HISTORY OF SCIENCE Early cultures

The history of science is the study of the Main article: History of science in early cultures
development of science and scientific See also: Protoscience and Alchemy
knowledge, including both the natural and In prehistoric times, knowledge and technique
social sciences (the history of the arts and were passed from generation to generation in
humanities is termed history of scholarship). an oral tradition. For example, the
Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and domestication of maize for agriculture has been
practical knowledge about the natural world, dated to about 9,000 years ago in southern
produced by scientists who emphasize the Mexico, before the development of writing
observation, explanation, and prediction of systems.[6][7][8] Similarly, archaeological
real-world phenomena. Historiography of evidence indicates the development of
science, in contrast, studies the methods astronomical knowledge in preliterate
employed by historians of science. societies.[9][10] The development of writing
enabled humans to store and communicate
The English word scientist is relatively recent, knowledge across generations with much
first coined by William Whewell in the 19th greater accuracy.
century.[1] Before that, investigators of nature
called themselves "natural philosophers". While Many ancient civilizations systematically
observations of the natural world have been collected astronomical observations. Rather
described since classical antiquity (for example, than speculating on the material nature of the
by Thales and Aristotle), and the scientific planets and stars, the ancients charted the
method has been employed since the Middle relative positions of celestial bodies, often
Ages (for example, by Ibn al-Haytham and Roger inferring their influence on human individual
Bacon), modern science began to develop in the and humankind. This demonstrates how ancient
early modern period, and in particular in the investigators generally employed a holistic
scientific revolution of 16th- and 17th-century intuition, assuming the interconnectedness of
Europe.[2] Traditionally, historians of science all things, whereas modern science rejects such
have defined science sufficiently broadly to conceptual leaps.
include those earlier inquiries.[3]
Basic facts about human physiology were
From the 18th through the late 20th century, known in some places, and alchemy was
the history of science, especially of the physical practiced in several civilizations.Considerable
and biological sciences, was often presented as observation of macroscopic flora and fauna was
a progressive accumulation of knowledge, in also performed.
which true theories replaced false beliefs.[4]
More recent historical interpretations, such as Ancient Near East
those of Thomas Kuhn, tend to portray the Further information: Babylonian astronomy,
history of science in terms of competing Babylonian mathematics, and Babylonian
paradigms or conceptual systems within a wider medicine
matrix of intellectual, cultural, economic and
political trends. These interpretations, however, Clay models of animal livers dating between the
have met with opposition for they also portray nineteenth and eighteenth centuries BCE, found
the history of science as an incoherent system in the royal palace at Mari in what is now Syria
of incommensurable paradigms, not leading to The ancient Mesopotamians had no distinction
any actual scientific progress but only to the between "rational science" and
illusion that it has occurred. magic.[13][14][15] When a person became ill,
doctors prescribed magical formulas to be
recited as well as medicinal
treatments.[13][14][15][16] The earliest was also studied for divinatory purposes. Most
medical prescriptions appear in Sumerian information about the training and
during the Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2112 BC – c. domestication of animals was probably
2004 BC).[17] The most extensive Babylonian transmitted orally without being written down,
medical text, however, is the Diagnostic but one text dealing with the training of horses
Handbook written by the ummânū, or chief has survived.[16] The Mesopotamian cuneiform
scholar, Esagil-kin-apli of Borsippa,[18] during tablet Plimpton 322, dating to the eighteenth
the reign of the Babylonian king Adad-apla- century BC, records a number of Pythagorean
iddina (1069–1046 BC).[19] In East Semitic triplets (3,4,5) (5,12,13) ...,[20] hinting that the
cultures, the main medicinal authority was a ancient Mesopotamians might have been aware
kind of exorcist-healer known as an of the Pythagorean theorem over a millennium
āšipu.[13][14][15] The profession was generally before Pythagoras.[21][22][23]
passed down from father to son and was held in
extremely high regard.[13] Of less frequent
recourse was another kind of healer known as Mesopotamian clay tablet, 492 BC. Writing
an asu, who corresponds more closely to a allowed the recording of astronomical
modern physician and treated physical information.
symptoms using primarily folk remedies In Babylonian astronomy, records of the
composed of various herbs, animal products, motions of the stars, planets, and the moon are
and minerals, as well as potions, enemas, and left on thousands of clay tablets created by
ointments or poultices. These physicians, who scribes. Even today, astronomical periods
could be either male or female, also dressed identified by Mesopotamian proto-scientists are
wounds, set limbs, and performed simple still widely used in Western calendars such as
surgeries. The ancient Mesopotamians also the solar year and the lunar month. Using these
practiced prophylaxis and took measures to data they developed arithmetical methods to
prevent the spread of disease. compute the changing length of daylight in the
course of the year and to predict the
The ancient Mesopotamians had extensive appearances and disappearances of the Moon
knowledge about the chemical properties of and planets and eclipses of the Sun and Moon.
clay, sand, metal ore, bitumen, stone, and other Only a few astronomers' names are known,
natural materials, and applied this knowledge such as that of Kidinnu, a Chaldean astronomer
to practical use in manufacturing pottery, and mathematician. Kiddinu's value for the
faience, glass, soap, metals, lime plaster, and solar year is in use for today's calendars.
waterproofing. Metallurgy required scientific Babylonian astronomy was "the first and highly
knowledge about the properties of metals. successful attempt at giving a refined
Nonetheless, the Mesopotamians seem to have mathematical description of astronomical
had little interest in gathering information phenomena." According to the historian A.
about the natural world for the mere sake of Aaboe, "all subsequent varieties of scientific
gathering information and were far more astronomy, in the Hellenistic world, in India, in
interested in studying the manner in which the Islam, and in the West—if not indeed all
gods had ordered the universe. Biology of non- subsequent endeavour in the exact sciences—
human organisms was generally only written depend upon Babylonian astronomy in decisive
about in the context of mainstream academic and fundamental ways."
disciplines. Animal physiology was studied
extensively for the purpose of divination; the Egypt
anatomy of the liver, which was seen as an Main articles: Egyptian astronomy, Egyptian
important organ in haruspicy, was studied in mathematics, and Egyptian medicine
particularly intensive detail. Animal behavior
Ancient Egypt made significant advances in religious tradition (for example, temple
astronomy, mathematics and medicine.[25] healers).
Their development of geometry was a
necessary outgrowth of surveying to preserve The earliest Greek philosophers, known as the
the layout and ownership of farmland, which pre-Socratics,provided competing answers to
was flooded annually by the Nile river. The 3-4- the question found in the myths of their
5 right triangle and other rules of geometry neighbors: "How did the ordered cosmos in
were used to build rectilinear structures, and which we live come to be?"[30] The pre-
the post and lintel architecture of Egypt. Egypt Socratic philosopher Thales (640–546 BC),
was also a center of alchemy research for much dubbed the "father of science", was the first to
of the Mediterranean. The Edwin Smith papyrus postulate non-supernatural explanations for
is one of the first medical documents still natural phenomena. For example, that land
extant, and perhaps the earliest document that floats on water and that earthquakes are
attempts to describe and analyse the brain: it caused by the agitation of the water upon
might be seen as the very beginnings of modern which the land floats, rather than the god
neuroscience. However, while Egyptian Poseidon. Thales' student Pythagoras of Samos
medicine had some effective practices, it was founded the Pythagorean school, which
often ineffective and sometimes harmful. investigated mathematics for its own sake, and
Medical historians believe that ancient Egyptian was the first to postulate that the Earth is
pharmacology, for example, was largely spherical in shape.[32] Leucippus (5th century
ineffective.[26] Nevertheless, it applied the BC) introduced atomism, the theory that all
following components to the treatment of matter is made of indivisible, imperishable units
disease: examination, diagnosis, treatment, and called atoms. This was greatly expanded on by
prognosis,[27] which display strong parallels to his pupil Democritus and later Epicurus.
the basic empirical method of science and,
according to G.E.R. Lloyd,[28] played a Subsequently, Plato and Aristotle produced the
significant role in the development of this first systematic discussions of natural
methodology. The Ebers papyrus (c. 1550 BC) philosophy, which did much to shape later
also contains evidence of traditional investigations of nature. Their development of
empiricism. deductive reasoning was of particular
importance and usefulness to later scientific
Greco-Roman world inquiry. Plato founded the Platonic Academy in
Main article: History of science in classical 387 BC, whose motto was "Let none unversed
antiquity in geometry enter here", and turned out many
notable philosophers. Plato's student Aristotle
Plato's Academy. 1st century mosaic from introduced empiricism and the notion that
Pompeii universal truths can be arrived at via
In Classical Antiquity, the inquiry into the observation and induction, thereby laying the
workings of the universe took place both in foundations of the scientific method.[33]
investigations aimed at such practical goals as Aristotle also produced many biological writings
establishing a reliable calendar or determining that were empirical in nature, focusing on
how to cure a variety of illnesses and in those biological causation and the diversity of life. He
abstract investigations known as natural made countless observations of nature,
philosophy. The ancient people who are especially the habits and attributes of plants
considered the first scientists may have thought and animals on Lesbos, classified more than 540
of themselves as natural philosophers, as animal species, and dissected at least 50.[34]
practitioners of a skilled profession (for Aristotle's writings profoundly influenced
example, physicians), or as followers of a
subsequent Islamic and European scholarship, and their style are the source from which our
though they were eventually superseded in the own vocabulary and style have been
derived."[39]
Scientific Revolution
Archimedes used the method of exhaustion to Schematic of the Antikythera mechanism (150–
approximate the value of π. 100 BC).
