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programme of study resulting in the award of Bachelor of Science in (Electrical and
Control Engineering) is entirely my very own work, that I’ve got exercised care to make
sure that the work is original, and doesn't to the most effective of my information breach
any law of copyright, and has not been taken from the work of others save and to the
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i
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We would prefer to give thanks and express our deepest appreciation to Dr. Hady El
Helw, Department of engineering science, our Project Supervisor, for his guidance,
support, motivation and encouragement throughout the time this work was
administered. His readiness for consultation in the least bit of times, his informative
comments, his concern and help are priceless.

A special gratitude we give to our teacher assistant, Eng. Ahmed Magdy, who helped
us throughout our journey. We thank you so much for your valuable help and time.

We are additionally grateful to Professor Rania El Sharkawy, Head of department of

Electrical and Control Engineering, for providing the required facilities in the
department.

We would like to express our gratitude towards all the people who have contributed
their precious time and efforts to help us in completing this project, without whom it
would not have been possible for us to understand and analyze the project.

Finally, we would wish to thank our families for their support for us all the time our life.
Additionally we would like to thank Dr. Ismaeil Abd El-Ghaffar and everyone that
helped us within the past 5 years of our life.

ii
 ABSTRACT

There is always an increasing in the power demand because of the population growth
and the technology advancement. Countries all over the world are looking for clean,
efficient and cheap alternative resources for energy instead of nonrenewable resources.
Solar energy is one of the clear sources of energy.

Solar Energy includes solar thermal technology and solar photovoltaic systems. The
difference between these two kinds is illustrated in here. Solar PV provides electrical
clean power which is environment-friendly. However, photovoltaic panels have a non-
linear characteristics curve which shows fluctuations in the output power. These
fluctuations are because of the conditions that affect the PV panel performance. These
conditions are temperature and irradiance.

This thesis goes through how the PV works its components, its advantages and
disadvantages, applications, converters and our main aim which is how to track the
maximum power point of the PV. The output power of the PV is a function in its
terminal voltage. Any PV system consists of a solar Panel, MPPT algorithm and a
converter as the PV output is always DC.

There are many methods of MPPT. Eight methods are discussed in this thesis and one
of them is simulated using MATLAB/SIMULINK which is Perturb & Observe.
Artificial Intelligence methods have the highest efficiency. The chopper used in our
system is Boost converter. Our system has a load battery to evaluate the performance of
the PV as the conditions affecting our PV are varying. Our PV module is Sunny
International Power SPM-200SB105.

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................................VI

LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................................... VII

LIST OF ACRONYMS/ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................ VIII

LIST OF UTILIZED STANDARDS .........................................................................................................IX

LIST OF REALISTIC CONSTAINTS ...................................................................................................... X

1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 1

1.1 Renewable Energy ............................................................................................................ 1

1.2 Advancement of use of renewable energy ...................................................................... 2
1.3 SOLAR ENERGY............................................................................................................. 4
1.3.1 How to use solar energy .......................................................................................................... 4
1.3.2 Solar Thermal Technology VS Solar Photovoltaic Panels ...................................................... 4
1.3.3 Applications Based Solar Energy ............................................................................................ 5
1.4 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING .................................................................. 6

2 PV SYSTEM ........................................................................................................................................... 8

2.1 HOW PV PRODUCES ELECTRICITY ........................................................................ 8

2.2 COMPONENTS OF PV array ...................................................................................... 10
2.3 Partial Shading Effect .................................................................................................... 11
2.4 EFFECT OF TEMPRATURE AND IRRADIANCE PN PV PERFORMANCE ... 12
2.4.1 Effect of Temperature ........................................................................................................... 12
2.4.2 Effect of irradiance ................................................................................................................ 14
2.5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PV .................................................... 15
2.5.1 Advantages ............................................................................................................................ 15
2.5.2 Disadvantages........................................................................................................................ 16
2.6 KINDS OF PV PANELS[4] ........................................................................................... 17
2.6.1 Mono-crystalline solar panels................................................................................................ 17
2.6.2 Poly-crystalline solar panels .................................................................................................. 19
2.6.3 Thin Film Solar Panels .......................................................................................................... 21
2.7 APPLICATIONS BASED ON PV SYSTEMS ............................................................. 22
2.7.1 Grid-connected systems......................................................................................................... 23
2.7.2 Stand-alone systems .............................................................................................................. 23
2.8 CONVERTERS ............................................................................................................... 25
2.8.1 Buck Converter ...................................................................................................................... 25
2.8.2 Boost Converter..................................................................................................................... 26
2.8.3 Buck-Boost converter ............................................................................................................ 27
2.9 Batteries ........................................................................................................................... 27
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 29

3 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING ...................................................................................... 30

3.1 Maximum power point tracking .................................................................................... 30

iv
3.2 MPPT Algorithms ........................................................................................................... 31
3.2.1 Conventional Methods .......................................................................................................... 31
3.2.2 Artificial Intelligence Methods .............................................................................................. 36
3.2.3 Genetic Algorithm ................................................................................................................. 39
3.3 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 43

4 SIMULATIONS AND RESULTS....................................................................................................... 45

4.1 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 53

5 CONCLUSION..................................................................................................................................... 54

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................ 55

APPENDIX A .............................................................................................................................................. 57

v
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Renewable energy consumption all over the world ...................................................................... 2

