Literature- derived from the Latin litteratura meaning "writing formed with letters,"

literature is most commonly refers to works of the creative imagination, including poetry,
drama, fiction, nonfiction, journalism, and in some instances, song.

A genre is a particular type of literature, painting, music, film, or other art form which

people consider as a class because it has special characteristics.

Literary Genres

A category of literary composition determined by literary techniques, tone, content, or

even (as in the case of fiction) length. The distinction between genres and categories are
flexible and loosely defined, often with subgroups. The most general genres in literature are
( in loose chronological order) epic, tragedy, comedy, creative nonfiction. They can all be in the
form of prose and poetry.

5 Major Genres

Fiction

Non Fiction

Drama (Plays )

Folktale

Poetry

FICTION

- A written stories about people and events that are not real: literature that tell stories
which are imagined by the writer.Elements of Fiction

1. Character- Person in a work of fiction/

characteristics of a person ( protagonist/

antagonist).

2. Conflict_ Opposition of forces which ties one

incident to another and makes the plot move. (

external and internal)

3. Setting- refers to place, time, weather condition,

and even mood or atmosphere.

4. Point of view- How the character is told- more

specifically who tells it?

5. Plot- It is the sequence of events in a story or a

play.

6. Theme- the central dominating idea.

Drama - A story put into action, or a story of human life told by actual representation of
persons by persons, with limitation of language, voice, gesture, dress, and accessories or
surrounding conditions, the whole produce with reference to truth or probability, and with or
without the aid of music, dancing, painting, and decoration; a play.

Etymology: from Greek drama ( genitive Elements of Drama

 Plot- The events in play.

Setting-Time and place of a literary work.

Characters- People or creatures in a play.

Dialogue- conversation in a play.

Theme- The central thought of a play; the idea or ideas with which a play deals.

Scenery- the various elements that are used to create a particular visual setting

for a play.

Folktales are stories passed down by oral tradition. Though there are many varieties of folk
tales, they are commonly about regular people in everyday settings.

Elements of Folktale

Characters (the characters are flat

Plot

Setting

Theme

Events

Style

Tone

Point of View ( Often third person narrative)

Poetry - Prose that resembles a poem in some respect, as in vivid imagery or rhythmic
sound.

Elements of Poetry

Imagery- It appeals to the senses ( show don’t

tell).

Ex.

Rhythm- a regular pattern of sounds or movements.

Sound – the rhythm goes along with the general sound as it is easy to remember.
( euphony and cacophony)

Density- is how much is said in how little of space. The ability to use metaphor not to
conform to traditional grammar styles, and incorporate sounds and rhythmic is unique in
poetry.

NONFICTION - The branch of literature comprising works of narrative prose dealing with
or offering opinions or conjectures upon facts and reality, including biography, history and
essay.

Elements of Nonfiction Deals only with real people, events,

or idea. Narrated from point of view, or perspective of the author, who is a real person.

Nonfiction presents facts or discusses concepts. It may reflect historical context of

the time period, including references to major social and cultural information.
 Non-fiction: – an account of a subject which is presented as fact. This presentation may
be accurate or not; that is, it can give either a true or a false account of the subject in question.
It includes essays, articles, textbooks, manuals, encyclopedias, etc.

Basic Literary Genres • Fiction:

– a made-up or imagined story.

• Non-fiction:

– an account of a subject which is presented as fact. This presentation may be accurate or

not; that is, it can give either a true or a false account of the subject in question. It includes
essays, articles, textbooks, manuals, encyclopedias, etc.

Contemporary Realistic Fiction

• Fiction that takes place in modern times and could actually be true.

Historical Fiction • Fiction that takes place in a different historical time period, includes
historically accurate details and facts, and could actually be true.

Fantasy • Fiction that takes place in an invented world that has different laws of nature.
Some elements include animals that speak, magic, dragons, unicorns, special powers, fairies,
etc.

Science Fiction • Fiction that lies between realistic fiction and pure fantasy. Sci-fi is usually
based on scientific laws, the author’s knowledge of technological possibilities, and the
psychological nature of humans. Some sci-fi involves hard science such as space exploration,
chemistry, or physics, while some sci-fi deals more with futuristic or dystopian societies.

Mystery • Fiction that involves a suspenseful event, often a crime of some type. The reader
uses clues from the story and gradually discovers who has committed the crime to solve the
mystery by the end of the story: Many mysteries include a sleuth, or detective, and a variety of
suspects.

Horror • Horror fiction is a story intended to scare, unsettle, or horrify the audience. It usually

includes a supernatural, morbid, gruesome, surreal, or exceptionally suspenseful or

frightening theme.

• The thriller is characterized by fast pacing, frequent action, and resourceful heroes who
must thwart the plans of more-powerful and better-equipped villains. There can be legal, crime,
psychological, spy, or natural disaster thrillers.

