Solution

Class 12 - Physics
49 Questions
Section A
1. i. Gauss’s law states that the net flux of an electric field in a closed surface is directly proportional to the
enclosed electric charge. It is one of the four equations of Maxwell’s laws of electromagnetism. It was
initially formulated by Carl Friedrich Gauss in the year 1835 and relates the electric fields at the points on
a closed surface and the net charge enclosed by that surface. The electric flux is defined as the electric
field passing through a given area multiplied by the area of the surface in a plane perpendicular to the
field. Yet another statement of Gauss’s law states that the net flux of a given electric field through a given
surface, divided by the enclosed charge should be equal to a constant. The total electric flux linked with a
surface is equal to the total number of electric lines of force passing through the surface when surface is
held normal to the direction of electric field. The SI unit of electric flux is Nm2C-1.
According to Gauss' law in electrostatics, the surface integral of electrostatic field E produced by any
sources over any closed surface S enclosing a volume V in vacuum, i.e. total electric flux over the closed
1 q
surface Sin vacuum, isl ε0
times the total charge (q) contained inside S, i.e. ϕE = ∮
S
E ⋅ dS =
ε0

Maxwell's equations let us calculate the forces charged particles exert on each other. While Newton's laws
only hold for particles moving with speeds much less than the speed of light, Maxwell's equations hold for
particles moving with any speed. We say that Maxwell's equations are relativistically correct. Maxwell's
equations are a set of four equations. The first of these equations is Gauss law -

where, r
^ is unit vector directed from 0 to P. Consider a small area element dS of the sphere around P. Let it

be represented by the vector dS + n ^ ⋅ dS .

where, n
^ is unit vector along out drawn normal to the area element.

∴ Electric flux over the area element,

2
dϕE = E ⋅ dS = (q/4πε0 ⋅ ^ ^ dS)
r/r ) ⋅ (n
2
E ⋅ dS = q/4πε0 dS/r ⋅^
rn^

As normal to a surface of every point is along the radius vector at that point, therefore, r
^⋅n
^ = 1
2
E ⋅ dS = q/4πε0 ⋅ dS/r

Integrating over the closed surface area of the sphere, we get total normal electric flux over the entire
sphere,
q q
ϕE = ∮ E ⋅ dS =
2
∮ dS =
2
× total area of surface of sphere.
4πε0 r 4πε0 r
S S
q q
2
= 2
(4πr ) =
4πε0 r ε0

Hence, ∮S EdS = q/ε0 , which proves Gauss' theorem.

ii. Electric field inside a uniformly charged spherical shell.
According to Gauss' theorem
q q
∮ E ⋅ dS = ∮ ^ ⋅ dS =
En  or E ∮ ds =
S S ε0 S ε0

∴ E ⋅ 2πr
2
........ (i)
= q/ε0 ⇒ E = q/4πε0 r
2

In the given figure, the point P where we have to find the electric field intensity is inside the shell. The
Gaussian surface is the surface of a sphere S2 passing through P and with the centre at 0. The radius of the
sphere S2 is r < R. The electric flux through the Gaussian surface, as calculated in Eq. (I),i.e. E x4w2. As
charge inside a spherical shell is zero, the Gaussian surface encloses no charge. The Gauss' theorem gives

1 / 20
 q
2
E × 4πr = = 0 ∴ E = 0 for r < R
ε0

Hence, the electric field due to a uniformly charged spherical shell is zero at all points inside the shell as
no charge resides inside it and potential will be uniform everywhere but on the surface it will be constant
and non zero.

2. i.

Now,
τ = either force × perpendicular distance BC between parallel forces

τ = qE(2l sin θ)

τ = (q × 2l)E sin θ or τ = ρE sin θ

In vector notation,
τ = p× E

SI unit of torque is newton-metre (N-m) and its dimensional formula is [ML2T-2]. The torque acts
perpendicular to both p and E.
ii. If the field is non-uniform the net force is not zero.
iii. a) If the field is increasing parallel to p, the torque would also increase in the same direction.
b) When the field is increasing anti parallel to p, the torque would also increase in the opposite direction.
3. a. During charging of the capacitor, work is done by the battery which is stored in the form of potential
energy inside the capacitor.
Consider a capacitor which is to be charged by charge Q with the help of a battery. Let at any instant
charge on the capacitor is q and the potential difference between the two plates of the capacitor is V.
We know that,
q = CV ⇒ V = q/C
Now small work done to charge the capacitor by small charge dq,
q
dW = Vdq = dq
C

where, q = instantaneous charge, C = capacitance and V = voltage

∴ Total work done in storing charge from 0 to Q(total charge) is given by
2
Q q Q
⇒ W = ∫ dq =
0 C 2C

2 / 20
 b. In a series combination of capacitors, the same charge lie on each capacitor for any value of capacitances.