Figure 2: Renewable Energy Consumption in Egypt.................................................................................... 4
Figure 3: PV System with MPPT ................................................................................................................. 6
Figure 4: PV Panel[3] ................................................................................................................................... 8
Figure 5: PV cell ........................................................................................................................................ 10
Figure 6: Cell to a module .......................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 7: PV curve for changing temperature at constant irradiance of 300W/m2 .................................... 12
Figure 8: IV curve for changing temperature at constant irradiance of 200 W/m2..................................... 13
Figure 9: PV curve for changing irradiance at constant temperature of 20C .............................................. 14
Figure 10: IV curve for changing irradiance at constant temperature of 20C............................................. 14
Figure 11: Monocrystalline PV Panel ........................................................................................................ 18
Figure 12:Polycrystaline panel ................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 13: Composition of thin film ........................................................................................................... 22
Figure 14: Grid connected system ....................................................................................................................23
Figure 15: Stand-alone system ................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 16: Buck Circuit .............................................................................................................................. 26
Figure 17: Boost Circuit ............................................................................................................................. 26
Figure 18: Buck-Boost Circuit ................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 19: Battery flow chart ..................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 20: P&O Flowchart ......................................................................................................................... 32
Figure 21: Incremental Conductance.......................................................................................................... 33
Figure 22:Fractional Short Circuit Current Flowchart ............................................................................... 35
Figure 23: Fractional Open Circuit Voltage Flowchart .............................................................................. 36
Figure 24: Neural Network Method ........................................................................................................... 37
Figure 25: Neural Network and Temperature............................................................................................. 37
Figure 26: Fuzzy Logic Control Process .................................................................................................... 39
Figure 27: Genetic Algorithm Flowchart ................................................................................................... 41
Figure 28: ACO Flowchart ......................................................................................................................... 43
Figure 29: System with no MPPT method ................................................................................................. 45
Figure 30: Output PV Curve Before MPPT ............................................................................................... 46
Figure 31: Simulations of PV ..................................................................................................................... 46
Figure 32: Calculations of PV current block diagram ................................................................................ 47
Figure 33: Calculations of reversed leakage current .................................................................................. 47
Figure 34: Boost Simulation ....................................................................................................................... 48
Figure 35: PV system with P&O ......................................................................................................................49
Figure 36: Irradiance change every 3 minutes ............................................................................................ 50
Figure 37: Temerature change every 3 minutes.......................................................................................... 50
Figure 38: Results of MPPT for power changes ......................................................................................... 51
Figure 39: Change in voltage from case 1 to case 2 ................................................................................... 52
Figure 40: Change in Voltage from case 2 to 3 .......................................................................................... 52
Figure 41: Oscillations before getting to the optimum duty cycle .............................................................. 53

vi
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Feedin tariff for energy production of renewable energy[2]........................................................... 3

Table 2: Case studies for figure 6 & 7 ........................................................................................................ 13
Table 3: Case studies for figures 8 & 9 ...................................................................................................... 15
Table 4: Comparison between 8 methods of MPPT ................................................................................... 44
Table 5: Cases under study......................................................................................................................... 46
Table 6: Parameters of Sunny International Power SPM-200SB105 ......................................................... 48
Table 7: Cases under study for P & O ........................................................................................................ 52

vii
 LIST OF ACRONYMS/ABBREVIATIONS

ACRONYM Definition of Acronym

AC Alternative current
ACO Ant Colony optimization
ANN Artificial Neural Network
D Duty cycle
DC Direct current
FLC Fuzzy logic control
FOCV Fractional open circuit voltage
FSCC Fractional short circuit current
GA Genetic algorithms
IC Incremental Conductance
I/P Input
K proportional constant
MPP Maximum power point
MPPT Maximum power point tracking
O/P Output
PSO Practical swarm optimization
PV Photovoltaic
P&O Perturb and Observe
SI Silicon
WHR Watt hour

viii
 LIST OF UTILIZED STANDARDS

• 1184- 1994 Guide for the selection and sizing of batteries for uninterruptible
power system.
• 1346- 1998 Recommended practice for evaluating electric power system
compatibility with electronics process equipment
• Data sheet for PV Sunny International Power SPM-200SB105

ix
 LIST OF REALISTIC CONSTAINTS

1. Project expenses were so heavy.

2. Size of the battery.

3. The rating of the boost converter

x
 Chapter One

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 RENEWABLE ENERGY

A regularly developing population implies a consistently developing vital prerequisite.

These days, tremendous requirement of energy can't be denied. It is basic in different
aspects. Energy can be derived from renewable or non-renewable resources. Knowing
the horrible reality that non-renewable resources will end eventually, the significance of
renewable resources can't be belittled. Nowadays, wise use of energy is a hot debate. It
is exceptionally fundamental to pick which resource of energy must be utilized and
why.

Mainly, tidiness, cost, security, proficiency and natural impacts must be considered.
Yet, fossil fuel is still utilized for electricity generation in many places all over the
world. These energizes proved to be exceptionally effective especially for the quality
concern. Yet over the long run they are not favourable. Non-renewable energy resources
will drain one day and must be replaced with renewable resources.

In addition, these fuels represent a tremendous danger to the nature and are a reason for
some environmental risks.

Renewable energy may be solar energy which is the cleanest type, tidal energy, wind
energy and hydro energy. It may also be geothermal energy which is the heat from
under the earth or biomass energy and it means heat generated from the burning of
organic materials coming from living organisms.[1]

1
1.2 ADVANCEMENT OF USE OF RENEWABLE ENERGY

[2]In the light of the fact that bio-mass fuels are about to end, countries all over the
world started to aim for 100% clean energy. As shown in figure 1-1, the production of
modern renewable energy increased about 5-6 fold times in 2016 than that of 1965.
5.9TWhr were produced out of renewable energy sources in 2015. China has the largest
installed solar photovoltaic panels which equals 78.7GW and largest solar energy
consumption of 66TWhr.

Figure 1: Renewable energy consumption all over the world

In Egypt, the government approved the electricity feed-in tariff system in September
2014 to encourage the production of electricity from renewable sources (sun and wind).
A feed-in tariff is when the retailer pays someone for excess electricity generated by his

2
PV system and not utilized by him. The aim is to increase renewable energy production
in Egypt and to produce a capacity of 2300 MW using PV and capacity of 2000 MW
using wind. Table 1 shows the feed-in tariff for PV projects. It really resulted in the
increase of renewable energy projects as shown in figure 2.

Table 1: Feedin tariff for energy production of renewable energy

Duration of Feed-in tariff levels in

Capacity Source of finance
the support Pt/kWh

Self-finance OR
soft loan from the
Less than 200 kW 84.8
Ministry of Finance
(4% interest rate)

Self-finance WITH
soft term from
90.1
Ministry of Finance
(4% interest rate)

Local finance with

25 years
local currency
WITH soft terms
200 kW – 500 kW 97.3
from the Ministry
of Finance (8%
interest rate)

500 kW – 20 MW Foreign finance 97.3

3
 Figure 2: Renewable Energy Consumption in Egypt

1.3 SOLAR ENERGY

1.3.1 How to use solar energy

Solar energy is the energy obtained from the sun. It may be used by solar thermal
technology or photovoltaic panels. It is essential to understand that solar thermal
technology isn't like photovoltaic panels, or photovoltaic.

1.3.2 Solar Thermal Technology VS Solar Photovoltaic Panels

Solar thermal technology is utilized for water heating. It focuses the light from the sun
to produce heat, and that heat is utilized to run an engine, which turns a generator to
produce power. The working fluid that is heated by the concentrated daylight can be a
liquid or a gas. Diverse working fluids are utilized as water, oil, melted salts, air,
nitrogen, helium, and so forth.

Distinctive motor types are used as steam engines, gas turbines, and so forth. These
motors can be very effective, with efficiency frequently somewhere in the range of 30%
and 40%, and are fit for delivering up to 100's of megawatts of power. It's a

4
straightforward innovation: the boards on your rooftop collect sunlight, consequently
warming up the fluid in the cylinders which is then transported into your chamber
prepared to be utilized.

