Solutions Manual

Walter F. Silva-Arya
Amgad S. Elansary
Pranab K. Mohapatra
M. Hanif Chaudhry

Open–Channel Flow
Second edition

M. Hanif Chaudhry

󲐀 󲐀󲐀 󲐀󲐀󲐀 󲐀󲐀
 CONTENTS

Chapters Topics pages

1. Basic concepts 1
2. Conservation laws 13
3. Critical flow 31
4. Uniform flow 42
5. Gradually varied flow 59
6. Computation of gradually varied flow 78
7. Rapidly varied flow 110
8. Computation of rapidly varied flow 141
9. Channel design 143
10. Special topics 158
11. Unsteady flow 176
12. Governing equations for 1-D flow 183
13. Numerical methods 191
14. Finite-difference methods 193
16. Sediment transport 201
17. Special topics 205
Chapter 1
BASIC CONCEPTS

1.1
(i) Rectangular section
A = B0Y
Y
P = 2Y+B0
B = B0
R = A/P = B0Y/(2Y+B0)
D = A/B = B0Y/ B0 = Y Bo

(ii) Trapezoidal section

A = B0Y+ 2Y(SY/2)
= Y(B0 + SY)
P = B0 +2Y S(S2+1) 1
Y
R = A/P = Y(B0 + SY)/ [B0 +2Y S(S2+1)] S
B = B0 +2SY
Bo
D = A/B = Y(B0 + SY)/(B0 + 2SY)

(iii) Triangular section

We may use the same equation as that in the case of trapezoidal section with B0 = 0.
Thus, D = Y/2

(iv) Partially full circular section

A = r2θ/2 +2 (rCos α)/2 (Y-D0/2)

= D02θ / 8 + (Y − D0 / 2 )(rCosα )

Y = D0/2 + (D0/2) Sin α

A = Do2 θ /8 + Do2 / 4 Sin α Cos α

1
 Chapter 1

D o2 θ D o2
A = + sinα cosα
8 4
B
D2
= o (θ + sin 2α )
8
But θ = 2α + π
and sin θ = sin (2α + π ) = − sin 2α D0
θθ Y
D2
A = o (θ − sin θ ) 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π
8
Doθ sin θ
P = rθ = ( 1 − )
4 θ
θ π θ
B = 2 r cos α = 2 r cos ( − ) = D o sin
2 2 2
A D θ - sin θ
D= = o( 1 − )
B 8 Sin θ
2

(v) Standard horseshoe section:

Length KB
_____ _____ _____
OM = MC − OM
_____
OM = d 0 2 2
 1
2 2 2
_____
 _____   _____   d 
MC =  CG  −  GM  = d 0 −  0  = d 0  1 − 
2

    2 2  8
_____
7
MC = d0
8
____
 1 
OC = d 0  7 8 −  = 0.58186 d 0 − − − − − − − (1)
 2 2
2
 
_____ _____ _____ ____
KC = FC − KF = d 0 −  d 0 − KB  − − − − − −(2)
2 2 2

 
2
 ____ ____ 
____ _____ _____ ____
KC = FC − OK = OC −  OB − KB 
2 2 2 2

 
2
d 
____
KC = (0.58186 d 0 ) −  0 − KB  − − − − − − − −(3)
2 2

 2 

2
 Chapter 1

2 2
 _____
  d ____ 
d 0 −  d 0 − KB  = 0.33856 d 0 −  0 − KB 
2 2
(2) and (3)
   2 
2
 ____ 
____ ____ ____ 2
d
d 0 − d 0 + 2d 0 KB − KB = 0.38856 d 0 − 0 + d 0 KB −  KB 
2 2 2 2

4  
____ ____
d
KB = 0.088562 d 0 OK = 0 − 0.088562 d 0 = 0.411438 d 0
2
_____
KC = d 0 − (d 0 − 0.088562d 0 ) = 0.169281 d 0
2 2 2 2

KC = 04114377 d 0 CC = 0.822875 d 0
θL θL
Sin = 0.4114377 = 24.2950 θ L = 48.590
2 2

The standard horse shoe section is divided into three sections, i.e., upper section, middle
section and lower section.