Also, the net potential difference across the combination is equal to the algebraic sum of potential
differences across each capacitor
i.e. V = V1 + V2 + V3 ..........(i)
where V1 , V2, V3 and V are the potential differences across C1, C2, C3 and equivalent capacitor,
respectively.
q
Again q1
1
= C1 V1 ⇒ V1 =
C1
q q
Similarly, V2 =  and V3 =
C2 C3

∴ Total potential difference [From Eq.(i)]

q q q
⇒ V = + +
C1 C2 C3

V 1 1 1
⇒ = + +
q C1 C2 C3
1 1 1 1 V 1
⇒ = + + [ q
= , where C is equivalent capacitance]
C C1 C2 C3 C

4. Check Notes.
5. a
Section B
6. i. The potentiometer works on the principle that potential difference across any two points of a uniform
current carrying conductor is directly proportional to the length between those two points. The measuring
instrument called a potentiometer is essentially a voltage divider used for measuring electric potential
(voltage). Potentiometers are commonly used to control electrical devices such as volume controls on
audio equipment.
circuit diagram to compare emf of two cells

ii. Constantan or manganin (alloy) as they have low temperature coefficient of resistance as change in
resistance can affect the experimental conditions.
iii. The sensitivity of potentiometer can be increased by increasing the number of wires of potentiometer and
hence, decreasing the value of potential gradient so emf of unknown source can be told with higher
accuracy.
7. a. Kirchhoff's I rule states that, at any junction, the sum of the currents entering the junction is equal to the
sum of the currents leaving the junction.
Kirchhoff's II rule states that, the algebraic sum of the charges in potential around any closed loop
involving resistors and cells in the loop is zero.
Conditions balance of a Wheatstone bridge:
P, Q, R and S are four resistance forming a closed bridge, called Wheatstone bridge.

3 / 20
 A battery is connected across A and C, while a galvanometer is connected B and D. Current is absent in the
galvanometer's balance point.
Derivation of Formula: Let the current given by battery in the balanced position be I. This current on
reaching point A is divided into two parts I1 and I2. At the balanced point, current is zero.
Applying Kirchhoff's I law at point A,
I - I1 - I2 = 0 or
I = I1 + I2 ...... (i)
Applying Kirchhoff's II law to closed mesh ABDA,
-I1P + I2R = 0 or
I1P = I2R ..... (ii)
Applying Kirchhoff's II law to mesh BCDB,
-I1Q + I2S = 0 or
I1Q = I2S ...... (iii)
Dividing equation (ii) by (iii), we get
I1 P I2 R
=
I1 Q I2 S

P R
⇒ = ; which is the required condition of balance for Wheatstone bridge.
Q S

b.

For null point at D, balance length l1 = 40cm

R1 AD 40 2
So,  R = = =
3
 ..... (i)
2 DC (100−40)

If resistance 10Ω  is connected in series or R1, balance point shifts towards ′ λ′  i.e., AD = 60cm
′
R1 +10 AD 60 3
= ′
= =  ..... (ii)
R2 D C 100−60 2
R1 10 3
+ =
R2 R2 2

From equations (i) and (ii), we have

2 10 3
+ =
3 R2 2

10 3 2 9−4 5
⇒ = − = =
R2 2 3 6 6

10×6
⇒ R2 = = 12 ohm
5

From equation (i), we have

R1 2
=
12 3
12×2
⇒ R1 = = 8  ohm 
3

8. i. Let vd be the drift velocity.

Electric field produced inside the wire is

4 / 20
 E =V/I ...(i)
Force on an electron, F = - E e
Acceleration of each electron= - Ee/m [∵ from Newton's law, a = F/m]
where, m is mass of electron.
Ee
Velocity created due to this acceleration = m
τ .
where, τ is the time span between two consecutive collision. This ultimately becomes the drift velocity in
steady state.
Ee e V
So, vd =
m
τ =
m
τ × [from Eq. (i)]
l

We know that current in the conductor i = neAvd (where, n is number of free electrons in a conductor per
unit volume)
2
e V ne Aτ V
i = neA × τ ⇒ i =
m l ml
2
⇒ i = V /R [∵ R = ml/n e Aτ ⌋

i ∝ V as Resistance of the wire remains constant throughout the experiment.

This is Ohm's law.

ii. The setup is shown in the figure. Here, electric current remains constant throughout the length of the
wire. Electric field also remains constant which equal to V/l. Current density changes as area of cross
section changes continuously and hence drift speed change according to the formula j = nevd

here, n = number of electrons per unit volume

e = electronic charge
vd = drift velocity

9. i. It is clear that 1 A current flows in the circuit from B to A.

Applying Kirchhoff's law to the loop PAQBP,
20 − E2 = 12 × 1 + (1 × 2) + (2 × 2) = 18

Hence, E2 = 2V
Thus the potential difference between the points A and B is:

ii. On reversing the polarity of the battery E1, the current distributions will be changed. Let the currents be I1
and I2 as shown in the following figure.

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 Applying Kirchhoff's law for the loop PABP,
20 + E1 = (6 + 1)I1 - (4 + 1)I2
or 38 = 7I1 - 5I2 ...... (i)
Similarly for the loop ABQA,
4I2 + I2 + 18 + 2(I1 + I2) + (I1 + I2) + 7 = 0
Or 3I1 + 8I2 = - 25 ...... (ii)
Solving equation (i) and (ii) for I1 and I2 we get
I1 = 2.52 and I2 = −4.07A

Hence, Vab = −5 × (4.07) + 18

= -20.35 + 18
= -2.35V
10. Four resistances P, Q, R and S are connected to form quadrilateral ABCD. A galvanometer G is connected
between B and D. A battery is connected between A and C. The resistances are so adjusted that no current
flows in the galvanometer G. The same current I1 will flow in arms AB and BC. Similarly, current I2 flows in
arms AD and DC.