On the other hand, Photovoltaic panels are newer technology compared to solar thermal
technology. They are straightforwardly changing over the daylight into power. They
take in daylight and change it into electricity by using a silicon based technology. This
implies that PV panels are just viable during sunlight hours in light of the fact that
storing electrical power is certifiably not an especially effective process.

1.3.3 Applications Based Solar Energy

Warmth stockpiling is a far less demanding and effective strategy, which is the thing
that makes sun powered warm so appealing for expansive scale vitality generation. Heat
can be put away during the day and afterwards changed over into power around evening
time. Solar energy plants that have capacity limits can definitely enhance both the
financial matters and the dispatch-ability of sun oriented power.

Solar thermal technology is used in Solar Water Heater, sea water desalination and
industrial process heat. It may also be used in crop drying for handling and storage of
grains and district heating. On the other hand, PV Power systems can be used in water
pumping, solar lighting and solar power cathodic Protection. They may also be used in
charging vehicle batteries, portable solar generators, various public utility systems and
electrical energy for remote areas.

From the pros of solar thermal technology systems is that its requires less space than PV
and can collect heat energy more than PV approximately 70% more efficient.
Furthermore it’s less complicated in implementation than PV and also an efficient tool
for heating water.

On the other hand it’s less efficient in other seasons than summer with shorter and it is
very hard to find the provider that can fit your needs. Photovoltaic panels have lots of
advantages maybe even more like solar thermal technology. They can give clean
environmentally friendly power for around 30 years as they have longer life time than
solar thermal technology.

5
Besides, they are excellent in summer and will not be affected in winter. PV panels can
give around half of the requirements of a regular house. in addition they can cover the
necessities of apparatuses with high energy usage for example cooler dryer etc. On
account of the feed-in tariff; PV systems has much shorter payback period than other
green power solutions. On the other hand they have high capital cost and needs larger
space than thermal solar technology systems.

1.4 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING

The energy provided by the PV system from one or more solar cells depends on
radiation of sun and the temperature. The efficiency of a solar cell is very low, it’s only
about 12-20 %. The efficiency can drop further due to solar panel temperature and load
condition.

In order to increase the efficiency, many methods have been developed in order to track
the MPP and operate the PV array at the MPP point. These methods are commonly
called maximum power point tracking (MPPT). In the MPPT method, a controlled DC-
DC converter circuit is used to reach the maximum power point. This MPPT method
does not require large power so it is more efficient to apply.

Figure 3: PV System with MPPT

6
The MPPT tracks the output voltage and current from the solar cell and determines the
operating point that will deliver the maximum power. There are several methods to
obtain MPPT, such as: Perturb and Observe, Incremental Conductance, Fractional
Open-Circuit Voltage, Fractional Short-Circuit Current, Fuzzy Logic Controller,
artificial Neural Network, Genetic methods as ACO and many other methods.

7
 Chapter Two

2 PV SYSTEM

2.1 HOW PV PRODUCES ELECTRICITY

▪ Photovoltaic voltages are the direct conversion of light into electricity that occurs in
a semiconductor device. This process is known as the photoelectric effect, which
soaks up photons of light and release electrons. These free electrons can produce a
current that can be used as electrical energy by using semiconductor cells which
made of Silicon.

Figure 4: PV Panel[3]

8
The process goes as following:

1. The sheet of pure silicon is used to make a cell. The top of the wafer consists
of “n” dopant such as the phosphorous. The base of the wafer consists of a
“p” dopant such as boron.
2. Dopants are similar in atomic structure. The n-type has an excess of
electrons, and the p-type has missing electrons. These dopants help create
the electric field that motivates the energetic electron out of the cell created
when the light shines on it.
3. Free electrons flow from the n-layer into the p-layer, then two layers are
separated by an n-p junction.
4. When the light of the sun shines on the cell, photons of light strike the
electrons in the p-n junction and energize them that makes them free of their
atoms, These electrons are attracted to the positive charge in the n-type
silicon and repelled by the negative charge in the p-type silicon. This action
actually occurs in the silicon base.
5. The photons in light displace the electrons in the p side. Some of these
displaced electrons have sufficient energy to pass through the n-p junction to
the n side. A potential is developed between the n and p layers. For silicon,
this potential is approximately 0.5 volt. If electrical conductors are attached
to the positive and negative sides, the electrons can be captured in the form
of an electric current.

9
 Figure 5: PV cell[4]

PV cells are connected together to form larger units called modules to generate more
power. The current is produced is dependent on how much light strikes the module.
Modules of PV are located between two sheets the front sheet is glass, and the backing
sheet, usually glass or plastic, to protect them from breakage and atmospheric
conditions. There is also an aluminum layer around two sheets to support structure.

2.2 COMPONENTS OF PV ARRAY

A cell is the main component of a module which is assembled with other modules to
form a string, which lastly forms an array. A cell is a semiconductor material which
converts daylight to DC electrical current. Silicon solar cell produces electricity
depending on the doping, area of the cell, irradiance and temperature. Interconnecting a
group of cells in a weather conditions resistant package forms what is called a module.

10
 Figure 6: Cell to a module

Number of modules is connected series and parallel to form what is called a string. A
string voltage equals the lowest sum of the voltage of series cells in a branch while its
current equals the output current of parallel branch of cells. A large number of strings
are interconnected to form an array.[5]

2.3 PARTIAL SHADING EFFECT

If one module is shaded, the whole string may lose power due to the loss of the current.
After many researches were made into this topic, a bypass diode and a blocking diode
were the perfect solution. A bypass diode is connected anti-parallel to each solar cell.
This is done to allow current to flow through them in case of shading. This may cause a
drop in voltage. A blocking diode is added to block current from flowing back to the
branch with lowest voltage.[6]

11
2.4 EFFECT OF TEMPRATURE AND IRRADIANCE PN PV
PERFORMANCE

2.4.1 Effect of Temperature

The temperature affects the output of the photovoltaic panel. This is because the voltage
decreases as the temperature increase. For every PV, there is a temperature coefficient
to indicate the effect of temperature on the output power. It defines the rate of change of
the parameters with respect to the temperature.

Figure 7: PV curve for changing temperature at constant irradiance of 300W/m2

12
 Figure 8: IV curve for changing temperature at constant irradiance of 200 W/m2

Table 2: Case studies for figure 6 & 7

Case Temperature (ºC)

Case 1 20

Case 2 30

Case 3 40

Case 4 50

As shown in Figure 7 and Figure 8, as the temperature increase the voltage decrease but
the current isn`t much affected. The Voltage is dependent in this case on temperature.

