accounts
for 90% of steel production.[3] Low alloy steel is alloyed with other elements,
usually molybdenum, manganese, chromium, or nickel, in amounts of up to
10% by weight to improve the hardenability of thick sections.[3] High strength
low alloy steel has small additions (usually < 2% by weight) of other elements, Bethlehem Steel (Bethlehem,
typically 1.5% manganese, to provide additional strength for a modest price Pennsylvania facility pictured) was
increase.[68] one of the world's largest
manufacturers of steel before its
Recent Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) regulations have given rise to closure in 2003
a new variety of steel known as Advanced High Strength Steel (AHSS). This
material is both strong and ductile so that vehicle structures can maintain their
current safety levels while using less material. There are several commercially available grades of AHSS, such as dual-

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phase steel, which is heat treated to contain both a ferritic and martensitic microstructure to produce a formable, high
strength steel.[69] Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP) steel involves special alloying and heat treatments to stabilize
amounts of austenite at room temperature in normally austenite-free low-alloy ferritic steels. By applying strain, the
austenite undergoes a phase transition to martensite without the addition of heat.[70] Twinning Induced Plasticity (TWIP)
steel uses a specific type of strain to increase the effectiveness of work hardening on the alloy.[71]

Carbon Steels are often galvanized, through hot-dip or electroplating in zinc for protection against rust.[72]

Alloy steels
Stainless steels contain a minimum of 11% chromium, often combined with nickel, to resist corrosion. Some stainless
steels, such as the ferritic stainless steels are magnetic, while others, such as the austenitic, are nonmagnetic.[73]
Corrosion-resistant steels are abbreviated as CRES.

Some more modern steels include tool steels, which are alloyed with large amounts of tungsten and cobalt or other
elements to maximize solution hardening. This also allows the use of precipitation hardening and improves the alloy's
temperature resistance.[3] Tool steel is generally used in axes, drills, and other devices that need a sharp, long-lasting
cutting edge. Other special-purpose alloys include weathering steels such as Cor-ten, which weather by acquiring a stable,
rusted surface, and so can be used un-painted.[74] Maraging steel is alloyed with nickel and other elements, but unlike
most steel contains little carbon (0.01%). This creates a very strong but still malleable steel.[75]

Eglin steel uses a combination of over a dozen different elements in varying amounts to create a relatively low-cost steel
for use in bunker buster weapons. Hadfield steel (after Sir Robert Hadfield) or manganese steel contains 12–14%
manganese which when abraded strain-hardens to form an very hard skin which resists wearing. Examples include tank
tracks, bulldozer blade edges and cutting blades on the jaws of life.[76]

Standards
Most of the more commonly used steel alloys are categorized into various grades by standards organizations. For example,
the Society of Automotive Engineers has a series of grades defining many types of steel.[77] The American Society for
Testing and Materials has a separate set of standards, which define alloys such as A36 steel, the most commonly used
structural steel in the United States.[78] The JIS also define series of steel grades that are being used extensively in Japan
as well as in developing countries.

Uses
Iron and steel are used widely in the construction of roads, railways, other
infrastructure, appliances, and buildings. Most large modern structures, such
as stadiums and skyscrapers, bridges, and airports, are supported by a steel
skeleton. Even those with a concrete structure employ steel for reinforcing. In
addition, it sees widespread use in major appliances and cars. Despite growth
in usage of aluminium, it is still the main material for car bodies. Steel is used
in a variety of other construction materials, such as bolts, nails, and screws and
other household products and cooking utensils.[79]

Other common applications include shipbuilding, pipelines, mining, offshore

A roll of steel wool
construction, aerospace, white goods (e.g. washing machines), heavy
equipment such as bulldozers, office furniture, steel wool, tools, and armour in

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the form of personal vests or vehicle armour (better known as rolled homogeneous armour in this role).

Historical
Before the introduction of the Bessemer process and other modern production
techniques, steel was expensive and was only used where no cheaper
alternative existed, particularly for the cutting edge of knives, razors, swords,
and other items where a hard, sharp edge was needed. It was also used for
springs, including those used in clocks and watches.[52]

With the advent of speedier and thriftier production methods, steel has
become easier to obtain and much cheaper. It has replaced wrought iron for a
A carbon steel knife
multitude of purposes. However, the availability of plastics in the latter part of
the 20th century allowed these materials to replace steel in some applications
due to their lower fabrication cost and weight.[80] Carbon fiber is replacing steel in some cost insensitive applications such
as sports equipment and high end automobiles.

Long steel
As reinforcing bars and mesh in reinforced concrete
Railroad tracks
Structural steel in modern buildings and bridges
Wires
Input to reforging applications

Flat carbon steel A steel bridge

Major appliances
Magnetic cores
The inside and outside body of automobiles, trains, and ships.