Applying Kirchhoff's second law for mesh ABCD,

I1P - I2R = 0
or I1P = I2R ...(i)
For mesh BCDB,
I1Q - I2S = 0
or I1Q = I2S ...(ii)
Dividing (i) by (ii) we get
P R
=
Q S

This is the balanced condition of the Wheatstone bridge.

Measurement of specific resistance: Slide wire or meter bridge is a practical form of Wheatstone bridge.

In the figure X is unknown resistor and R.B is resistance box. After inserting the key k, jockey is moved on
wire AC till galvanometer shows no deflection (point B). If k is the resistance per unit length of wire AC.

6 / 20
 P = resistance of AB = kl
Q = resistance of BC = k(100 - l)
R P kl
∴ = =
X Q k(100−l)

(100−l)R
or X =
l

If r is the radius of wire and l be its length, then its resistivity will be
2
XA πr X
ρ = ′
= ′
l l

Precautions:
i. The null point should lie in the middle of the wire.
ii. The current should not be allowed to flow in the wire for a long time.
Section C
11. Cyclotron is a device by which the positively charged particles like protons, deutrons, etc. can be accelerated.
The labelled diagram of cyclotron is shown in the Figure.

Working Principle: The cyclotron uses crossed electric and magnetic fields which increases the kinetic energy
of a charged particle without changing its frequency of revolution.
Here, Magnetic lorentz force is equal to the Centripetal force. Thus,
Fc = Fm
2
mv

r
=qvB
v Bq
Thus, r
= m

Now, time taken to describe a semi-circle is,

πr πm
t = =
v Bq

Thus, period of rotation, T = 2t

2πm
T =
Bq

The frequency of rotation of particle known as cyclotron frequency is,

1 Bq
νc = =
T 2πm

From the above equation we can see, cyclotron frequency is independent of the speed and radius of the orbit.
12. i. When a charged particle,q moves with velocity,v in a uniform magnetic field, B, then magnetic lorentz
force,F acting on it is given by, F = q(v × B)
ii. The direction of force on the charged particle is given by (v × B) . Here, direction of v is +^
i and direction

^
of B is −k.
For α -particle, charge is positive
ˆ
So, direction of force is +(+ ˆ ˆ
i × − k) i. e. + j

Thus for α-particle, it describes a circle with anti-clockwise motion.

For neutron:
It is a neutral particle, so it goes undeviated as F = q(v × B) = 0

For electron:
Magnetic Force is given by F = −e( v ×  B)

ˆ ˆ ˆ
So, direction is −(+ i × − k) ⇒ − j

Thus, e- describes a circle with clockwise motion.

7 / 20
 The path of the particles in the presence of magnetic field is shown below:

13. Let a current carrying rectangular loop PQRS is carrying a steady current I placed in a uniform magnetic field
B keeping the axis of the coil perpendicular to the field as shown in figure. Let at any instant the area vector
A makes an angle θ with the direction of magnetic field intensity B.

Let length and breadth of the coil are I and b respectively.

∘ ∘
Now, magnetic force on PS arm of the coil is given by F1 = BI l sin 90 [∵ PS || axis of coil, ∴ θ = 90 ]
F1 = BIl ...... (i)
By Fleming's left hand rule, the direction of the above force is perpendicular to SP and B is along upward
direction. Similarly, force on QR arm of the coil
F2 = BIl sin 90° ..... (ii)
The direction of force is perpendicular to QR and B is along downward direction
∵ F1 and F2 are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, parallel to each other acting on the loop forms

a couple which try to rotate the coil.

Now, force on RS part of the coil
∘
F3 = I Bb sin(90 + θ) ⇒ F3 = I Bb cos θ

and also force on PQ part of the coil

∘
F4 = I Bb sin(90 − θ) = I Bb cos θ

But by Fleming's left hand rule, F3 and F4 are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction along the same
line of action. Therefore, they balance each other.
Now, torque due to F1 and F2 is given by

8 / 20
 τ = force × perpendicular distance between Iines of action of F1 and F2.
τ = F × b sin θ

But, F1 = F2 = F = I Bl, ∴ τ = (I Bl) × (b sin θ)

⇒ τ = I B(lb) sin θ

∴ τ = I BA sin θ

where, A = lb = area of coil for N turns of the coil

τ = N I AB sin θ , this is the required expression of the torque in the current carrying rectangular loop.

14. Principle of moving coil galvanometer: It states that when a current-carrying coil is placed in a magnetic
field, it experiences torque due to the magnetic force.
When resistance R1 is connected, then the galvanometer equation can be written as:
V
R1 = − G ..... (i)
I

When resistance R2 is connected, then the galvanometer equation can be written as:
V
R2 = − G ...... (ii)
2I

From both these equations, we get,

V
R1 − R2 = ..... (iii)
2I

and
G = R1 - 2R2 ..... (iv)
When resistance R₃ is connected to make it read 2V, then the galvanometer equation can be written as:
2V
R3 = − G
I

Using equations (iii) and (iv) we get

R3 = 4(R1 - R2) - (R1 - 2R2) = 3R1 - 2R2
15. The place is clearly the magnetic pole of earth as needle rotates in vertical plane not in horizontal plane
BH = 0

a. BH = 0 (horizontal component)
∘
b. δ = 90 (angle of dip)

16. Paramagnetic Substance Diamagnetic Substance

A diamagnetic substance is feebly repelled

A paramagnetic substance is feebly attracted by magnet.
by a magnet.