How to prevent such a decrease in efficiency

1. Install the panels on a high place to get enough air for cooling.

2. Put components as inverters in a shaded place.

3. Thin film is designed for places with high hot weather conditions, so if it’s not a
residential place and space efficiency is not needed; it will be the best option.

13
2.4.2 Effect of irradiance
On the other hand, changing irradiance affects current and doesn`t affect the voltage
very much. As the irradiance increase as the current highly increases, hence the output
power increases.

Figure 9: PV curve for changing irradiance at constant temperature of 20C

Figure 10: IV curve for changing irradiance at constant temperature of 20C

14
 Table 3: Case studies for figures 8 & 9

Case Irradiance (W/m2)

Case 1 200

Case 2 400

Case 3 600

Case 4 800

Figure 9 shows that as irradiance increases as the output power increases but the voltage
isn`t affected much. On the other hand, figure 10 proves that as irradiance increases as
the current significantly increases.

2.5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PV

2.5.1 Advantages

1. Environmentally friendly: During electricity generation with photovoltaic panels

there is no harmful gas emissions because no use of fuels.

2. Solar photovoltaic systems need light to create energy so it will work on days when
the sun is not shining and it will still generate some electricity when the sun is
covered by clouds.

3. Solar power helps lower electric bills because its cost is low so solar PV panels have
indeed a highly promising future for economically.

4. There is little maintenance for a solar PV system, so operating and maintenance

costs are considered to be low, compared to costs of other renewable energy
systems.

5. The solar cells do not create sounds while producing electricity, they are a perfect
solution for residential areas.

15
6. Our fossil fuels in the world are rapidly decreasing, so we will have to find
alternative fuels soon, and the best alternative is renewable energy. The best way to
extract energy from renewable energy is to use PV.

7. PV panels are one of the major renewable energy systems that the government is
subsidization so solar panels are an attractive investment alternative.

8. The method of installing solar panels on the roofs of houses is very easy and, it does
not need to change the design of houses.

9. It has a long lifetime, up to 30 years.[7]

2.5.2 Disadvantages

1. The sun does not shine at night but also during some day, there may be cloudy or
rainy weather and this leads to decreasing the output power.

2. Solar PV panels are more expensive than solar thermal panels.

3. Solar panels produce electricity only during the day so batteries should be used to
charge and use them during the night and this leads to increase the cost.

4. Relatively large areas are required for PV panels installation.

5. The efficiency of Solar panels is low compared to the efficiency of other renewable
energy systems.[7]

16
2.6 KINDS OF PV PANELS[8]

2.6.1 Mono-crystalline solar panels

Mono-crystalline solar panels composed of cells which are called single crystalline solar
(Single crystal-Si). They are made as the following process shows[9]:

1. A silicon crystal is put in a container containing silicon which is melted which acts as
a small seed.

2. That crystal is slowly combined with the silicon in the container.

3. After a while solid crystals structure is made around that seed which is called ingots.

4. Four sides are cut out of this product to form very thin disks which gives those panels
its appearance.

5. After testing, they must be laminated and put into the finals shape.

17
They are easily recognized from their color and the uniform appearance. That shows to
what extent the silicon in them is very pure. Single Crystal Si exists in silicon bars
which look like cylinders. They have a dark black color. Almost all their advantages and
disadvantages come out of the fact that they are made of highly purified silicon. It has
efficiency of 15-20%.

Figure 11: Monocrystalline PV Panel

Advantages

1. They have the highest efficiency.

2. No matter how much power it has as an output, yet it still has the smallest size.

3. As shown in many datasheets, their life time is very long. It may be up to 25

years and more.

4. They are not severely affected with high temperatures as other types.

Disadvantages

1. They are the most expensive kind of panels.

2. They have a very big amount of silicon as waste.

18
2.6.2 Poly-crystalline solar panels:

Poly-crystalline is called also multi-silicon cells. It was firstly developed when the
industry started in the 1980s. Polycrystalline panels do not undergo the cutting process
as mono crystalline panels. The efficiency ranges between 12%-16%. The efficiency
ranges between 12%-16%. They undergo the following process[9]:

1. A large number of small silicon crystals that are melted.

2. Other elements such as boron or phosphorus are mixed with the molten silicon
to give it different properties.

3. The molten silicon is poured into square shape molds.

4. Molten silicon is cooled to form a block of silicon.

5. It is cut into perfectly square sheets that are light and dark blue colour.

Figure 12:Polycrystaline panel

19
Advantages

1. The total cost of Polycrystalline is lowered due to manufacturing processes.

2. It is become the predominant technology on the residential solar panels market.

3. The waste amount of silicon is reduced.

4. The most popular solar panels globally, primarily due to a production expansion
in China over the last years.

5. The range of power ratings of polycrystalline is large, it afforded from 5 W to

250 W or more, it is used in both residential and commercial installations.

6. The number of panels made is more than that of monocrystalline.

Disadvantages

1. Lower efficiency due to the use of low purity silicon

2. If shades came across about 20% of the panel could result in a 50% drop in
efficiency.

3. Polycrystalline panels are not heat resistant. This means that in high
temperatures they are less effective.

4. It needs a large surface to output the same electrical power which out from
monocrystalline silicon.

5. High temperature causes them to have shorter life time.

20
2.6.3 Thin Film Solar Panels

Thin film is a new technology that is being introduced and expected to show success as
improvements are made in the next 10 years. [10]It has many methods as:

• Amorphous silicon (a-Si)

• Cadmium telluride (CdTe)

• Copper indium gallium selenide (CIS/CIGS)

• Organic photovoltaic cells (OPC)

They are made by depositing a molten metal which photovoltaic on a surface which is
usually glass. The method is named according to the metal deposited. The main
difference between thin film technologies and crystalline silicon solar panels is that the
final product before lamination in crystalline silicon solar panels is directly made on a
big surface as glass directly. The whole process is done one big surfaces which are
known as substrates. The panels have solid black shape and may or may not have a
frame. The process that the thin film goes through is as following:

1. It needs deposition of three rows: base electrode, semiconductor and transparent

window conductor.

2. On the glass surface the base sheet is put and above it the semiconductor and at the
top the transparent window conductor.

3. The window has higher bond gaps in order to transmit as much as possible of the
sunlight to the sheet beneath it and highly doping to decrease the resistance.

