Business Law

Submitted To:-
Miss Khushbakht Qaiser
Submitted By:
A.LLM 010149016 Muhammad Safeer Ul Haq Chaudhry
LLM, 2nd Semester.

Post Graduate Institute of Law

CHAPTER NO.01: TYPES OF RESEARCH
Topic 1: Various Types of research

a) Fundamental or Basic research

b) Appiled research

c) Normal and Revolutionary researches

d) Quantitative & Qualitative

e) Others Types

Introduction:-

The systematic investigation into a study materials and sources in order to

establish facts and research conclusions. Research comprises "creative and systematic work
undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of humans, culture and
society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications."[1] It is used to
establish or confirm facts, reaffirm the results of previous work, solve new or existing
problems, support theorems, or develop new theories. A research project may also be an
expansion on past work in the field. Research projects can be used to develop further
knowledge on a topic, or in the example of a school research project, they can be used to
further a student's research prowess to prepare them for future jobs or reports. To test the
validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior
projects or the project as a whole.

Definition:-

Define research as “The systematic investigation into a study materials and sources in
order establish facts and research conclusions” or

“Investigation systematically”

Types of Research:-

There are the following types of research.

a) Fundamential or Basic Research:-

It cover fundamental aspect of research or commercial

research. Fundamental research, also known as basic research or pure research does not
usually generate findings that have immediate applications in a practical level. Fundamental
research is driven by curiosity and the desire to expand knowledge in specific research area.
This type of research makes a specific contribution to the academic body of knowledge in the
research area.
Fundamental studies tend to make generalizations about the phenomenon, and the philosophy
of this type of studies can be explained as ‘gathering knowledge for the sake of knowledge’.
Fundamental researches mainly aim to answer the questions of why, what or how and they
tend to contribute the pool of fundamental knowledge in the research area.

Examples of Fundamental or Basic research

1) A critical analysis of product placement as an effective marketing strategy

2) An investigation into the main elements of brands and branding

3) A study of factors impacting each stage of product life cycle etc.

b)Applied Research:

Aims at findings a solution for an immediate problem facing a society

or an industrial / business organization. Applied research focus on analyzing real problem or
solve these problem (research and cure). Examples of applied research

1) Interventions for specific child behaviors

2) Ways to market products

3) How to reverse or manage global warming

4) What is causing increased poverty?

5) How would the legalization of some drugs affect various groups within society? Etc.

c) Normal & Revolutionary Researches:

Normal research: Performed in accordance with

a set of rules, concepts and procedures called a "paradigm".o Well accepted by the scientists
working in that field.

When unexpected results and discoveries are realized which are inconsistent with the existing
paradigm.

Which increases in intensity until a scientific revolution is reached.

d) Quantitative & qualitative:

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity

or amount. It applicable to phenomena that can expressed in term of quantity.

Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomena i.e phenomena relating to or

involving quantity or kind.

e) Other Types:-

1) Problem oriented research

2) Descriptive Research

3) Analytical Research

4) Conceptual Research

5) Empirical Research

Conclusion:-

To conclude at the end that research is systematic investigation of sources and

materials to find solution of problems. There are many types discussed above.

Q:- Difference between research methods and research methodology?

Introduction:-

All those tools methods and techniques or procedure are known as research
methods and system of solving problems are known as research methodology.

Research can be understood as the systematic and rigorous search for appropriate information
on a specific subject. It involves enunciation of the problem, developing a hypothesis,
collecting and analyzing data and drawing conclusions, based on the facts and data collected.
And to do so, the researcher uses research methods, during the course of conducting research.

The research methods are often confused with research methodology, which implies the
scientific analysis of the research methods, so as to find a solution to the problem at hand.
Hence, it seems apt to clarify the differences between research method and research
methodology at this juncture, have a look.

Definition:-

Research Methods:- All those tools methods and techniques or procedures are called
research methods.

Research Methodology: Research methodology is a way to systematically solve research

problem. All those methods included in research Methodology.

Difference between Research Methods & Research Methodology:-

There are the following key Difference between research methodology and research methods:

1) The research method is defined as the procedure or technique applied by the researcher to
undertake research. On the other hand, research methodology is a system of methods, used
scientifically for solving the research problem.
2) The research method is nothing but the behavior or tool, employed in selecting and
building research technique. Conversely, research methodology implies the science of
analyzing, the manner in which research is conducted appropriately.

3) The research method is concerned with carrying out experiment, test, surveys, interviews,
etc. As against this, research methodology is concerned with learning various techniques,
which can be employed in the performance of experiment, test or survey.

