Designing & Deploying Line Arrays

Things you should know before opening your laptop...

Mark Engebretson

Part I - Line Array Architecture

‘Advancing science in the face of
conflicting beliefs and practices is
Engineering's greatest challenge’

Introduction

The past several years have witnessed

unprecedented growth in the complexity of
sound reinforcement equipment and
technologies. Today we have simulation
programs to show complex loudspeaker
coverage in three-dimensional spaces,
measurement platforms to quantify detailed
electro-acoustic performance, digital
transport and networking schemes and a
host of increasingly sophisticated
computer-based control and signal
processing devices. Virtually every new active element in the signal path includes some
form of on-board DSP.

Against this backdrop of ever-increasing complexity, the purpose of these papers is to

provide easy-to-understand information and guidelines that will enable consistent high
quality results from line array deployments. As such, they are neither an exhaustive
treatise nor are they highly technical. They provide common-sense examination of
fundamentals that govern all forms of sound reinforcement aimed at improving sound
quality and listening experiences for audiences and audio practitioners.
 Occam's Razor

Occam's Razor is a principle attributed to the 14th-century English Franciscan friar,

William of Ockham. It states that the explanation of any phenomenon should make as
few assumptions as possible, eliminating those that make no difference in the
observable predictions.

When multiple competing hypotheses are equal in other respects, the hypothesis that
introduces the fewest assumptions and postulates the fewest entities is best. The
simpler a theory is, the better. When two theories predict phenomena to the same
accuracy, then the one which is simpler is usually the better one. Be skeptical when
facts and results are postulated from theories or assumption-based hypotheses.

Break it down and keep it simple!

Line Array Myths

Disruptive technologies develop their own mythos. These are reinforced by popular
beliefs that interpret the technology and its meanings to all those affected. Unfettered,
these beliefs become the common wisdom.

There has been a litany of misinformation that has been promulgated about line arrays
and their deployment. This has led to mixed results at every level. Line array
technologies need to be properly understood because they underpin sound
reinforcement today and in the foreseeable future.

Following are the ten most widespread line array myths.

Ten Line Array Myths

1. Line arrays are a fad

Not true. Line arrays offer cogent means to increase coverage and SPL while reducing
temporal distortion and the architectural footprint of the loudspeakers. Unless you are a
speaker manufacturer without one, what's not to like?

2. J-Arrays improve the vertical coverage

J-arrays consist of two totally different loudspeaker arrays. They perform poorly because
of the withering discontinuity where curved and straight segments join.

3. Down-fills are a good way to cover 'down front'

Like the doomed pilot who runs out of altitude and ideas, we sometimes run out of both
time and viable alternatives. But like the J-Array, using down-fill boxes splices
 completely different loudspeakers to the main array, creating interference where
coverage conjoins.

4. Split processing can optimize J-Arrays

This bolsters the sales of DSP devices, but we can't fix directivity discontinuities with
DSP. Curved and straight arrays have radically different vertical directivity characteristics
and should not be connected together.

5. Simulations show the best way to configure line arrays

Simulation programs are subject to the same human errors and manipulations that haunt
every complex software, only more so. Most programs are based upon assumptions and
constructions that fail to recognize the effects of discontinuities in array shapes. Use
simulations with care, but don't recommend or construct an array that has a physical
discontinuity just because a simulation shows appealing coverage representations – it
isn't possible.

6. Configurable horizontal coverage improves spatial uniformity

Configurable horizontal coverage seems like a good idea, but we cannot achieve
directivity-matched transitions through crossovers while making waveguide mouth
openings smaller to narrow the horizontal coverage. The result is irregular directivity-
frequency and inconsistent frequency response in the critical middle and upper middle
frequencies. Efforts to 'fix' the frequency response with filters come at the expense of
spatial uniformity.

7. Each venue requires its own unique DSP

This stems from the misconception that observed misbehavior is caused by room
acoustics, and that DSP can somehow rescue the day. Both assumptions are false.
Most misbehavior is either the loudspeakers or the arrays, and DSP has no effect on
room acoustics anyway. Use equalization appropriately.