4. Charges are generated in the semiconductor sheet. The technology takes the name
after the material used.

5. A number of thin film layers are put together to have a good output.

21
 Figure 13: Composition of thin film

Advantages

1. They are cheap which facilitates mass production.

2. Better appearance

3. Flexibility

4. High temperature and partial shading effects are much less harmful

Disadvantages

1. They require large space which makes them not applicable for residential needs.

2. Large space need results in more equipment as wiring and so.

3. Shortest lifetime

2.7 APPLICATIONS BASED ON PV SYSTEMS

As the demand for electricity increases as we look more for alternative energy
resources. As PV systems are only effective in daylight, a backup system or batteries

22
must be to operate in all times. Solar energy may be used in many applications. These
applications may be categorized under two groups which are grid-connected (utility
interactive) systems and stand-alone systems.

2.7.1 Grid-connected systems:

In grid-connected systems, PV arrays are connected to inverters to convert DC produced

by the PVs to AC. The electricity produced by can be used directly by appliances in our
home or can be sold to the government. A backup system is used for times when there is
no daylight. These systems are usually used to cut off the cost of electricity used.
Besides, these systems may also be used for peak hours.

Figure 14: Grid connected system

2.7.2 Stand-alone systems

Stand-alone systems use the generated electricity directly. They are not connected to the
grid. During times with no solar irradiance or poor solar irradiance, batteries can be

23
used or sometimes conventional generators. Stand-alone systems may be used in many
applications. Some are mentioned below.

Figure 15: Stand-alone system

Applications using stand-alone systems

1. Lighting: As LED (Light emitting diode) technology is invented, PV systems are

the perfect solution for many areas as parking lots and remote areas. PV system is
used with battery storage system. In Egypt now, solar cells are used for street
lighting as on the airport runway.

2. Communications: As the distance travelled by a signal is increased, it needs more

amplification. Usually sites for repeater and amplifications are far from power lines
to avoid the noise. To reduce the cost, PV system is used as an alternative when
needed.

3. Demand of some remoter places: In case of places that are far from distribution
systems or under construction places, PV system is a very good solution. They may
be backed up by generators using fuel to supply power continuously.

24
4. Disasters: In case of a disaster as a hurricane as power will be cut for some time,
PV system acts as perfect solution.

5. Scientific experiments: In case a scientific experiment is done in a remote place to

avoid affecting the public a PV system may be used to supply power.

6. Navigation systems as in light houses and even in traffic lights but it is not used
because of the risk of theft.

7. Water Pumping: It is the best solution to have a PV system to produce energy for a
site for providing water for remote places.

8. Charging vehicles batteries: This may be used by electrical cars.

9. Solar Power Cathodic Protection: Some metals are exposed to corrosion factors: In
order to avoid corrosion, external DC source may be applied to prevent the ion loss
from the metal. As corrosion happens because of activity in water when a metal for
example loses an ion.

2.8 CONVERTERS

The output voltage of the panel is DC so it needs DC-DC converters which are electrical
devices used to convert a certain level of DC input voltage to another level of DC output
voltage by changing the duty cycle of the transistor. It is composed of inductors,
capacitors and diodes. Converters play a very important role in linking PV panels to the
loads so it would rather be isolated to insure safety for the other connected components.
They are classified as:

2.8.1 Buck Converter

Buck converter is a power converter which steps down from its input to its output,
which means that the DC input voltage, is larger than the DC output voltage. Buck
converter consists of switched mode power supply generally containing at least two
semi-converters and at least one energy storage element, like for example; a capacitor,
inductor, or the two in combination. [11]Although, in our case, the PV input voltage is
greater than the recommended load voltage, hence the converter can step down the

25
output voltage in the system by varying the duty cycle of the switching transistor
according to the following equation:

Vout=D*Vin

Figure 16: Buck Circuit

2.8.2 Boost Converter

Boost converter is a power converter which in it the DC input voltage is less than the
DC output voltage, so it rises the voltage up from its supply to the load, and its
components is as same as the buck converter. That means the PV input voltage is not as
great as the required load voltage in a system.[11] Boost converter is used to step up the
output voltage by varying the duty cycle according to the following equation:

D=1-VinVout

𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
1−𝐷

Figure 17: Boost Circuit

26
2.8.3 Buck-Boost converter

Buck-Boost converter is a power converter, the output voltage of the DC-DC converter
is less or greater than the input voltage. This converter is a combination between buck
converter and boost converter, therefore it can step up or step down the output voltage
according to the application by adjusting the duty cycle of the switching transistor.
When the converter steps down the voltage, it means that the duty cycle is less than
50%, on the other hand, when the converter steps up the voltage it means that the duty
cycle is greater than 50%. [11]The only problem with this converter is its high cost.
According to the following equation:

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
D=
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡−𝑉𝑖𝑛

Figure 18: Buck-Boost Circuit

2.9 BATTERIES

Our system has a load battery to evaluate the performance of the PV as the conditions
affecting our PV are varying. Different types of batteries with different rating are being
produced all over the world. The selection of the battery depends on the system
requirement. Each battery has specific parameters.[12]

27
 Figure 19: Battery flow chart

The battery is used in the following applications:

1. Energy Storage

2. Stabilization of voltage

3. To provide high starting

The parameters of the battery are:

1. Battery Capacity

2. Battery Terminal Voltage

3. Battery life cycle

4. Discharge/charge rate: C rating is the value obtained by giving the ratio of the
capacity of the battery to the number of hours for full charge or discharge
represented as C/X.

28
 CONCLUSION

In this chapter, we discussed the way along from a PV cell into a PV array and its idea
of operation. The effect of partial shading, temperature variations and irradiance
variations were taken into consideration after that. Besides, advantages and
disadvantages of the PV and different kinds of PV panels were discussed beside the pros
and cons of each. Applications of PV may be grid-connected or stand-alone systems.
The difference was explained. Finally, converters and batteries were briefly introduced.

29
 Chapter Three

3 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING

3.1 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING:

Maximum Power Point Tracking is an electronic algorithm (usually digital) that utilizes
the Photovoltaic (PV) modules in a procedure that allows the modules to deliver all the
power they are capable of. It then figures out what is the optimal power that the panel
can produce to charge the battery. It takes this and converts it to optimal voltage to get
maximum current into the battery.

MPPT is not a mechanical tracking system that “physically allocate” the modules to
make them trace the sun, MPPT is a fully electronic DC to DC converter that optimizes
the match between the PV panels and the batteries bank or utility grid so that the
modules are able to deliver maximum available power.

Most advanced MPPT's are around 92-97% efficient in the conversion. You practically
get a 20 to 45% power gain in winter and 10-15% in summer. Actual gain can differ
widely depending on weather, temperature, batteries conditions, season, and other
factors.