The important legacy of this period included The astronomer Aristarchus of Samos was the
substantial advances in factual knowledge, first known person to propose a heliocentric
especially in anatomy, zoology, botany, model of the solar system, while the
mineralogy, geography, mathematics and geographer Eratosthenes accurately calculated
astronomy; an awareness of the importance of the circumference of the Earth. Hipparchus (c.
certain scientific problems, especially those 190 – c. 120 BC) produced the first systematic
related to the problem of change and its causes; star catalog. The level of achievement in
and a recognition of the methodological Hellenistic astronomy and engineering is
importance of applying mathematics to natural impressively shown by the Antikythera
phenomena and of undertaking empirical mechanism (150–100 BC), an analog computer
research.[37] In the Hellenistic age scholars for calculating the position of planets.
frequently employed the principles developed Technological artifacts of similar complexity did
in earlier Greek thought: the application of not reappear until the 14th century, when
mathematics and deliberate empirical research, mechanical astronomical clocks appeared in
in their scientific investigations.[38] Thus, clear Europe.
unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient
Greek and Hellenistic philosophers, to medieval In medicine, Hippocrates (c. 460 BC – c. 370 BC)
Muslim philosophers and scientists, to the and his followers were the first to describe
European Renaissance and Enlightenment, to many diseases and medical conditions and
the secular sciences of the modern day. Neither developed the Hippocratic Oath for physicians,
reason nor inquiry began with the Ancient still relevant and in use today. Herophilos (335–
Greeks, but the Socratic method did, along with 280 BC) was the first to base his conclusions on
the idea of Forms, great advances in geometry, dissection of the human body and to describe
logic, and the natural sciences. According to the nervous system. Galen (129 – c. 200 AD)
Benjamin Farrington, former Professor of performed many audacious operations—
Classics at Swansea University: including brain and eye surgeries— that were
not tried again for almost two millennia.
"Men were weighing for thousands of years
before Archimedes worked out the laws of
equilibrium; they must have had practical and One of the oldest surviving fragments of Euclid's
intuitional knowledge of the principles involved. Elements, found at Oxyrhynchus and dated to c.
What Archimedes did was to sort out the 100 AD.
theoretical implications of this practical In Hellenistic Egypt, the mathematician Euclid
knowledge and present the resulting body of laid down the foundations of mathematical
knowledge as a logically coherent system." rigor and introduced the concepts of definition,
and again: axiom, theorem and proof still in use today in
his Elements, considered the most influential
"With astonishment we find ourselves on the textbook ever written.[42] Archimedes,
threshold of modern science. Nor should it be considered one of the greatest mathematicians
supposed that by some trick of translation the of all time,[43] is credited with using the
extracts have been given an air of modernity. method of exhaustion to calculate the area
Far from it. The vocabulary of these writings under the arc of a parabola with the summation
of an infinite series, and gave a remarkably manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro often
accurate approximation of Pi. He is also known had dimensions that were integral multiples of
in physics for laying the foundations of this unit of length.[46]
hydrostatics, statics, and the explanation of the
principle of the lever. Indian astronomer and mathematician
Aryabhata (476–550), in his Aryabhatiya (499)
Theophrastus wrote some of the earliest introduced a number of trigonometric functions
descriptions of plants and animals, establishing (including sine, versine, cosine and inverse
the first taxonomy and looking at minerals in sine), trigonometric tables, and techniques and
terms of their properties such as hardness. Pliny algorithms of algebra. In 628 AD, Brahmagupta
the Elder produced what is one of the largest suggested that gravity was a force of
encyclopedias of the natural world in 77 AD, attraction.[47][48] He also lucidly explained the
and must be regarded as the rightful successor use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal
to Theophrastus. For example, he accurately digit, along with the Hindu-Arabic numeral
describes the octahedral shape of the diamond, system now used universally throughout the
and proceeds to mention that diamond dust is world. Arabic translations of the two
used by engravers to cut and polish other gems astronomers' texts were soon available in the
owing to its great hardness. His recognition of Islamic world, introducing what would become
the importance of crystal shape is a precursor Arabic numerals to the Islamic world by the 9th
to modern crystallography, while mention of century.[49][50] During the 14th–16th
numerous other minerals presages mineralogy. centuries, the Kerala school of astronomy and
He also recognises that other minerals have mathematics made significant advances in
characteristic crystal shapes, but in one astronomy and especially mathematics,
example, confuses the crystal habit with the including fields such as trigonometry and
work of lapidaries. He was also the first to analysis. In particular, Madhava of
recognise that amber was a fossilized resin from Sangamagrama is considered the "founder of
pine trees because he had seen samples with mathematical analysis".[51]
trapped insects within them.
Astronomy: The first textual mention of
India astronomical concepts comes from the Vedas,
Main article: History of science and technology religious literature of India.[52] According to
in the Indian subcontinent Sarma (2008): "One finds in the Rigveda
intelligent speculations about the genesis of the
Ancient India was an early leader in metallurgy, universe from nonexistence, the configuration
as evidenced by the wrought-iron Pillar of Delhi. of the universe, the spherical self-supporting
Mathematics: The earliest traces of earth, and the year of 360 days divided into 12
mathematical knowledge in the Indian equal parts of 30 days each with a periodical
subcontinent appear with the Indus Valley intercalary month.".[52] The first 12 chapters of
Civilization (c. 4th millennium BC ~ c. 3rd the Siddhanta Shiromani, written by Bhāskara in
millennium BC). The people of this civilization the 12th century, cover topics such as: mean
made bricks whose dimensions were in the longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the
proportion 4:2:1, considered favorable for the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation;
stability of a brick structure.[45] They also tried syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes
to standardize measurement of length to a high of the planets; risings and settings; the moon's
degree of accuracy. They designed a ruler—the crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each
Mohenjo-daro ruler—whose unit of length other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed
(approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 centimetres) stars; and the patas of the sun and moon. The
was divided into ten equal parts. Bricks 13 chapters of the second part cover the nature
of the sphere, as well as significant The Hindus excel in the manufacture of iron,
astronomical and trigonometric calculations and in the preparations of those ingredients
based on it. along with which it is fused to obtain that kind
of soft iron which is usually styled Indian steel
Nilakantha Somayaji's astronomical treatise the (Hindiah). They also have workshops wherein
Tantrasangraha similar in nature to the are forged the most famous sabres in the world.
Tychonic system proposed by Tycho Brahe had
been the most accurate astronomical model —Henry Yule quoted the 12th-century Arab
until the time of Johannes Kepler in the 17th Edrizi.[57]
century.[53]
China
Linguistics: Some of the earliest linguistic Main articles: History of science and technology
activities can be found in Iron Age India (1st in China and List of Chinese discoveries
millennium BC) with the analysis of Sanskrit for Further information: Chinese mathematics and
the purpose of the correct recitation and List of Chinese inventions
interpretation of Vedic texts. The most notable
grammarian of Sanskrit was Pāṇini (c. 520–460 Lui Hui's Survey of sea island
BC), whose grammar formulates close to 4,000 Mathematics: From the earliest the Chinese
rules which together form a compact generative used a positional decimal system on counting
grammar of Sanskrit. Inherent in his analytic boards in order to calculate. To express 10, a
approach are the concepts of the phoneme, the single rod is placed in the second box from the
morpheme and the root. right. The spoken language uses a similar
system to English: e.g. four thousand two
Medicine: Findings from Neolithic graveyards in hundred seven. No symbol was used for zero.
what is now Pakistan show evidence of proto- By the 1st century BC, negative numbers and
dentistry among an early farming culture.[54] decimal fractions were in use and The Nine
Ayurveda is a system of traditional medicine Chapters on the Mathematical Art included
that originated in ancient India before 2500 methods for extracting higher order roots by
BC,[55] and is now practiced as a form of Horner's method and solving linear equations
alternative medicine in other parts of the world. and by Pythagoras' theorem. Cubic equations
Its most famous text is the Suśrutasamhitā of were solved in the Tang dynasty and solutions
Suśruta, which is notable for describing of equations of order higher than 3 appeared in
procedures on various forms of surgery, print in 1245 AD by Ch'in Chiu-shao. Pascal's
including rhinoplasty, the repair of torn ear triangle for binomial coefficients was described
lobes, perineal lithotomy, cataract surgery, and around 1100 by Jia Xian.
several other excisions and other surgical
procedures. Although the first attempts at an axiomatisation
of geometry appear in the Mohist canon in 330
Metallurgy: The wootz, crucible and stainless BC, Liu Hui developed algebraic methods in
steels were invented in India, and were widely geometry in the 3rd century AD and also
exported in Classic Mediterranean world. It was calculated pi to 5 significant figures. In 480, Zu
known from Pliny the Elder as ferrum indicum. Chongzhi improved this by discovering the ratio
Indian Wootz steel was held in high regard in {\displaystyle {\tfrac
Roman Empire, was often considered to be the {355}{113}}}\tfrac{355}{113} which remained
best. After in Middle Age it was imported in the most accurate value for 1200 years.