4) Research method covers various investigation techniques. Unlike, research methodology,

which consists of complete approach aligned towards the attainment of purpose.

5) Research method intends to discover the solution to the problem at hand. In contrast,
research methodology aspires to apply appropriate procedures, with a view to ascertaining
solutions.

Conclusion

The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research method, as the latter is the
part of the former. For understanding the research problem thoroughly, the researcher should
know the research methodology along with the methods.

Q: Significance of knowing and research methodology?

Planning is essential when it comes to a new business as I'm sure you're aware with having to
produce your business plan but have you really done enough? There isn't really a concept of
too much research; the more you do the better. The more you know about the business
industry that you are going into and the type of people that will use your business you more
chance you are giving yourself of being a success.

Good business planning is the ability to assess your strengths and weaknesses, good
marketing is the ability to identify the selling points for your products and good sales skills is
the ability to know who your target market is and being able to sell your product to them.

Many businesses fail because they have not spent enough time researching their business idea
and how they fit into the market with it. How much market research you carry out depends on
the time and funds that you have to do so. There are many ways in which you can do this
such as look at aspects that have and haven't worked previously in the industry you want to
start business in. monitor your competitors progress; by doing this you will get an idea of the
sort of business practices that work and the ones that don't so you know which ones to apply
to your business. You can also ask customers who use your area of business what
improvements they would like to see and how the industry could be bettered.

As well as finding out about your industry and what people think of the current state of the
industry you also need to research and figure out how your business is going to fit into the
industry and what unique features and offers you can present to possible customers to make
them use your business over the competitors. Examples of how you can establish this are:

• Does your product or service satisfy or create a market need?

• Can you identify potential customers?

• Will your product or service outlive any passing trends or capitalize on the trend before it
dies away?

• Is your product or service unique, distinct or superior to those offered by competitors?

• What competition will your product or service face - locally, nationally and globally?

• Is the product safe?

• Does your product or service comply with relevant regulations and legislation?

• Can you sell the product or service at a price that will give you sufficient profit?

There are a lot of considerations that you need to think about when starting up your own
business, which is why research is so important, you need to understand every aspect of your
industry and every aspect that you want to achieve with your business; the easiest and most
reliable way in which you can achieve this is by thoroughly researching into your business
idea to ensure that you have every possibility sorted.

Q Objectives of Research
What are the research objectives?

In general, research objectives describe what we expect to achieve by a project.

Research objectives are usually expressed in lay terms and are directed as much to the client
as to the researcher. Research objectives may be linked with a hypothesis or used as a
statement of purpose in a study that does not have a hypothesis.

Even if the nature of the research has not been clear to the layperson from the hypotheses,
s/he should be able to understand the research from the objectives.

A statement of research objectives can serve to guide the activities of research. Consider the
following examples.

Objective: To describe what factors farmers take into account in making such decisions as
whether to adopt a new technology or what crops to grow.

Objective: To develop a budget for reducing pollution by a particular enterprise.

Objective: To describe the habitat of the giant panda in China.

In the above examples the intent of the research is largely descriptive.

In the case of the first example, the research will end the study by being able to specify
factors which emerged in household decisions.

In the second, the result will be the specification of a pollution reduction budget.
In the third, creating a picture of the habitat of the giant panda in China.

These observations might prompt researchers to formulate hypotheses which could be tested
in another piece of research. So long as the aim of the research is exploratory, ie to describe
what is, rather than to test an explanation for what is, a research objective will provide an
adequate guide to the research.

Chapter 2: Basic Steps for a Good Research

1) Basic steps for a good research.
a) Identifying a research problem:-

1) Some issue or problem that needs to be solved.

2) You will state the problem in the introductory section of your paper and state
the rationale for their importance.

b) Literature Review:-

A literature Review is both a summery and explanation of the complete and current
state of knowledge on a limited topic as found in academic books and journal articles.

c) Specifying a Purpose for a Research:-

1) Identify the major purpose or objective for study

2) What do you intend to do with the findings?

d) Collection of data:-

1) Identifying and selecting the individuals for study.

2) Gathering information by questions or observing behavior.

Modes for collection of data:

1) Observation

2) Interview

3) Questionnaire

4) Database

e) Analyzing and Interpreting the Data:-

1) Drawing Conclusions

2) Representing Information
3) Explaining the Findings

f) Reporting & Evaluating:

1) Structuring the report

2) Presenting the report

3) Submitting to standards of evaluating.

Conclusion:-

At the i can conclude that there are 6 basic steps for good research. That following these step
their researcher makes a good research.

Q:- Literature Review? Its role in a good research?

