University of Colorado, Boulder

CU Scholar
Undergraduate Honors Theses Honors Program

Fall 2018

Solar Water Pumps in Zambia: Irrigating the Fields

of Shamiyoyo
Anya Copeland
Anya.Copeland@Colorado.EDU

Follow this and additional works at: https://scholar.colorado.edu/honr_theses

Part of the Oil, Gas, and Energy Commons, and the Sustainability Commons

Recommended Citation
Copeland, Anya, "Solar Water Pumps in Zambia: Irrigating the Fields of Shamiyoyo" (2018). Undergraduate Honors Theses. 1757.
https://scholar.colorado.edu/honr_theses/1757

This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by Honors Program at CU Scholar. It has been accepted for inclusion in Undergraduate Honors
Theses by an authorized administrator of CU Scholar. For more information, please contact cuscholaradmin@colorado.edu.
 Solar Water Pumps in Zambia:
Irrigating the Fields of Shamiyoyo

By
Anya Copeland
University of Colorado at Boulder

A thesis submitted to the

University of Colorado at Boulder
in partial fulfillment
of the requirements to receive
Honors designation in
Environmental Studies
October 2018

Thesis Advisors:

Dale Miller, Environmental Studies, Committee Chair

Joel Hartter, Environmental Studies
David Jonas, Chemistry

© 2018 by Anya Copeland

All rights reserved
i
Abstract

This thesis analyzes the feasibility and implementation of solar photovoltaic water pump

systems in rural Zambia. The research questions examine if it is possible, how these systems

might be implemented into rural African communities, and what the effects of the system would

be. Through policy analysis, as well as in-depth multifaceted research and a case study, it is

found that it is feasible and possible to implement solar photovoltaic water pump systems into

rural Zambia communities. This paper finds that the implementation of systems like these will

significantly benefit rural Zambian communities and extract the negative externalities of the

community’s current water pump system. This thesis also finds that the capital cost of a solar

photovoltaic water pump system is much higher than a two-stroke engine pump, but will be more

economically beneficial in the future. Another outcome found from this thesis is that the

environmental externalities would be greatly reduced with the suggested system.

Furthermore, this thesis sets forward an implementation process for communities eager to

adopt similar systems. This thesis advises that the Zambian government put forward more

policies and incentives for small-scale renewable energy systems. Decreasing the amount of

small motor water systems will benefit the communities, and the environment and more systems

should be implanted in viable areas.

Key Words: Solar Energy, Solar Water Pumps, Zambia, Renewable Energy.

ii
iii
Preface

Coming into the Spring semester of 2018 I had no idea what I was going to write my

honors thesis on. I knew I wanted my research to help people and the environment. When I

approached by Day by De to help with research for their foundation, I was very excited and

interested. The Day by De Foundation identifies high achieving, community-focused, rural

Zambians, and provides the capital and resources to start a business. This process develops

entrepreneurs, creates sustainable projects, and engages and benefits the surrounding community.

Learning about this foundation further helped me develop a research question and topic.

Working with Narendra De, a co-founder of Day by De, we focused on an issue that would

benefit them and myself.

Investigating the possibility of adding renewable energy into rural Zambia communities

was intriguing. I was eager to do research that would benefit many individuals and entire

communities. Throughout my research, I became even more passionate about Zambia, Day by

De and my research. In my future, I can see myself working with the Day by De foundation on

other projects. My thesis is only the first step on my path to help our environment and the people

who live simultaneously with it.

I had lots of support from many members of Day by De, especially Narendra De and

Chileshe Kabwe. Chileshe is the project manager for Day by De and is located in Zambia. He

was able to provide essential information about the current irrigation system in Shamiyoyo. All

my thesis committee members, Joel Hartter, David Jonas and especially Dale Miller, were also

extremely helpful throughout the process. I would also like to thank the support I received from

my family and loved ones during these past ten months of research and preparation.

iv
Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... ii
Preface............................................................................................................................................ iv
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Background ..................................................................................................................................... 3
Agriculture .................................................................................................................................. 3
Identifying the Problem ............................................................................................................... 4
Two-Stroke Water Pumps and Engines ...................................................................................... 4
Solar Resource Available in Zambia ........................................................................................... 5
Literature Review............................................................................................................................ 8
African Electrification ................................................................................................................. 8
Solar Panel Technology ............................................................................................................ 11
Energy Storage .......................................................................................................................... 12
Impacts of Solar Energy ............................................................................................................ 13
Current Zambian Solar Energy ................................................................................................. 14
Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 16
Case Study ................................................................................................................................. 17
Results and Findings ..................................................................................................................... 18
Policy Analysis .......................................................................................................................... 19
Feasibility Study ........................................................................................................................... 22
Economic Analysis .................................................................................................................... 22
Effects on Environment ............................................................................................................. 23
Effects on Community .............................................................................................................. 24
Gender Impacts ...................................................................................................................... 24
Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 26
Water Pump ............................................................................................................................... 26
Agriculture ................................................................................................................................ 27
Weather ..................................................................................................................................... 27
Implementation ............................................................................................................................. 29
Recommendations ......................................................................................................................... 33
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 35
Limitations ................................................................................................................................ 36

v
Bibliography ................................................................................................................................. 38
Appendix A ................................................................................................................................... 43
Solar Insolation Values ............................................................................................................. 47

vi
Introduction

I am investigating the possibility of solar photovoltaic water pumps in Shamiyoyo,

other rural African communities and rural villages around the world to assist in irrigating

agriculture fields. I first addressed the issues surrounding Shamiyoyo and communities like it

with unreliable irrigation systems. I first addressed the question, “What is the feasibility of

adding photovoltaic water pumps in rural Zambian communities to replace fuel-

powered water pumps?” I then moved on to address my other research questions “How will

implementing a photovoltaic water pump effect the community, environment, and economy?”

and “How do you add photovoltaic water pumps in rural Zambian communities to replace

fuel-powered water pumps?” This research would investigate if it were possible to add solar

photovoltaic water pumps into rural Zambian communities that had no prior electrification

and how it could be done. During my research, I worked with a non-profit organization, Day

by De, which identifies high achieving, community-focused, rural Zambians, and provides the

capital and resources to start a business. This process develops entrepreneurs, creates

sustainable projects, and engages and benefits the surrounding community. Along with the

organization's help, we identified a topic and research that could benefit us both.

Most of Zambia is considered rural, and much of the population does not have access

to electricity. Only 28% of the population has access to electricity, and 72% does not (World

Bank, 2017). Exploring the feasibility of integrating solar energy, specifically photovoltaic

water pumps, into these rural communities will allow for further action on the issue. Zambia

resides in central Africa, so the solar resource available is extensive (Figure 7) (World Bank

1
Group, 2014). Providing a way for these Zambians so access electricity, to replace generators,

will improve their lives, businesses, and educations. Also, finding the solar photovoltaic (PV)

systems that will best provide for these communities will allow for the smooth and quick

implementation of these systems.

My hypothesis speculates that replacing water pumps that currently run on gasoline

would greatly benefit these communities. Removing the complication of acquiring fuel and

the money to buy fuel will also allow the people in these communities to allocate their funds

elsewhere. The water pumps I researched to replace are used for irrigation of an agricultural

field. This field provides food and a source of income for this community, and it is essential

that the system is reliable and can perform up to the community’s needs.