The main principle of MPPT is to extract the maximum available power from PV
module by making them operate at the most efficient voltage (VMPP). This means that
the MPPT checks output of PV module and compares it to battery voltage then fixes
what is the best power that PV module can produce to charge the battery.

Typical PV module produces power with maximum power voltage of around 17 V

when measured at a cell temperature of 25°C, it can drop to15 V on a hot day and it can
also rise to 18 V on a cold day.

To wrap it up, the accuracy is preferred over the execution time, because it tends to
hesitate around the maximum power point due to perturbing of the operation point.
Surely, an accurate and fast method would be preferred, but the implementation cost
must be taken under consideration.

30
3.2 MPPT ALGORITHMS

Conventional methods:

1) Perturb and Observe algorithm

2) Incremental Conductance method

3) Fractional short circuit current

4) Fractional open circuit voltage

Artificial Intelligence methods:

1) Neural networks

2) Fuzzy logic control

Genetic methods:

1)PSO

2)ACO

3.2.1 Conventional Methods

3.2.1.1 Perturb and observe:

The perturb and observe (P&O) algorithm achieve in such a way that it keeps
controlling the array operating voltage either by increasing or decreasing it in a
periodical manner and producing the PV output power, and then it compares the MPP
with that of the pervious cycle of the perturbation. The P&O algorithm is usually used
in maximum power point tracking, because it has a simple feedback control structure
and fewer measured parameters as shown in figure 20:

31
 Figure 20: P&O Flowchart

In this manner, the tracking of the peak power is continuously in operation, which helps
to keep the system operating at peak power condition. When the PV power and the PV
voltage are increasing at the same moment, a perturbation step size is added to the duty
cycle, which helps the operating point moves towards the MPP. On the other hand,
when PV power and PV voltage are decreasing at the same time, a perturbation step size
will be minimized to the duty cycle to force the operating point moves backwards to the
MPP, these processes will be working on continuously until MPP is reached. In hence,
the system will oscillate around the MPP throughout this process. P&O works well
when the irradiance and temperature conditions change slowly, therefore, when the
atmospheric conditions rapidly change the P&O algorithm is no more effective. To
overcome this problem we apply another method called The Incremental Conductance
method.

3.2.1.2 Incremental conductance

In incremental conductance method, the terminal voltage of the array is always

modified according to the maximum power point voltage. It depends on the incremental
and instantaneous conductance of the PV module.

The slope of the P-V array power curve is zero at The MPP, increasing on the left of the
MPP and decreasing on the Right hand side of the MPP.

32
The disadvantage of the perturb and observe method to track the peak power under fast
increasing and decreasing of the irradiance is overcome by IC method. The Incremental
conductance can determine if the MPP has reached and stop perturbing the operating
point. If this situation is not reached, the direction in which operating point must be
I
moved can be calculated using the relationship between dl and − , it is negative when
dV V

the MPPT is set to the right of the MPP and positive when it is set to the left of the
MPP.

Figure 21: Incremental Conductance

The main equations of this method are:

𝑑𝐼
= − 𝐼 At MPP
𝑑𝑉 𝑉
𝑑𝐼
> − 𝐼 Left of MPP
𝑑𝑉 𝑉
𝑑𝐼
< − 𝐼 Right of MPP
𝑑𝑉 𝑉

[13]The comparison process is kept in action until the MPP is reached, when the ratio of
change in output conductance is equal to the negative output conductance, the solar
array will operate at the maximum power point.

However, a change in 𝑑𝐼 could occur which indicates a variation in atmospheric

condition and consequently in the maximum power point. In such case, the algorithm

33
acts by increasing the converter’s duty cycle in order to reach the maximum power
point. The step size of the increments or decrements imposed by the control of the
system determines how fast the maximum power point is reached. As the step size
increase, the system’s speed in tracking the maximum power point increases also, but
that also results in lower in accuracy in reaching the exact value of the maximum power
point.

This algorithm is basically better than P&O in that it can determine when the MPPT has
reached the maximum power point, where P&O oscillates around the MPP. Also,
incremental conductance can track rapidly changing atmosphere conditions with higher
accuracy than P&O

In this method, the peak power of the module lies at above 98% of its incremental
conductance.

Finally, it can be said that the incremental conductance can track rapidly at different
conditions with higher accuracy than P&O algorithm but it increase the complexity of
the system.

3.2.1.3 Fractional Short Circuit Current:

FSCC is a simple and fast technique of tracking the MPP.

To track the power, this MPPT technique needs the value of SCC by isolating the PV
array.

The MPPT calculated using this technique is based on the Ioc equation which is an
approximation, but this method does not operate on true MPPT. Despite that, the
simplicity of this technique makes it suitable for use in small scale cheap applications.
This method can be implemented by using either the analog or the digital mode. The
basic outline of this technique follows that the current at MPP (Impp) is closely located
near the short circuit current (Isc). [13]Therefore, the operating point can be reached by
multiplying Isc by the factor k as given below:

Impp =k*Isc

The constant “k” can be easily calculated from the specifications of the PV module and
it is always less than 1 typically the value of k is in between 0.78 and 0.95

ISC can’t be easily measured during the operation so an extra switch is usually added to

34
the power converter to periodically short the PV array so that ISC can be measured
using a current sensor, by using this current sensor the FSCC MPPT becomes less
expensive and easier to implement

The only disadvantage of FSCC is the periodic loss of power while measuring the short
circuit current.

Figure 22:Fractional Short Circuit Current Flowchart

3.2.1.4 Fractional Open-Circuit Voltage:

The fractional open circuit voltage based MPPT uses the fact that the PV array voltage
corresponding to the maximum power shows a linear proportional to array open circuit
voltage (Voc) for different irradiation and temperature levels. The proportional constant
mainly depends on the material and the fabrication of the solar cells technology, fill
factor and the climatic conditions mainly.[13]
Vmpp
K1 =
Voc

35
The factor k1 is generally between 0.71 and 0.78 therefore VMPP can be calculated by
using above equation and set as a reference. The main disadvantage of this technique is
that the PV array is disconnected from the load when regular intervals for the sampling
of the array voltage. This results in power loss.

Figure 23: Fractional Open Circuit Voltage Flowchart

3.2.2 Artificial Intelligence Methods:

3.2.2.1 Neural network:

Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is a specious network that resembles the human
biological neural networks behaviour. ANN is a technique to gain the MPPT which is
accomplished by exercising it with a prearranged of data that inputs and target values.
Neural networks have three layers; first one is the input layers then the hidden layers
that are located between the third layers which is output layers.
The input layer can be PV array parameters such as Voc and Isc as shown figure 24.[14]

36
 Figure 24: Neural Network Method

Therefore, it can be atmospheric data such as irradiance and temperature as shown the
figure. The output is usually one or more reference signals such as, duty cycle signal,
the optimal voltage, or the boundary of the optimal voltage.