Survival/Adventure • Fiction that includes a character who faces danger and must survive.
The stories are filled with risks, suspenseful scenes, and thrilling moments.

Folk Tale • Folk tales are stories that have been passed down over the years by word of
mouth. Many different cultures have folk tales with similar themes, motifs, and character

types. Fairy tales, fables, tall tales, and myths are different types of folk tales.

Fairy Tale • Fairy Tales are folktales that contain elements such as a “happy ending,” magic,
elements that occur in 3’s such as wishes or siblings, riddles and disguises, and

character types such as the wicked witch, handsome prince, and damsel in distress.Fable
• Fables are brief stories that teach a lesson or moral. The characters are usually animals, but
they are given human characteristics. An example of a fable is

"The Fox and the Grapes.

Myth • Myths are stories that serve to explain some phenomenon of nature, such as creation
of the world, seasons, and weather. Many incorporate gods and goddesses within the story.
Tall Tale • Tall Tales are folktales that have a key element of exaggeration, such as Paul

Bunyan.

Legend • Story, sometimes of a national or folk hero, which has a basis in fact but also

includes imaginative material.

Biography • Non-fiction that chronicles a person’s life story but is written by another
person.

Memoir/Autobiography • Non-fiction account of a person’s life written by that person. It

may include just one important event or it may include an entire life story.

Drama • Fiction or non-fiction stories composed in verse or prose, usually for theatrical
performance, where conflicts and emotion are expressed through dialogue and action.

Most dramas can be classified as comedies or tragedies.

Humor • Fiction or non-fiction full of fun, fancy, and excitement, meant to entertain; but
can be contained in all genres.

Creative nonfiction – Also sometimes called literary nonfiction or narrative nonfiction, it is a

genre of writing that uses literary styles and techniques to create factually

accurate narratives. Creative nonfiction contrasts with other nonfiction, such as technical
writing or journalism, which is also rooted in accurate fact but is not primarily written in service
to its craft. As a genre, creative nonfiction is still relatively young, and is only beginning to be
scrutinized with the same critical analysis given to fiction and poetry.

literary convention – defining features of a particular genre such as a novel, a short story,
or a play.

literary elements – refers to particular identifiable characteristics of a whole text. They

are not “used”, per se, by authors; they represent the elements of storytelling which are
common to all literary and narrative forms. For example, every story has a theme, every story
has a setting, every story has a conflict, every story is written from a particular point of view,
etc. In order to be discussed legitimately as part of a textual analysis, literary elements must be
specifically identified for that particular text.

literary genre – A category of literary composition determined by literary technique, tone,

content, or even (as in the case of fiction) length. The distinctions among genres and
categories are flexible and loosely defined, often with subgroups. The most general genres in
literature are (in loose chronological order) epic, tragedy, comedy, and creative nonfiction.
They can all be in the form of prose or poetry. Additionally, a genre such as satire, allegory or
pastoral might appear in any of the above, not only as a sub-genre, but as a mixture of genres.
Finally, they are defined by the general cultural movement of the historical period in which they
were composed. Genre should not be confused with age categories, by which literature may
be classified as either adult, young adult, or children’s. They also must not be confused with
format, such as graphic novel or picture book.

literary techniques – refers to any specific, deliberate constructions or choices of

language which an author uses to convey meaning in a particular way. An author’s use of a
literary technique usually occurs with a single word or phrase, or a particular group of words or
phrases, at one single point in a text. Unlike literary elements, literary techniques are not
necessarily present in every text; they represent deliberate, conscious choices by individual
authors.

Elements of Fiction
 Author’s Purpose -his or her reason for creating a work. The purpose may be to explain
or inform, entertain, persuade, or reveal an important truth.

Characters-a person who is responsible for the thoughts and actions within a story, poem
or drama

-a person, an animal, or an imaginary creature that takes the part in the action

of the story.

Characterization - a literary element or device that presents a character through

description, action, speech or thoughts, directly or indirectly revealed the techniques an author
uses to develop the personality of a character in a literary work.

An author can give information about a character by describing several aspects of the
character:Characters, continued

– physical appearance and personality

– speech, behavior , and actions

– thoughts and feelings

– interactions with other characters

Character Types-

Protagonist- the main character of the story that is most central to the action of the story.

Antagonist- the person or thing working against the protagonist, or hero, in the story.

Static Characters- characters that stay the same throughout the story.

Dynamic Characters- characters that change and learn something during the story.

Flat – very few personality traits, do not change throughout the story, sometimes can be
symbols or stereotypes

Round –convincing and true to life, many different personality traits, usually undergo a
change during the story

Setting -the time and place in which the action occurs. Look for clues in the opening
paragraphs of the story or novel.setting – the geographic location and time period in which a
story takes place.