Definition:

A literature review is both a summary and explanation of the complete and current state of
knowledge on a limited topic as found in academic books and journal articles. There are two
kinds of literature reviews you might write at university: one that students are asked to write
as a stand-alone assignment in a course, often as part of their training in the research
processes in their field, and the other that is written as part of an introduction to, or
preparation for, a longer work, usually a thesis or research report. The focus and perspective
of your review and the kind of hypothesis or thesis argument you make will be determined by
what kind of review you are writing. One way to understand the differences between these
two types is to read published literature reviews or the first chapters of theses and
dissertations in your own subject area. Analyze the structure of their arguments and note the
way they address the issues.

Purpose of the Literature Review

It gives readers easy access to research on a particular topic by selecting high quality articles
or studies that are relevant, meaningful, important and valid and summarizing them into one
complete report

It provides an excellent starting point for researchers beginning to do research in a new area
by forcing them to summarize, evaluate, and compare original research in that specific area

It ensures that researchers do not duplicate work that has already been done

It can provide clues as to where future research is heading or recommend areas on which to
focus

It highlights key findings

It identifies inconsistencies, gaps and contradictions in the literature

It provides a constructive analysis of the methodologies and approaches of other researchers

Content of the Review
Introduction

The introduction explains the focus and establishes the importance of the subject. It discusses
what kind of work has been done on the topic and identifies any controversies within the field
or any recent research, which has raised questions about earlier assumptions. It may provide
background or history. It concludes with a purpose or thesis statement. In a stand-alone
literature review, this statement will sum up and evaluate the state of the art in this field of
research; in a review that is an introduction or preparatory to a thesis or research report, it
will suggest how the review findings will lead to the research the writer proposes to
undertake.

Body

Often divided by headings/subheadings, the body summarizes and evaluates the current state
of knowledge in the field. It notes major themes or topics, the most important trends, and any
findings about which researchers agree or disagree. If the review is preliminary to your own
thesis or research project, its purpose is to make an argument that will justify your proposed
research. Therefore, it will discuss only that research which leads directly to your own
project.

Conclusion

The conclusion summarizes all the evidence presented and shows its significance. If the
review is an introduction to your own research, it highlights gaps and indicates how previous
research leads to your own research project and chosen methodology. If the review is a stand-
alone assignment for a course, it should suggest any practical applications of the research as
well as the implications and possibilities for future research.

Nine Steps To Writing A Literature Review

1. Find a Working Topic

Look at your specific area of study. Think about what interests you, and what fertile ground
for study is. Talk to your professor, brainstorm, and read lecture notes and recent issues of
periodicals in the field.

2. Review the Literature

Using keywords, search a computer database. It is best to use at least two databases relevant
to your discipline

Remember that the reference lists of recent articles and reviews can lead to valuable papers

Make certain that you also include any studies contrary to your point of view

3. Focus Your Topic Narrowly and Select Papers Accordingly

Consider the following:

What interests you?

What interests others?

What time span of research will you consider?

Choose an area of research that is due for a review.

4. Read the Selected Articles Thoroughly and Evaluate Them

What assumptions do most/some researchers seem to be making?

What methodologies do they use? what testing procedures, subjects, material tested?

Evaluate and synthesize the research findings and conclusions drawn

Note experts in the field: names/labs that are frequently referenced

Note conflicting theories, results, methodologies

Watch for popularity of theories and how this has/has not changed over time

5. Organize the Selected Papers By Looking For Patterns and By Developing Subtopics

Note things such as:

Findings that are common/contested

Two or three important trends in the research

The most influential theories

6. Develop a Working Thesis

Write a one or two sentence statement summarizing the conclusion you have reached about
the major trends and developments you see in the research that has been done on your
subject.

7. Organize Your Own Paper Based on the Findings From Steps 4 & 5

Develop headings/subheadings. If your literature review is extensive, find a large table

surface, and on it place post-it notes or filing cards to organize all your findings into
categories. Move them around if you decide that (a) they fit better under different headings,
or (b) you need to establish new topic headings.

8. Write the Body of the Paper

Follow the plan you have developed above, making certain that each section links logically to
the one before and after, and that you have divided your sections by themes or subtopics, not
by reporting the work of individual theorists or researchers.
9. Look At What You Have Written; Focus On Analysis, Not Description

Look at the topic sentences of each paragraph. If you were to read only these sentences,
would you find that your paper presented a clear position, logically developed, from
beginning to end? If, for example, you find that each paragraph begins with a researcher's
name, it might indicate that, instead of evaluating and comparing the research literature from
an analytical point of view, you have simply described what research has been done. This is
one of the most common problems with student literature reviews. So if your paper still does
not appear to be defined by a central, guiding concept, or if it does not critically analyze the
literature selected, then you should make a new outline based on what you have said in each
section and paragraph of the paper, and decide whether you need to add information, to delete
off-topic information, or to restructure the paper entirely.