Figure 25: Neural Network and Temperature

Collecting Data:
The first step in designing an ANN is to try an obtained data called (training points),
that lots of solar irradiances and temperatures and their interrelated maximum power
point voltages are enforced in order to train the network and by using this data we can
obtain the historical data on the problem that is being solved using the network.

37
Selecting Network Structure:
The neural networks consist of a minimum of two layers (one hidden layer and another
output layer) as shown in figure. The input is connected to the hidden layers through
loaded connections where the output data is calculated.
Until these days, it is still trial and error design method, because there are no
instructions for deciding a way to choose the number of neurons compared with number
of hidden layers to give the best performance.

The main advantages of using the artificial neural network controllers are
1. Storing information on the entire network: Information such as in traditional
programming is put away on the whole network, not on a database. The vanishing
of a couple of pieces of data in a single place does not keep the system from
working.
2. It can be implemented in various applications.
3. Having fault tolerance: Corruption of one or more cells of ANN does not prevent it
from producing output. This feature makes the networks fault tolerant.
4. Ability to make machine learning: ANN learn events and make decisions by
responding on similar events.
5. A neural network can perform tasks that a linear program cannot i.e. very suitable
for non-linear systems.

The main disadvantages of using the artificial neural network controllers are:
1. The neural network needs training to operate
2. Unexplained behavior of the network: This is the most essential issue of ANN. At
the point when ANN produces a testing arrangement, it doesn't provide some
insight about why and how. This reduces trust in the network.
3. The duration of the network is unknown: The system is decreased to a specific
estimation of the error on the example means that the training has been finished.
This value does not give us ideal results.

3.2.2.2 Fuzzy logic control:

Recently fuzzy logic (FLC) controllers have been used in the tracking of the MPP in PV
systems, especially over the last decade. Several reasons could be mentioned including
its ability in handling the nonlinearity which is common feature of actual systems and it
is used to determine the duty cycle of the converters. The main stages of (FLC) consist

38
of; fuzzification, rule base table look up, system interference and defuzzification as
shown in the figure.

Figure 26: Fuzzy Logic Control Process[15]

The advantages of the fuzzy logic controller in MPPT

1. The ability to converge quickly
2. It is robust and approximately simple to design
3. Basic oscillations around the MPP.

The disadvantages of the fuzzy logic controller in MPPT

1. Its effectiveness depends on the skills of the designer in handling to complete

knowledge and in defining appropriate rule base.

3.2.3 Genetic Algorithm

The Genetic Algorithm is an optimized robust stochastic algorithm based on natural
genetic selection.[16] Algorithms provide an effective way of searching a large and
complex solution space to give close to optimal solutions much faster than random trial-
and-error methods. They are also generally more effective at avoiding local peaks than
differentiation-based approaches. Its main advantages are

1. It uses its codes instead of parameters

2. It does not work with a point but with a population of point
3. It just need function value and does not have to calculate any other value (for
instance differential)

39
The mechanism of any genetic algorithm can be simply described as follows:
1-Initialization:

As a start, we must create a random population. A population is a matrix

where the number of the rows shows the number of individuals and
number of columns shows the length of the individuals. The size of the
population is set according to the complexity of the problem. This
population should give the maximum power point.

2- Evaluation:

Then it is very important step to select the proper individual. The

evaluation is made according to the value of the individuals fitness
function. The fitness function is the performance index of the genetic
algorithm to solve the viability of each individual. Designing the fitness
function is based on the requirements of the problem such as errors and
rise time and other actors.

3- Genetic operations:

They are used by GAs, they do not exclude probability techniques but
they give very interesting result, as shown in figure GA operations
generate the next generation. From a generation to another the maximum
power point is achieved. These operations are:

1-selection

2-crossover

3-mutation

4-insertion

40
 Figure 27: Genetic Algorithm Flowchart

4- Program termination
Executing program creates new better individuals, that program
terminates according to the iterations number inserted before. However,
the computation time depends on the number (N) of used generations to
reach the best result.

5- testing the algorithm

When using 10 individuals we get the fitness value after 25 generations
but when we use 30 individuals the fitness value appears after 14
generations only. Furthermore, the power of the first generation is always
bigger with large generations. With a big number of populations, the
maximum power is given in less generations but it needs more
computation time.

Genetic Algorithm types:

3.2.3.1 PSO:
Particle Swarm Optimization is an approach to problems whose solutions can be
represented in an n-dimensional solution space. Particles are randomly placed
into motion through this space. For every iteration, they observe the "fitness" of
themselves and their neighbors and imitate successful neighbors (those whose
current position represents a better solution to the problem than theirs) by

41
 moving towards them. Semi-independent flocks can be used for grouping
particles into competing or all the particles can belong to a single global flock.
PSO simulates the behaviors of bird flocking. That means, a group of birds are
randomly searching food in an area. There is only one piece of food in the area
to be searched. All the birds do not recognize where the food is. So the effective
way is to follow the bird which is nearest to the food.

3.2.3.2 ACO:
Ant colony algorithm came into existence by emulating the social behavior of
ants. When ants search for food, it would follow the shortest path between their
nest and food. They have the ability to emit a chemical called pheromone which
drags response within members of the same species. When ants cruise to search
of food it would emit pheromone trail on their way. The search may be
randomly initiated.
Ants will be following the same path while returning to the nest as it would trace
the pheromone trail. Therefore, the pheromone trail will be the shortest path. If
the pheromone trial is not the shortest then it would vanish of its own.

ACO MPPT has dragged less attention in the MPPT research arena but for a
research initiative. The research articles claim that ACO have superior
characteristics than PSO for the shading pattern. The complexity of obtaining the
MPP by P&O as hardware still remains unsolved whereas the ACO algorithm
has a clear advantage over it.

42
 Figure 28: ACO Flowchart

3.3 CONCLUSION

This chapter discusses the Maximum power point tracking algorithm and the
importance of it in the solar energy field. Also this chapter showed 4 simple
conventional techniques commonly used to track the maximum power point.
Then showed another 2 complex intelligent techniques used to reach the
maximum power point by the neural and fuzzy logic control. Finally
demonstrated 2 genetic techniques helps to search for the maximum power point
influenced by the chromosomes of the living creatures like ants and swarms.