Syria to produce with special techniques the
"Damascus steel" by the year 1000.[56]
One of the star maps from Su Song's Xin Yi didong yi 候风地动仪), so-named because he
Xiang Fa Yao published in 1092, featuring a
and others thought that earthquakes were most
cylindrical projection similar to Mercator, and
likely caused by the enormous compression of
the corrected position of the pole star thanks to trapped air.[62] See Zhang's seismometer for
Shen Kuo's astronomical observations.[58] further details.
Astronomy: Astronomical observations from
China constitute the longest continuous
There are many notable contributors to the
sequence from any civilisation and include
field of Chinese science throughout the ages.
records of sunspots (112 records from 364 BC),
One of the best examples would be the
supernovas (1054), lunar and solar eclipses. By
medieval Song Chinese Shen Kuo (1031–1095),
the 12th century, they could reasonably
a polymath scientist and statesman who was
accurately make predictions of eclipses, but the
the first to describe the magnetic-needle
knowledge of this was lost during the Ming
compass used for navigation, discovered the
dynasty, so that the Jesuit Matteo Ricci gained concept of true north, improved the design of
much favour in 1601 by his predictions.[59] By the astronomical gnomon, armillary sphere,
635 Chinese astronomers had observed that the
sight tube, and clepsydra, and described the use
tails of comets always point away from the sun.
of drydocks to repair boats. After observing the
natural process of the inundation of silt and the
From antiquity, the Chinese used an equatorial
find of marine fossils in the Taihang Mountains
system for describing the skies and a star map
(hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean),
from 940 was drawn using a cylindrical
Shen Kuo devised a theory of land formation, or
(Mercator) projection. The use of an armillary geomorphology. He also adopted a theory of
sphere is recorded from the 4th century BC and gradual climate change in regions over time,
a sphere permanently mounted in equatorial
after observing petrified bamboo found
axis from 52 BC. In 125 AD Zhang Heng used
underground at Yan'an, Shaanxi province. If not
water power to rotate the sphere in real time.
for Shen Kuo's writing,[63] the architectural
This included rings for the meridian and ecliptic.
works of Yu Hao would be little known, along
By 1270 they had incorporated the principles of
with the inventor of movable type printing, Bi
the Arab torquetum.
Sheng (990–1051). Shen's contemporary Su
Song (1020–1101) was also a brilliant polymath,
an astronomer who created a celestial atlas of
A modern replica of Han dynasty polymath star maps, wrote a pharmaceutical treatise with
scientist Zhang Heng's seismometer of 132 CE related subjects of botany, zoology, mineralogy,
Seismology: To better prepare for calamities,
and metallurgy, and had erected a large
Zhang Heng invented a seismometer in 132 CE astronomical clocktower in Kaifeng city in 1088.
which provided instant alert to authorities in
To operate the crowning armillary sphere, his
the capital Luoyang that an earthquake had
clocktower featured an escapement mechanism
occurred in a location indicated by a specific
and the world's oldest known use of an endless
cardinal or ordinal direction.[60] Although no
power-transmitting chain drive.[64][65]
tremors could be felt in the capital when Zhang
told the court that an earthquake had just
The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th
occurred in the northwest, a message came centuries "learned to appreciate the scientific
soon afterwards that an earthquake had indeed
achievements of this ancient culture and made
struck 400 km (248 mi) to 500 km (310 mi) them known in Europe. Through their
northwest of Luoyang (in what is now modern
correspondence European scientists first
Gansu).[61] Zhang called his device the
learned about the Chinese science and
'instrument for measuring the seasonal winds
culture."[66] Western academic thought on the
and the movements of the Earth' (Houfeng
history of Chinese technology and science was Main article: Byzantine science
galvanized by the work of Joseph Needham and Further information: List of Byzantine
the Needham Research Institute. Among the inventions
technological accomplishments of China were,
according to the British scholar Needham, early The frontispiece of the Vienna Dioscurides,
seismological detectors (Zhang Heng in the 2nd which shows a set of seven famous physicians
century), the water-powered celestial globe Because of the collapse of the Western Roman
(Zhang Heng), matches, the independent Empire, the intellectual level in the western part
invention of the decimal system, dry docks, of Europe declined in the 400s. In contrast, the
sliding calipers, the double-action piston pump, Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire resisted the
cast iron, the blast furnace, the iron plough, the barbarian attacks, and preserved and improved
multi-tube seed drill, the wheelbarrow, the the learning.[68]
suspension bridge, the winnowing machine, the
rotary fan, the parachute, natural gas as fuel,
the raised-relief map, the propeller, the While the Byzantine Empire still held learning
crossbow, and a solid fuel rocket, the multistage centers such as Constantinople, Alexandria and
rocket, the horse collar, along with Antioch, Western Europe's knowledge was
contributions in logic, astronomy, medicine, and concentrated in monasteries until the
other fields. development of medieval universities in the
12th centuries. The curriculum of monastic
However, cultural factors prevented these schools included the study of the few available
Chinese achievements from developing into ancient texts and of new works on practical
what we might call "modern science". subjects like medicine[69] and timekeeping.[70]
According to Needham, it may have been the
religious and philosophical framework of In the sixth century in the Byzantine Empire,
Chinese intellectuals which made them unable Isidore of Miletus compiled Archimedes'
to accept the ideas of laws of nature: mathematical works in the Archimedes
Palimpsest, where all Archimedes'
It was not that there was no order in nature for mathematical contributions were collected and
the Chinese, but rather that it was not an order studied.
ordained by a rational personal being, and
hence there was no conviction that rational John Philoponus, another Byzantine scholar,
personal beings would be able to spell out in was the first to question Aristotle's teaching of
their lesser earthly languages the divine code of physics, introducing the theory of
laws which he had decreed aforetime. The impetus.[71][72] The theory of impetus was an
Taoists, indeed, would have scorned such an auxiliary or secondary theory of Aristotelian
idea as being too naïve for the subtlety and dynamics, put forth initially to explain projectile
complexity of the universe as they intuited motion against gravity. It is the intellectual
it.[67] precursor to the concepts of inertia,
momentum and acceleration in classical
Post-classical science mechanics.[73] The works of John Philoponus
In the Middle Ages the classical learning inspired Galileo Galilei ten centuries
continued in three major linguistic cultures and later.[74][75]
civilizations: Greek (the Byzantine Empire),
Arabic (the Islamic world), and Latin (Western The first record of separating conjoined twins
Europe). took place in the Byzantine Empire in the 900s
when the surgeons tried to separate a dead
Byzantine Empire body of a pair of conjoined twins. The result
was partly successful as the other twin the father of optics, especially for his empirical
managed to live for three days. The next proof of the intromission theory of light. Some
recorded case of separating conjoined twins have also described Ibn al-Haytham as the "first
was several centuries later, in 1600s scientist" for his development of the modern
Germany.[76][77] scientific method.[80]

During the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, a In mathematics, the mathematician

number of Greek scholars fled to North Italy in Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi (c. 780–
which they fueled the era later commonly 850) gave his name to the concept of the
known as the "Renaissance” as they brought algorithm, while the term algebra is derived
with them a great deal of classical learning from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of
including an understanding of botany, medicine, his publications.[81] What is now known as
and zoology. Byzantium also gave the West Arabic numerals originally came from India, but
important inputs: John Philoponus' criticism of Muslim mathematicians made several key
Aristotelian physics, and the works of refinements to the number system, such as the
Dioscorides.[78] introduction of decimal point notation.