Weathering steel (COR-TEN)

Intermodal containers
Outdoor sculptures
Architecture
Highliner train cars
A steel pylon suspending overhead
power lines
Stainless steel
Cutlery
Rulers
Surgical instruments
Watches
Guns
Rail passenger vehicles
Tablets
Trash Cans

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Body piercing jewellery

Low-background steel
Steel manufactured after World War II became contaminated with
radionuclides by nuclear weapons testing. Low-background steel, steel
manufactured prior to 1945, is used for certain radiation-sensitive applications
such as Geiger counters and radiation shielding.
A stainless steel gravy boat

See also
Carbon steel Rolling mill
Damascus steel Rust Belt
Galvanising Second Industrial Revolution
Global steel industry trends Silicon steel
Iron in folklore Steel abrasive
Knife metal Steel mill
Machinability Tamahagane, used in Japanese swords
Pelletizing Tinplate
Rolling Wootz steel

References
1. Harper, Douglas. "steel" (http://www.etymonline.com/?term=steel). Online Etymology Dictionary.
2. Prawoto, Yunan (2013). Integration of Mechanics into Materials Science Research: A Guide for Material Researchers
in Analytical, Computational and Experimental Methods (https://books.google.com/books?id=_3ClBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA
114). Lulu.com. ISBN 978-1-300-71235-0.
3. Ashby, Michael F. & Jones, David R.H. (1992) [1986]. Engineering Materials 2 (with corrections ed.). Oxford:
Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08-032532-7.
4. Smelting (https://www.britannica.com/technology/smelting). Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007.
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s.htm). Metallurgical Consultants. 2006-06-28. Archived from the original (http://materialsengineer.com/E-Alloying-Ste
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7. Sources differ on this value so it has been rounded to 2.1%, however the exact value is rather academic because
plain-carbon steel is very rarely made with this level of carbon. See:

Smith & Hashemi 2006, p. 363—2.08%.

Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 75—2.11%.
Ashby & Jones 1992—2.14%.
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Bibliography
Ashby, Michael F.; Jones, David Rayner Hunkin (1992). An introduction to microstructures, processing and design.
Butterworth-Heinemann.
Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003). Materials and Processes in Manufacturing (9th ed.). Wiley.
ISBN 0-471-65653-4.
Verein Deutscher Eisenhüttenleute (Ed.). Steel – A Handbook for Materials Research and Engineering, Volume 1:
Fundamentals. Springer-Verlag Berlin, Heidelberg and Verlag Stahleisen, Düsseldorf 1992, 737 p. ISBN 3-540-
52968-3, 3-514-00377-7.
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Applications. Springer-Verlag Berlin, Heidelberg and Verlag Stahleisen, Düsseldorf 1993, 839 pages, ISBN 3-540-
54075-X, 3-514-00378-5.
Smith, William F.; Hashemi, Javad (2006). Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
ISBN 0-07-295358-6.

Further reading
Mark Reutter, Making Steel: Sparrows Point and the Rise and Ruin of American Industrial Might (https://books.google.
com/books?id=bdkUfDoY24QC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Making+Steel:+Sparrows+Point+and+the+Rise+and+Ruin+
of+American+Industrial+Might&hl=en&sa=X&ei=NxHuVIe6DIzcoAS-oICICQ&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=M
aking%20Steel%3A%20Sparrows%20Point%20and%20the%20Rise%20and%20Ruin%20of%20American%20Indust
rial%20Might&f=false) (2005). Discussion with Mark Reutter, part 1 of 3 (http://therealnews.com/t2/index.php?option
=com_content&task=view&id=31&Itemid=74&jumival=13277) (February 2015), part 2 of 3 (http://therealnews.com/t2/i
ndex.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=31&Itemid=74&jumival=13284) (February 2015), part 3 of 3 (http://ther
ealnews.com/t2/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=31&Itemid=74&jumival=13298) (March 2015), The
Real News
Duncan Burn, The Economic History of Steelmaking, 1867–1939: A Study in Competition (http://questia.com/PM.qst?
a=o&d=3914930). Cambridge University Press, 1961.
Harukiyu Hasegawa, The Steel Industry in Japan: A Comparison with Britain (http://questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=1087
42046). 1996.
J.C. Carr and W. Taplin, History of the British Steel Industry (http://questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=808791). Harvard
University Press, 1962.
H. Lee Scamehorn, Mill & Mine: The Cf&I in the Twentieth Century (http://questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=94821694).
University of Nebraska Press, 1992.
Warren, Kenneth, Big Steel: The First Century of the United States Steel Corporation, 1901–2001 (http://eh.net/bookr
eviews/library/0558). University of Pittsburgh Press, 2001.

External links
Official website (http://www.worldsteel.org/) of the World Steel Association (worldsteel)

steeluniversity.org (http://steeluniversity.org/): Online steel education resources, an initiative of World Steel

Association

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Metallurgy for the Non-Metallurgist (https://books.google.com/books?id=brpx-LtdCLYC&pg=PA26&lpg=PA26&d#v=on

epage&q&f=true,) from the American Society for Metals
MATDAT Database of Properties of Unalloyed, Low-Alloy and High-Alloy Steels (http://www.matdat.com) – obtained
from published results of material testing

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