(a) Upper section

π ≤ θu ≤ 2 π

D02
(θ u − Sinθ u ) − πD0
2
Flow area, A =
8 8
Dθ
Wetted perimeter, P = 0
2
D  Sinθ 
Hydraulic radius, R = A/P = 0 1 − 
4  θ 
Top water surface, B = D0 Sin (θ/2)
D  θ − Sinθ 
Hydraulic depth, D = A/B = 0  
8  Sin(θ / 2) 

(b) Lower section

0 ≤ θL ≤ 48.590

D02 2
Flow area, A = (θ L − Sinθ L ) = d 0 (θ − Sinθ )
8 2
D0θ
Wetted perimeter, P = = θd 0
2

3
 Chapter 1

d 0  Sinθ 
Hydraulic radius, R = A/P = 1 − 
2  θ 
Top water surface, B = 2d0 Sin (θ/2)
d  θ − Sinθ 
Hydraulic depth, D = A/B = 0  
4  Sin(θ / 2) 

(c) Middle section

Assume trapezoidal section, S = 0.215

Area, A = Y(B0 + SY)
A = Y(0.8229 d0 + 0.215Y)

P = B0 + 2Y S 2 −1

P = 0.8229 d 0 + 2Y 0.215 2 + 1 = 0.8229 d 0 + 2.05Y

Y (0.8229d 0 + 0.2154 )
R=A =
P 0.8229 d 0 + 2.05Y
B = B0 − 254 = 0.8229d 0 + 2 × 0.215Y = 0.8229d 0 + 0.43Y
Y(0.8229d 0 + 0.215Y)
D=A =
B 0.8229d 0 + 0.43Y

1.2
Q = K A R2/3
A = (θ – Sinθ) D2/8
R = A/P
P = Dθ/2
10

KD 3 (θ − Sinθ ) 3 (θ − Sinθ )3
5 5

Q= 5 2
=C 2

8 3
(D / 2 )
2
3 θ 3 θ 3

10
3
KD
Where C =
(D / 2 ) 3
5 2
3
8

dQ
= 0 will give the angle θ corresponding to Qmax .
dθ
 2 −5 5 −2 
= C − θ 3 (θ − Sinθ ) 3 + θ 3 (θ − Sinθ ) 3 (1 − Cosθ ) = 0
dQ 5 2

dθ  3 3 

4
 Chapter 1

−2
θ 3
dQ
dθ
=C
3
2
[
(θ − Sinθ ) 3 − 2θ −1 (θ − Sinθ ) + 5(1 − Cosθ ) = 0 ]
∴ 2(θ − Sinθ ) = 5θ (1 − Cosθ )
θ – Sinθ = 5/2θ – 5/2θ Cosθ
5/2 Cos θ – Sin θ / θ – 1.5 = 0

Solving by trial and error or numerically θ = 302.41

D D θ
From the figure Y = + Sinα and α = − π / 2
2 2 2
D D θ 
Y = + Sin − π / 2 
2 2 2 
D θ
Y = 1 − Cos 
2 2

Substituting θ value for the Qmax

D 302.41
Y = 1 − Cos
2 2 
Y= 0.938 D

1.3
2
πD 2  D  3
π 8
2/3
(AR )F =   = D 3

4
5
4 4 3

2
 θ − Sinθ 
2 3
D2
(θ − Sinθ ) D 
3
AR 2/3
=  
4  2 
8  θ 3

2 8
3 3
2 D
(θ − Sinθ ) 3
5
= 5 2
8 3
θ 3
5
1  θ − Sinθ 
2 3
3
AR
=
 AR 3 
2
2π  θ 2 3 
 F
R θ − Sinθ
=
RF θ
D D θ π
Y = + Sinα α = −
2 2 2 2
D D θ π 
Y = + Sin − 
2 2 2 2