Islamic world In astronomy, Al-Battani (c. 858–929) improved

Main articles: Science in the medieval Islamic the measurements of Hipparchus, preserved in
world and Timeline of science and engineering the translation of Ptolemy's Hè Megalè Syntaxis
in the Islamic world (The great treatise) translated as Almagest. Al-
Battani also improved the precision of the
15th-century manuscript of Avicenna's The measurement of the precession of the Earth's
Canon of Medicine. axis. The corrections made to the geocentric
In the Middle East, Greek philosophy was able model by al-Battani, Ibn al-Haytham,[82]
to find some support under the newly created Averroes and the Maragha astronomers such as
Arab Empire. With the spread of Islam in the Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi and
7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim Ibn al-Shatir are similar to Copernican
scholarship, known as the Islamic Golden Age, heliocentric model.[83][84] Heliocentric
lasted until the 13th century. This scholarship theories may have also been discussed by
was aided by several factors. The use of a single several other Muslim astronomers such as Ja'far
language, Arabic, allowed communication ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi,[85] Abu-
without need of a translator. Access to Greek Rayhan Biruni, Abu Said al-Sijzi,[86] Qutb al-Din
texts from the Byzantine Empire, along with al-Shirazi, and Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-
Indian sources of learning, provided Muslim Kātibī.[87]
scholars a knowledge base to build upon.
Muslim chemists and alchemists played an
Scientific method began developing in the important role in the foundation of modern
Muslim world, where significant progress in chemistry. Scholars such as Will Durant[88] and
methodology was made, beginning with the Fielding H. Garrison[89] considered Muslim
experiments of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) on chemists to be the founders of chemistry. In
optics from c. 1000, in his Book of Optics.[79] particular, Jābir ibn Hayyān (c. 721–815) is
The most important development of the
"considered by many to be the father of
scientific method was the use of experiments to chemistry".[90][91] The works of Arabic
distinguish between competing scientific
scientists influenced Roger Bacon (who
theories set within a generally empirical
introduced the empirical method to Europe,
orientation, which began among Muslim
strongly influenced by his reading of Persian
scientists. Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as
writers),[92] and later Isaac Newton.[93] The By the eleventh century, most of Europe had
scholar Al-Razi contributed to chemistry and become Christian; stronger monarchies
medicine.[94] emerged; borders were restored; technological
developments and agricultural innovations
Ibn Sina (Avicenna, c. 980–1037) is regarded as were made, increasing the food supply and
the most influential philosopher of Islam.[95] population. Classical Greek texts were
He pioneered the science of experimental translated from Arabic and Greek into Latin,
medicine[96] and was the first physician to stimulating scientific discussion in Western
conduct clinical trials.[97] His two most notable Europe.[108]
works in medicine are the Kitāb al-shifāʾ ("Book
of Healing") and The Canon of Medicine, both An intellectual revitalization of Western Europe
of which were used as standard medicinal texts started with the birth of medieval universities in
in both the Muslim world and in Europe well the 12th century. Contact with the Byzantine
into the 17th century. Amongst his many Empire,[74] and with the Islamic world during
contributions are the discovery of the the Reconquista and the Crusades, allowed
contagious nature of infectious diseases,[96] Latin Europe access to scientific Greek and
and the introduction of clinical Arabic texts, including the works of Aristotle,
pharmacology.[98] Ptolemy, Isidore of Miletus, John Philoponus,
Jābir ibn Hayyān, al-Khwarizmi, Alhazen,
Scientists from the Islamic world include al- Avicenna, and Averroes. European scholars had
Farabi (polymath), Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi access to the translation programs of Raymond
(pioneer of surgery),[99] Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī of Toledo, who sponsored the 12th century
(pioneer of Indology,[100] geodesy and Toledo School of Translators from Arabic to
anthropology),[101] Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī Latin. Later translators like Michael Scotus
(polymath), and Ibn Khaldun (forerunner of would learn Arabic in order to study these texts
social sciences[102] such as demography,[103] directly. The European universities aided
cultural history,[104] historiography,[105] materially in the translation and propagation of
philosophy of history and sociology),[106] these texts and started a new infrastructure
among many others. which was needed for scientific communities. In
fact, European university put many works about
Islamic science began its decline in the 12th or the natural world and the study of nature at the
13th century, before the Renaissance in Europe, center of its curriculum,[109] with the result
and due in part to the 11th–13th century that the "medieval university laid far greater
Mongol conquests, during which libraries, emphasis on science than does its modern
observatories, hospitals and universities were counterpart and descendent."[110]
destroyed.[107] The end of the Islamic Golden
Age is marked by the destruction of the In classical antiquity, Greek and Roman taboos
intellectual center of Baghdad, the capital of the had meant that dissection was usually banned,
Abbasid caliphate in 1258.[107] but in the Middle Ages medical teachers and
students at Bologna began to open human
Western Europe bodies, and Mondino de Luzzi (c. 1275–1326)
Main article: European science in the Middle produced the first known anatomy textbook
Ages based on human dissection.[111][112]
Further information: Renaissance of the 12th
century, Scholasticism, Medieval technology, As a result of the Pax Mongolica, Europeans,
List of medieval European scientists, and Islamic such as Marco Polo, began to venture further
contributions to Medieval Europe and further east. This led to the increased
awareness of Indian and even Chinese culture
and civilization within the European tradition. inertia.[124] The Oxford Calculators began to
Technological advances were also made, such mathematically analyze the kinematics of
as the early flight of Eilmer of Malmesbury (who motion, making this analysis without
had studied Mathematics in 11th century considering the causes of motion.[125]
England), and the metallurgical achievements of
the Cistercian blast furnace at Laskill. In 1348, the Black Death and other disasters
sealed a sudden end to philosophic and
At the beginning of the 13th century, there scientific development. Yet, the rediscovery of
were reasonably accurate Latin translations of ancient texts was stimulated by the Fall of
the main works of almost all the intellectually Constantinople in 1453, when many Byzantine
crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound scholars sought refuge in the West. Meanwhile,
transfer of scientific ideas via both the the introduction of printing was to have great
universities and the monasteries. By then, the effect on European society. The facilitated
natural philosophy in these texts began to be dissemination of the printed word
extended by scholastics such as Robert democratized learning and allowed ideas such
Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus and as algebra to propagate more rapidly. These
Duns Scotus. Precursors of the modern developments paved the way for the Scientific
scientific method, influenced by earlier Revolution, where scientific inquiry, halted at
contributions of the Islamic world, can be seen the start of the Black Death, resumed.
already in Grosseteste's emphasis on
mathematics as a way to understand nature, Impact of science in Europe
and in the empirical approach admired by Main articles: Scientific revolution and Age of
Bacon, particularly in his Opus Majus. Pierre Enlightenment
Duhem's thesis is that Stephen Tempier - the See also: Continuity thesis, Decline of Western
Bishop of Paris - Condemnation of 1277 led to alchemy, and Natural magic
the study of medieval science as a serious
discipline, "but no one in the field any longer Galileo Galilei, father of modern science.[128]
endorses his view that modern science started The renewal of learning in Europe began with
in 1277".[116] However, many scholars agree 12th century Scholasticism. The Northern
with Duhem's view that the Middle Ages saw Renaissance showed a decisive shift in focus
important scientific developments. from Aristotelian natural philosophy to
chemistry and the biological sciences (botany,
The first half of the 14th century saw much anatomy, and medicine).[129] Thus modern
important scientific work, largely within the science in Europe was resumed in a period of
framework of scholastic commentaries on great upheaval: the Protestant Reformation and
Aristotle's scientific writings.[121] William of Catholic Counter-Reformation; the discovery of
Ockham emphasised the principle of parsimony: the Americas by Christopher Columbus; the Fall
natural philosophers should not postulate of Constantinople; but also the re-discovery of
unnecessary entities, so that motion is not a Aristotle during the Scholastic period presaged
distinct thing but is only the moving object[122] large social and political changes. Thus, a
and an intermediary "sensible species" is not suitable environment was created in which it
needed to transmit an image of an object to the became possible to question scientific doctrine,
eye.[123] Scholars such as Jean Buridan and in much the same way that Martin Luther and
Nicole Oresme started to reinterpret elements John Calvin questioned religious doctrine. The
of Aristotle's mechanics. In particular, Buridan works of Ptolemy (astronomy) and Galen
developed the theory that impetus was the (medicine) were found not always to match
cause of the motion of projectiles, which was a everyday observations. Work by Vesalius on
first step towards the modern concept of
human cadavers found problems with the during the 18th century. Directly based on the
Galenic view of anatomy.[130] works[133] of Newton, Descartes, Pascal and
Leibniz, the way was now clear to the
development of modern mathematics, physics
Isaac Newton initiated classical mechanics in and technology by the generation of Benjamin
physics. Franklin (1706–1790), Leonhard Euler (1707–
The willingness to question previously held 1783), Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) and
truths and search for new answers resulted in a Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717–1783). Denis
period of major scientific advancements, now Diderot's Encyclopédie, published between
known as the Scientific Revolution. The 1751 and 1772 brought this new understanding
Scientific Revolution is traditionally held by to a wider audience. The impact of this process
most historians to have begun in 1543, when was not limited to science and technology, but
the books De humani corporis fabrica (On the affected philosophy (Immanuel Kant, David
Workings of the Human Body) by Andreas Hume), religion (the increasingly significant
Vesalius, and also De Revolutionibus, by the impact of science upon religion), and society
astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, were first and politics in general (Adam Smith, Voltaire).