For example, look at the following two passages and note that Student A is merely describing
the literature and Student B takes a more analytical and evaluative approach, by comparing
and contrasting. You can also see that this evaluative approach is well signaled by linguistic
markers indicating logical connections (words such as "however," "moreover") and phrases
such as "substantiates the claim that," which indicate supporting evidence and Student B's
ability to synthesize knowledge.

Student A:

Smith (2000) concludes that personal privacy in their living quarters is the most important
factor in nursing home residents' perception of their autonomy. He suggests that the physical
environment in the more public spaces of the building did not have much impact on their
perceptions. Neither the layout of the building, nor the activities available seem to make
much difference. Jones and Johnstone make the claim that the need to control one's
environment is a fundamental need of life (2001), and suggest that the approach of most
institutions, which is to provide total care, may be as bad as no care at all. If people have no
choices or think that they have none, they become depressed.

Student B:

After studying residents and staff from two intermediate care facilities in Calgary, Alberta,
Smith (2000) came to the conclusion that except for the amount of personal privacy available
to residents, the physical environment of these institutions had minimal if any effect on their
perceptions of control (autonomy). However, French (1998) and Haroon (2000) found that
availability of private areas is not the only aspect of the physical environment that determines
residents' autonomy. Haroon interviewed 115 residents from 32 different nursing homes
known to have different levels of autonomy (2000). It was found that physical structures,
such as standardized furniture, heating that could not be individually regulated, and no
possession of a house key for residents limited their feelings of independence. Moreover,
Hope (2002), who interviewed 225 residents from various nursing homes, substantiates the
claim that characteristics of the institutional environment such as the extent of resources in
the facility, as well as its location, are features which residents have indicated as being of
great importance to their independence.
Hypothesis? Its role in good research?
A supposition or explanation ( theory) that is provisionally accepted in order to interpret
events or phenomena and to provide guidance for further investigation. A hypothesis may be
proven correct or wrong and must be capable of refutation if it remains unrefured by facts it
said to be verified or corroborated.

2) A tentive answer or research to your question is considered as an intelligent guess or

prediction that gives directional to the researchers to answer the research question.

A tentive statment about the relationship b/w two or more variable.

Role in Good Research

In any scientific investigation, the role of hypothesis is indispensable as it always guides and
gives direction to scientific research. Research remains unfocused without a hypothesis.
Without it, the scientist is not in position to decide as to what to observe and how to observe.
He may at best beat around the bush. In the words of Northrop, “The function of hypothesis
is to direct our search for order among facts, the suggestions formulated in any hypothesis
may be solution to the problem, whether they are, is the task of the enquiry”.

Several near consequences are provided in the process of deductive development of

hypothesis. In the process of conducting experiments for confirming the hypothesis, scores of
new facts develop and expand the horizon of knowledge of the scientist. Since h3rpothesis is
concerned with explaining facts, the rejection of hypothesis is not futile.

Bibliography?
The history identification or description of writings or publications.

 A list of ten with descriptive or critical notes of writing relating to a particular subject,
period or author

 A list of works written by an author or printed by a publishing house.

   The works or a list of the works referred to in a text or consulted by the author in its
production.

Chapter 3: Data Collection

Q: Various Types of Data Collection?
1) Interview

2) Observation

3) Questionnaire

4) Data Base
Data Collection:-
Data Collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. Inaccurate data
collection can impact the results of a study and ultimately lead to invalid results.

Data collection methods for impact evaluation vary along a continuum. At the one end of this
continuum are quantitative methods and at the other end of the continuum are Qualitative
methods for data collection .

1) Interviews:-
In Quantitative research(survey research),interviews are more structured than
in Qualitative research. In a structured interview, the researcher asks a standard set of
questions and nothing more.(Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)

Face -to -face interviews have a distinct advantage of enabling the researcher to establish
rapport with potential participants and therefore gain their cooperation. These interviews
yield highest response rates in survey research. They also allow the researcher to clarify
ambiguous answers and when appropriate, seek follow-up information. Disadvantages
include impractical when large samples are involved time consuming and expensive.(Leedy
and Ormrod, 2001)

Telephone interviews are less time consuming and less expensive and the researcher has
ready access to anyone on the planet who has a telephone. Disadvantages are that the
response rate is not as high as the face-to- face interview but considerably higher than the
mailed questionnaire. The sample may be biased to the extent that people without phones are
part of the population about whom the researcher wants to draw inferences.

Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): is a form of personal interviewing, but

instead of completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along a laptop or hand-held
computer to enter the information directly into the database. This method saves time involved
in processing the data, as well as saving the interviewer from carrying around hundreds of
questionnaires. However, this type of data collection method can be expensive to set up and
requires that interviewers have computer and typing skills.

Paper-pencil-questionnaires can be sent to a large number of people and saves the researcher
time and money. People are more truthful while responding to the questionnaires regarding
controversial issues in particular due to the fact that their responses are anonymous. But they
also have drawbacks. Majority of the people who receive questionnaires don't return them
and those who do might not be representative of the originally selected sample.(Leedy and
Ormrod, 2001)

2) Observation:-
Observation method is used for collection of data by the observer personally
through observation.
In the words of P.V. Young:-“observation may be defined as systematic viewing coupled
with consideration of phenomenon.”

Advantage :

There are the following advantages of observation.

1) Subject bias eliminated (no subject bias)

2) Information researcher gets current information

3) Independent to respondents variable.

Disadvantages:

There are the following disadvantages of observation.

1) It is expensive method

2) Limited information

3) unforeseen factors may interfere with observational task

4) respondents opinion cannot be record on certain subject.

Types of observation:-

There are the following types of observation.

1) Structured and Unstructured Observation

2) Participant & Non Participant Observation

3) Controlled & Uncontrolled Observation.

Web based questionnaires : A new and inevitably growing methodology is the use of
Internet based research. This would mean receiving an e-mail on which you would click on
an address that would take you to a secure web site to fill in a questionnaire. This type of
research is often quicker and less detailed. Some disadvantages of this method include the
exclusion of people who do not have a computer or are unable to access a computer. Also the
validity of such surveys are in question as people might be in a hurry to complete it and so
might not give accurate responses.
(http://www.statcan.ca/english/edu/power/ch2/methods/methods.htm)

Questionnaires often make use of Checklist and rating scales. These devices help simplify
and quantify people's behaviors and attitudes. A checklist is a list of behaviors,
characteristics, or other entities that the researcher is looking for. Either the researcher or
survey participant simply checks whether each item on the list is observed, present or true or
vice versa. A rating scale is more useful when a behavior needs to be evaluated on a
continuum. They are also known as Liker scales. (Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)
Qualitative data collection methods play an important role in impact evaluation by providing
information useful to understand the processes behind observed results and assess changes in
people’s perceptions of their well-being. Furthermore qualitative methods can be used to
improve the quality of survey-based quantitative evaluations by helping generate evaluation
hypothesis; strengthening the design of survey questionnaires and expanding or clarifying
quantitative evaluation findings. These methods are characterized by the following attributes:

they tend to be open-ended and have less structured protocols (i.e., researchers may change
the data collection strategy by adding, refining, or dropping techniques or informants)

they rely more heavily on interactive interviews; respondents may be interviewed several
times to follow up on a particular issue, clarify concepts or check the reliability of data

they use triangulation to increase the credibility of their findings (i.e., researchers rely on
multiple data collection methods to check the authenticity of their results)

Generally their findings are not generalizable to any specific population, rather each case
study produces a single piece of evidence that can be used to seek general patterns among
different studies of the same issue

Regardless of the kinds of data involved, data collection in a qualitative study takes a great
deal of time. The researcher needs to record any potentially useful data thoroughly,
accurately, and systematically, using field notes, sketches, audiotapes, photographs and other
suitable means. The data collection methods must observe the ethical principles of research.

Data Base:-
Gathering information is one of the most essential tasks in business. We are
interested in how people react to our product; we would like to know their gender, e-mail,
age, occupation etc. In some other situation, we need to gather information from relatively
known source, limited group of people or market segment, which can still count thousands.

Even if our target group is relatively small, maybe couple of hundreds of people, let’s say
employees of our firm or members of our NGO organization, when we multiply their number
with the number of data we would like to collect such as date of birth, name, surname, level
of education, phone number, etc. we get thousands and thousands of information.

So how we usually do this?

There are two ways people in general use to collect and organize information. The old way is
to simply distribute paper form of a questionnaire, to call your target group by phone, or to
send an e-mail requesting information from every single group member.

The other, relatively new and very widespread option is to collect your data online using
simple form on your website. When you develop your form you send the information
containing form web address to your target, they visit the page, enter their data through
predefined fields and upon submission your system sends the information automatically to
you by e-mail.

This is much more convenient but in both cases when you receive feedback from your target
group you need to copy/paste (or type in) every single data into some kind of a database.