For a paramagnetic substance, the intensity of magnetization For a diamagnetic substance, the intensity
(I = M/V = magnetic moment/volume) has a small positive of magnetization has a small negative value.
value. i.e. I = +ve i.e. I = - ve
Example - Aluminium, Chromium etc Example - Antimony, Bismuth etc
Section D
17. According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, the magnitude of induced emf is equal to the rate of
change of magnetic flux linked with the closed circuit (or coil). Mathematically,
dϕ
B
E = −N
dt

where N is the number of turns in the circuit and ϕB is the magnetic flux linked with each turn.
Suppose the conducting rod completes one revolution in time T. Then
Change in flux = B × Area swept = B × πl2
Change in flux
Induced emf =
Time
2
B×πl
ε =
T
2π
But T =
ω
2
B×πl 1 2
∴ ε = 2π
= B1 ω
2
ω

18. According to this law “the direction of induced current in a closed circuit is always such as to oppose the
cause that produces it.”
dϕ
e = −
dt

The negative sign expresses Lenz’s law. It means that the induced emf is such that, the induced current
opposes the change in flux if the circuit is closed.

9 / 20
 Consider a bar magnet and a loop. The bar magnet experiences a repulsive force due to the current induced.
Hence, some amount of work is done to move the magnet. The energy which is spent by the person in moving
the magnet is dissipated by Joule's heating produced by induced current. Thus, in each case whenever there
is a relative motion between a coil and the magnet, a force begins to act which opposes the relative motion.
Therefore, to maintain the relative motion, a mechanical work must be done. This work appears in the form
of the electric energy of the coil. Thus, Lenz’s law is based on the conservation of energy.
19. i) Let, RS moves with speed v rightward and also RS is at distances x1 and x2 from PQ at instants t1 and t2,
respectively.
⃗  ⃗ 
Change in flux, dϕ = ϕ2 − ϕ1 = Bl (x2 − x1 ) [since magnetic flux, ϕ 0
= B. A = BAcos 0 = Blx here]
⇒ dϕ = Bldx
dϕ dx dx
⇒ = Bl = Blv [∵ v = ]
dt dt dt

vBl
i. If resistance of loop is R, then I =
R
∘
∴ Magnetic force = BI lsin  90
2 2
vBl vB l
= ( ) Bl =
R R

∴ External force must be equal to magnetic force

2 2
vB l
∴ External force = = R
2
2 2 2
vBl v B l
ii. As, P = I
2
R = ( ) × R =
2
× R
R R
2 2 2
v B l
∴ P =
R

20. Figure shows the variation of im with ω  in an L-C-R  series circuit for two values of resistance R1 and 
R2 (R1 > R2 ) .

The condition for resonance in the  L-C-R  circuit is,

1 1
XL = XC ⇒ ω0 L = ⇒ ω0 = ....(i) [ω0 , XC ,  and XL  are resonant angular frequency, capacitive
ω0 C √LC

reactance and inductive reactance respectively of the series LCR circuit]

We see that the current amplitude is maximum at the resonant frequency. Since  im= Vm /R  at resonance, the
current amplitude for case  R2 is sharper to that for case R1. Quality factor or simply the Q-factor of a
resonant  L-C-R  circuit is defined as the ratio of voltage drops across the inductor and resistance at
resonance.
Q = VL /VR = ω0 L/R
−−−−
Finally, 
Q = 1/R√L/C , putting the value of resonant frequency, ω0  from equation (i)
The Q-factor determines the sharpness at resonance as for higher value of Q-factor the tuning of the circuit
and its sensitivity to accept resonating frequency signals will be much higher.
−3
21. Given, L = 100mH = 100 × 10 H .
−6
C = 2μF = 2 × 10 F, ω = 1000 and R = 400Ω

i. For the phase difference.

1
(ωL− )
ωC
tan ϕ =
R
−3
∵ ω = 1000 ⇒ ωL = 1000 × 100 × 10 = 100Ω
1 1 1
= −6
= −3
= 500Ω
ωC 1000×2×10 2×10
100−500 −400
⇒ tan ϕ = = = −1
400 400
−1 ∘
⇒ ϕ = tan (−1) ⇒ ϕ = 135

10 / 20
 Since, ωL <
1
 or xL < XC
ωC

Therefore, current is leading in phase by a phase angle 1350

ii. For unit power factor cos ϕ = 1
R
⇒ = 1
2
2 1
√R +(ωL− )
′
ωC

Where, C' is the total capacitance.