printed. The thesis of Copernicus' book was that The early modern period is seen as a flowering
the Earth moved around the Sun. The period of the European Renaissance, in what is often
culminated with the publication of the known as the Scientific Revolution, viewed as a
Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica in foundation of modern science.[134]
1687 by Isaac Newton, representative of the
unprecedented growth of scientific publications Romanticism in science
throughout Europe. Main article: Romanticism in science
The Romantic Movement of the early 19th
Other significant scientific advances were made century reshaped science by opening up new
during this time by Galileo Galilei, Edmond pursuits unexpected in the classical approaches
Halley, Robert Hooke, Christiaan Huygens, of the Enlightenment. Major breakthroughs
Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, Gottfried came in biology, especially in Darwin's theory of
Leibniz, and Blaise Pascal. In philosophy, major evolution, as well as physics
contributions were made by Francis Bacon, Sir (electromagnetism), mathematics (non-
Thomas Browne, René Descartes, and Thomas Euclidean geometry, group theory) and
Hobbes. The scientific method was also better chemistry (organic chemistry). The decline of
developed as the modern way of thinking Romanticism occurred because a new
emphasized experimentation and reason over movement, Positivism, began to take hold of
traditional considerations. the ideals of the intellectuals after 1840 and
lasted until about 1880.
Age of Enlightenment
Main article: Science in the Age of Eurocentrism in scientific history
Enlightenment Eurocentrism in scientific history are historical
accounts written about the development of
Distinguished Men of Science.[131] Use your modern science that attribute all scholarly,
cursor to see who is who.[132] technological, and philosophical gains to Europe
and marginalize outside contributions.[135] The
Alessandro Volta demonstrates the first Scientific Revolution in Europe during the 16th-
electrical cell to Napoleon in 1801. 18th centuries was the period of human
The Age of Enlightenment was a European advancement into modern science by
affair. The 17th century brought decisive steps disproving the Aristotelian view of natural
towards modern science, which accelerated sciences and philosophy through proofs of
calculations. Until Joseph Needham's book
series Science and Civilisation in China began in
1954, many historians would write about
modern science solely as a European Physics
achievement with no significant contributions Main article: History of physics
form civilizations other than the Greeks.[136]
Recent historical writings have argued that Albert Einstein
there was significant influence and contribution
from Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Arabic, Indian, James Clerk Maxwell
and Chinese astronomy and mathematics.[137] The scientific revolution is a convenient
boundary between ancient thought and
In contrast to the Eurocentric view, historians classical physics. Nicolaus Copernicus revived
argue evidence of east Asian influence in the the heliocentric model of the solar system
scientific revolution. The German astronomer described by Aristarchus of Samos. This was
and mathematician Nicolaus Copernicus's is followed by the first known model of planetary
credited to have began the Scientific Revolution motion given by Johannes Kepler in the early
with his work De revolutionibus orbium 17th century, which proposed that the planets
coelestium which used calculations of Islamic follow elliptical orbits, with the Sun at one focus
astronomers. His findings were focused on the of the ellipse. Galileo ("Father of Modern
earth's rotation on its axis every twenty-four Physics") also made use of experiments to
hours and its orbit around the sun every 365¼ validate physical theories, a key element of the
days. These findings lead Copernicus's scientific method. William Gilbert did some of
heliocentric system; knowledge known to the earliest experiments with electricity and
Chinese astronomers based on their magnetism, establishing that the Earth itself is
understanding of heavenly bodies moving magnetic.
against the path of the sun and the pole star,
such as comets.[138] His heliocentric planetary In 1687, Isaac Newton published the Principia
theory was published in 1543, the same year Mathematica, detailing two comprehensive and
the Greek works of Archimedes were translated successful physical theories: Newton's laws of
from Arabic into Latin.[139] The change in motion, which led to classical mechanics; and
philosophical mindset as well as astronomical Newton's law of universal gravitation, which
improvements gained by the Jesuits research in describes the fundamental force of gravity.
China is used as evidence to argue for its
influence in Copernican work as well as Arab During the late 18th and early 19th century, the
calculations and translations of Greek texts. behavior of electricity and magnetism was
studied by Luigi Galvani, Giovanni Aldini,
Modern science Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm,
With the scientific revolution, paradigms and others. These studies led to the unification
established in the time of classical antiquity of the two phenomena into a single theory of
were replaced with those of scientists like electromagnetism, by James Clerk Maxwell
Nicolaus Copernicus, Galileo Galilei and Isaac (known as Maxwell's equations).
Newton.[140] During the 19th century, the
practice of science became professionalized and The beginning of the 20th century brought the
institutionalized in ways that continued through start of a revolution in physics. The long-held
the 20th century. As the role of scientific theories of Newton were shown not to be
knowledge grew in society, it became correct in all circumstances. Beginning in 1900,
incorporated with many aspects of the Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr and
functioning of nation-states. others developed quantum theories to explain
various anomalous experimental results, by have called "Big Science", requiring massive
introducing discrete energy levels. Not only did machines, budgets, and laboratories in order to
quantum mechanics show that the laws of test their theories and move into new frontiers.
motion did not hold on small scales, but even The primary patron of physics became state
more disturbingly, the theory of general governments, who recognized that the support
relativity, proposed by Einstein in 1915, showed of "basic" research could often lead to
that the fixed background of spacetime, on technologies useful to both military and
which both Newtonian mechanics and special industrial applications.
relativity depended, could not exist. In 1925,
Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger Currently, general relativity and quantum
formulated quantum mechanics, which mechanics are inconsistent with each other,
explained the preceding quantum theories. The and efforts are underway to unify the two.
observation by Edwin Hubble in 1929 that the
speed at which galaxies recede positively Chemistry
correlates with their distance, led to the Main article: History of chemistry
understanding that the universe is expanding,
and the formulation of the Big Bang theory by Dmitri Mendeleev
Georges Lemaître. Modern chemistry emerged from the sixteenth
through the eighteenth centuries through the
material practices and theories promoted by
The atomic bomb ushered in "Big Science" in alchemy, medicine, manufacturing and
physics. mining.[144] A decisive moment came when
In 1938 Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann "chemistry" was distinguished from alchemy by
discovered nuclear fission with radiochemical Robert Boyle in his work The Sceptical Chymist,
methods, and in 1939 Lise Meitner and Otto in 1661; although the alchemical tradition
Robert Frisch wrote the first theoretical continued for some time after his work. Other
interpretation of the fission process, which was important steps included the gravimetric
later improved by Niels Bohr and John A. experimental practices of medical chemists like
Wheeler. Further developments took place William Cullen, Joseph Black, Torbern Bergman
during World War II, which led to the practical and Pierre Macquer and through the work of
application of radar and the development and Antoine Lavoisier ("father of modern
use of the atomic bomb. Around this time, chemistry") on oxygen and the law of
Chien-Shiung Wu was recruited by the conservation of mass, which refuted phlogiston
Manhattan Project to help develop a process theory. The theory that all matter is made of
for separating uranium metal into U-235 and U- atoms, which are the smallest constituents of
238 isotopes by Gaseous diffusion.[141] She matter that cannot be broken down without
was an expert experimentalist in beta decay losing the basic chemical and physical
and weak interaction physics.[142][143] Wu properties of that matter, was provided by John
designed an experiment (see Wu experiment) Dalton in 1803, although the question took a
that enabled theoretical physicists Tsung-Dao hundred years to settle as proven. Dalton also
Lee and Chen-Ning Yang to disprove the law of formulated the law of mass relationships. In
parity experimentally, winning them a Nobel 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev composed his periodic
Prize in 1957.[142] table of elements on the basis of Dalton's
discoveries.