By database, in this case, we consider every organized form of data like worksheet in Excel
or table in Access. Of course, one can also use simple table in Word, which is not very good
since browsing and sorting word table is very hard to do, or he/she can use some serious
database platform like MS SQL or MySQL.

Whatever you do, the most complex and most time-consuming part of this task is transferring
information from collect form to the database.

So what would be the proper answer?

The only efficient way is to collect data directly to the database. This is usually done similar
to previously described collecting data through online form but instead of data arriving into
your e-mail box, they are automatically sent and organized in form of table that can be
searched, browsed, filtered, sorted etc. This could save hundreds of working hours, and since
time is money…Well you got the point.

CHAPER 4: RESEARCH DESIGN

1) What do you understand by the term research design? Its meaning and
definition?

Research Design:-
A structure or framework to guide data collection and analysis e.g.
search for causality, understanding or generalization.

Research strategy  Research Design Research Method

Meaning of Research Design:

A research design is one that minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data. It also
yield maximum information, gives minimum experimental error, and provides different
aspects of a single problem. A research design depends on the purpose and nature of the
research problem. Thus, one single design cannot be used to solve all types of research
problem, i.e. a particular design is suitable for a particular problem.

Definition of Research Design:-

According to William Zikmund “Research design is defined as a master plan specifying the
methods and procedures for collection and analyzing the needed information”
According to Kerlinger “research design is the plan structure and strategy of investigation
conceived so as to obtain answer to research questions and to control variance.”

2) Parts of Research Design?

There are the following parts of research design.

a) Sampling Design:-

Sampling design, this deals with the methods of selecting items to be

observed for the study.

b) Observational Design:-

Which relates to the condition under which the observation are

to be create

c) Statistical Design:-

Which concern the question of the of how the information and data gathered
are to be analyzed.

d) Operational Design:-

Which deals with techniques by which the procedures satisfied in

sampling.

3) Major steps to be followed in preparation of a research design.

There are the following major steps to be followed in preparation of a research design

I. Preparation of research problem.

II. Decision about the suitable population for the study and setting down the sampling
procedure.

III. Devising tools and methods for gathering data.

IV) Setting the arrangements for the editing, coding process of the data.

V) Determination of the mode of administrating the study.

VI) Indicating the events and statically includes for the analysis of data.

VII) Deciding about the mode of presentation of the research report.

4) Different types of research design.

There are the following types of research design.

a) Historical Research Design:-

 To gather validate synthesize the facts which support or oppose
your hypothesis. Based on primary, secondary, and qualitative data.

b) Descriptive Research Design:-

It includes much Govt backed research such as population

survey etc.

c) Casual Research Design:-

Condition research could be based upon assumptions.

d) Longitudinal Research Design:-

A study consists of a panel, which is a fixed sample of

elements. i.e shops, retailers or individuals.

e) Cross Section Research Design:-

This can only measure differences between or from among a

number of people, subjects or phenomena instead of charge.

f) Correlation of Prospective Research Design:-

It tries to discover relationships to make predictions.

g) Cohort Research Design:-

A study looking into a specific group with a certain trait and

observes over a period of time i.e certain medicine or having a medical problem.

h) Observational Research Design:-

A research in which a researcher do not have control over the experiment.

Studying behavior where individuals have no idea they are being observed.

i) Experimental Research Design:-

This design is best suited in controlled settings i.e. labs.

j) Philosophical Research Design:-

This method makes use of the gears of argumentation based on

philosophical tradition concepts and theories.

Relevance of logic, evidence in academic debates etc.

5 Importance:-
 Perfect kind of study.

 Helpful conclusion.
  Reduce wastage of time.

 Allows you to get optimum efficiency.

 Reduce uncertainty.

 Sets boundaries & helps to prevent blind search.

 Averts deceptive conclusions & thoughtless/useless exercise.

 Chance to anticipate flaws & inadequacies.

Chapter:-05 Sampling Techniques

Q :- What is Sampling Technique?
a) probability

b) Non-probability Sampling?

Sample Techniques:-

In order to answer a particular research question, the researcher needs to investigate a

particular area or group, to which the conclusions from the research will apply. The former
may comprise a geographical location such as a city, an industry (for example the clothing
industry), an organization/group of organizations such as a particular firm/type of firm, a
particular group of people defined by occupation (e.g. student, manager etc.), consumption of
a particular product or service (e.g. users of a shopping mall, new library system etc.), gender
etc. This group is termed the research population.

The unit of analysis is the level at which the data is aggregated: for example, it could
be a study of individuals as in a study of women managers, of dyads, as in a study of
mentor/mentee relationships, of groups (as in studies of departments in an organization), of
organizations, or of industries.