8. Tried-and-true audio practices perform well with line arrays

Most 'tried and true' practices don't perform as well as we'd like to think they do, and
they are less likely to perform well with line arrays. Best results will always come from
careful cause-and-effect analysis before postulating solutions.

9. High sound levels from line arrays are OK

If the sound leaving the loudspeakers is 'clean' there won't be any distortion, right?
Wrong. Three types of acoustic distortion are more significant in live sound than all
others and line arrays have a propensity for one of them.

10. Line arrays radiate cylindrical sound fields

All that can be said in support of this thesis is that the near field of a line array is an
interference field that roughly follows the frontal aspect of the loudspeakers. Inverse
square law has not been abrogated. The far field acts like that of any other loudspeaker.

All of these myths are fallacious

They are either untrue, or require narrow context setting to be true. Some are the result of faulty
understanding of the basic mechanics of how line arrays work and some are deliberate
misrepresentations. Nevertheless, they are the cornerstones of line array folklore that are
responsible for much of what sounds bad today.

Fortunately, practicing good science will always be easier than fumbling bad science.
 Why Array?

Arrays serve to increase, decrease or re-shape coverage and/or increase the sound
pressure level. Other than these, arrays have no useful purpose.

Loudspeakers that are physically offset from one-another with conjoining coverage are
a source of temporal distortion – combing and time smear in three dimensions that
cannot be 'fixed' with one-dimensional solutions.

That some loudspeakers can be mounted closer to one-another, and that some might
have less coverage overlap than others only reduces combing and time smear.
Minimum temporal offset results from small, tightly packed sources. Small sources have
low directivity and 'soft' pattern edges, increasing coverage overlap and temporal
distortion. High-directivity sources are big – separating the sources in space and time,
which also increases temporal distortion.

Line arrays optimize the ability to conjoin coverage of a plurality of like sources to
produce minimal temporal offsets in the direction of coverage, but they cannot repeal
the realities of time and space.

Why Line Arrays?

Line arrays enable high sound levels, when compared to traditional multi-way systems.
Due to their greater length, line arrays maintain high vertical directivity to much lower
frequencies.

• Improved direct-to-reverberant sound ratios in enclosed spaces

• Reduction of atmospheric interference effects out-of-doors

Line arrays can be constructed to provide optimally wide vertical coverage to meet
special auditorium needs, e.g., balconies. They can also be shaped to provide tapered
vertical coverage for very deep auditoria, long throws and low trim heights.

Line arrays lack one dimension that is responsible for temporal distortion in large sound
systems.
 Designing & Deploying Line Arrays

Things you should know before opening your laptop...

Mark Engebretson

Part I - Line Array Architecture

How Line Arrays Work

CONVENTIONAL HORNS

• Expanding wave fronts propagate normal to the

boundaries of the horn.
• At the mouth, high frequency wave shapes from
adjacent horns will create destructive interference.
• The practical upper frequency limit for summation is
reached when the rise (a) of the resulting circular segment
at the mouth equals a quarter-wavelength.
• This makes conventional horns unsuitable for wide-
range line array use.

LINE ARRAY WAVEGUIDES

• Line array waveguides use various methods to

normalize the propagation distance from the throat to the
mouth.

• In this illustration we see that each waveguide has

been segmented into four identical small apertures, each
equidistant from the inlet aperture. The result is minimal
rise at the mouth approximating a planar wave shape.

• This enables adjacent loudspeakers to sum

without interference at high frequencies.

 
  

Segments & Line Arrays 
Concert Line Arrays consist of Segments 

Segments have Coverage Limitations 

Segment Coverage Limits are frequency‐dependant 

 
3 Line Array Segments: 

   

  

 
 
 Straight vs. Curved Line Arrays 

 
Vertical Coverage  

Line Array Types

Straight Arrays
Straight arrays are best characterized by 'column' loudspeakers, wherein all of the array
elements are oriented in a continuous, straight vertical line. Vertical directivity in straight arrays
is a function of array size and frequency, with vertical coverage being inversely proportional to
their product, and narrowing monotonically as frequency increases.