Point of View -the perspective or vantage point from which an author presents a story.
point of view – the perspective from which the reader sees or hears what’s going on in the text
as provided by a “lens” through which a narrative is told.

• 1st person- the story is told by one of the characters in the story. The character uses the
pronouns I and we.

• 3rd person- the story is told by the narrator who stands outside of the story and observes
the events as they unfold. The narrator uses the pronouns she, he, and they.

Plot -the action or sequence of events in a story. It is based on a key conflict.

There are five basic parts of plot-Plot, continued

• Exposition- the first part of the story. The author establishes the setting, introduces
characters, gives additional background information.

• Rising Action/Complications- the series of conflicts or struggles that build a story toward
its climax. Tension rises.
 • Climax- the high point, or turning point, of a story. It is the most intense point. A decision
is made that will decide the outcome of the conflict.

• Falling Action- the action that works out the decision arrived at during the climax. The
conflict is –or begins to be –settled.

• Resolution- the ending. It ties up loose ends and brings the story to a close.

Theme – is the central topic or an abstract idea or ideas explored by a literary work.

-the statement about life that the author wants to share with the reader. Often times, the
reader will have to make inferences or reasonable guesses as to

the theme of the story. Helpful hint- Ask yourself what lesson the main character learned
in the story?

symbol– is a person, place or thing that represents an abstract idea or concept that stands
for something beyond itself.

symbolism – is the use of animals, elements, things, place or colors to represent other
things.An image/object in a story that is used repeatedly and carries a deeper meaning.

Universal Symbols:

water = purity

black clouds = evil approaching

Literary Genres• The category or type of literature, music,

art, TV show, movie, video game, etc.

Basic Literary Genres •

Fiction: – a made-up or imagined story.

Fiction works include made-up characters, and a made-up series of events, called the
plot.Fictional writing is told (narrated) by a speaker called the narrator.Fiction is told from a
certain perspective, or point of view.First-person point of view is the perspective of a character
in the story.Third-person point of view is the perspective of a narrator outside the story.

Works of fiction often include a theme, or message, about life.

• Non-fiction: - Nonfiction deals only with real people, events, or ideas.

Narrated from the point of view, or perspective, of the author, who is a real person.

Nonfiction presents facts or discusses concepts. It may reflect the historical context of the
time period, including references to major social and cultural information

– an account of a subject which is presented as fact. This presentation may be accurate or

not; that is, it can give either a true or a false account of the subject in question. It includes
essays, articles, textbooks, manuals, encyclopedias, etc.

Biographies- tell the story of someone’s life from the perspective of another writer

Autobiographies- tell the story of the author’s life and reflect the writer’s thoughts and
feelings about events.

Letters- are written forms of communication from one person to another.

Journals & Diaries- records of daily events and writer’s thoughts & feelings about them.
Can be private or public.
 Essays & articles- brief written works about a specific topic. Purpose might be to explain,
persuade, or inform.

Informational Texts- written documents such as textbooks, applications, instructions, and

articles.

What is Non-Fiction?

Writing that deals with real events and people. Characters, settings, and events must
conform to what is true. Can the story be modified by the author? Story cannot be
manipulated by the writer’s imagination.The some of the different types of non fiction texts
are:

• Autobiography

• Biography

• Essay

• Oration or Speech

• Diary

• Newspaper stories

• Magazine articles.

What is an autobiography? A chronological, narrative account of the author’s life

related to crucial historical events.

– Auto = self

– Graphia = writingWhat does the author of an autobiography want to share?

The author offers a personal evaluation of actions and speculates on the significance
of certain actions and events.

What is biography? A biography is a story of another person’s life. What is a biography

based on? The writer bases the report on records of what the person did and said.

– Bios = life

– Graphia = writing

What does the author of a biography want to share?

The author makes an honest effort to interpret the life in order to offer a

unified impression of the character, mind and personality of the subject. What does the
author of a biography focus on when writing?

The author focuses on the person’s character, career, place in

history, and the uniqueness of the character’s experience.

What is an essay? A brief examination of a subject in prose, usually expressing a

personal or limited view of the topic.

What is an oration or speech? A formal speech intended to inspire some action. This type

of text is carefully prepared. What is the greatest power of a

 speech? A speech is delivered in an impassioned manner, and carries its greatest
power in its emotional appeal.What is included in a diary? • A day by day record of a
person’s activities or thoughts. • A diary is meant for the writer alone.

What are the main purposes of Non-fiction?

• To entertain

• To inform

• To explain

• To persuade

List of Literary Techniques

Technique Description

Allusion A reference to a recognized literary work, person, historic event, artistic

achievement, etc. that enhances the meaning of a detail in a literary work.

Climax The crisis or high point of tension that becomes the story’s turning point—the point
at which the outcome of the conflict is determined.