The outcome of this research is to design a complete system that can replace the

current two-stroke engine, and that can be implemented into Shamiyoyo’s community. My

research also analyzes how this switch to a renewable energy source with affect the people

and environment of the communities. This research will benefit the community, not only in

providing them with a more sustainable water pump but with education about renewable

energy sources and how they can further benefit rural communities.

2
Background

Zambia is located in central southern Africa sharing borders with seven other

countries. It has an area of 752,681 square kilometers (km^2) and reaches an altitude of 2300

meters above sea level on the highest parts of the plateau (IRENA, 2013). The country has a

population of 13.8 million and has experienced steady economic growth in the past few

decades. Although the country has experienced strong economic growth, there has been little

done in improving human development and social conditions. Zambia has a Human

Development Index (HDI) source of 0.45, ranking it at 163 out of 187 countries (IRENA,

2013). A low HDI means that Zambia is developing and has room to improve in many areas.

Helping the communities and entrepreneurs to become less dependent on outside forces will

allow their quality of life to improve and benefit the country’s overall human development.

Agriculture

Farming and agriculture are significant to the way of life in Zambia. It is still a major

export of the country and helps small communities like Shamiyoyo sustain themselves.

Agriculture and farming were first pushed during colonization under the British rule when the

British government was pushing for population growth (Haggblade, 2003). In the more recent

years, many Zambian farmers are starting to practice conservation farming, which will not

only benefit the community by requiring fewer resources it will also benefit the environment

(Haggblade, 2003). Agriculture is still vital to Zambians and will continue to be into the

future. In many communities, farming is the only way to support themselves and provide food

for the whole community. The most common crops grown in Zambia include maize, wheat,

3
soya beans, groundnuts, cotton, tobacco, sunflower, sorghum, coffee, rice, cassava, sugar, and

horticulture (Ministry of Agriculture, 2014).

Introducing irrigation not powered by muscle power has changed agriculture

significantly in Zambia. The increase in agriculture is helping the country’s economy grow

and become stronger. Zambia has a significant potential for agriculture as the country holds

much of the water in Central and South Africa. Many smaller communities also use

agriculture to feed themselves and as a source of income. In Shamiyoyo fuel powered

irrigation has changed the community significantly and helped establish a more reliable

irrigation system.

Identifying the Problem

The issue of unreliable irrigation systems is an essential one in communities who rely

on their crop yield for making a living and food. Shamiyoyo currently has a two-stroke water

pump that irrigates their fields. However, if the pump breaks it will be very hard to find

replacement parts and might cause damage to the current crops due to lack of water. The

simplest way to solve this issue would be replacing the two-stroke water pump with an

electric water pump. However, since much of Zambia is not connected to the electrical grid,

these electric water pumps would need to be powered in another way. Subsequently, Zambia

has a large solar resource and would be a perfect candidate for a solar photovoltaic water

pump as a solution to unreliable irrigation systems.

Two-Stroke Water Pumps and Engines

Two-stroke engines are very popular in rural Zambian communities to generate

electricity. I conducted a case study on the village of Shamiyoyo. This small village is located

4
near Kaoma, Western Province, Zambia. In Shamiyoyo, a two-stroke engine is used to pump

water to a water tower that is then used for irrigation of fields. This particular two-stroke

engine is irrigating a 2-hectare field that produces around 1800 head of cabbage that the

community uses to sell, eat and trade. With the use of the two-stroke water pump, it allows

the village to sustain their lives. However, two-stroke engines are inefficient, harmful devices

that are hard to find replacements parts in case of damage. Two-stroke engines emit more

smoke, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and particulate matter than four-stroke engines

(Potera, 2004). Air pollution, from generators like two-stroke engines, raises the risk of

respiratory illnesses. These engines are not only expensive but harmful to the people around

them, making the option of solar water pumps much more attractive.

Solar Resource Available in Zambia

Zambia is located in central southern Africa, positioning it for the perfect for solar

resources. Even though solar panels do not need a lot of sunlight is it very helpful. Zambia

gets an average of 2000-3000 hours of sunshine every year (Africa- EU Energy Partnership,

2016). The average solar irradiation is on the lower side at 5.5 kWh/m^2/day. However, some

parts of the country experience the highest global solar irradiation measuring 2300

kWh/m^2/year (Africa- EU Energy Partnership, 2016). With a high level of solar irradiation,

the country has the potential for a high amount of power to be collected from the sun.

Zambia has a high potential power output with PV Systems. For high and stable power

production from photovoltaic systems can be best reached during the dry season from April to

5
September (World Bank Group, 2014). The best outcome for solar energy collection from PV

systems will also come from fixed titled panels instead of horizontal panels (Figure 8) (World

Bank Group, 2014). Individuals in Zambia have the potential to produce enough energy to

sustain their lives.

The photovoltaic electricity potential in Zambia is higher in some regions than others.

This makes it more feasible to add PV systems in regions with higher potential to receive the

most significant power production. The southern part of Zambia has much more potential

than the northern region (Figure 7). With some regions in Southern Zambia ranging from

1753-1826 kWh/kWp (kilowatt hour/kilowatt peak), photovoltaic systems would perform

very well in these regions. Finding the regions that have the highest potential for photovoltaic

electricity potential will allow for more focus on where solar energy would be the best fit for

communities in Zambia.

Zambia already is using a lot of renewable energy as it is. Hydropower supplies 94%

of the country’s electricity and meets 13% of the national energy demand (Munyeme, 1994).

However, there is much more potential solar than what is being implemented today. The

average sum of solar radiation amounts to 7.1 GJ/m^2, giving Zambia high potential but solar

energy is still scantly exploited (Munyeme, 1994). With the high potential for solar energy

like this, the country could move even more towards using only renewable energy.

Zambia might have the resources available for solar energy but is the country ready for more

renewable energy systems to be implemented? Much of the energy consumed in Zambia goes

6
towards mining as that is a high energy consumption industry. However, if solar energy is

implemented for residential use, it is much more achievable. Zambia has developed a total of

30 MW solar photovoltaic (PV) on a build-own-operate model with the help from various

institutions (IRENA, 2013). The country has already started to use small amounts of solar

energy. Zambia needs some traction to develop more solar energy systems for on-grid and

off-grid uses.

7
Literature Review

In this literature review, I am reviewing current electricity and power needs and uses

in Zambia. I am also studying the current availability of electricity in Zambia.

African Electrification

Some parts of rural Africa have already felt the push for electrification. However,

every area has different needs and different resources available to them. Choosing the

appropriate energy source for electrification in these areas is key to a successful move

towards electrification. Price is one factor to consider when choosing an energy source. For

Zambia PV systems are cheaper than electricity delivered by diesel, ranging from 0.25-0.35

Euro/kWh (Szabó, 2011). Diesel might be easier to acquire, but it will not be cheaper for

Zambians.

Photovoltaic systems have their limitations in rural Africa. Since most of the systems

are off the grid, they can only be used for lighting or low voltage appliances. The most

popular energy source in most of rural Africa is biomass. The burning of biomass is harmful

to the environment and individuals working around it. Photovoltaic systems can be very

helpful in rural communities, especially in helping with agriculture. These systems can help

with water pumping, lighting, cooling and crop processing (Karekezi, 2002). Agriculture is

very important to these people as it is how they feed their families and make a living to

provide for their families. People living in rural Africa might not always pick the energy

8
source that is best for the environment but what is cheapest for them to keep providing for

their communities.