2
2 1 2
⇒ R + (ωL − ′
) = R
ωC

1 1
⇒ ωL = ′
⇒ 100 = ′
ωC 1000C
′ 1 −3
C = = 10 F = 10μF
5
10

iii. C' required in parallel = C

′
− C = 10μF − 2μF = 8μF

22. Possible causes of energy losses in transformers and their minimization are as follows:
i. Flux leakage: There is always some flux leakage. It can be reduced by winding the primary and
secondary coils one over another.
ii. The resistance of the windings: The wires used for windings have some resistance and hence, some
energy is lost due to the heat produced in the wire. It can be minimised by taking the thick wire.
iii. Eddy currents: The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents in the iron core, which results in loss
of electrical energy. To minimise it, we use laminated iron core.
iv. Hysteresis: As the magnetization cycle of the iron core is repeated again and again some loss of energy
takes place due to magnetic hysteresis. To minimise it, we prefer a soft iron core for which hysteresis loss
is less.
23. i. When a source of AC is connected to a capacitor of capacitance C1 the charge on it grows from zero to
maximum steady value Q0 .
1
The energy stored in a capacitor is, E =
2
2
C V0 where, V0 is maximum potential difference across the
plates of the capacitor.
The alternating voltage applied is
v = v0 sin ωt

and the current leads the emf by a phase angle of π/2

π
I = I0 sin(ωt + ) = I0 cos ωt
2

∴ Work done over a complete cycle is

T T
W = ∫ V I dt = ∫ (V0 sin ωt) (I0 cos ωt) dt
0 0
V0 I0 T
= ∫ 2 sin ωt cos ωtdt
2 0
V0 I0 T
∴ W = ∫ sin 2ωtdt
2 0

V0 I0 T
cos 2ωt
W = [1 − ] = 0 , Now as the work done is zero, hence the average power is also zero(as,
2 2ω 0

time can never be zero).

ii. When a DC source is connected, the condenser is charged but no current flows in the circuit. Because a
condenser offers infinite resistance for a DC source and never allows a DC current to flow through it.
Therefore, the lamp does not glow. No change occurs even when capacitance of capacitor is reduced.
Now when an AC source is connected with the circuit, the capacitor offers capacitive reactance
XC = 1/ωC (ω is the angular frequency of the applied AC voltage). The current flows in the circuit and

the lamp glows. On reducing the value of C1, the capacitive reactance, XC increases. Therefore, the glowing
of the bulb reduces.
Section E
24. i. Shortwave radio waves are reflected back by the ionosphere in the atmosphere, that is why long distance
radio broadcasts use short-wave radio wave bands.
ii. The ozone layer absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiations coming from the sun and other sources thus
preventing us from its harmful effects. That is why it is crucial for human survival.
iii. The electromagnetic waves, used for long distance TV transmission, are not reflected by the ionosphere.
Therefore, to reflect back the TV signals to the desired locations on the earth, satellites are used.

11 / 20
25.

26. In microwave oven, the frequency of the microwaves is selected to match the resonant frequency of water
molecules.This leads to the vibrations of these water molecules. As these vibrations increase with time, the
temperature increases leading to production of heat and this is the heat which is responsible for the cooking
of food in the oven. So any food containing water molecules inside can be heated by a microwave oven.
As, microwaves are short wavelength radio waves, with frequency of order of 300 MHz to 300 GHz. Due to
short wavelength, they have high penetrating power with respect to atmosphere and less diffraction in the
atmospheric layers. So, these waves are suitable for the RADAR(RAdio Detection And Ranging) systems used
in aircraft navigation.
Once the micro waves have been generated, an antenna working as a transmitter, hurls them into the air in
front of it. The antenna is usually curved so it focuses the waves into a precise, narrow beam, but radar
antennas also typically rotate so they can detect movements over a large area.
Section F
27. An astronomical telescope should have an objective of larger aperture and longer focal length while an
eyepiece of small aperture and small focal length. Therefore, we will use L2 as an objective and L3 as an
eyepiece. For constructing microscope, L3 should be used as objective and L1 as eyepiece because both the
lenses of microscope should have short focal lengths and the focal length of objective should be smaller than
the eyepiece.
28. Refer Notebook.
29. i. μ = sin ic or n21 = sin ic
where n21 is the refractive index of rarer medium 1 with respect to denser medium 2.
ii. As μ depends on wavelength, therefore, critical angle for the same pair of media in contact will be
different for different colours.
1
30. Power of a lens is the reciprocal of its focal length when it is measured in metre. Power of a lens, P = .  Its SI
f

unit ts dioptre (D).

Consider two lenses A and B of focal lengths, f1 and f2 placed in contact with each other .
The first lens produces an image (real image) at I1 which serves as a virtual object for the second lens B
producing the final image at I.
For the image formed by the first lens A,
1 1 1

v1
−
u
=  ..(i)
f
1

For the image formed by the second lens B,

1 1 1

v
−
v1
=  ..(ii)
f
2

Adding Eqs. (i) and (ii), we obtain

1

v
−
1

u
=
1
+
1
 ..(iii)
f f
1 2

If the two lenses system is regarded as equivalent to a single lens of focal length f, we have
1

v
−
1

u
=
1
 ..(iv)
f

From Eqs. (iii) and (iv), we obtain

1 1 1
+ =
f f f
1 2

12 / 20
31. A compound microscope consists of two convex lenses co-axially separated by some distance. The lens nearer
to the object is called the objective. The lens through which the final image is viewed is called the eyepiece.