Conflict The struggle that shapes the plot in a story.

Dramatic irony When the reader or audience knows more about the action than the
character involved.

Epiphany A profound and sudden personal discovery.

Exposition Setting and essential background information presented at the beginning of a

story or play.

Falling action A reduction in intensity following the climax in a story or play, allowing the
various complications to be worked out.

Fate An outside source that determines human events.

Figurative language Language used in a non-literal way to convey images and

ideas.

Figures of speech The main tools of figurative language; include similes and

metaphors..

First-person point of view Occurs when the narrator is a character in the story and

tells the story from his or her perspective.

Flashback The description of an event that occurred prior to the action in the story.

Foreshadowing A technique a writer uses to hint or suggest what the outcome of an

important conflict or situation in a narrative will be.

Imagery A distinct representation of something that can be experienced and understood

through the senses (sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste), or the representation of an idea.

Irony A contradiction in words or actions. There are three types of irony: verbal, situational,
and dramatic.

Limited omniscient point of view - Occurs when a narrator has access to the thoughts and

feelings of only one character in a story.

 Metaphor A figure of speech in which an implied comparison is made between one object
and another that is different from it.

Objective point of view - A detached point of view, evident when an external narrator does
not enter into the mind of any character in a story but takes an objective stance, often to create
a dramatic effect.

Omniscient point of view An all-knowing point of view, evident when an external narrator
has access to the thoughts and feelings of all the characters in a story.

Persona Literally, in Latin, “a mask.”

Plot A connecting element in fiction; a sequence of interrelated, conflicting actions and

events that typically build to a climax and bring about a resolution

Point of view The perspective of the narrator who will present the action to the reader.

Resolution The outcome of the action in a story or play.

Rising action Conflicts and circumstances that build to a high point of

tension in a story or play.

Situational irony When the outcome in a situation is the opposite of what is

expected.

Simile A figure of speech that compares two objects or ideas that are not ordinarily
considered to be similar, linked by using like or as.

Song A lyrical musical expression, a source of emotional outlet common in ancient

communities and still influential in contemporary culture.

Symbol An object, person, or action that conveys two meanings: its literal meaning and
something it stands for.

Third-person point of view Occurs when the narrator tells the story using third-person
pronouns (he, she, they) to refer to the characters.

Tone In a literary work, the speaker’s attitude toward the reader

or the subject.

Verbal irony When words are used to convey a meaning that is opposite

of their literal meaning.

Fiction works include made-up characters, and a made-up series of events, called the
plot.Fictional writing is told (narrated) by a speaker called the narrator.Fiction is told from a
certain perspective, or point of view.First-person point of view is the perspective of a character
in the story.Third-person point of view is the perspective of a narrator outside the story.Works
of fiction often include a theme, or message, about life.

TYPE OF FICTION

Novels- long works of fiction.

Elements included- characters, plot, conflict, and setting.

In addition to the main plot a novel may contain one or more subplots, or independent
related stories.

Novellas- shorter than novels but longer than short stories

Short Stories- brief works of fiction.

Same elements as novels and novellas but tend to focus on one main plot with a single
confliElements for Analyzing Fiction RS4.10

Learning Centre

Elements for Analyzing Fiction

Authors use various literary devices to develop ideas in their work. These devices are

analyzed by academics in order to understand fiction. This handout explains some of

the most commonly used literary elements and suggests strategies for using them to

analyze fiction.

The devices explored in this handout are: plot, point of view, setting, character, imagery,

symbolism, irony, and foreshadowing. As you read literature, watch for how these

various elements are used.

Plot

Plot is the sequence of events and ideas that occur in the story and how the ways those

events relate to one another. These events are presented to the reader to show

relationships and meanings.

Stories often follow a pattern something like this:

1. An opening introduces the situation.

2. Complications occur usually based on some kind of conflict – a struggle between

two or more people, ideas or forces. Conflicts can be:

a. a struggle between a person and another person

b. a struggle between a person and the environment (society or nature)

c. a struggle within a person

The development of these complications is often called rising action.

3. The conflict or conflicts reach a height of tension called the climax.

4. Things then settle down to a stable situation. This stage can be called the

denouement, resolution or falling action. It is usually quite short.

A typical plot follows time order. However, many plots have less predictable structure.

For example, some plots start with falling action and then jump to the introduction;

others jump around in time. The author’s choice of structure can affect the meaning of

the story and the impact it has on the reader.

To analyze plot and story structure, it can be helpful to take note of the main series of

events in the story including any conflicts that occur. After recording the bare bones of

the sequence of events, you can look over these events and reflect on why these key

J.Robinson/2006

1Elements for Analyzing Fiction RS4.10

J.Robinson/2006

elements occur as they do in the story. This can help you to get a deeper understanding

of the story’s meanings.