5
 Chapter 1

D θ
Y =  1 − Cos 
2 2
Y 1 θ
= 1 − Cos 
D 2 2

Using trial and error

2
3
Y AR
= 0.938 gives maximum value for
D  AR 2 3 
 F
2
3
Y R
= 0.81 gives maximum value for
 R 3 
2
D
 F

1.4
30 y
V = 5.75 V0 log
K

Vm =
∫ VdA = ∫ Vdy
dA dy
y0

5.75 ∫ V0 log 30 y K dy y0
5.75V0 30 y
Vm = = ∫ log
0
dy
y0
y0 k
∫ dy
0

30 K
Let x = 30y/K dx = dy dy = dx
K 30
Vm = 5.75 V0/Y0 K ∫ log× dx
30
= 5.75 V0/Y0
K
[x log x − x]0y0
30
y
K  30 y 30 y 30 y  0
= 5.75 V0/Y0 log −
30  K K K  0
 30 y 0 
= 5.75V0/Y0  y 0 log K − y 0 
 
 30 y 0 
Vm = 5.75 V0 log −1
 K 
Energy coefficient, α :

6
 Chapter 1

3
 30 y 
∫ V 3
dA ∫ V 3
Bdy ∫ 

5.75V0 log
K 
dy
α= 3 = 3 =
Vm A Vm By 0 Vm3 y 0
3
 30 y 
(5.75V0 ) 3
∫  log K  dy
α=
Vm3 y 0

∫ (log x ) dx
b
Vm3α = where, b = (5.75 V0)3K/30
3

y0
∫ (log x ) dx = x(log x) n − n ∫ (log x) n −1 dx
n
But,
y0
b  30 y  30 y 
3
 30 y  30 y 
2
30 y 30 y 30 y 
V α=
3
  log 
 − 3  log  −2 log +2 
K 
m
y0  K  K   K  K  K K
0

(5.75V0 )3 K  30 y 0 
 log
30 y 0  30 y 0  30 y 0 30 y 0 30 y 0 30 y 0  
=   − 3  log −2 log +2  
y0 30  K  K  K  K K K K  
 30 y 0 
3
 30 y 0 
2
 30 y 0  
(5.75V0 ) 3
 log  − 3 log  + 6 log  − 6
α=  K   K   K  
3
3 30 y 0 
(5.75V0 ) log − 1
 K 
3 3 2
 30 y 0   30 y 0   30 y 0 
− 1 =  log  − 3 log  + log(30 y 0 ) − 1
3
Let, (Vm) = log
 K   K   K 
3  30 y 0 
Vm∗ + 3 log − 1 − 2
α=  K  3 2
= 1+ 2 − 3
∗3 ∗
Vm Vm Vm∗
1
α = 1 + 3 ∈2 −2 ∈3 where ∈=
Vm∗

Momentum coefficient, β :
∫V ∫V ∫V
2 2 2
dA Bdy dy
β= = =
Vm2 A Vm2 By 0 Vm2 y 0
2
 30 y 
∫ 5.75V0 log K  dy
=
Vm2 y 0
b
(log x )2 dx
y0 ∫
Vm2 β = where b = (5.75V0)2K/30

∫ (log π ) dx = x(log x ) − n ∫ (log x )

n n n −1
dx

7
 Chapter 1

y0
b  30 y  30 y 
2
30 y 30 y 30 y 
V β=
m
2
  log  −2 log +2 
y0  K  K  k k K 
0

(5.75V0 ) K  30 y 0 
2
y 
2
30 y 0 30 y 0 30 y 0 
  log 30 0  − 2 log +2 
y0 30  K  K K K K 
β= 2
 30 y 0 
(5.75V0 ) 2
log K − 1
 
2 2
∗2  30 y o   30 y 0  30 y 0
Let V m =  log − 1 =  log  − 2 log +1
 K   K  K

2
 30 y 0  30 y 0
 log  −2 log +1+1
β=  K  K
2
 30 y 0  30 y 0
 log  − 2 log +1
 K  K
2
Vm∗ + 1 1
β = = 1+
∗2 2
V m Vm∗