Governments of southern African countries are also looking towards solar energy as a

solution to the current energy deficit. The government of Zambia in the last decade has highly

supported solar research and development (Bowa, 2017). Even if the government is

supporting this alternative form of energy, they are having trouble achieving set goals to

implement it. The Zambian government had a goal of connecting 10,000 new households but

ended up reducing the goal to 2500 (Bowa, 2017). Zambia is experiencing many challenges

but is finding alternative ways to overcome the challenges and other barriers.

One challenge many developing countries face with electrification is the high price for

renewable energy sources. Some enterprises manage solar home systems with a monthly fee

for users. However, the solar systems tend to be overused, and the energy storage systems and

batteries are discharged continuously as the electricity load of the home increases (Lemaire,

2009). This process has allowed low-income families access to solar energy without the high

capital cost. A public-private partnership can deliver a cost-effective energy service to rural

areas with no electricity (Lemaire, 2009). This is one step closer to the electrification of the

rural regions in Africa.

The policy in many African countries is another factor that has been affecting the

electrification of rural communities in Africa. Many policymakers and planners are very

interested in implementing renewable energy in their countries rural communities. However,

9
it is proving difficult. In Zambia, there are inadequate policy provisions and implementations,

lack of awareness among rural households, the high cost of technology, and the undeveloped

nature of renewable energy markets (Mfune, 2008). Countries try hard to exploit renewable

energy technology, however, only an elite group of the rural population have been able to take

advantage of it. The need to find ways to make renewable energy available to all people in

rural communities is greater than ever.

Electrification of rural areas can start with things as simple as PV pumping systems.

These systems can be used for irrigation, other local water needs, and can also supply

electricity to small consumers (Stoppato, 2014). Water can be the most important thing to

many rural African communities as it is needed to sustain all life. Many communities might

use engines to pump water, but PV pumping systems are more efficient for the communities

to use (Stoppato, 2014). PV pumping systems can be the first stepping stone towards

electrification in many rural African communities.

For some countries that don’t have any electricity, there are a few paths they can take

during their country’s energy development. One way is called leapfrogging, by adopting

highly efficient and renewable technologies, they can bypass the conventional path of energy

development (Murphy, 2001). Not only would this be beneficial to our environment it would

also allow these countries to begin working with more efficient technologies. The only way

leapfrogging to work is to consider the technical and economic viability but also the social

conditions and economic realities of daily life in these East African regions (Murphy, 2001).

10
The possibility of adopting renewable energy sources in rural communities is high with the

right conditions.

Solar Panel Technology

To successfully collect and use the solar energy we must first understand the

technology behind solar energy. The power from the sun intercepted by the Earth is 1.8 x

10^11 MW, which is much greater than the present rate of all energy consumption (Parida,

2011). Solar panels are made from several different materials and have advanced in great

leaps and bounds over the last decade. Photovoltaic technology is one of the finest ways to

harness solar Power (Parida, 2011). Understanding the different models and how they affect

the environment and distribution are all very important in implanting solar energy into

developing countries.

If we want to use solar energy to its fullest potential, we must understand what makes

it less efficient. People have investigated the efficient operating strategies, size, and design

but have not looked into how natural dust can affect the performance of a photovoltaic

system. It was found that dust had a significant effect on the efficiency of solar photovoltaic

panels (Rajput, 2013). This is beneficial knowledge as regions with a lot of dust would

require regular cleaning of the panels to maximize efficiency.

Another factor that affects the efficiency of solar panels is the tilt angle of the panels

themselves. Completely flat solar panels will not be as efficient as have the optimal tilt angle.

Annual optimum tilt angle was found to be approximately equal to the latitude of the location

11
(Benghanem, 2011). Using the optimum tilt angle for photovoltaic panels will allow for the

maximum power output of the system. In Zambia, the optimum tilt angle for solar panels is

equal to the Latitude, which ranges from 8.7°S-17°S. It was also found that the loss in the

amount of collected energy when using the yearly average fixed angle is around 8% compared

with the monthly optimum tilt (Benghanem, 2011).

The amount of solar energy collected is mainly based on how much energy can be

collected. Optimizing the amount that a PV system can collect is very important. The power

output of a solar cell panel is highly affected by the sunlight incident angle (Chen, 2005). The

optimum installation angle can be based on either genetic algorithm (GA) and/or simulated-

annealing (SA). Again, each month will have a different angle that will optimize the power

output of any system and panels would benefit from adjusting its angles every month.

Energy Storage

Energy storage is another important part of solar energy collection and usage. Having

low maintenance and durable energy storage solution, like batteries will help solar energy

systems to run smoother. The maintenance costs of batteries over their operating life are very

similar to the initial cost (Burrows, 1981). In developing countries, the cost to maintain

technology is significant as most communities do not have a lot of money, especially not to

spend on non-food or water-related items. Using batteries that have a hybrid grid alloy

combination has the advantages of an Sb-free combination and none of the disadvantages

12
(Burrows, 1981). Identifying and using the correct batteries will make PV systems much more

reliable in the long run.

However, batteries used along with solar energy have caused problems and extra costs

for the users of the systems. After a year of use, some lead-acid batteries indicated that the

capacity had significantly reduced in comparison to new unused batteries of the same type

(Gustavsson, 2005). Although pairing batteries with solar energy makes it much more reliable

the batteries tend to deteriorate very quickly compared to the other technologies being used.

Impacts of Solar Energy

Solar energy systems have many benefits for our environment compared to other

energy sources like fossil fuels. However, deployment of these systems can sometimes have

negative impacts on the environment. Solar energy systems can cause soil and water

pollution, labor accidents and have negative impacts on sensitive ecosystems (Tsoutsos,

2005). In most cases and environmental impacts study should be done to see if solar energy

systems will cause any harm to the ecosystem or environment in the area.

Solar energy will also have impacts on rural communities that have adopted the new

technology. Individuals receiving solar energy from an energy company will pay more for

solar energy (Gustavsson, 2004). Solar energy systems are more expensive than fuel-based

systems, so the costs are passed down to the consumer. The quality of light in solar homes

also increased, allowing for domestic work or study, and many individuals ended up acquiring

a tv to become part of a more global culture (Gustavsson, 2004). There are many benefits to

13
solar energy systems in rural communities, as it allows these communities to better their

children’s education and become a larger part of our earth.

Current Zambian Solar Energy

There are a few current projects in Zambia that involve solar energy. The Energy

Service Company (ESCO) provides customers in Lundazi Zambia with solar energy through a

fee for service program. The customers in this program have been noticed to acquire a

number of new electric appliances once their home had solar energy (Gustavsson, 2007).

Most of these systems were designed for a set load amount. As customers acquire more

appliances, their energy loads increase putting a strain on the system (Gustavsson, 2007).

Teaching costumers about proper operations of these systems and increased panel effect can

help with the issue of increased loads.

Another project offering solar energy to rural Zambian communities has clients pay a

fee to use solar photovoltaic installations. The company will continue to charge a fee for

keeping the system in operation (Ellegård, 2004). This allows customers only to have to

worry about the monthly fee and not the significant upfront capital cost of a solar energy

system. It also allows them access to more reliable electricity to use in their homes. The

poorest rural people in these communities cannot afford to pay for a solar system in their

homes but still benefit from the systems in neighbors’ homes and in shops (Ellegård, 2004).

Entire communities are benefiting from these projects and at the same time are learning about

these new solar technologies.