Questions to consider:

Can you divide the story into an opening, complications, climax and

denouement?

What is the series of events in the plot?

Why do you think the author chose these events?

Is the plot told in time order or does it follow a less predictable order? How does

the choice of order affect the impact and meaning of the story?

How would the impact of the story change if you changed the order of events?

How would the impact of the story change if an event was left out or changed?

What kinds of conflicts can you see in the story?

What conflicts, if any, occur within the main character?

Point of View

Point of view refers to the narrator or teller of the story. Two main types of narrator are

the first person narrator and the third person narrator.

First Person Narrator

Also called a participant narrator, the first person narrator is a character in the story.

You can identify a story told in the first person if the narrator uses “I” in telling the story.

The story is told from that person’s point of view and only shows the reader what that

character sees, hears and thinks. So, first person narrators cannot generally tell about

thoughts and actions that are out of sight of their character. The character of the

narrator influences what is told and how it is told.

Third Person Narrator

The third person narrator is not a character in the story. In some ways, this type of

narrator is invisible. However, a third person narrator can be used to create a tone. For

example, the way the narrator tells the story may create an ominous, matter-of-fact,

dreamy, preachy or suspenseful tone.

There are various kinds of third person narrator:

- The omniscient (or all knowing) narrator.

o This narrator knows the thoughts and feelings of all the characters in the

story.
- The limited omniscient narrator.

o This narrator only knows the thoughts and feelings of one or a few

characters.

- The self-effaced narrator. Elements for Analyzing Fiction RS4.10

J.Robinson/2006

o This narrator does not seem to exist and does not report on the thoughts

or feelings of any characters. The story is told from an objective point of

view where the narrator simply reports the series of events.

To explore the point of view of a story, consider:

Who is telling the story? Is the narrator a character in the story?

What does the narrator know about the characters in the story?

Why do you think the author chose this point of view? How does the choice of

point of view affect the meaning of the story?

Think about how the story might be different if the author had chosen a different

narrator. Try rewriting a piece of the story to see how the story could change if

told from a different point of view.

Setting

The setting refers to where and when a story takes place. The setting includes:

Physical environment

- This includes the geographic location (e.g. country, city), the natural

environment (e.g. a forest, mountain top or desert), buildings, furniture,

clothes, sounds, smells and weather.

Social environment

- This includes manners, customs, social class and atmosphere or mood.

Time

- This includes time of day, season, year and historical era.

The setting is very important to the story. Authors use setting to develop themes,

character and plot. Thinking about the setting/s can help you to get more insight into the

underlying meanings of the story.

To analyze setting, consider:

What is the significance of the place and time for the ideas in the story?

Does the author create a strong sense of place? How?

How do the settings in the story relate to the characters and the plot of the
story? (For example, does a character’s home give you insights into the

character?)

How would the story be different if you removed descriptions of time and

place?

How would the story be different if you changed the time and place?

Character

Characters are the actors in stories. Characters may also include people and animals or

objects that are given human traits. A character is defined by appearance, behaviour,

emotions, intellect, values and morals.Elements for Analyzing Fiction RS4.10

J.Robinson/2006

Authors can show these aspects of a character through:

- what the character says

- what the character thinks

- what the character does

- how the character reacts to other characters

- how other characters react to the character

- what other characters say about the character

- what the character looks like

- the setting in which the character is found

Most stories have at least one central character. A central character can be referred to

as a main or major character, a hero or heroine, or the protagonist. Another type of

character is the antagonist. The antagonist is in some kind of conflict with the main

character. Stories also often have minor characters. Minor characters are not the focus

of the story but they are often important to the story’s development.

To analyze character in a story, first consider who are the central and minor characters.

Is there an antagonist? To analyze a specific character, consider:

What does the person say and do? What kinds of language does the

character use? What does this tell you about their attitudes, values and

motivation?

What do other characters say or think about the character?

How do other characters react to the character?

What does the character look like? Consider face, body and clothing.

What choices does the character make?

 How does the character change?

What conflicts does the character experience?

What are the strengths and weaknesses of the character?

How is the character different from and similar to other characters?

Imagery

Imagery is the way authors create pictures, or images, in readers’ minds. Through the

creation of these images, the author often gives clues to deeper meanings of the story.

The passage below by Jane Urquhart, from her novel A Map of Glass, shows examples

of several kinds of imagery:

In order to reach the front door she had to pass through the dining

room, and as she did so she recalled that in the late afternoon, while the

rest of the house darkened, the low light entering the room from the

west window always caused the large oval of the table to shine like a

lake, a lake with two silver candlesticks floating on its surface. She had

watched this happen almost every day of her life, as long as she could

remember, and it would continue to happen when she was not there: an Elements for
Analyzing Fiction RS4.10

abandoned table gathering light and her far away, not witnessing the

ceremony. (36)

Strategies used to create imagery include:

Appeals to the senses (sight, sound, smell, touch and taste).