Magnifying power, when final image is at infinity:

The magnification produced by the compound microscope is the product of the magnifications produced by
the eyepiece and objective.
∴ M = Me × M0 ...(i)

Where, Me and M0 are the magnifying powers of the eyepiece and objective respectively.
If u0 is the distance of the object from the objective and v0 is the distance of the image from the objective,
then
′ ′
h L h h
Magnifying power of the objective is M0 =
h
=
f
[Using, tan β = ( f ) = (
L
) ]
0 0

where h, h' are object and image heights respectively and f0 is the focal length of the objective.
L is the tube length i.e., the distance between the second focal point of the objective and the first focal point of
the eyepiece.
D
When the final image is at infinity, Me =
fe

L D
Magnifying power of a compound microscope, M = M0 × Mc = ×
f f
0 c

32. According to Huygens' principle, Every point on a wave-front may be considered a source of secondary
spherical wavelets which spread out in the forward direction at the speed of light. The new wave-front is the
tangential surface to all of these secondary wavelets.
A surface touching these secondary wavelets, tangentially in the forward direction at any instant gives the
new wavefront at that instant. This is called secondary wavefront.

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 If v1, v2 are the speeds of light into two mediums 1 and 2 respectively and t is the time taken by light to go
from B to C or A to D or E to G through F, then from ΔAF E, sin i = EF /AF
In ΔF GC , sin r = F G/F C
Now total time taken by the light to move to the distance from E to G, t = t1 + t2 =
EF FG AFsin i FCsin r
+ = +
v1 v2 v1 v2

⇒ t = AC sin r/v2 + AF (sin i/v1 − sin r/v2 ) (As, FC = AC - AF)

For rays of light from the different parts on the incident wavefront, the values of AF are different. But light
from different points of the incident wavefront should take the same time to reach the corresponding points
on the refracted wavefront.
So, t should not depend on AF. This is possible only,
if sini/v1 -sinr/v2 = 0
or sini/sinr = v1/v2 = µ
Now, if c represents the speed of light in vacuum, then µ1 = c/v1 and µ2 = c/v2 are known as the refractive
index of medium I and medium 2 respectively.
sin i μ2
Then, µ1 sin i = µ2sin r ⇒ µ = [μ =
μ
= relative refractive index of the medium 2 with respect to
sin r 1

medium 1]
This is known as Snell's law of refraction.
33. Young’s Double slit experiment: Coherent sources are those which have exactly the same frequency and are
in this same phase or have a constant difference in phase.
Conditions:
i. The sources should be monochromatic and originating from common single source.
ii. The amplitudes of the waves should be equal.
Suppose S1 and S2 are two fine slits, a small distance d apart. They are illuminated by a strong source S of
monochromatic light of wavelength λ. MN is a screen at a distance D from the slits.

Young's arrangement to produce interference pattern

Consider a point Pat a distance y from 0, the centre of the screen.
The path difference between two waves arriving at point Pis equal to S2P - S1P.

Now, (S2P)2 -(S1P)2

2 2
2 d 2 d
= [D + (y + ) ] − [D + (y − ) ] = 2yd
2 2

2yd
Thus, S2 P − S1 P =
S2 P+S1 P

But S2 P + S1 P ≈ 2D
dy
∴ S2 P − S1 P ≈
D

a. For constructive interference (Bright fringes)

dy
Path difference = D
= nλ , where,
n = 0, 1, 2, 3,......
nDλ
∴ y = [∵ n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ....]
d

b. For destructive interference (Dark fringes)

dy λ
Path difference = = (2n − 1)
2
D

Distribution of Intensity

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 The distribution of intensity in Young's double slit experiment is as shown below

34. Unpolarised light: A light wave that is vibrating in more than one plane is referred to as unpolarised light .
Example - Light emitted by the sun, by a lamp in the classroom, or by a candle flame is unpolarized light.
Such light waves are created by electric charges that vibrate in a variety of directions, thus creating an
electromagnetic wave that vibrates in a variety of directions.

Polarisation by reflection from a transparent medium

When an unpolarised light beam is incident on a refracting transparent medium at a particular angle of
incidence, known as polarising angle(ip), the reflected light is plane polarised. Thus, plane polarised light is
produced by reflection from a partially transparent refracting medium .

Brewster's law states that the tangent of polarising angle for a transparent medium is equal to the refractive
index of the medium i.e. μ = tan ip
where, µ = refractive index of transparent
denser medium, ip = polarising angle
Section G
35. Einstein's photoelectric equation, KEmax= hv - ϕ0 ... (i)
where, v = frequency of incident light beam
ϕ0 =work function of metal

KEmax= maximum kinetic energy

ϕ0 = hvo
where, v0 is threshold frequency.
KEmax= hv - hv0
KEmax= h(v - vo) ... (ii)
This equation is obtained by considering the particle nature of electromagnetic radiation.
Three salient features observed in photoelectric effect and their explanation on the basis of Einstein's
photoelectric equation is given as below
i. Explanation of frequency law: When frequency of incident photon (v), increases, the kinetic energy of
emitted electron increases. Intensity has no effect on kinetic energy of photoelectrons.