14
 Some other projects that have started in Zambia are solar powered LED lights as an

alternative to candles. Candles, kerosene, and other fuel-based lighting have huge negative

effects on health and the environment. These portable solar lights have become very popular

because of the lower retail price (Kornbluth, 2012). These projects are seeking to find cheaper

ways to light homes better in rural areas of Zambia. Manufacturing lights like these will

benefit whole communities, especially children, as it will allow them to study longer once the

sun goes down.

15
Methodology

My thesis took the form of an analysis of the current irrigation systems in rural

Zambia. This is a multifaceted project, looking at many different aspects that affect the issue I

am addressing. For my study, I used library research, archival records, and analysis of public

records. I investigated resource maps, and previous works done on similar topics. I also

researched the power output, durability, efficiency, quality, performance and maintenance

requirements of different PV panels. I also considered the efficiency of the current two-stroke

engine and the regarded solar pumps. I similarly found the power requirements for these

communities and what PV systems will benefit the communities the most. Another important

aspect of my research was the interviews I conducted with Day by De’s project manager,

Chileshe Kabwe. As the project manager for the current water irrigation system, he was able

to provide me with all the specifics about the system. Through this research, I was able to

frame and address the problem of irrigation in Shamiyoyo and rural African communities.

During my research, I also conducted a policy analysis of the policy in Zambia around

renewable energy and renewable energy sources. The countries policies might affect the

usefulness and effectiveness of a solar water pump in Shamiyoyo. Another aspect I

contemplated was the weather and climate in Zambia and how each season will affect the

efficiency of the solar water pump.

After researching the power required for the current two-stroke engine, which is

working as the power supply for the water pump, I investigated solar energy powered water

pumps. After collecting the research, I created a suggestion on what PV system will best

16
replace the current water pump system. The system needs to be able to provide the same

amount of power or move the same amount of water in a reasonable time.

Case Study

Shamiyoyo currently has a two-stroke water pump irrigating their agricultural fields.

The community is worried about the current irrigation system failing, specifically the two-

stroke water pump. Replacement parts for the existing pump would be expensive and hard to

find. During the process of this report, I designed an appropriate replacement for the current

two-stroke water pump in Shamiyoyo and how it could be implemented.

These aspects will affect how useful and efficient a solar water pump will be in

Shamiyoyo and other communities in similar situations. The case study of Shamiyoyo

allowed for a better understanding of how different communities would benefit from similar

systems. In analyzing Shamiyoyo and compatibility with solar photovoltaic water pumps, this

research will be able to be used in other communities in the transition to cleaner, more

efficient energy while providing a sustainable way to irrigate their agricultural fields.

17
Results and Findings
Through the analysis of literature, solar resource availability in Zambia and the case

study of Shamiyoyo, I found that it is feasible to implement a solar photovoltaic water pump

in Shamiyoyo and other similar communities.

For this case study of Shamiyoyo’s irrigation system, I have gathered information

about introducing a solar photovoltaic water pump into the community and the effects of

adding the system. The solar water pump system that will fit the needs of Shamiyoyo includes

three main components. First off, the pump itself, Grundfos SQFlex 60 SQF-3 Solar

Submersible Water Pump. This solar water pump is a centrifugal pump with a maximum head

height of 50 ft and a maximum flow rate of 80 gals/min or 303 liters/min (Grundfos, 2017).

The friction head loss for a 4” pipe is only 0.2 ft H2O/100 ft pipe (The Engineering Tool Box,

2018). The next component is the IO 50 control box. The control box can manually close the

power supply when there is no need for water supply and when the system requires service.

The control box will allow for the water tower to not be overfilled. The third component is the

solar panels. A range of solar panels can be used for this system, but the system in Shamiyoyo

needs a 600-800 W power input (Figure 8). Other systems will have different requirements

and thus different amounts of power input. Since this pump will be used to draw water from a

river, it will be submersible. It will also require a netting or cage around the pump, so debris

won’t be able to get into the pump. This system will then be able to pump water to the 5-

meter-tall water tower, providing water to irrigate agricultural fields.

This system will irrigate two hectares/five acres of land. In turn, this sustainable

agriculture will still be able to output the same amount of produce, around 1800 heads of

18
cabbage. Producing the same amount of produce will allow the same net gain but with lower

input costs, thus generating a more substantial profit. The initial capital cost will be high for

the solar water pump compared to the two-stroke engine. However, there are no maintenance

or operation costs for the solar pump making it much more viable for a rural community. The

cost of a solar water pump system has a high capital cost but little to no maintenance or

operation costs. The average price of a Grundfos SQFlex 60 SQF-3 Solar Submersible Water

Pump is around USD $2000 (Grundfos, 2017). This pump can be combined with a control

box, either IO 50 SQFlex switch box or something similar. For the solar panels supplying

power to the solar water pump, it would cost around USD $1000-1250 for a 600 W – 800 W

system (AIMS Power, 2018). In the end, the up-front capital cost would be about USD $3000-

3250. The only maintenance that is required for this system would be occasional cleaning of

the solar panels and the protective grate around the submersible pump.

Honda Motors manufactures roughly 30,000 two-stroke water pumps a year. If just

these 30,000 water pumps were replaced with solar water pump, 96,000 g/kWh of particle

mass emissions could be kept from entering our atmosphere. Reducing the emissions entering

the atmosphere would not only slow the effects of climate change but would also reduce the

immediate health hazards of people who were working with or near two-stroke water pumps.

Honda only produces a portion of the two-stroke water pumps in the world. Thus, replacing

more would benefit our earth even more.

Policy Analysis

Zambia is still in the process of developing their energy infrastructure and

market, so not many policies have been put in place. The few policies that have been

19
implemented regarding renewable energy include national-level goals and incentives for

small-scale projects. In 2010 Zambia put forward the National Climate Change Response

Strategy, which is a non-binding climate strategy plan. It looks toward increasing the

efficiency of the current electricity infrastructure and implementing more renewable energy

sources (Ministry of Energy Zambia, 2010). One of the renewables mentioned in the strategy

was solar. The Ministry of Energy in Zambia is already looking towards developing solar

energy and sees the potential in it. Zambia also put forward a plan to reduce its greenhouse

gas (GHG) emissions by 47% from 2010 levels by 2030 (Ministry of Energy Zambia, 2010).

The World Bank has also approved $2.8 million to help increase solar generation in Zambia

(World Bank, 2017). This is beneficial as it could be a potential source for funding part of

these projects. Although these solar pump installations are very small scale, they would still

be contributing towards all the goals that Zambia is setting.

Zambia has also put forward many financial incentives to promote the adoption of

renewable energy technologies like solar water pumps. Zambia has introduced tax waivers on

all imported renewable energy technologies (Bowa, 2017). There are also several production

incentives for private sector participation in renewable energy production. One of which is a

feed-in-tariff to encourage participation of private sector individuals. The Zambian

government has increased the tariff by 25% (Bowa, 2017). The national government is also

acting to increase the development of off-grid mini-grid in rural areas. The cost of energy

generated from mini-grids in rural areas is only 0.06 USD/kWh, which will be constant for the

next 25 years (Bowa, 2017). All of these policies could potentially help fund installing solar

pumps in rural communities.

20
 Implementing this solar photovoltaic water pump system into Shamiyoyo and possibly

other communities is feasible. The necessary technology is available to either import or is

already available in Zambia to acquire. There are several solar panel manufactures with

locations in Lusaka, Zambia. Also, with the import tax exemption on renewable energy

technologies in Zambia, the policy assists with the import process of these technologies.