In the excerpt above, Urquhart uses the sense of sight, discussing both the light

and the look of the table – she paints a picture with her words.

Use of figurative language

a. Simile – a comparison of two quite different things using like or as.

In the excerpt, Urquhart uses a simile to compare the appearance of the

table with the appearance of a lake: “the west window always caused the

large oval of the table to shine like a lake”.

b. Metaphor – an implied comparison of two quite different things (no like or as).

c. Personification – giving human qualities to something that’s not human.

In the excerpt, Urquhart personifies the table by describing the way it

gathers light as “a ceremony”. A ceremony is generally conducted by

humans.

As you read a story, watch for uses of the senses and figurative language that create

vivid images in your mind. Mark those passages for later analysis.
To analyze imagery, consider:

What especially strong images does the author use?

Why does the author emphasize those particular images?

Are there patterns in the use of imagery in the story such as repetition of

similar images or contrasting images? What do those patterns suggest about

deeper meanings of the story?

How does the imagery affect the mood of the story?

What issues does the imagery raise or emphasize in the story?

Are there changes in kinds of imagery as the story progresses? What does

this tell you about other changes that take place in the story?

Symbolism

Symbolism is when the author uses something (often a concrete object) to represent

something else (often an abstract idea or emotion). Writers generally use symbols to

express multiple meanings.

Symbolism can be based on:

Literal meanings – based on the dictionary definition/s of a word

J.Robinson/2006

5Elements for Analyzing Fiction RS4.10

Cultural meanings – based on shared understandings of people in one or more cultures

– e.g. a rose stands for beauty

Context-specific meanings –the context of the story gives the object symbolic meaning

It can be useful to think about symbolism as a series of layers. In the following excerpt

from A Map of Glass, Jane Urquhart uses a “cloak” as a symbol:

As she emerged into the light and descended the stone stairs she was aware of

two things: the sound of Malcolm’s footsteps beside her and the dependency

descending on her like a familiar cloak over her spirit. There was warmth in the

cloak, but it felt wrong for this season. She knew that from now on there would be

moments when she would want to remove it from her shoulders. (306-307)

A variety of meanings can be included in the reader’s understanding of Urquhart’s

“cloak”:

A cloak is like a coat, it keeps you warm, but sometimes too warm. A cloak can

also hide what is underneath and even restrict the wearer’s movement. In this

context, it is a cloak of “dependency”. This cloak is hiding her spirit but also

possibly restricting it. It seems that this cloak can be a burden and that she may
be outgrowing it.

Symbolism can create rich meanings with many layers for readers who take the time to

explore the depths of possible meanings included in a symbol.

To analyze symbolism, watch out for interesting choices of words or imagery that you

think could imply deeper meanings. Then, consider:

What is the literal meaning of the word or object?

What characteristics does that object have?

What other meanings does the word have? Look it up in a dictionary.

Does the object have symbolic meaning in the culture of the author or the culture

of the setting?

Is this symbol used repeatedly through the story, or does it just occur once?

What ideas does the story give you about possible meanings the author may

include in the use of the symbol? Notice above in the Urquhart example that,

even in this short segment, the author gives indications that a cloak is not

necessarily a good thing, that it can relate to dependency and that she doesn’t

always want it anymore.

Are other related symbols used? For example, are various foods used to

symbolize different things or are objects in nature used as symbols repeatedly?

Irony

Irony is when there is a surprising or meaningful difference between what seems to be

true and what is really true or between what is expected to happen and what actually

J.Robinson/2006

6Elements for Analyzing Fiction RS4.10

happens. Sometimes the irony is clear to characters; other times the irony is only clear

to the reader.

An example of irony can be found in Margaret Laurence’s book A Jest of God. In the

story, the main character thinks she is pregnant. Ironically, she discovers that her

suspected pregnancy is actually a tumour. This creates an especially strong irony

because pregnancy can symbolize life and a tumour can symbolize death. Thus, there

is a large gap between what seems to be true and what is true.

There are many specific types of irony. These two are the most common:

Verbal irony is when there is a gap between what a speaker says and what

the speaker means. This can include sarcasm as well as understatement or

overstatement of the truth.

 Situational irony is when there is a gap between what happens and what a

reader or character hopes for or expects to happen. The Margaret Laurence

example above is situational irony.

The gap created by irony needs to be significant. Mere lies or exaggeration do not

necessarily indicate meaningful irony. The reader needs to interpret irony in the context

of the underlying meanings of the story. In the Margaret Laurence example, the gap

between truth and expectation contributes to a broader theme related to life and death.

Thus, the gap is a significant one that helps the reader to understand underlying

meanings of the story.