However, advantages and disadvantages of the techniques are listed in table 4:

43
 Table 4: Comparison between 8 methods of MPPT

MPPT Technique Conversion Variable CKT Cost Hardware

speed

Perturb and Observe Varies Voltage or Analog Low Simple

current and Digital

Incremental Varies Voltage or Digital High Medium

conductance current

Fractional SC Current Medium Varies Analog Low Medium

and Digital

Fractional OC Voltage Medium Varies Digital Low Simple

Neural Network Fast Voltage or Digital High Complex

current

Fuzzy Logic Control Fast Voltage or Digital High Complex

current

PSO Slow Voltage or Digital Low Simple

current

ASO Slow Voltage or Digital Low Simple

current

44
 Chapter Four

4 SIMULATIONS AND RESULTS

In our thesis, P&O method was used to track the maximum power point for the PV
panel used. P&O is one of the conventional techniques that is not highly accurate but
suitable for systems with conditions that almost do not change. From the big obstacles
that make P&O not highly efficient is partial shading. All the simulations are done using
MATLAB/Simulink.

Figure 29: System with no MPPT method

The only two inputs of a PV are irradiance (G) and Temperature (°C). As, shown in the
figure below, a blocking diode is used to avoid the flow back of current to a cell in case
its shaded. The current and Voltage are filtered.

45
 Figure 30: Output PV Curve Before MPPT

Table 5: Cases under study

Temperature (°C) Irradiance

15 300

20 600

30 900

Figure 31: Simulations of PV

46
The block diagrams below are used to calculate the photovoltaic current and reverse
leakage current.

Figure 32: Calculations of PV current block diagram

Figure 33: Calculations of reversed leakage current

47
The module here is Sunny International Power SPM-200SB105. The first step is to get
IV curves of the module using MATLAB/Simulink. The parameters of the module are
shown below.

Table 6: Parameters of Sunny International Power SPM-200SB105

Parameter Value

Maximum Power 200 W

Number of cells per each module 72 cells/module

Open Circuit Voltage Voc 43.8V

Short Circuit Current Isc 5.96A

Voltage at maximum power point 36.9V

Current at maximum power point 5.43A

Temperature coefficient of Vov (%/°C) -0.36959

Temperature coefficient of Isc (%/°C) 0.065503

A boost circuit is used as shown in figure 32. The dutycyle used here equals 0.8 befor P
& O.

Figure 34: Boost Simulation

48
After adding P&O block, current and voltage are the two only inputs for this block. The
P&O block starts by taking a value for the duty cycle and that value depends on the step
size chosen. Following, that, it starts to calculate each power and compare it with the
one before it till it gets the maximum power. At this point is the duty cycle which gives
the maximum power in these conditions. This is shown in figure 35.

Figure 35: PV system with P&O

The inputs for the PV of irradiance and temperature are changed to get K for maximum
power at different conditions. They are changed using a signal builder on
MATLAB/Simulink.

49
Figure 36: Irradiance change every 3 minutes

Figure 37: Temerature change every 3 minutes

50
 Figure 38: Results of MPPT for power changes

Figure 38 proves that P&O gave the highest power. As in first case when the irradiance
equalled 300W/m2 and temperature of 15°C, it gave 60.62 W. In the following case, the
irradiance equalled 600W/m2 and 20°C and the maximum power was confirmed to bed
121.4W. At the last case, as the irradiance equalled 900W/m2 and temperature equaled
30°C as the power equalled 176.1W.

51
 Figure 39: Change in voltage from case 1 to case 2

Figure 40: Change in Voltage from case 2 to 3

Table 7: Cases under study for P & O

Temperature (°C) Irradiance

15 300

20 600

30 900

52
The curve in figure 40 shows the duty cycle being changed which is the main concept of
P&O. P&O cons are shown in the oscillations before getting to the optimum duty cycle.

Figure 41: Oscillations before getting to the optimum duty cycle

4.1 CONCLUSION:

This simulation proved efficiency but it took long time with oscillations which causes
power loss. After adding artificial intelligence method, results obtained will be more
accurate and less time consuming.

53
 Chapter Five

5 CONCLUSION

PV solar panels are a way to get clean energy with no high operating costs. A PV
system project is a win-win situation. It gets to its break-even point quickly and has a
very good rate of return. On the other hand, PV panels have a non-linear characteristic
curve which results in variation of output power.

The PV system consists of a solar panel, MPPT controller, DC-DC converter and a
rechargeable battery. A battery was added for the system as a load to provide stable
state which helps in measuring the effect of temperature and irradiance variations.

The main concept of MPPT is to change the duty cycle of the converter. There are many
ways to find and track maximum power point for photovoltaic cells. Many systems
combined more than one method. This may be like using VOC to find the starting point
for the iterative methods like P&O or IC.

In case of partial shading, artificial intelligence methods are more applied as the
conventional methods cannot be used with multi-peak system. It is better to get a
method which is more accurate and fast enough, yet still gives no noise.

Three types of methods were discussed. Four iterative and conventional methods as
Perturb & Observe, Incremental conductance, Fractional Open circuit Voltage and
Fractional Short Circuit Current. Two types of artificial intelligence were explained
which are Neural Networks and Fuzzy Logic Control. At last, PSO and ACO were
discussed briefly as genetic algorithms methods.

Perturb & Observe showed very good results but not effective for multi-peak systems or
partial shading. It gives some oscillations before getting to the maximum power point of
the PV characteristic curve. Yet, it is cheap, easy and fast.

54
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Shankar Labade 3, Pooja Vittal Fuke4, “No Title.”

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 “Maximum Power Point Tracking of Photovoltaic Panels by Using Improved
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56
 APPENDIX A

Code of Perturb & Observe

function D = PandO(Param, Enabled, V, I)

% MPPT controller based on the Perturb & Observe

algorithm.

% D output = Duty cycle of the boost converter

(value between 0 and 1)
%
% Enabled input = 1 to enable the MPPT controller
% V input = PV array terminal voltage (V)
% I input = PV array current (A)
%
% Param input:
Dinit = Param(1); %Initial value for D output
Dmax = Param(2); %Maximum value for D
Dmin = Param(3); %Minimum value for D
deltaD = Param(4); %Increment value used to
increase/decrease the duty cycle D
% ( increasing D = decreasing Vref )
%

persistent Vold Pold Dold;

dataType = 'double';

if isempty(Vold)
Vold=0;
Pold=0;
Dold=Dinit;
end
P= V*I;
dV= V - Vold;
dP= P - Pold;

if dP ~= 0 & Enabled ~=0

if dP < 0
if dV < 0
D = Dold - deltaD;
else
D = Dold + deltaD;

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 end
else
if dV < 0
D = Dold + deltaD;
else
D = Dold - deltaD;
end
end
else D=Dold;
end

if D >= Dmax | D<= Dmin

D=Dold;
end

Dold=D;
Vold=V;
Pold=P;

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