Zambia also has the needed amount of solar insolation for solar energy systems to produce a

sufficient amount of power. Zambia receives an average of 5.6 kWh/m^2/day (Table 1-4).

Taking all these aspects into account, it is feasible to implement a solar photovoltaic water

pump system into Shamiyoyo and also other communities as well.

21
Feasibility Study

The feasibility of implementing solar photovoltaic water pumps in Shamiyoyo and

other similar communities rely on many different components. The feasibility of this project

depends on how it might affect Shamiyoyo as a whole if implemented.

Economic Analysis

The economic benefits of adding a solar water pump to Shamiyoyo is enormous. Two

stroke engines are also not economically viable for the community of Shamiyoyo. The two-

stroke engine the population is using is a Honda WL20XH two-stroke water pump. The

engine has a tank capacity of 3.1 liters or 0.82 gallons. The engine also runs for about 2.1

hours on the tank capacity. To fill the 5000-liter water tower, it takes about 10 minutes of

running the engine continuously. Buying petrol in Zambia is also very expensive making it

even more complicated to run the two-stroke engine. Gasoline on average is $5.75 per gallon

or $1.52 per liter (Global Petrol Prices, 2018). When the average income in Shamiyoyo is

only $1 per day, buying petrol takes a lot of money away from the community which could be

used on educations, food or housing.

Also, the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) for solar power and petrol have a slight

difference. The LCOE for solar energy on a small scale is $0.15/kWh while $0.20/kWh for a

petrol reciprocating engine (Lazard, 2017). Even though there is only a slight difference, this

would be a massive saving for a community with a lower income. It’s essential to focus

finances in critical areas like education, food, and housing and save money whenever

possible.

22
Effects on Environment

Two-stroke engines are notorious for being significant contributors to harmful

emissions. Two-stroke engines have low NOx emissions but high levels of hydrocarbon

emissions (Kenny, 1992). The high emissions are due to poor fuel ignition. These emissions

can contribute to eye and respiratory irritation, putting anyone working near or around these

engines in danger. Another particulate matter that two-stroke engines emit is secondary

organic aerosols (Platt, 2014). Some exhaust levels have been seen as high as 300,000 µg m^-

3. The EU standard for protection of human health is five µg m^-3. Working close to any of

these two-stroke engines puts individuals in great danger. Another study found that particle

mass (PM) emissions ranged from 2.9-3.4 g/kWh (Ålander, 2005). Ålander did find that

adding a catalyst to the fuel of a two-stroke engine reduces the emission to 1.7-2.4 g/kWh.

This is an improvement, but these small engines are still emitting considerable amounts of

particulate matter.

Replacing two-stroke water pumps would reduce emissions. However, renewable

energy technology also emits some harmful pollutants. The only time photovoltaic panels will

cause emissions is during manufacturing and transportation (Tsoutsos, 2005). Even though

there are solar panels produce some greenhouse gas emissions they aren’t that extreme. A

system rated for 2.7 kW will emit around 165 gCO2eq/kWhe (Varun, 2009). Low greenhouse

gas emissions are also beneficial for the slowing of climate change effects and eliminating

health hazards for individuals. Only good things can come from reducing emissions.

Photovoltaic panels can also have a negative impact on sensitive ecosystems (Gunerhan,

2008). It is imperative to place the solar panels in areas that they won’t have significant

23
effects on the surrounding ecosystems. Areas that won’t be affected by a change in sunlight

received would be ideal.

Effects on Community

Another essential aspect to consider is the effects of a solar pump on the community.

Shamiyoyo was just introduced to the two-stroke pump and introducing the solar pump would

be another significant jump in technology. There are many benefits to adding solar energy to

rural communities like Shamiyoyo. There will be improved health, greater self-reliance, work

opportunities and technological advances (Akella, 2009). This solar pump system will provide

the community with a sustainable way to irrigate their fields that is more cost effective and

has less harmful externalities. These benefits could also be possible in other communities

requiring similar systems for irrigation or livestock watering. However, along with the

benefits, there will also be some hardships due to the implementations of solar energy.

Members of the community will need to be educated on how to operate and perform

maintenance on the solar panels and solar pump. Members of the population will also have to

learn how to keep the technology safe and what could cause damage to it. New technology

will require more education if it will successfully be implemented into the community. The

community will also need to be educated on how the netting/cage around the pump must be

cleaned regularly. This is imperative to keep the pump running smoothly and efficiently as

possible.

Gender Impacts

Adding a new technology like a solar water pump can also have impacts on the

different genders in the community. In this case study, it is essential that both sexes have

24
equal roles in maintaining the technology and thus equally benefiting from it. Many rural

households in Africa are headed by females, making their role important in the community

(Cecelski, 2000). Women play an important part in contributing to the household with

cleaning, cooking, and maintaining the house. Equal roles will be significant in this case

study, as both genders could contribute towards the upkeep of the solar photovoltaic pump.

In Shamiyoyo some of the women are already taking care of the pig farm and have

shown their responsibility for maintaining projects. If solar water pumps are installed in other

communities, the women living there could take on a caretaker role of the systems.

25
Discussion

After considering the feasibility of implanting a solar photovoltaic water pump into

Shamiyoyo and other similar communities, we must recognize how a system would be

implemented and what is required of the system. Solar photovoltaic water pumps will affect

the agriculture of the area and will be influenced by the environment of the area.

Shamiyoyo’s irrigation needs will be met by this new irrigation system. The solar

photovoltaic water pump will also have positive economic effects and positive effects on the

environment. The communities self-reliance will also increase with the implementation of this

system.

Water Pump

The Grundfos 60 SQF-3 is a centrifugal pump (Figure 1). These pumps are used for

low head heights and large flows. This pump is perfect for the community of Shamiyoyo as

the water is only being transported from the river to the water tower but is moving a lot of

water in the process. This water pump will be able to provide the same amount of water as the

two-stroke engine. However, it will take more time to fill the water tower. The two-stroke

engine fills the 5000-liter water tower in 8.5 minutes. The solar pump has a flow rate of half

of the two-stroke engine. The slower flow rate will result in the water tower being filled in

twice the time at 16.5 minutes.

The performance range of the 60 SQF-3 varies with the power input and head height.

The head height for Shamiyoyo’s water tower is 5 m (16.5 ft). Powering the solar pump with

800 W will allow the pump to move ~65 gallons per minute (~250 liters per minute) (Figure

26
2). With more power input the solar pump could have an even higher flow rate, reaching its

maximum at 80 gallons per minute with 1400 W input.

The addition of solar energy into this community and potentially other communities is

not to contribute to the electrification of rural Africa. The intention of this project addition is

to provide a more sustainable way to irrigate the fields, and potentially livestock and to

provide a more sustainable lifestyle for rural Zambian communities.

Agriculture

Installing a solar pump in Shamiyoyo and other similar communities will also benefit

the agriculture sector in Zambia. 8% of the GDP of Zambia comes from agriculture (UKaid,

2017). Zambia has also experienced the effect of climate change similar to its neighboring

countries. With climate change affecting precipitation rates, temperature and increased flood

chances; food insecurity is becoming a larger problem (UKaid, 2017). Adding solar pumps to

communities will improve the reliability of access to water for agricultural reasons. Providing

a reliable water source will increase the chances of a good crop yield each season/year,

making it easier for communities to live sustainably and independently.

Weather

The weather in Zambia will affect the efficiency of the solar panels and the pumps.