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 ii. Explanation of intensity law: When intensity of incident light increases, the number of incident photons
increases, as one photon ejects one electron; the increase in intensity will increase the number of ejected
electrons. In other words, photocurrent will increase with increase of intensity. Frequency has no effect
on photocurrent.
iii. Explanation of no time lag law: When the energy of incident photon is greater than work function, the
photoelectron is immediately ejected. Thus there is no time lag between incidence of light and emission of
photoelectrons.
36. i. Three experimentally observed features in the phenomenon of photoelectric effect are :
a. Intensity : When the intensity of incident light increases as one photon ejects one electron, the
increase in intensity will increase the number of ejected electrons.
b. Frequency : When the frequency of incident photon increases, the kinetic energy of the emitted
electrons increases.
c. No time lag : When energy of incident photon is greater than the work function, the photo electron is
ejected immediately.
ii. These features cannot be explained on the wave nature of light because wave nature of radiation cannot
explain the following.
a. The photo electrons were ejected out instantaneously.
b. The existence of threshold frequency.
c. kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is independent of the intensity of light and kinetic energy
depends on its frequency.
37. Cut-off frequency : The minimum value of the frequency of light below which the photoelectric emission
stops completely, how so ever large may be the intensity of light.
Given, threshold frequency of metal is ν and frequency of light is 2ν . Using Einstein's equation for the
photoelectric effect, we can write
h(2ν − ν) =
1
mv
2
1
.....(i)
2

Similarly, for light having frequency 5ν , Using Einstein's equation for the photoelectric effect, we can write
1
h(5ν − ν) = mv
2
2
.....(ii)
2

Using Eqs. (i) and (ii), we find

2 2
−−−
ν/4ν = v1 /v2 ⇒ v1 /v2 = √1/4 ⇒ v1 /v2 = 1/2

38. From de-Broglie matter wave equation,

h
λ =
p
−−−−
But, p = √2mK and K = qV
1
⇒ λ ∝
√mq

i. 1) Using de-Broglie wavelength formula, we already know that proton and alpha particle are accelerated
through the same potential.
So, both their velocities are same.
Ratio of wavelengths of proton and α-particle.
−−−−−−−−−
λp −−−
m q
− mα q
α α α
= √ = √( )( )
λα mp q mp q
p p

mα qα
But, mp
= 4,
q
= 2
p

λp −−− −−− –
= √(4) × 2 = 2√2
λa
–
⇒ λp : λα = 2√2 : 1

Proton have greater de-Broglie wavelength associated with it.

ii. Kinetic energy, K = qV
Kp q
(for same accelerating voltage)
p
⇒ = ( )
Ka q
α

Kp
1 1
= ⇒ Kp = Ka
Kα 2 2

Section H
39. Bohr's Postulates

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 i. Every atom consists of small and massive central core, known as nucleus around which electron revolve
and necessary centripetal force prevailed by electrostatic force of attraction between positively charged
nucleus and negatively charged electrons.
ii. The electrons are revolved around the nucleus in only those circular orbits which satisfy the quantum
h
condition that the angular momentum of electrons is equal to integral multiple of 2π
where, h is Planck's
constant.
nh
mvr =
2π

where, n = 1, 2, 3,...
In second excited state i.e., n =3, two spectral lines namely Lyman series and Balmer series can be
obtained corresponding to transition of electron from n = 3 to n = 1 and n = 3 to n = 2, respectively.
For Lyman series, n = 3 to n = 1, for minimum wavelength
8R
1
= R[
1
2
−
1
2
] = ...........(i)
λman 1 3 9

For Balmer series(maximum wavelength),

1 1 1
= R[ − ]
λmax 2 2
2 3

9−4 5R
= ( )R = ..........(ii)
36 36

On dividing Eq. (i) by Eq. (ii), we get

λmax 8R/9
8R 36 32
= = × =
λman 5R/36 9 5R 5

⇒ λmax : λman = 32 : 5

40. According to Bohr's theory of hydrogen energy of photon released, E2 - E1 = hv

Given, E1 = - 1.51 eV
E2 = - 0.85
E2 - E1 = - 0.85- (- 1.51) = 1.51 - 0.85= 0.66 eV
1242eV−nm 1242eV−nm −6
So, the wavelength of emitted spectral line, λ = =
0.66eV
= 1.88 × 10 m
E(ineV)

The wavelength belongs to Paschen series of hydrogen spectrum

41. i. Given, wavelength of the photon, λ = 275nm

Energy of photon is given by,

E = hν
hc
E =
λ
1242 eV
E = = 4.5eV
λ(in nm)

From fig. this transition corresponds to B since for transition B.

E = 0 - (- 4.5eV) = 4.5eV
ii. Energy of Photon Emitted, E = hc/λ ∝ 1/ λ
For minimum wavelength of emission, the energy is maximum.
Transition D, for which the energy emission is maximum, corresponds to the emission of radiation of
minimum wavelength.
42. The graph showing the variation of binding energy per nucleon with mass number of atomic nuclei is shown
on below:

Numerical: Q = [20mn + 20mp - m(Ca)]c2

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 = (20 × 1.008665 + 20 × 1.007825 - 39.962589)c2
931.5
= 0.367211u × M eV
u

= 342 MeV
Hence, the B.E. per nucleon of 40
20
C a nucleus
Q 342
= = = 8.55 MeV/nucleon.
A 40

43. i. Radiation is part of our everyday lives. There are natural sources of radiation, such as radiation from
outer space, as well as man-made sources of radiation, like nuclear power plants and cell phones.
Radiation is given off from a process called radioactive decay. Radioactive decay occurs when the
original nucleus, or parent nucleus, of an unstable atom decomposes and forms a different nucleus, or the
daughter nucleus.
The rate at which radioactive decay occurs is measured using half-life, which is the time it takes for half
the amount of the parent nucleus to decay. Each time the half-life of a radioactive material occurs, the
amount of the radioactive material decreases to half of the original value.
Let N be the number of atoms present in a radioactive substance at any instant t. Let dN be the number of
atoms that disintegrate in a short interval dt. Then, the rate of disintegration - dN/dt is proportional to N,
i.e.
dN
− = λN
dt

where, A.is a constant for the given substance and is called decay constant (or disintegration constant or
radioactive constant or transformation constant). For a given element, the value of A.isconstant but for
different elements it is different. From the above equation, we have
dN
= −λdt
N