1
β = 1+ ∈2 where ∈ =
Vm∗

1.6
α =
∑V A ∑ A i
3
i i
2

(∑V A ) i i
3

For i = 3

α =
(V 1
3
A1 + V23 A2 + V33 A3 ( A1 + A2 + A3 ) ) 2

(V1 A1 + V2 A2 + V3 A3 )3

β =
(V 1
2
A1 + V22 A2 + V32 A3 ( A1 + A2 + A3 ) )
(V1 A1 + V2 A2 + V3 A3 )2

8
 Chapter 1

Table 1
A V VA V2A V3A
1 40 3 120 360 1080
2 80 3 240 720 2160
3 80 3.1 248 768.8 2383.28
4 80 3.2 256 819.2 2621.44
5 80 3.3 264 871.2 2874.96
6 80 3.3 264 871.2 2874.96
7 80 3.2 256 819.2 2621.44
8 80 3.1 248 768.8 2383.28
9 40 3 120 360 1080
∑ 640 2016 6358.4 20079.36

The calculation is shown in Table -1.

α = (20079.36)(640)2/20163 = 1.0038
β = (6358.4)(640)/20162 = 1.00126

1.9
Using hydrostatic pressure distribution and depth = y = 5m
T = γy2/2 = 9810 (52/1000)2=122.6 KN
M = TY/3 =122.6x5/3=204.3 KN.m
But, d = yCosθ = 5Cos30 = 4.33 m
In this case the pressure distribution is not hydrostatic

Correction:
Tt = Pd/2 = γd2Cosθ/2 = 79.65KN
Mt = Tt d/3 = 79.65 (4.33)/3 = 114.96 KN m
% error in the shearing force:
100(Tt – T)/Tt = (79.65 – 122.6)/79.65 = 53.9 %
% error in the moment:

9
 Chapter 1

100(Mt – M)/Mt = (114.96 – 204.38) / 114.96 = 77 %

1.10
Centrifugal acceleration = V2/R
Centrifugal force = ρysΔA V2/R
Pressure head due to centrifugal acceleration = (1/g)ys V2/R
Total pressure head, yt = ys + (1/g)ys V2/R = ys (1 + V2/gR)
yt = 5 (1 + 202/9.81/20) = 15.19 m
Pressure intensity at point C = γ yt = (9.81) (1000)(15.19/1000) = 149 kPa

1.11
Q = K A R 2/3
A = [B – (h/√3)]h
P = B + (4h/√3)
Q = K [B - h/√3]5/3h5/3[B + 4 h/√3]-2/3
= K[hB – h2/√3]5/3[B + 4 h/√3]-2/3
Q is maximum or minimum if dQ/dh = 0
5
[ ] [
2
][
dQ/dh = K hB − h 2 / 3 3 B − 2h / 3 B + 4h / 3
3
]−2 / 3

1.12
(i) nonuniform
(ii) nonuniform
(iii) nonuniform
(iv) uniform

1.13
(i) unsteady
(ii) unsteady
(iii) steady
(iv) unsteady

1.14
(i) Re = Vy/ν = (1)(1)/(0.11 * 10-5) = 9.0 * 105 Turbulent

10
 Chapter 1

0.1 × 2 × 10 −3
(ii) Re = Vy/ν = = 181.8 Laminar
0.11 × 10 −5

1.15
It is not possible to have uniform flow in a frictionless sloping channel. The forces in the
x direction will not be balanced.