Curved (Arcuate) Arrays

An arcuate array is curved by virtue of its diverging segment axes. When assembled from
independent cabinet-type segments, the inter-box splay angles are held constant, which results
in a constant effective radius of curvature. A relatively large array assembled from segments
takes on the effective vertical coverage of its cumulative segment-to-segment splay angles and
maintains constant vertical coverage between the overall size-imposed break point frequency
and the frequency where beaming of the individual segments takes place.

J-Shaped Arrays
J-arrays join two totally different loudspeaker arrays – a straight segment intended to cover
distant seats, and a curved segment disposed to cover seating near the stage. J-arrays
inevitably perform poorly because of the withering discontinuity where the curved and straight
segments join.

Spiral Arrays
Spiral arrays do well what the J-array was envisioned to do. Employing arithmetically-
incremented inter-element splay angles to decrease the effective radius from the top to the
bottom of the array, spiral arrays provide constant vertical frequency-coverage graduating from
high-to-low directivity. They are easily implemented and readily compensated.
 Characteristics of Array Shapes 

Straight
 

Characteristics:

• Monotonic narrowing with f & l

• Far field distance varies with f & l2
• Directivity = N · segment directivity
• Minimal temporal distortion
• Very narrow HF beamwidth

 
Curved (Arcuate) 1° splay each segment
Characteristics:

• Constant frequency/coverage
• Coverage = (N-1) (splay angle°)
• Example: 8 @ 1° = 7°
• Uniform far field boundary
• Low temporal distortion

 
 
Curved (Arcuate) 5° splay each segment

Characteristics:

• Constant frequency/coverage
• Coverage = (N-1) (splay angle°)
• Example: 8 @ 5° = 35°
• Uniform far field boundary
• Low temporal distortion

  

J-Arrays
 

Characteristics:

• Inconsistent coverage & DI

• Coverage ≈ ∑ splay angles°
• Example: < 1° + (4 · 10°) ≈ 41°
• Irregular far field boundary
• High temporal distortion
• Propensity for Propagation
Distortion along the straight segment axis

 
Spiral Arrays

Characteristics:

• Constant frequency/coverage
• Coverage = ∑ splay angles°
• Example: 1+2+...+N° = 28°
• Far field transitions smoothly
• Moderate temporal distortion

Reshaping Arrays (shading)

Once an array is positioned and flown, there are a number of possible adjustments that will re-
shape the coverage:

Divergence Shading means adjusting the inter-box splay angles to either increase or decrease
the coverage. For safety and practical considerations, divergence shading normally requires
landing large arrays to make the desired changes on the ground.

Note: Do not make changes that will alter the shape of part of the array – proper divergence
shading requires re-configuring the entire array to maintain array integrity.

Amplitude Shading is the application of box-to-box level adjustment. It is typically used to

attenuate the output of the lower elements covering the audience closest to the stage.
Successful amplitude shading requires 1-2 dB maximum incremental changes in box-to-box
drive level to preserve array integrity.

This necessitates having sufficient electronics granularity, preferably discrete amplification

channels per box.

Delay shading 'bends' the virtual array by employing signal delays to change its effective
shape. Like amplitude shading, delay shading requires sufficient amplification granularity to
smoothly transition the effective shape. Typically, this requires delay steps less than a quarter
period of the highest frequency.

Note: Delay shading cannot 'bend' the coverage beyond the native coverage of the individual
elements.
Multi-EQ Systems – Split Processing employs multiple DSP devices within an array as a
means to normalize the response of different parts of the array. It is a vestige of the J-array
wherein a straight line array segment conjoined a curvilinear segment. The withering
discontinuity where the two different arrays conjoin cannot be corrected with DSP.