Zambia receives a consistent amount of solar insolation ranging from 4.96 to 6.57

kWh/m^2/day (Table 4). Having a consistent amount of solar insolation will allow for

minimal variation in the power output of the solar photovoltaic water pump. Also, because I

am suggesting a centrifugal pump, these pumps’ performance drop in cloudy weather. It is

27
important that centrifugal water pumps are used in locations with consistent solar insolation or

else the pump will not perform efficiently.

Zambia has two distinct seasons, the rainy season and the dry season. The wet season

will produce more cloud cover and precipitation negatively affecting the efficiency of the

solar photovoltaic water pump. Most farmers in Zambia begin their growing season in

December or January, at the beginning of the rainy season (Theirfelder, 2010). Since this is

the most critical time for growing crops, it is essential that the solar photovoltaic water pump

can live up to its purpose. For most crops, the growing and sowing season are most important

in producing healthy crops (Figure 3). An energy storage technology, like a battery, could

help stabilize the power output during times of variable sunlight. However, one is not needed

for the system to work well; a battery would optimize the power output of the water pump.

Adding a battery to the system would make up for variations in the weather and amount of

solar insolation received.

Implementing the designed solar photovoltaic water pump system into Shamiyoyo will

be very simple. Installation of the solar panels can be done by an individual with knowledge

of the installation process and by members of the community. Implementation would also

include education of the public about the new irrigation system. It is important that the

community understands the technology, how it works and how to care for it.

28
Implementation

Each community will be different regarding the implantation of a solar photovoltaic

water pump system. The implementation all depends on the water needs of the community

and the resources available to them. Grundfos offers pumps with flow rates ranging from 3

gallons/min to 80 gallons/min. Grundfos also provides both Helical Rotor pumps and

Centrifugal pumps. Centrifugal pumps can move more water in a shorter period, but Helical

Rotor pumps are more reliable with variable solar insolation values. This being said, each

community will have a different set of requirements that need to be met, and a specific pump

will have to be assigned to the community.

Installation in each community will be relativity similar. Each system will require a

solar water pump, solar water panels, and a control box. The solar panels can either be

installed in series or parallel. When wiring in series the voltage of all panels adds up while

amperage stays the same. Wattage always adds with solar panels.

Figure 4 Series Wiring

If the wiring is in parallel, the effects are opposite of wiring in series. The amperage will add,

and the voltage will stay the same. Wiring in parallel requires you to connect the positive

29
terminals of each panel to the positive terminal of the other panels. The negative terminal of

each panel will be connected to the negative terminal of the other panels.

Figure 5 Parallel Wiring

There is also the option for wiring in parallel and series. This type of wiring is when you have

two or more series circuits that are wired in parallel. You first consider the panels in series

and add the voltages and then consider the panels in parallel and add the amperage.

Figure 6 Series and Parallel Wiring

Depending on if the solar photovoltaic water pump is in a well or not will determine if

it needs netting around it or not. Pumps in wells do not need netting around the pump as there

is less of a chance of the pump coming in contact with large debris. Pumps in wells will still

30
need to be careful about sediment clogging the pump. Pumps who are suspended in rivers will

require to have netting around them. This netting can be made out of chicken wire or mesh,

any material that can keep large debris from coming in contact with the pump itself.

The other aspect of installation that will vary from community to community will be

the installation cost. The installation cost only consists of labor costs. In the United States,

installation costs for solar panels are around $5/watt (Branker, 2011). So, for the Shamiyoyo

case study, the 800 W solar panels would cost roughly $1600 to install when hiring someone

to install them. If no labor is required and installation can be done by yourself, then you do

not have to factor in this cost. Installing the solar photovoltaic water pump is very simple and

has low installation costs. These costs will vary from each location, due to the distance of

transportation and the number of solar panels.

The other aspect of implementation is how the technology is going to be purchased

and who is paying for the implementation. Like many renewable energy technologies, this

solar photovoltaic water pump has a high capital cost and little or no maintenance and

operation costs. Therefore, an individual or organization must be willing to sponsor a project

with these conditions. Zambia has several incentives for installing renewable energy

technologies which would offset the costs some. If this system were implemented in other

southern African countries, research would need to be done on incentives available and other

policies supporting renewable energy systems. If organizations like Day by De were

interested in implementing systems like this, the most viable option would be to fundraise the

money and collect donations. The capital cost is too much for the communities themselves to

afford.

31
 Another aspect of implementing these systems is the education about the new

technology and how to perform maintenance. The only maintenance needed for the solar

photovoltaic water pump system is the regular cleaning of the solar panels. Under normal

operating conditions the water pump and controls are maintenance free. Cleaning the solar

panels only requires clean water and a soft brush. Other maintenance that might be necessary

is the clearing of vegetation around the solar panels and the tightening of the screws and nuts

of the support structure. Educating the community about this maintenance would be easy and

could be asked of the women in the community to do it. The other education necessary for

this technology is how it works and how it should be treated. Solar panels can break, and the

community should know what could cause harm to the panels and the pump and that they

need to be treated with care.

Implementing this system properly is very important. The system must fit the

community well and work well. Fitting the proper pump to each community so it will meet

their needs is key to successful implementation. Installation is also a very important part, as a

properly installed system will have less operational issues. Also the care and upkeep of the

system, specifically, the solar panels are necessary to keep it running efficiently.

32
Recommendations

After conducting my research, there are a few recommendations I would make. The

solar photovoltaic water pump I have designed would be a great addition to Shamiyoyo and

other communities like it. The only obstacle for implementing this technology into the

communities is the price. There is a high capital cost for this solar photovoltaic water pump

like many other renewable energies. However, despite the high capital cost, there is little to no

maintenance or operation cost which would greatly benefit the communities. I would

recommend implementing this system into Shamiyoyo and observing how it works for the

community. If it works well, Day by De or other non-profits can look into other communities

that would benefit from similar designs and implement them there. Other communities can be

analyzed to understand if this type of system would work well for them or a different design

would.

I would also recommend further research to be done on the environmental effects,

specifically the emissions of two-stroke engines. This research needs to be brought into the

light of the public to describe the impacts two-stroke engines have on the environment and the

individuals using them. Along with the research that should be done on two-stroke engines

there should also be policies enacted restricting the use of these technologies. The U.S.

already has guidelines on the emission output of small motors, like two-stroke engines, which

regulates the usage of them. Other countries, particularly undeveloped countries, should

follow suit and create guidelines for small motors that restrict the emissions.

Another recommendation I have is that there should be more policies put in place to

support the growth of renewable energies in Zambia. More incentives for small-scale and

33
microgrid renewable energy providers would help the adoption rate of these energies and

technologies. The adoption of additional renewable energy systems would also help with the

electrification of the country and aid in communities getting access to electricity and power.

Many people in these rural communities do not need electricity for cell phones, or TV’s, they

need electricity to irrigate their fields, water their livestock and provide light so children can

study for school. Further developing the policy surrounding renewable energy technology in

Zambia with benefit the nation as a whole, but also individuals in communities like

Shamiyoyo.

34
Conclusion

During my research, I was investigating the possibility of solar photovoltaic water

pumps in rural Zambian communities and other similar communities. I was the two research

questions “What is the feasibility of adding photovoltaic water pumps in rural Zambian

communities to replace fuel-powered water pumps?”, “How do you add photovoltaic water

pumps in rural Zambian communities to replace fuel-powered water pumps?” and “How will

implementing a photovoltaic water pump effect the community, environment and economy?”.