1.16
It is not possible to have uniform flow in a horizontal channel.
There is no acceleration force.

1.17
y = flow depth measured vertically; θ = angle between water surface and horizontal; φ =
angle between channel bed and horizontal. Let d = perpendicular on channel bed.
Thus, pressure at channel bed is
p = ρgdCosφ
From the geometry, y = dCosφ + dSinφ tan θ
y
Or, dCosφ =
1 + TanφTanθ
y
Or, p = ρg
1 + TanφTanθ

1.18
V = 5.75Vf log (30y/K) (1)

11
 Chapter 1

y0

5.75 ∫ V f log(30 y / K ) dy
∫ VdA = ∫ Vdy = 5.75V f y0

= ∫ log(30 y / K ) dy
0
Vm =
∫ dA ∫ dy
y0
y0
∫ dy
0

Let x = 30y/K, dx = (30/K)dy or, dy = (K/30)dx

∫ VdA = 5.75V K 0
y
5.75V f K
[x log x − x]0y0
Vm = ∫ log x dx =
f

∫ dA y 0 30 0 y 0 30
y
5.75V f K  30 y 30 y 30 y  0
Vm = log −
y 0 30  K K K  0

Vm = 5.75V f [log(30 y 0 / K ) − 1]

In Eq 1, at y = y0, V = Vmax

Vmax = 5.75Vf log(30y0/K)

Let γ = (Vmax/Vm)-1= 5.75Vf log(30y0/K)/ 5.75Vflog(30y0/K-1)-1

γ = 1/[log(30y0/K)-1]
Similar to the solution of problem 1.4 this will lead to
α = 1 + 3γ2 - 2γ3
β = 1 + γ2

1.19
d = yCosθ
p = (γd2/2)(Cosθ)
p = (γy2/2) (Cos2θ Cosθ)
p = (γy2/2) (Cos3θ )
M = pd3/3 = (py Cosθ)/3
= (γ/2)(y2Cos3θ)(y Cosθ/3)
M = (γy3/6)(Cos4θ )
Shearing force = p = (γy2/2)(Cos3θ )

12
Chapter 2
CONSERVATION LAWS

2.1

d = y cosθ
p αQ 2
H =Z+ +
γ 2 gA2
p = γd cosθ
p = γy cos 2 θ
αQ 2
E = y cos 2 θ +
2 gA2

Assume α=1 and rectangular channel and width = B. q=Q/B

q2
E = y cos 2 θ +
2 gA2

[E − y cos θ ]y
2 q2
2g
=
= const.
2

The E-y curve has two asymptotes

E − y cos 2 θ = 0 & y = 0
E 1
=
y cos 2 θ
1
tan −1 φ =
cos 2 θ

2.2
Q2
E= y+
2 gA2
A = ( B + 2 y ) y = (20 + 2 y ) y
Q2
E= y+
2 g [(20 + 2 y ) y ]
2

13
 Chapter 2

2.3
Applying Newton second law
γQ
(V2 − V1 ) = P1 − P2 + W sin θ − FR
g

Assume θ=0 and no friction FR =0

P1 = γ z1 A1
P2 = γ z2 A2
Q2 Q2
− = z1 A1 − z2 A2
gA2 gA1
Q2 Q2
+ z1 A1 = + z2 A2
gA1 gA2
Q2
Fs = + zA
gA
Force / Unit weight

2.4

Q=4 x 5 x 5 = 100 m3/s

V 4
F= = = 0.57 Sub critical
gy 9.81 × 5

Energy equation neglecting losses

H1 = E1 = E2 − ∆z
2
V1
y1 + = E2 + 0.2
2g
42 Q2
5+ = y2 + + 0.2
2 × 9.81 2 gA2
1002
5.61 = y2 +
2 × 9.81 × (5 × y2 ) 2
y2 − 5.61 × y2 + 20.387 = 0
3 2

Trial and error will give y2 = 2.6 m.

14
 Chapter 2

2 2
V1 V
H = y1 + + 0.2 = y2 + 2
2g 2g
42 1002
5+ + 0.2 = y2 +
2 × 9.81 2 × 9.81 × (5 × y2 ) 2
20.387
6.015 = y2 + 2
y2
y2 − 6.015 × y2 + 20.387 = 0
3 2

y2 = 5.285 m rise with water level.