Unless the research population is very small, we need to study a subset of it, which
needs to be general enough to be applicable to the whole. This is known as a sample, and the
selection of components of the sample that will give a representative view of the whole is
known as sampling technique. It is from this sample that you will collect your data.

In order to draw up a sample, you need first to identify the total number of people in
the research population. This information may be available in a telephone directory, a list of
company members, or a list of companies in the area. It is known as a sampling frame.

Probability Sampling:-
Probability sampling s a sampling method that selects random
members of a population by setting a few selection criteria. These selection parameters allow
every member to have the equal opportunities to be a part of various samples.
Non-probability Sampling:-
Non probability sampling method is reliant on a researcher’s
ability to select members at random. This sampling method is not a fixed or pre-defined
selection process which makes it difficult for all elements of a population to have equal
opportunities to be included in a sample.

2:Sampling Error:-
Sampling error is the deviation of the selected sample from the true
characteristics, traits, behaviors, qualities or figures of the entire population.

Q 3)Factors consider while drawing a simple?

There are the following factors consider while conducting a sample:-

1. Know how variable the population is that you want to measure.

People often incorrectly think that sample size is related to population size, so they assume
that for a very large population you would need to measure many, many people. But think of
it this way – if the population of China were all exactly the same, you’d need to measure only
one person! Instead, the important issue for sample size is variability.

For a random sample, people will show up to be measured in approximately the same
proportions that they are in the population. As a result, there will be more people with typical
measurements showing up more often, and more unusual people (very short or very tall, for
example) showing up less often. So, if the population is quite variable, you will need to
measure more of them to make sure you capture the atypical as well as the typical person. For
design purposes, we are often more interested in those ends of the distribution – the small end
and the large end of the bell curve – because if we can accommodate those, we will also
accommodate the folks in the middle. If you haven’t captured those more extreme
individuals, you risk making your doorway too short, or your airplane seat too narrow.

2. Know how precise the population statistics need to be.

The reason we’re measuring a number of people is that we will calculate a set of statistics to
characterize the population. Our clients then use those statistics in their designs. The product
design could be anything from a chemical protective mask to a T-shirt to a jet engine cockpit.
The level of precision needed for each type of design differs. Safety-critical products
typically require greater precision in the statistics than, for example, a clothing item. We
would want to estimate population statistics to the nearest millimeter for a gas mask, for
example, since a poorly fitting design can have dire consequences. For that T-shirt, though, a
half-inch might be close enough. Knowing how precise you need to be will ensure time and
resources are spent wisely.
3. Know exactly how confident you must be in the results.

Just as you need to know how precise your measurements must be, it is also helpful to know
how much confidence you can place in the results. Do you need to be 99 percent sure you
have the right average sleeve length, or do you need to be 80 percent confident? For those
working on projects relevant to safety, a higher vote of confidence is usually needed. On the
other hand, projects where safety is not an issue, or where consumers have many marketplace
options, may require less confidence.

Q 4:-Types of sampling techniques and their advantages and

disadvantages?
There are the following Types sampling techniques:-

1. Probability Sampling

Probability sampling means that every individual in a population stands an equal chance of
being selected. Because probability sampling involves random selection, it assures that a
different subset of the population has an equal chance of being represented in the sample.
This makes probability samples more representative, and researchers are better able to
generalize their results to the group as a whole.

There are a few different types of probability sampling:

Simple random sampling is, as the name suggests, the simplest type of probability
sampling. Researchers take every individual in a population and randomly select their
sample, often using some type of computer program or random number generator.

Stratified random sampling involves separating the population into subgroups and then
taking a simple random sample from each of these subgroups. For example, a research might
divide the population up into subgroups based on race, gender, or age and then take a simple
random sample of each of these groups. Stratified random sampling often provides greater
statistical accuracy than simple random sampling and helps ensure that certain groups are
accurately represented in the sample.

Cluster sampling involves dividing a population into smaller clusters, often based upon
geographic location or boundaries. A random sample of these clusters is then selected and all
of the subjects within in cluster are measured. For example, imagine that you are trying to do
a study on school principals in your state. Collecting data from every single school principal
would be cost-prohibitive and time-consuming. Using a cluster sampling method, you
randomly select five counties from your state and then collect data from every subject in each
of those five counties.
2. No probability Sampling

Non-probability sampling, on the other hand, involves selecting participants using methods
that do not give every individual in a population an equal chance of being chosen. One
problem with this type of sample is that volunteers might be different on certain variables
than non-volunteers, which might make it difficult to generalize the results to the entire
population.