On integrating both sides, we get

log e N = −λt + C ........ (i)
where C is the integration constant. To determine C, we apply the initial conditions. Suppose, there were
N0 atoms in the beginning, i.e. N = N0 at t = 0.
Then, log, N0 = C
Substituting this value of C in the above Eq. (i), we have
log e N = −λt + log e N0
N
log e N − log e N0 = −λt or  log e = −λt
N0

ii. ⇒ N /N0 = e ⇒ N = N0 e ....... (ii)

−λt −λt

Here, N0 and N are numbers of atom

s in a radioactive substance at time t = 0 and after time t, respectively.

+
β −decay

iii. 11 N a
22
−−−−−−→10 N e
22 0
+1 e + v + Q

The basic nuclear process is given by

A A 0
X → Y + e + v
Z Z−1 +1

For β − decay , there is a conversion of a proton into neutron to emit position (positive electron).
+

iv. The nucleus formed in the beta positive or beta negative decay is an isobar because they have same mass
number but different atomic number as neutron is converted into proton, electron and antineutrino.
44. i. Nuclear decay (Radioactive decay) occurs when an unstable atom loses energy by emitting ionizing
radiation. In α-decay, the atomic number is decreased by 2 units and the mass number decreases by 4
units. In β-decay, the atomic number increases by 1 unit but the mass number does not change. In γ -
decay, there is no change in mass and atomic number.
Therefore, the mentioned radioactive decays will proceed as below.
176 0 176 4 180
A2 + β → A1 + He → A
71 −1 70 2 72

So,A has mass number 180 and atomic number 72.

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 α 172 γ 172

Also,176
71
A2 →69 A3 →69 A4

So, A4 has mass number 172 and atomic number 69.

ii. β − − decay
− ¯¯
n → p + β + v̄ (anti − neutrino)
(neuron decay)
(proton)

e.g 15 P32 32
→
16
S + e
− ¯¯
+ v̄
+
β − decay
+
p → n + β + v (neutrino)
(proton decay) (neuron)

e.g. 22
11
Na ⟶
22
10
Ne + e
+
+ v

45. i. This is due to the fact that nuclear force is a short range force.
ii. Due to this, the nucleons get more tightly bound. This implies that energy is released during this.
iii. Neutrinos are neutral particles with very small mass compared to electrons. They have only weak
interaction with other particles, therefore, they are very difficult to detect, since they can penetrate large
quantity of matter without any interaction.
Section I
46. Zener diode is fabricated by heavily doping of p-n side of junction so as to operate continously without getting
damaged in the region of reverse breakdown voltage.
The circuit diagram of a voltage regulator using a Zener diode is shown in figure.

Zener diode as voltage regulator: Zener diode is used in regulating fluctuating voltage as shown. It is
connected in circuit through resistance R depending on voltage or power rating R1 is connected in parallel
and output is received. On an abrupt increase of voltage across diode becomes constant, equal to breakdown
voltage but current rises sharply. Hence, there is an increase in voltage drop R. As RL is in parallel so voltage
across RL is same.

47. i. The energy for the maximum intensity of the solar radiation is nearly 1 5 eV. In order to have photo
excitation , the energy of radiation ( hν ) must be greater than energy band gap (Eg ), i.e. hν > Eg Therefore
, the semiconductor with energy band gap about 1.5 eV or lower and with higher absorption coefficient, is
likely to give better solar conversion efficiency.
The energy band gap for Si is about 1.1 eV, while for GaAs, it is about 1.43 eV. The gas GaAs is better inspite
of its higher band gap than Si because it absorbs relatively more energy from the incident solar radiations
being of relatively higher absorption coefficient
ii. When light of frequency, v such that hν > Es (band gap) is incident on junction, then electron-hole pair
liberated in the depletion region drifts under the influence of potential barrier. The gathering of these
charge carriers make p-type as positive electrode and n-type as negative electrode and hence, generating
photo-voltage across solar cell

48. i. With the formation of p-n junction, the holes from p-region diffuse into the n-region and electrons from n-
region diffuse into p-region and electron-hole pair combine and get annihilated.

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 This in turn, produces potential barrier, VB across the junction which opposes the further diffusion
through the junction. Thus, small region forms is called the depletion region.
ii. Circuit diagram of forward biased and reverse biased p-n junction diode is shown below:

iii. The width of depletion layer

i. decreases in forward bias.
ii. The width of depletion layer increases in reverse bias.
49. In full-wave rectifier, full wave of the input is rectified.
The circuit diagram of full-wave rectifier is shown below:
The input and output wave forms are given below:

Working of full wave rectifier During the first half of input cycle, the upper end of the coil is at positive
potential and lower end at negative potential.This provides forward bias to diode D1 and reverse bias to
diode D2.

So diode D1 conducts only and diode D2 does not conduct. Current flows in output load in the direction shown
in figure. During the second half of input cycle, D2 is forward biased and conducts. In this way, current flows
in the load in the single direction in both the half of the input wave as shown in figure.

20 / 20