Though the process had begun with the
invention of the cyclotron by Ernest O. The synthesis of urea by Friedrich Wöhler
Lawrence in the 1930s, physics in the postwar opened a new research field, organic chemistry,
period entered into a phase of what historians and by the end of the 19th century, scientists
were able to synthesize hundreds of organic Geology did not undergo systematic
compounds. The later part of the 19th century restructuring during the Scientific Revolution,
saw the exploitation of the Earth's but individual theorists made important
petrochemicals, after the exhaustion of the oil contributions. Robert Hooke, for example,
supply from whaling. By the 20th century, formulated a theory of earthquakes, and
systematic production of refined materials Nicholas Steno developed the theory of
provided a ready supply of products which superposition and argued that fossils were the
provided not only energy, but also synthetic remains of once-living creatures. Beginning with
materials for clothing, medicine, and everyday Thomas Burnet's Sacred Theory of the Earth in
disposable resources. Application of the 1681, natural philosophers began to explore the
techniques of organic chemistry to living idea that the Earth had changed over time.
organisms resulted in physiological chemistry, Burnet and his contemporaries interpreted
the precursor to biochemistry. The 20th century Earth's past in terms of events described in the
also saw the integration of physics and Bible, but their work laid the intellectual
chemistry, with chemical properties explained foundations for secular interpretations of Earth
as the result of the electronic structure of the history.
atom. Linus Pauling's book on The Nature of the
Chemical Bond used the principles of quantum
mechanics to deduce bond angles in ever-more James Hutton, the father of modern geology
complicated molecules. Pauling's work Modern geology, like modern chemistry,
culminated in the physical modelling of DNA, gradually evolved during the 18th and early
the secret of life (in the words of Francis Crick, 19th centuries. Benoît de Maillet and the Comte
1953). In the same year, the Miller–Urey de Buffon saw the Earth as much older than the
experiment demonstrated in a simulation of 6,000 years envisioned by biblical scholars.
primordial processes, that basic constituents of Jean-Étienne Guettard and Nicolas Desmarest
proteins, simple amino acids, could themselves hiked central France and recorded their
be built up from simpler molecules. observations on some of the first geological
maps. Aided by chemical experimentation,
Geology naturalists such as Scotland's John Walker,[145]
Main article: History of geology Sweden's Torbern Bergman, and Germany's
Geology existed as a cloud of isolated, Abraham Werner created comprehensive
disconnected ideas about rocks, minerals, and classification systems for rocks and minerals—a
landforms long before it became a coherent collective achievement that transformed
science. Theophrastus' work on rocks, Peri geology into a cutting edge field by the end of
lithōn, remained authoritative for millennia: its the eighteenth century. These early geologists
interpretation of fossils was not overturned also proposed a generalized interpretations of
until after the Scientific Revolution. Chinese Earth history that led James Hutton, Georges
polymath Shen Kua (1031–1095) first Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart, following in
formulated hypotheses for the process of land the steps of Steno, to argue that layers of rock
formation. Based on his observation of fossils in could be dated by the fossils they contained: a
a geological stratum in a mountain hundreds of principle first applied to the geology of the Paris
miles from the ocean, he deduced that the land Basin. The use of index fossils became a
was formed by erosion of the mountains and by powerful tool for making geological maps,
deposition of silt. because it allowed geologists to correlate the
rocks in one locality with those of similar age in
other, distant localities. Over the first half of the
Plate tectonics—seafloor spreading and 19th century, geologists such as Charles Lyell,
continental drift illustrated on a relief globe Adam Sedgwick, and Roderick Murchison
applied the new technique to rocks throughout Advances in astronomy and in optical systems
Europe and eastern North America, setting the in the 19th century resulted in the first
stage for more detailed, government-funded observation of an asteroid (1 Ceres) in 1801,
mapping projects in later decades. and the discovery of Neptune in 1846.

Midway through the 19th century, the focus of In 1925, Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin determined
geology shifted from description and that stars were composed mostly of hydrogen
classification to attempts to understand how and helium.[146] She was dissuaded by
the surface of the Earth had changed. The first astronomer Henry Norris Russell from
comprehensive theories of mountain building publishing this finding in her Ph.D.thesis
were proposed during this period, as were the because of the widely held belief that stars had
first modern theories of earthquakes and the same composition as the Earth.[147]
volcanoes. Louis Agassiz and others established However, four years later, in 1929, Henry Norris
the reality of continent-covering ice ages, and Russell came to the same conclusion through
"fluvialists" like Andrew Crombie Ramsay different reasoning and the discovery was
argued that river valleys were formed, over eventually accepted.[147]
millions of years by the rivers that flow through
them. After the discovery of radioactivity, George Gamow, Ralph Alpher, and Robert
radiometric dating methods were developed, Herman had calculated that there should be
starting in the 20th century. Alfred Wegener's evidence for a Big Bang in the background
theory of "continental drift" was widely temperature of the universe.[148] In 1964, Arno
dismissed when he proposed it in the 1910s, Penzias and Robert Wilson[149] discovered a 3
but new data gathered in the 1950s and 1960s Kelvin background hiss in their Bell Labs
led to the theory of plate tectonics, which radiotelescope (the Holmdel Horn Antenna),
provided a plausible mechanism for it. Plate which was evidence for this hypothesis, and
tectonics also provided a unified explanation for formed the basis for a number of results that
a wide range of seemingly unrelated geological helped determine the age of the universe.
phenomena. Since 1970 it has served as the
unifying principle in geology. Supernova SN1987A was observed by
astronomers on Earth both visually, and in a
Geologists' embrace of plate tectonics became triumph for neutrino astronomy, by the solar
part of a broadening of the field from a study of neutrino detectors at Kamiokande. But the solar
rocks into a study of the Earth as a planet. neutrino flux was a fraction of its theoretically
Other elements of this transformation include: expected value. This discrepancy forced a
geophysical studies of the interior of the Earth, change in some values in the standard model
the grouping of geology with meteorology and for particle physics.
oceanography as one of the "earth sciences",
and comparisons of Earth and the solar system's Biology and medicine
other rocky planets. Main articles: History of biology, History of
molecular biology, History of medicine, and
Astronomy History of evolutionary thought
Main article: History of astronomy
Aristarchus of Samos published work on how to Semi-conservative DNA replication
determine the sizes and distances of the Sun William Harvey published De Motu Cordis in
and the Moon, and Eratosthenes used this work 1628, which revealed his conclusions based on
to figure the size of the Earth. Hipparchus later his extensive studies of vertebrate circulatory
discovered the precession of the Earth. systems. He identified the central role of the
heart, arteries, and veins in producing blood
movement in a circuit, and failed to find any inheritance developed by the Moravian[155]
confirmation of Galen's pre-existing notions of monk Gregor Mendel in 1866. Mendel's laws
heating and cooling functions.[150] The history provided the beginnings of the study of
of early modern biology and medicine is often genetics, which became a major field of
told through the search for the seat of the research for both scientific and industrial
soul.[151] Galen in his descriptions of his research. By 1953, James D. Watson, Francis
foundational work in medicine presents the Crick and Maurice Wilkins clarified the basic
distinctions between arteries, veins, and nerves structure of DNA, the genetic material for
using the vocabulary of the soul.[152] expressing life in all its forms.[156] In the late
20th century, the possibilities of genetic
In 1847, Hungarian physician Ignác Fülöp engineering became practical for the first time,
Semmelweis dramatically reduced the and a massive international effort began in
occurrency of puerperal fever by simply 1990 to map out an entire human genome (the
requiring physicians to wash their hands before Human Genome Project).
attending to women in childbirth. This discovery
predated the germ theory of disease. However, Ecology
Semmelweis' findings were not appreciated by Main article: History of ecology
his contemporaries and handwashing came into
use only with discoveries by British surgeon The discipline of ecology typically traces its
Joseph Lister, who in 1865 proved the principles origin to the synthesis of Darwinian evolution
of antisepsis. Lister's work was based on the and Humboldtian biogeography, in the late 19th
important findings by French biologist Louis and early 20th centuries. Equally important in
Pasteur. Pasteur was able to link the rise of ecology, however, were microbiology
microorganisms with disease, revolutionizing and soil science—particularly the cycle of life
medicine. He also devised one of the most concept, prominent in the work Louis Pasteur
important methods in preventive medicine, and Ferdinand Cohn. The word ecology was
when in 1880 he produced a vaccine against coined by Ernst Haeckel, whose particularly
rabies. Pasteur invented the process of holistic view of nature in general (and Darwin's
pasteurization, to help prevent the spread of theory in particular) was important in the
disease through milk and other foods.[153] spread of ecological thinking. In the 1930s,
Arthur Tansley and others began developing the
Perhaps the most prominent, controversial and field of ecosystem ecology, which combined
far-reaching theory in all of science has been experimental soil science with physiological
the theory of evolution by natural selection put concepts of energy and the techniques of field
forward by the English naturalist Charles Darwin biology.
in his book On the Origin of Species in 1859. He
proposed that the features of all living things, Social sciences
including humans, were shaped by natural Main article: History of the social sciences
processes over long periods of time. The theory Successful use of the scientific method in the
of evolution in its current form affects almost all physical sciences led to the same methodology
areas of biology.[154] Implications of evolution being adapted to better understand the many
on fields outside of pure science have led to fields of human endeavor. From this effort the
both opposition and support from different social sciences have been developed.
parts of society, and profoundly influenced the
popular understanding of "man's place in the Political science
universe". In the early 20th century, the study Main article: History of political science
of heredity became a major investigation after Political science is a late arrival in terms of
the rediscovery in 1900 of the laws of social sciences.[citation needed] However, the
discipline has a clear set of antecedents such as of the republic and Rome's empire and wars.
moral philosophy, political philosophy, political The study of politics during this age was
economy, history, and other fields concerned oriented toward understanding history,
with normative determinations of what ought understanding methods of governing, and
to be and with deducing the characteristics and describing the operation of governments.
functions of the ideal form of government. The
roots of politics are in prehistory. In each With the fall of the Western Roman Empire,
historic period and in almost every geographic there arose a more diffuse arena for political
area, we can find someone studying politics and studies. The rise of monotheism and,
increasing political understanding. particularly for the Western tradition,
Christianity, brought to light a new space for
In Western culture, the study of politics is first politics and political action.[citation needed]
found in Ancient Greece. The antecedents of During the Middle Ages, the study of politics
European politics trace their roots back even was widespread in the churches and courts.
earlier than Plato and Aristotle, particularly in Works such as Augustine of Hippo's The City of
the works of Homer, Hesiod, Thucydides, God synthesized current philosophies and
Xenophon, and Euripides. Later, Plato analyzed political traditions with those of Christianity,
political systems, abstracted their analysis from redefining the borders between what was
more literary- and history- oriented studies and religious and what was political. Most of the
applied an approach we would understand as political questions surrounding the relationship
closer to philosophy. Similarly, Aristotle built between Church and State were clarified and
upon Plato's analysis to include historical contested in this period.
empirical evidence in his analysis.