It is feasible to add solar photovoltaic water pumps into rural Zambian communities.

These systems would be beneficial for irrigation of crops and watering livestock. Integrating

systems like these will have many benefits to the community and the environment. Many

individuals in central and southern Africa live in communities that are extremely rural. They

are located hours away from major cities and have to rely on their community to provide their

food and sustenance. A solar photovoltaic water pump system would create a more

sustainable way of life for these communities and provide them with a reliable irrigation

system for their food production.

The effects of a solar photovoltaic water pump system would be beneficial to

Shamiyoyo and other rural Zambian communities. The negative externalities from the two-

stroke engine would be taken away. The economic benefits would allow for less money to be

spent on fuel for pumping water. The system can be implemented quickly and easily with the

help from Day by De or other non-profits like it that are willing to help create more

sustainable agriculture in rural Zambian communities.

35
 Many of these peoples are currently using small motors to move their water and

irrigate fields. These pumps are harmful to people and the environment. In my research, I

found that solar water pumps are a much better option financially and environmentally.

Working with Day by De to identify high achieving, community-focused, rural Zambians, and

provides the capital and resources has helped develop this project further.

Limitations

There were several limitations in my research of implanting solar photovoltaic water

pumps in rural areas of Zambia. Firstly, I was not able to see the current water pump system

as it is in Zambia and I could not travel there. The information I obtained about the current

water pump system was from Chelishe, Day by De’s project manager. He was extremely

helpful throughout the entire process and was an important source of information for me.

Another limitation was that I was not able to test the system I designed myself.

Theoretically, the system should work as the solar water pump can cooperate with any solar

panels. However, I would have liked to test the system to see if it could move the amount of

water it is rated for and how reliable the system was. That way it could have more confidently

suggested a system for the community of Shamiyoyo.

Additionally, there was some information I was not able to collect that would have

been very beneficial to my thesis. One was the number of two-stroke engines sold every year,

not just by Honda, and the number of engines in the world. This would have helped me

estimate the emissions reduction better for replacing two-stroke engines with solar water

pumps.

36
 In my research, I have been able to identify the feasibility of adding solar photovoltaic

water pumps into rural Zambian communities and how it might be done. I have also been able

to create an implementation plan for future projects similar to this one. The benefit of

replacing small motors, like two-stroke engines, with solar photovoltaic water pumps is

immense and has the potential of impacting many communities in the future.

Adding solar photovoltaic water pumps to rural Zambian communities is a feasible

way to provide a more sustainable life for these peoples. Also implementing these systems is

relatively simple taking into consideration the current policy in Zambia, available

technologies and the demand for sustainable and economical irrigation solutions. Contributing

towards the improvement of these communities will only better the world and the next step

towards providing clean, sustainable energy to all.

37
 Bibliography
Abbasi, S. A., & Abbasi, N. (2000). The likely adverse environmental impacts of renewable energy
sources. Applied Energy, 65(1), 121–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0306-2619(99)00077-X

Africa-EU Energy Partnership. (2016). Renewable Energy Potential – RECP. Retrieved from
https://www.africa-eu-renewables.org/market-information/zambia/renewable-energy-
potential/

AIMS Power. (n.d.). AIMS Power - Solar Panels. Retrieved from https://www.aimscorp.net/120-
Watt-Solar-Panel.html

Akella, A. K., Saini, R. P., & Sharma, M. P. (2009). Social, economical and environmental impacts
of renewable energy systems. Renewable Energy, 34(2), 390–396.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2008.05.002

Ålander, T., Antikainen, E., Raunemaa, T., Elonen, E., Rautiola, A., & Torkkell, K. (2005).
Particle Emissions from a Small Two-Stroke Engine: Effects of Fuel, Lubricating Oil, and
Exhaust Aftertreatment on Particle Characteristics. Aerosol Science and Technology, 39(2),
151–161. https://doi.org/10.1080/027868290910224

Benghanem, M. (2011). Optimization of tilt angle for solar panel: Case study for Madinah, Saudi
Arabia. Applied Energy, 88(4), 1427–1433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.10.001

Bowa, K. C., Mwanza, M., Sumbwanyambe, M., & Pretorius, J. H. (2017). Solar Photovoltaic
Energy Progress in Zambia: A Review. SAUPEC.

Boxwell, M. (2016). Solar Electricity Handbook: 2016 Edition (10th ed.). Greenstream Publishing
Limited.

Branker, K., Pathak, M. J. M., & Pearce, J. M. (2011). A review of solar photovoltaic levelized
cost of electricity. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15(9), 4470–4482.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.104

Burrows, W. G. S. B. W., & Dick, B. H. (1981). Low Maintenance Lead-Acid Batteries for Energy
Storage. Journal of Energy, 5(3), 138–141. https://doi.org/10.2514/3.62516

Cecelski, E. (2000). Enabling Equitable Access to Rural Electrification: Current Thinking and
Major Activities in Energy, Poverty and Gender. The World Bank, Washington, DC.

Chen, Y.-M., Lee, C.-H., & Wu, H.-C. (2005). Calculation of the optimum installation angle for
fixed solar-cell panels based on the genetic algorithm and the Simulated-annealing method.
IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, 20(2), 467–473.
https://doi.org/10.1109/TEC.2004.832093

38
Depree, C. (2007). Potential Impacts of Emissions From Outboard Motors on the Aquatic
Environment: a Literature Review (NIWA Client Report No. HAM2007-026). New Zealand.
Retrieved from http://envirolink.govt.nz/assets/Envirolink/24-wcrc4.pdf

Ellegård, A., Arvidson, A., Nordström, M., Kalumiana, O. S., & Mwanza, C. (2004). Rural people
pay for solar: experiences from the Zambia PV-ESCO project. Renewable Energy, 29(8),
1251–1263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2003.11.019

FAO GIEWS. (2018, May 8). FAO GIEWS Country Brief on Zambia -. Retrieved October 4,
2018, from http://www.fao.org/giews/countrybrief/country.jsp?code=ZMB

Global Petrol Prices. (2018, June). Zambia Gasoline Prices.

https://www.veitur.is/verdskrar/rafveita Zambia Gasoline Prices, 07-May-2018. (2018, May
7). Retrieved from Global Petrol Prices:
www.globalpetrolprices.com/Zambia/gasoline_prices/

Grundfos. (2017). SQFlex Renewable-energy based water supply systems 50/60 Hz. Grundfos.

Gunerhan, H., Hepbasli, A., & Giresunlu, U. (2008). Environmental Impacts from the Solar
Energy Systems. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects,
31(2), 131–138. https://doi.org/10.1080/15567030701512733

Gustavsson, M. (2007). With time comes increased loads—An analysis of solar home system use
in Lundazi, Zambia. Renewable Energy, 32(5), 796–813.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2006.03.015

Gustavsson, M., & Ellegård, A. (2004). The impact of solar home systems on rural livelihoods.
Experiences from the Nyimba Energy Service Company in Zambia. Renewable Energy,
29(7), 1059–1072. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2003.11.011

Gustavsson, M., & Mtonga, D. (2005). Lead-acid battery capacity in solar home systems—Field
tests and experiences in Lundazi, Zambia. Solar Energy, 79(5), 551–558.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2004.10.010

Haggblade, S., & Tembo, G. (2003). Conservation Farming in Zambia. Environment and
Production Technology Division.