There are also a couple of different types of no probability sampling:

Convenience sampling involves using participants in a study because they are convenient
and available. If you have ever volunteered for a psychology study conducted through your
university's psychology department, then you have participated in a study that relied on a
convenience sample. Studies that rely on asking for volunteers or by using clinical samples
that are available to the researcher are also examples of convenience samples.

Purposive sampling involves seeking out individuals that meet certain criteria. For example,
marketers might be interested in learning how their products are perceived by women
between the ages of 18 and 35. They might hire a market research firm to conduct telephone
interviews that intentionally seek out and interview women that meet their age criteria.

Quota sampling involves intentionally sampling a specific proportion of a subgroup within a

population. For example, political pollsters might be interested in researching the opinions of
a population on a certain political issue. If they use simple random sampling, they might miss
certain subsets of the population by chance. Instead, they establish criteria that a certain
percentage of the sample must include these subgroups. While the resulting sample may not
actually be representative of the actual proportions that exist in the population, having a quota
ensures that these smaller subgroups are represented.

Chapter :6 Legal Research

Q1: Meaning of term legal research and its recourses
1) Primary 2) secondary & Evidential

Ans: Meaning:-

Legal research is generally the process of finding an answer to a legal question

or checking for legal precedent that can be cited in a brief or at trial. Sometimes, legal
research can help determine whether a legal issue is a "case of first impression" that is
unregulated or lacks legal precedent. Virtually every lawsuit, appeal, criminal case, and legal
process in general requires some amount of legal research.

1) Primary:-

Binding law that is codified in statutes, regulations, and case law.

2) Secondary:-

Not legally binding, this type of information explains primary law and legal
theory; including legal digests treatises, journals, etc.

Q2:- Types of Legal Research:-

There are the following Types;

TYPES OF LEGAL RESEARCH:

(a)Historical Research,

(b)Doctrinal Research (or) Traditional Research,

(c)Non-Doctrinal (or) Socio-Legal (or) Empirical Research,

(d)Comparative Research

(e) Induction and Deduction Research,

(f) Other Kinds of Research

(g) Case Law Analysis,

(h) Oral Advocacy.

Q3:- Major steps of legal Research?

Ans: there are the following Major Steps

Step 1: Gather and Understand the Facts of Your Case

Step 2: Determine Your Legal Problem and Your Desired Outcome:

Step 3: Finding Legal Information and Reading About the Law

Step 4: Legal Analysis/Legal Writing and beyond

Q4:- What is Doctrinal legal research, Non-doctrinal Legal Research?

Doctrinal Research:-

It is a theoretical research and it is pure in nature. Conventional legal sources

like reports of committees, legal history, judicial pronouncements, facts passed by legislature
and parliament etc are the sources of doctrinal legal research.

Non-Doctrinal Research:

It is also known as empirical research or socio-legal research and relies on experience and
observation. It is a trans-boundary research but its foundation is on doctrinal research only.
Non-doctrinal legal research tries to investigate through empirical data, how law and legal
institutions affect human attitudes and what impact on society they create.

Q5:- Difference between Doctrinal and non- doctrinal legal research?

Ans:- There are the following differences

1.Doctrinal research lays much emphasis upon legal principles but non-doctrinal research
lays lesser emphasis upon doctrines.

2.In doctrinal research, researcher uses traditional source for data but non-doctrinal research
is not solely dependent on traditional or conventional sources for data.

3.In doctrinal research scholar seeks to answer one or two legal propositions or questions, on
the other hand non-doctrinal research involves number of questions and large area.

4.Doctrinal research is a theoretical study but non-doctrinal research involves empirical

study.

5.Mostly secondary source are used in doctrinal research and primary data are used in non-
doctrinal research.

6.Doctrinal research is concerned with legal propositions; on the other hand non-doctrinal
research is more concerned with social values and people.

Conclusion:-

In conclusion, I can say that it is easy to target a specific methodology and

identify its strengths and weaknesses. However, it must be noted that doctrinal and non-
doctrinal legal research are the ultimate way to find the answers that have been raised in the
context of attempts to understand the emerging issues in the framework of the law. There is
no hierarchy between methodologies and they are all of equal importance for the
development and understanding of the law. What is crucial is that researchers must try and
equip themselves with the necessary skills to enable them to comfortably meet their research
objectives. Undoubtedly, a well-versed scholar will be aware of the advantages and
disadvantages of any particular methodology, and will work to obtain the benefits that result
from a better quality of work. Often, the combination of methodologies, i.e. a mixed method
using ideological, social, and legal, can work together to achieve a better understanding of the
law. Thus, postgraduate scholars would do well to equip themselves by using alternative
research methodologies.
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