In the Middle East and later other Islamic areas,
An ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, works such as the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam
economic policy and military strategy by and Epic of Kings by Ferdowsi provided
Kautilya[157] and Viṣhṇugupta,[158] who are evidence of political analysis, while the Islamic
traditionally identified with Chāṇakya (c. 350– Aristotelians such as Avicenna and later
283 BCE). In this treatise, the behaviors and Maimonides and Averroes, continued Aristotle's
relationships of the people, the King, the State, tradition of analysis and empiricism, writing
the Government Superintendents, Courtiers, commentaries on Aristotle's works.
Enemies, Invaders, and Corporations are
analysed and documented. Roger Boesche During the Italian Renaissance, Niccolò
describes the Arthaśāstra as "a book of political Machiavelli established the emphasis of
realism, a book analysing how the political modern political science on direct empirical
world does work and not very often stating how observation of political institutions and actors.
it ought to work, a book that frequently Later, the expansion of the scientific paradigm
discloses to a king what calculating and during the Enlightenment further pushed the
sometimes brutal measures he must carry out study of politics beyond normative
to preserve the state and the common determinations.[citation needed] In particular,
good."[159] the study of statistics, to study the subjects of
the state, has been applied to polling and
During the rule of Rome, famous historians such voting.
as Polybius, Livy and Plutarch documented the
rise of the Roman Republic, and the In the 20th century, the study of ideology,
organization and histories of other nations, behaviouralism and international relations led
while statesmen like Julius Caesar, Cicero and to a multitude of 'pol-sci' subdisciplines
others provided us with examples of the politics including rational choice theory, voting theory,
game theory (also used in economics), only by self-interest. Karl Marx developed an
psephology, political geography/geopolitics, alternative economic theory, called Marxian
political psychology/political sociology, political economics. Marxian economics is based on the
economy, policy analysis, public administration, labor theory of value and assumes the value of
comparative political analysis and peace good to be based on the amount of labor
studies/conflict analysis. required to produce it. Under this assumption,
capitalism was based on employers not paying
Linguistics the full value of workers labor to create profit.
Main article: History of linguistics The Austrian School responded to Marxian
Historical linguistics emerged as an economics by viewing entrepreneurship as
independent field of study at the end of the driving force of economic development. This
18th century. Sir William Jones proposed that replaced the labor theory of value by a system
Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, Gothic, and of supply and demand.
Celtic languages all shared a common base.
After Jones, an effort to catalog all languages of In the 1920s, John Maynard Keynes prompted a
the world was made throughout the 19th division between microeconomics and
century and into the 20th century. Publication macroeconomics. Under Keynesian economics
of Ferdinand de Saussure's Cours de linguistique macroeconomic trends can overwhelm
générale created the development of economic choices made by individuals.
descriptive linguistics. Descriptive linguistics, Governments should promote aggregate
and the related structuralism movement caused demand for goods as a means to encourage
linguistics to focus on how language changes economic expansion. Following World War II,
over time, instead of just describing the Milton Friedman created the concept of
differences between languages. Noam Chomsky monetarism. Monetarism focuses on using the
further diversified linguistics with the supply and demand of money as a method for
development of generative linguistics in the controlling economic activity. In the 1970s,
1950s. His effort is based upon a mathematical monetarism has adapted into supply-side
model of language that allows for the economics which advocates reducing taxes as a
description and prediction of valid syntax. means to increase the amount of money
Additional specialties such as sociolinguistics, available for economic expansion.
cognitive linguistics, and computational
linguistics have emerged from collaboration Other modern schools of economic thought are
between linguistics and other disciplines. New Classical economics and New Keynesian
economics. New Classical economics was
Economics developed in the 1970s, emphasizing solid
Main article: History of economics microeconomics as the basis for
macroeconomic growth. New Keynesian
The supply and demand model economics was created partially in response to
New Classical economics, and deals with how
Adam Smith wrote The Wealth of Nations, the inefficiencies in the market create a need for
first modern work of economics control by a central bank or government.
The basis for classical economics forms Adam
Smith's An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes The above "history of economics" reflects
of the Wealth of Nations, published in 1776. modern economic textbooks and this means
Smith criticized mercantilism, advocating a that the last stage of a science is represented as
system of free trade with division of labour. He the culmination of its history (Kuhn, 1962). The
postulated an "invisible hand" that regulated "invisible hand" mentioned in a lost page in the
economic systems made up of actors guided middle of a chapter in the middle of the
"Wealth of Nations", 1776, advances as Smith's studying human psychology, known collectively
central message.[clarification needed] It is as cognitive science. Cognitive science again
played down that this "invisible hand" acts only considers the mind as a subject for
"frequently" and that it is "no part of his [the investigation, using the tools of psychology,
individual's] intentions" because competition linguistics, computer science, philosophy, and
leads to lower prices by imitating "his" neurobiology. New methods of visualizing the
invention. That this "invisible hand" prefers "the activity of the brain, such as PET scans and CAT
support of domestic to foreign industry" is scans, began to exert their influence as well,
cleansed—often without indication that part of leading some researchers to investigate the
the citation is truncated.[160] The opening mind by investigating the brain, rather than
passage of the "Wealth" containing Smith's cognition. These new forms of investigation
message is never mentioned as it cannot be assume that a wide understanding of the
integrated into modern theory: "Wealth" human mind is possible, and that such an
depends on the division of labour which understanding may be applied to other research
changes with market volume and on the domains, such as artificial intelligence.
proportion of productive to Unproductive labor.
Sociology
Psychology Main article: History of sociology
Main article: History of psychology Ibn Khaldun can be regarded as the earliest
The end of the 19th century marks the start of scientific systematic sociologist.[161] The
psychology as a scientific enterprise. The year modern sociology emerged in the early 19th
1879 is commonly seen as the start of century as the academic response to the
psychology as an independent field of study. In modernization of the world. Among many early
that year Wilhelm Wundt founded the first sociologists (e.g., Émile Durkheim), the aim of
laboratory dedicated exclusively to sociology was in structuralism, understanding
psychological research (in Leipzig). Other the cohesion of social groups, and developing
important early contributors to the field include an "antidote" to social disintegration. Max
Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in memory Weber was concerned with the modernization
studies), Ivan Pavlov (who discovered classical of society through the concept of
conditioning), William James, and Sigmund rationalization, which he believed would trap
Freud. Freud's influence has been enormous, individuals in an "iron cage" of rational thought.
though more as cultural icon than a force in Some sociologists, including Georg Simmel and
scientific psychology. W. E. B. Du Bois, utilized more
microsociological, qualitative analyses. This
The 20th century saw a rejection of Freud's microlevel approach played an important role in
theories as being too unscientific, and a American sociology, with the theories of George
reaction against Edward Titchener's atomistic Herbert Mead and his student Herbert Blumer
approach of the mind. This led to the resulting in the creation of the symbolic
formulation of behaviorism by John B. Watson, interactionism approach to sociology.
which was popularized by B.F. Skinner.