IRENA. (2013). Zambia - Renewables Readiness Assessment 2013. Retrieved from

http://www.irena.org/documentdownloads/publications/rra_zambia.pdf

Karekezi, S., & Kithyoma, W. (2002). Renewable energy strategies for rural Africa: is a PV-led
renewable energy strategy the right approach for providing modern energy to the rural poor of
sub-Saharan Africa? Energy Policy, 30(11), 1071–1086. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-
4215(02)00059-9

39
Kenny, R. G. (1992). Developments in Two-Stroke Cycle Engine Exhaust Emissions. Proceedings
of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering,
206(2), 93–106. https://doi.org/10.1243/PIME_PROC_1992_206_165_02

Kornbluth, K., Pon, B., & Erickson, P. (2012). An investigation of the cost and performance of a
solar-powered LED light designed as an alternative to candles in Zambia: A project case
study. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16(9), 6737–6745.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.08.001

Lazard. (2017). Lazard’s Levelized Cost of Energy Analysis (No. 11).

Lemaire, X. (2009). Fee-for-service companies for rural electrification with photovoltaic systems:
The case of Zambia. Energy for Sustainable Development, 13(1), 18–23.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2009.01.001

Matters, E. (n.d.). Lorentz PS1200 C-SJ12-3 Centrifugal Submersible Solar Water Pump
[PS1200] : Solar power : - Energy Matters Australia. Retrieved February 15, 2018, from
https://www.energymatters.com.au/lorentz-ps1200-csj123-centrifugal-submersible-solar-
water-pump-p-580.html

Meah, K., Fletcher, S., & Ula, S. (2008). Solar photovoltaic water pumping for remote locations.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 12(2), 472–487.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2006.10.008

Mfune, O., & Boon, E. K. (2008). Promoting Renewable Energy Technologies for Rural
Development in Africa: Experiences of Zambia. Journal of Human Ecology, 24(3), 175–189.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09709274.2008.11906112

Ministry of Agriculture. (2014). Profile of Agriculture Commodities in Zambia. Retrieved from

http://www.agriculture.gov.zm/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=114:profile
-of-agriculture-commodities-in-zambia&catid=100&Itemid=1546

Munyeme, G., & Jain, P. C. (1994). Energy scenario of Zambia: Prospects and constraints in the
use of renewable energy resources. Renewable Energy, 5(5), 1363–1370.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0960-1481(94)90172-4

Murphy, J. T. (2001). Making the energy transition in rural east Africa: Is leapfrogging an
alternative? Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 68(2), 173–193.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-1625(99)00091-8

Parida, B., Iniyan, S., & Goic, R. (2011). A review of solar photovoltaic technologies. Renewable
and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15(3), 1625–1636.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2010.11.032

40
Platt, S. M., Haddad, I. E., Pieber, S. M., Huang, R.-J., Zardini, A. A., Clairotte, M., … Prévôt, A.
S. H. (2014). Two-stroke scooters are a dominant source of air pollution in many cities.
Nature Communications, 5, 3749. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms4749

Potera, C. (2004). Air Pollution: Asia’s Two-Stroke Engine Dilemma. Environmental Health
Perspectives, 112(11), A613.

Rajput, D. (2013). Effect of dust on the performance of solar PV panel, 5(2), 1083.

S, R., ers, April 13, M. relations |, 2017April 17, & 2017. (2017, April 13). Device pulls water
from dry air, powered only by the sun. Retrieved February 22, 2018, from
http://news.berkeley.edu/2017/04/13/device-pulls-water-from-dry-air-powered-only-by-the-
sun/

SOLARGIS. (2018). Solar resource maps and GIS data for Zambia. Retrieved February 28, 2018,
from https://solargis.com/maps-and-gis-data/download/

Stoppato, A., Cavazzini, G., Ardizzon, G., & Rossetti, A. (2014). A PSO (particle swarm
optimization)-based model for the optimal management of a small PV(Photovoltaic)-pump
hydro energy storage in a rural dry area. Energy, 76, 168–174.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.06.004

Szabó, S., Bódis, K., Huld, T., & Moner-Girona, M. (2011). Energy solutions in rural Africa:
mapping electrification costs of distributed solar and diesel generation versus grid extension.
Environmental Research Letters, 6(3), 034002. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/6/3/034002

The Engineering ToolBox. (2018). Plastic Pipes - Friction Head Loss. Retrieved October 22, 2018,
from https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/pressure-loss-plastic-pipes-d_404.html

Thierfelder, C., & Wall, P. C. (2010). Investigating Conservation Agriculture (CA) Systems in
Zambia and Zimbabwe to Mitigate Future Effects of Climate Change. Journal of Crop
Improvement, 24(2), 113–121. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427520903558484

Tsoutsos, T., Frantzeskaki, N., & Gekas, V. (2005). Environmental impacts from the solar energy
technologies. Energy Policy, 33(3), 289–296. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-4215(03)00241-6

UKaid, World Bank Group, Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security, CIAT, & CGIAR.
(2017). Climate-Smart Agriculture in Zambia.

United Nations. (2014). China-Zambia South-South Cooperation on Renewable Energy

Technology Transfer. United Nations Development Program. Retrieved from
https://info.undp.org/docs/pdc/Documents/CHN/ProDoc%20-%2091277.pdf

41
Varun, Prakash, R., & Bhat, I. K. (2009). Energy, economics and environmental impacts of
renewable energy systems. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 13(9), 2716–2721.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2009.05.007

Volckens, J., Braddock, J., Snow, R. F., & Crews, W. (2007). Emissions profile from new and in-
use handheld, 2-stroke engines. Atmospheric Environment, 41(3), 640–649.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.08.033

Walker, A. (2018, April 4). Overview of Solar Water Pumps [In Person].
World Bank. (2017). Zambia: World Bank Approves $2.8 Million to Increase Solar Energy
Generation.

World Bank Group. (2014). Solar Resource Mapping in Zambia (Solar Modeling Report).
Retrieved from http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/259231467986245030/pdf/98030-
ESMAP-P145271-Box391499B-PUBLIC-WBG-ESMAP-Zambia-Solar-Modeling-Report-
2014-11-26.pdf

42
Appendix A

Figure 1 – Grundfos 60 SQF-3 Centrifugal Pump – (Grundfos, 2017)

43
Figure 2 – 60 SQF-3 Performance Curve – (Grundfos, 2017)

Figure 3 – Zambia Crop Growing Season – (FAO GIEWS, 2018)

44
Figure 7 – Zambia Solar Resource – (World Bank Group, 2014)

Figure 8 – Optimal Solar Tilt for Southern Hemisphere – (Larry McNish, 2012)

45
Figure 8 – Proposed system

46
Solar Insolation Values
All in kWh/m^2/day

(Boxwell, 2016)

Lusaka, Zambia
Average - 5.649167
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

5.26 5.34 5.43 5.58 5.35 4.96

Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

5.22 6.03 6.54 6.67 6.04 5.37

Table 1

Ndola, Zambia
Average - 5.665
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

4.90 5.02 5.36 5.64 5.67 5.55

Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

5.77 6.29 6.50 6.41 5.78 5.09

Table 2

Kabwe, Zambia
Average - 5.718333
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

5.26 5.42 5.49 5.68 5.47 5.14

Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

5.40 6.12 6.59 6.72 6.01 5.32

Table 3

47
Luanshya, Zambia
Average - 5.721667
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

5.13 5.27 5.48 5.75 5.60 5.38

Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

5.60 6.22 6.57 6.54 5.91 5.21

Table 4

48