2.5
V1 Q A1 4
F1 = = = = 0.571
gy1 gy1 9.81 × 5

Energy equation neglecting losses

H1 = E1 = E2 + ∆z

q = Q/B = 20 m3/m

2
V 42
y1 + 1 = 5 + = 5.8155 = E2 + 0.3
2g 2 × 9.81
q2
5.8155 − 0.3 = y2 + 2
2 gy2
y2 − 5.5155 y2 + 20.387 = 0
3 2

Using trial and error y2 = 4.52 m

(ii)

F1 = 0.571

2 2
V1 V
H 1 = y1 + + 0.2 = y 2 + 2 = E 2
2g 2g
42 q2
5+ + 0.2 = y 2 +
2 × 9.81 2 gy 2
2

15
 Chapter 2

y 2 − 6.015 y 2 + 20.387 = 0
3 2

Using trial and error, y2 = 5.285 m

2.6
Q = 400 m3 / s
V1 = 400 / 5 x 10 = 8 m / sec
V 8
F1 = 1 = = 1.14 > 1 Super critical
gy1 9.81 × 5

If the step is a rise water surface rises

If the step is a drop water surface drops

2.7
Q = 96 m3 / s
Section1
B1 = 8 m Y1 = 4 m V1 = 3 m / sec

H1= H2= H3= H4= H5

Hi= Ei

2
V
H1 = y1 + 1 = 4.459m
2g

3
F1 = = 0.479 < 1 Sub critical
9.81 × 4

q1 = Q/B1= 96/8 = 12 m3/s / m

Section 2
B2 = 7.5 m
q1 = Q/B1= 96/7.5 = 12.8 m3/s / m
Q2
E2 = E1 = y2 + = 4.459
( B2 y2 ) 2 × 2 × 9.81
y2 − 4.459 y2 + 8.35 = 0
3 2

y2 = 3.91 m

16
 Chapter 2

Section 3

B3 = 7 m
q1 = Q/B1= 96/7 = 13.71 m3/s / m
q32
E1 = E3 = y3 + 2 = 4.459
y3 × 2 × 9.81
y2 − 4.459 y2 + 9.58 = 0
3 2

y2 = 3.79 m

Section 4

B4 = 6.5 m
q1 = Q/B1= 96/ 6.5= 14.77 m3/s / m
q42
E1 = E4 = y4 + 2 = 4.459
y4 × 2 × 9.81
y2 − 4.459 y2 + 11.12 = 0
3 2

y2 = 3.6 m

Section 5

B4 = 6 m
q1 = Q/B1= 96/ 6= 16 m3/s / m
q52
E1 = E5 = y5 + 2 = 4.459
y5 × 2 × 9.81
y 2 − 4.459 y 2 + 13.048 = 0
3 2

y2 = 3.11 m

2.8
(i)
h =20 m Q= 40 m3/s b= 4 m
E1= E2 , V1 = 0, V2 =Q/By2 = q/y2, q= 10 m3/s / m

V1 q2
h+ = y2 +
2× g 2 × g × y22
y2 − 20 y2 + 5.097 = 0
3 2

y2= 0.511 m
V2=10/0.511=19.57 m/s
V
F2 = = 8.47 > 1 Supercritical
g×y

17
 Chapter 2

y3 =
y2
2
[
1 + 8 F22 − 1 ]
y3 =
0.511
2
[
1 + 8 × 8.742 − 1 = 6.066m ]
(ii)

Thrust on the gate

Fth = Fs1 − Fs 2
Q2 402
Fs1 = + z1 A1 = + 10 × (20 × 4) = 802.038m3
gA1 9.8 × (20 × 4)
Q2 402 0.511
Fs 2 = + z2 A2 = + × (0.511 × 4) = 80.31m3
gA2 9.8 × (0.511 × 4) 2
Fth = 802.038 − 80.31 = 721.72m3

Thrust force = γFth=9.81 x 721.72 = 7080.07 kN

(iii)
Energy losses

E2 = E3 + H L
H L = E2 − E3
q2 q2
H L = y2 + − y3 −
2 gy22 2 gy32
10 2 102
H L = 0.511 + − 6 . 066 − = 13.85m
2 × 9.8 × 0.5112 2 × 9.8 × 0.662