Behaviorism proposed epistemologically In particular, just Auguste Comte, illustrated
limiting psychological study to overt behavior, with his work the transition from a theological
since that could be reliably measured. Scientific to a metaphysical stage and, from this, to a
knowledge of the "mind" was considered too positive stage. Comte took care of the
metaphysical, hence impossible to achieve. classification of the sciences as well as a transit
of humanity towards a situation of progress
The final decades of the 20th century have seen attributable to a re-examination of nature
the rise of a new interdisciplinary approach to according to the affirmation of 'sociality' as the
basis of the scientifically interpreted
society.[162] During the late 19th-century, battles over the
"study of man" took place between those of an
American sociology in the 1940s and 1950s was "anthropological" persuasion (relying on
dominated largely by Talcott Parsons, who anthropometrical techniques) and those of an
argued that aspects of society that promoted "ethnological" persuasion (looking at cultures
structural integration were therefore and traditions), and these distinctions became
"functional". This structural functionalism part of the later divide between physical
approach was questioned in the 1960s, when anthropology and cultural anthropology, the
sociologists came to see this approach as latter ushered in by the students of Franz Boas.
merely a justification for inequalities present in
the status quo. In reaction, conflict theory was In the mid-20th century, much of the
developed, which was based in part on the methodologies of earlier anthropological and
philosophies of Karl Marx. Conflict theorists saw ethnographical study were reevaluated with an
society as an arena in which different groups eye towards research ethics, while at the same
compete for control over resources. Symbolic time the scope of investigation has broadened
interactionism also came to be regarded as far beyond the traditional study of "primitive
central to sociological thinking. Erving Goffman cultures" (scientific practice itself is often an
saw social interactions as a stage performance, arena of anthropological study).
with individuals preparing "backstage" and
attempting to control their audience through The emergence of paleoanthropology, a
impression management. While these theories scientific discipline which draws on the
are currently prominent in sociological thought, methodologies of paleontology, physical
other approaches exist, including feminist anthropology and ethology, among other
theory, post-structuralism, rational choice disciplines, and increasing in scope and
theory, and postmodernism. momentum from the mid-20th century,
continues to yield further insights into human
Anthropology origins, evolution, genetic and cultural heritage,
Main article: History of anthropology and perspectives on the contemporary human
Anthropology can best be understood as an predicament as well.
outgrowth of the Age of Enlightenment. It was
during this period that Europeans attempted Emerging disciplines
systematically to study human behaviour. During the 20th century, a number of
Traditions of jurisprudence, history, philology interdisciplinary scientific fields have emerged.
and sociology developed during this time and Examples include:
informed the development of the social
sciences of which anthropology was a part. Communication studies combines animal
communication, information theory, marketing,
At the same time, the romantic reaction to the public relations, telecommunications and other
Enlightenment produced thinkers such as forms of communication.
Johann Gottfried Herder and later Wilhelm
Dilthey whose work formed the basis for the Computer science, built upon a foundation of
culture concept which is central to the theoretical linguistics, discrete mathematics,
discipline. Traditionally, much of the history of and electrical engineering, studies the nature
the subject was based on colonial encounters and limits of computation. Subfields include
between Western Europe and the rest of the computability, computational complexity,
world, and much of 18th- and 19th-century database design, computer networking,
anthropology is now classed as scientific racism. artificial intelligence, and the design of
computer hardware. One area in which 20th-century view of the history of science as
advances in computing have contributed to the history of great men and great ideas. He
more general scientific development is by shared with many of his contemporaries a
facilitating large-scale archiving of scientific Whiggish belief in history as a record of the
data. Contemporary computer science typically advances and delays in the march of progress.
distinguishes itself by emphasising The history of science was not a recognized
mathematical 'theory' in contrast to the subfield of American history in this period, and
practical emphasis of software engineering. most of the work was carried out by interested
scientists and physicians rather than
Environmental science is an interdisciplinary professional historians.[165] With the work of I.
field. It draws upon the disciplines of biology, Bernard Cohen at Harvard, the history of
chemistry, earth sciences, ecology, geography, science became an established subdiscipline of
mathematics, and physics. history after 1945.[166]

Materials science has its roots in metallurgy, The history of mathematics, history of
mineralogy, and crystallography. It combines technology, and history of philosophy are
chemistry, physics, and several engineering distinct areas of research and are covered in
disciplines. The field studies metals, ceramics, other articles. Mathematics is closely related to
glass, plastics, semiconductors, and composite but distinct from natural science (at least in the
materials. modern conception). Technology is likewise
closely related to but clearly differs from the
Neuroscience is a multidisciplinary branch of search for empirical truth.
science that combines physiology,
neuroanatomy, molecular biology, History of science is an academic discipline,
developmental biology, cytology, mathematical with an international community of specialists.
modeling and psychology to understand the Main professional organizations for this field
fundamental and emergent properties of include the History of Science Society, the
neurons, glia, nervous systems and neural British Society for the History of Science, and
circuits.[163] the European Society for the History of Science.

Metascience (also known as meta-research) is Theories and sociology of the history of science
the use of scientific methodology to study Main article: Theories and sociology of the
science itself. Metascience seeks to increase the history of science
quality of research while reducing waste. The Much of the study of the history of science has
replication crisis is the result of metascientific been devoted to answering questions about
research.[164] what science is, how it functions, and whether it
exhibits large-scale patterns and trends.[167]
Academic study The sociology of science in particular has
Main article: History of science and technology focused on the ways in which scientists work,
As an academic field, history of science and looking closely at the ways in which they
technology began with the publication of "produce" and "construct" scientific knowledge.
William Whewell's History of the Inductive Since the 1960s, a common trend in science
Sciences (first published in 1837). A more studies (the study of the sociology and history
formal study of the history of science as an of science) has been to emphasize the "human
independent discipline was launched by George component" of scientific knowledge, and to de-
Sarton's publications, Introduction to the emphasize the view that scientific data are self-
History of Science (1927) and the Isis journal evident, value-free, and context-free.[168] The
(founded in 1912). Sarton exemplified the early field of Science and Technology Studies, an area
that overlaps and often informs historical implicitly presented as having worked upon the
studies of science, focuses on the social context same set of fixed problems and in accordance
of science in both contemporary and historical with the same set of fixed canons that the most
periods. recent revolution in scientific theory and
method made seem scientific."[173]
Humboldtian science refers to the early 19th
century approach of combining scientific field Further studies, e.g. Jerome Ravetz 1971
work with the age of Romanticism sensitivity, Scientific Knowledge and its Social Problems
ethics and aesthetic ideals.[169] It helped to referred to the role of the scientific community,
install natural history as a separate field, gave as a social construct, in accepting or rejecting
base for ecology and was based on the role (objective) scientific knowledge.[174] The
model of scientist, naturalist and explorer Science wars of the 1990 were about the
Alexander von Humboldt.[170] The later 19th influence of especially French philosophers,
century positivism asserted that all authentic which denied the objectivity of science in
knowledge allows verification and that all general or seemed to do so. They described as
authentic knowledge assumes that the only well differences between the idealized model of
valid knowledge is scientific.[171] a pure science and the actual scientific practice;
while scientism, a revival of the positivism
A major subject of concern and controversy in approach, saw in precise measurement and
the philosophy of science has been the nature rigorous calculation the basis for finally settling
of theory change in science. Karl Popper argued enduring metaphysical and moral
that scientific knowledge is progressive and controversies.[175][176] However, more
cumulative; Thomas Kuhn, that scientific recently some of the leading critical theorists
knowledge moves through "paradigm shifts" have recognized that their postmodern
and is not necessarily progressive; and Paul deconstructions have at times been counter-
Feyerabend, that scientific knowledge is not productive, and are providing intellectual
cumulative or progressive and that there can be ammunition for reactionary interests. Bruno
no demarcation in terms of method between Latour noted that "dangerous extremists are
science and any other form of using the very same argument of social
investigation.[172] construction to destroy hard-won evidence that
could save our lives. Was I wrong to participate
The mid 20th century saw a series of studies in the invention of this field known as science
relying to the role of science in a social context, studies? Is it enough to say that we did not
starting from Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of really mean what we meant?"[177]
Scientific Revolutions in 1962. It opened the
study of science to new disciplines by Plight of many scientific innovators
suggesting that the evolution of science was in One recurring observation in the history of
part sociologically determined and that science involves the struggle for recognition of
positivism did not explain the actual first-rate scientists working on the periphery of
interactions and strategies of the human the scientific establishment. For instance, the
participants in science. As Thomas Kuhn put it, great physicist Lord Rayleigh looked back (cited
the history of science may be seen in more here) on John James Waterston's seminal paper
nuanced terms, such as that of competing on the kinetic theory of gases. The history of
paradigms or conceptual systems in a wider the neglect of Waterston's path-breaking
matrix that includes intellectual, cultural, article, Rayleigh felt, suggests that "a young
economic and political themes outside of author who believes himself capable of great
science. "Partly by selection and partly by things would usually do well to secure
distortion, the scientists of earlier ages are
favourable recognition of the scientific world . .
. before embarking upon higher flights."

William Harvey's experiences led him to an

even more pessimistic view:[178]

"But what remains to be said about the quantity

and source of the blood which thus passes, is of
so novel and unheard-of character that I not
only fear injury to myself from the envy of a
few, but I tremble lest I have mankind at large
for my enemies, so much doth wont and
custom, that become as another nature, and
doctrine once sown and that hath struck deep
root, and respect for antiquity, influence all
men."

In more general terms, Robert K. Merton

remarks that "the history of science abounds in
instances of basic papers having been written
by comparatively unknown scientists, only to be
rejected or neglected for years."[179][180]