To analyze irony:

Identify any differences between what is expected to happen and what actually

happens.

Identify any differences between what a speaker says and what the speaker

means.

Who is aware of these differences? The reader only? Any of the characters? All

of the characters?

Consider what the author might have intended by including these differences. Do

they suggest underlying meanings?

Do the differences form a pattern? For example, are there repeated uses of

similar types of gaps? Are some characters repeatedly aware of the gaps while

others are unaware? What do such patterns suggest about underlying meanings

of the story?

Foreshadowing

Foreshadowing is when an author gives hints earlier in a story about what is going to

happen later in the story. Hints can be in things people say, think or do, or they can be

in the setting, characters, events, descriptions or even titles, chapter headings or

graphics.

J.Robinson/2006

7Elements for Analyzing Fiction RS4.10

Readers sometimes recognize foreshadowing when they first read a story but often the

foreshadowing is not fully apparent until the reader gets to the part of the story that has

been foreshadowed. Then readers often remember things from earlier in the story that

hinted at what was to come. Frequently, when a reader gets to the foreshadowed part, it

is not entirely a surprise. The foreshadowing has prepared the reader for what happens.
Foreshadowing can create suspense, tension, excitement or fear. It can add importance

to events. It can also subtly introduce underlying meanings or establish key aspects of

character and setting.

An example of foreshadowing occurs in the first chapter of The Stone Diaries by Carol

Shields, titled “Birth, 1905”. The narrator tells about an obese woman and relates how

lately the woman has always been hungry and has experienced indigestion. The woman

takes various home remedies to try to cure her indigestion. Then the narrator tells about

how one day the woman begins to experience strong abdominal pains. The woman

does not know what is wrong with her. The narrator also mentions that this day is the

day of the narrator’s “own birth” (9). As the chapter progresses, the reader realizes that

the woman is actually giving birth to the narrator. The foreshadowing in this chapter not

only creates suspense; it also gives the reader insight into the character of the mother

and her situation in life.

To explore foreshadowing, once you have finished the book, think about events that you

feel were foreshadowed. Make note of any foreshadowing you can remember. Re-read

the book and note any further foreshadowing that you did not remember after the first

reading. Then consider these questions:

Why do you think the author chose to foreshadow the event?

What kinds of hints did the author give of the event that was to come? Do the

hints form patterns?

Why do you think the author used those elements to foreshadow the event?

What deeper meanings did the author show you through the foreshadowing?

How did the foreshadowing make you feel?

How would the impact of the story change if the foreshadowing were deleted?

Works Cited

Laurence, Margaret. A Jest of God. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970.

Shields, Carol. The Stone Diaries. Toronto: Vintage Books, 1993.

Urquhart, Jane. A Map of Glass. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 2005.

Other Sources of Information about Analyzing Literature

If you want more information about elements for analyzing literature, consult the XE

section on the book shelf in the Learning Centre.

J.Robinson/2006

ct.
LITERARY GENRES

OVERVIEW OF

FICTION

Presented By : St. Choironnisak Ashari FICTION DEFINED

• FICTION < A LATIN WORD MEAN-ING TO

FORM OR TO MAKE.FICTION DEFINED (cont.)

• A FICTION IS A “MADE” STORY, AN

IMAGINED & INVENTED LITERARY

COMPOSITION DESIGNED TO ENTER-TAIN

(AND SOMETIMES INSTRUCT), TO MAKE

READERS FEEL AND THINK.FICTION DEFINED (cont.)

• TODAY THE TERM “FICTION” IS USUALLY

APPLIED ONLY TO SHORT STORIES, NOVELS,

& NOVELLAS, BUT OTHER LITERARY FORMS

ALSO HAVE FICTIONAL ELEMENTS.ANTIQUITY OF STORIES

• STORIES ARE A VERY ANCIENT HUMAN PRODUCT,

PRECEDING THE INVENTION OF WRITING, AND

THERE IS NO IDENTI-FIABLE “FIRST” STORYTELLER

OR WORK OF FICTION.EARLY FORMS OF FICTION

• THE MODERN NOVEL & SHORT STORY WERE

PRECEDED BY MANY EARLIER FORMS OF FICTION,

SUCH AS MYTHS, LEGENDS, FABLES, FAIRY TALES,

PAR-ABLES, AND ALLEGORIES. MYTHS

• TELL STORIES OF THE ORIGINS &

EXPLOITS OF GODS & GODDESSES FROM

VARIOUS ANCIENT CULTURES, SUCH AS

GREECE, ROME, & SCANDI-NAVIA. In 1687 in Connecticut,

Kit Tyler, feeling out

of place in the Puritan

household of her aunt,

befriends an old

woman considered a

witch by the

community and
suddenly finds herself

standing trial for

witchcraft.LEGENDS

• RECOUNT THE AMAZING ACHIEVE-MENTS OF

FICTIONAL CHARACTERS OR EXAGGERATE THE

EXPLOITS OF ACTUAL PEOPLE (E.G., PAUL BUNYAN). While her father is in

hiding after attempts on

his life, twelve-year-old

Cleopatra records in her

diary how she fears for

her own safety and hopes

to survive to become

Queen of Egypt some

dayFABLES

• USUALLY FEATURE ANIMALS WITH HUMAN TRAITS &

STATE AN EXPLICIT LESSON (E.G., SLOW BUT

STEADY WINS THE RACE, APPEARANCES ARE

DECEP-TIVE, ONE GOOD TURN DESERVES

ANOTHER).FABLES (cont.)