However applied, split processing cannot correct directivity discontinuities. It can only re-
position the interference. It serves no function in a coherent array.

Importance of Array Location

Non-Conventional Thought Starters

Uniform front-to-back coverage isn't always desirable

It comes at the expense of coherence & naturalness

Uniform spectral balance in large spaces isn't natural

Highs roll off with distance more than the lows

Intelligibility is driven by signal-to-noise ratios

The direct sound is signal - everything else is noise

Most conventional arrays are inherently 'reverberant'

Overlapping coverage creates 'time smear'

Coherence requires simplicity

Location for Coverage Uniformity

 

Characteristics:

• Uniform front-to-back SPL

• Uniform spectral balance
• Unnatural source location
• Likely need for front fills
• Reduced direct-to-reverberant ratio
• Reduced coherence

 
 
 

Location for Coherence

 

Characteristics:

• Natural front-to-back SPL fall off

• Natural spectral balance shift
• Improved direct-to-reverberant ratio
• Improved coherence
• Reduced atmospheric effects

Subwoofers

Subwoofer systems come in many different configurations:

• Closed Box, Ported, Horns and Hybrids

• Ground-stacked or Flown
• Conventional or Directional
o Cardioid
o Delay-Shaded
o Forward-Steered
• Others as yet undefined types

Some do not integrate well with the main system

Subwoofers - Proscenium Applications

Generalized choices of typical subwoofers used with line arrays:

Synchronizing Subwoofers
'A' shows a 'typical' rig with both the subs and the mains
delayed to the back line. This works reasonably well with
narrow venues. It ignores performance at wide off-axis
angles, however. This can be problematic in arenas and
in fan-shaped environments where the coverage needs to
be very wide or 'in the round' applications.

In 'B', we can see why this is so. The side flanking arrays
have a different temporal relationship to the subwoofers
than the front mains, while the back hemisphere arrays
are in altogether different time zones.

No single prescription is a panacea for every application.

Remember that sound involves three dimensions – time
has only one.

Steered Subwoofers

A long line of subwoofers placed horizontally along the front edge

of the stage can be delayed to create a virtual array that is much
smaller and less directional. The center subs need to be several
milliseconds ahead of the ones flanking them, which are several
milliseconds ahead of their neighbors, continuing in this fashion
until reaching the last subwoofers at the outside ends of the row.

This helps to counteract the narrowing of the horizontal coverage

with a horizontal subwoofer array. This works well out-of-doors.

Use with caution in reverberant spaces. The delayed elements

can exacerbate the effects of reverberation, contributing to an
unintelligible 'roar' at low frequencies

 
Directional Subwoofers
Cardioid subwoofers enable directional radiation at low
frequencies.

The directivity index along the major axis of a cardioid is 5 dB,

while the output in the back hemisphere is attenuated by 20-
40 dB relative to the on-axis.

Cardioid operation requires two loudspeakers, one behind the

other separated by about a quarter wave-length. The nearest
enclosure must be delayed by the propagation time to the rear
and one of them inverted in polarity.

This is only effective over about one octave and in vertical

arrays.

Use caution in reverberant environments.

Summary
1. Choose the array location and type. Use Arcuate or Spiral array shapes to
minimize discontinuities in array shape.
2. Determine maximum box-to-box splay angles from Segment Coverage
Limit calculation.
3. Avoid discontinuities in array shape and drive:
o Spiral arrays, use 1- or 2-degree maximum splay angle steps
o Do not mix cabinet types within the array
o If shading, use small level or delay steps: < 2 dB; < 0.25Τ (where Τ =
period of highest frequency of concern)
4. Avoid multi-EQ (split-processed) system configurations. Results are of
dubious value. Difficulties are daunting.
5. Vertical coverage is the sum of the splay angles.
6. The vertical coverage limits are the vertical axes of the top and bottom
cabinets.
7. For best results, point the loud end of the array toward the audience