• THE BEST-KNOWN

FABLES WERE WRIT

TEN BY A GREEK SLAVE

NAMED AESOP (600

B.C.E.), AND INCLUDE

STORIES SUCH AS

ANDROCLES & THE

LION, THE TORTOISE &

THE HARE, AND THE

WOLF IN SHEEP’S

CLOTHING.FAIRY TALES

• THIS FICTIONAL FORM OFTEN FEATURES

SUPERNATURAL BEINGS LIKE GIANTS, TROLLS,

& FAIRY GOD-MOTHERS.

• THEY ALSO FOCUS ON THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN

GOOD & EVIL, WITH GOOD ALWAYS

TRIUMPHING, THOUGH SOMETIMES IN

GROTESQUE, VIOLENT WAYS.FAIRY TALES (cont.)

• THE BEST-KNOWN

COLLECTION OF THESE

STORIES IS GRIMMS’

FAIRY TALES, WHICH

INCLUDES CINDERELLA,

LITTLE RED RIDING

HOOD, HANSEL &

GRETEL, RAPUNZEL,

AND OTHER WELL

KNOWN FAVORITES.ALLEGORIES

• SYMBOLIC STORIES THAT TEACH A MORAL

LESSON AND IN WHICH EACH CHARACTER,

ACTION, & SETTING STANDS FOR A SPECIFIC

MEANING. ALLEGORIES (cont.)

• EX.: JOHN BUNYAN’S PILGRIM’S

PROGRESS (1678), IN WHICH A

CHARACTER NAMED CHRISTIAN,

WHO EMBODIES THE VIRTUES OF

CHRISTIANITY, JOURNEYS

THROUGH A WORLD OF

TEMPTATIONS & DANGERS (CITY

OF DESTRUCTION, VALLEY OF

HUMILIA-TION, ETC.) EN ROUTE

TO THE CELESTIAL CITY

(HEAVEN).CHARACTER

The people or animals

that take part in the

story.

MAIN CHARACTER:

who the story is

mainly about
MINOR CHARACTER:

the less important

characters in the storyPROTAGONIST

The HERO of the story

who is faced with a

conflict (usually the

main character).ANTAGONIST

• Usually the villain

in the story (the

person, animal, or

creature who

creates conflict

for the main

character).SETTING

• When and Where the action in the story

takes place. PLOT

• The plot is the outline of events that

takes place in a story.CONFLICT

A fight or difference in

opinion.

1. INTERNAL CONFLICT

• Takes place within a

character’s mind.

2. EXTERNAL CONFLICT

• The character struggles

with an outside force.Climax

• Climax is the high point or most

emotional part of the plot. Resolution

Resolution is the

conclusion of the

story.

The reader finds out

how the conflict has

been resolved and

what happens with the

characters. WHAT IS THEME?????

The THEME is the idea

about life that is revealed

in the storyPOINT OF VIEW

The vantage point from which a story is told.

1st person

• the writer uses first-person pronouns (I or me) to tell

the story.

3rd person

• narrator describes the events, but does not take part in

them.

rd

person omniscient

• the narrator knows everything; encompassing.Foreshadowing

• A writers way of hinting at what will come in the

story.

• A reader can make predictions based on the

information given.Author’s Purpose

Authors have a purpose in mind when

writing: entertain, debate, analyze,

persuade, inform, etc.

They consider their audience when

deciding on a subject, purpose for writing,

and the tone and style in which to write.Dialogue

• The words that

characters speak aloud

Tone

Shows the writer’s attitude toward his or her

subject (humorous, serious, impatient, sad, etc.)Symbolism

• Something concrete—such as a person,

place, or object—that signifies something

more than just itself, something abstract,

such as a concept or an idea. REALISTIC FICTION

• A story that tells

about characters

and events that are

similar to people

and animals in real

life.SCIENCE FICTION

• A story that is set

in the future and

is based on

scientific ideas.HISTORICAL FICTION

• A story that is set in the past

and portrays people, places, and

events that did or could have

happened.

FANTASY A story that is not realistic,

sometimes the characters have

magical or supernatural

powers.