2.9
q2
E= y+
2 gy 2
q 2 = 2 gy 2 ( E − y )
1
q = (2 gy 2 E − 2 gy 3 ) 2
dq 1
dy 2
−1
[ ]
= (2 gy 2 E − 2 gy 3 ) 2 4 gyE − 6 gy 2 = 0

Maximum q for critical depth

18
 Chapter 2

4 gyE − 6 gy 2 = 0
2
yc = E
3
y 2
tan θ = c =
E 3

2.10
(i) Channel width remains constant
Use a step and determine if it is a rise or down
V 4
F1 = 1 = = 0.639 < 1 Sub critical flow
gy1 9.81
E1 > E2 Δz is positive (step rise)

E1 = E2 + ∆z
Q
q= = V y = 16m 3 / sec/ m
b
and
y1 = y2 + ∆z + (704 − 703.54)
∆z = 3.54 − y2

2
V q2
y1 + 1 = y2 + + ∆z
2g 2 gy22
16 16 2
4+ = y2 + + (3.54 − y2 )
2 × 9.81 2 × 9.81 × y22
y2 = 3.198m
∆z = 3.54 − 3.198 = 0.34m

Bottom elevation = 700+0.34=700.34m

(ii)
Channel bottom level 0.5 of transition at elevation 700.2 m
b1= 8m
y1 = 4 m; y2 = 3.34 m
Q= 32 x 4 =128 m3/s

E1 = E 2 + ∆z
2 2
V V
y1 + 1 = y 2 + 2 + ∆z
2g 2g

19
 Chapter 2

16 128 2
4+ = 3.34 + + 0.2
2 × 9.81 2 × 9.81× (b2 × 3.34) 2
74.856
4.815 = 3.54 +
b22
b2 = 7.66m

2.11
(i)
V1 A1 = V2 A2
0.8 × 2 × b
V2 =
y2 × b
1.6
V2 =
y2
0.8
F1 = = 0.18 < 1 Sub critical
2 × 9.81
E1 = E2 + ∆z
2 2
V V
y1 + 1 = y 2 + 2 + ∆z
2g 2g
0.8 2 (1.6 y2 ) 2
2+ = y2 + + 0.15
2 × 9.81 2 × 9.81
y 2 − 1.882 y 2 + 0.1305 = 0
3 2

y 2 = 1.84m

(ii)
y2 = 2 m; V1 = 0.8 m; q = 1.6 m3/sec/m
2
V
E1 = y1 + 1 = 2.033
2g
Maximum Δz occurs at minimum E and Fr=1

q 2 3 1.62
y2 = 3 = = 0.64
g 9.81
2
V2 1.62
E2 = y 2 + = 0.64 + = 0.96
2g 2 × 9.81 × 0.642
∆zmax = E1 − E2 = 2.033 − 0.96 = 1.073 m

20
 Chapter 2

2.12
Assume b1=10 m
Q1= Q2= 10 x 2 x 0.8 = 16 m3/s

q 22
E1 = y 2 +
2 gy 22
q 22
E1 y 22 = y 23 +
2g
q 2 = (2 gE1 y 22 − 2 gy 23 )1 2
Q
q2 =
b2
Q is constant. Therefore, maximum q2 corresponds to minimum b2.

dq2 1 −1
[
= (2 gy22 E − 2 gy23 ) 2 4 gyE − 6 gy 2 = 0
dy2 2
]
2
y2 = E1
3

From problem 2.11, E1 = 2.033 m

2
y2 = × 2.033 = 1.355 m
3
q2 = (2 × 9.81 × 2.033 × 1.3552 − 2 × 9.81 × 1.3553 )1 2
= 4.941 m3 /sec/m
b2 = 16 = 3.238 m
4.941
b2 3.238
= = 0.32
b1 10

2.13
(i)
Q = 80 ft3 / sec

E1 = E 2
2 2
V V
y1 + 1 = y 2 + 2
2g 2g
Q2 Q2
y1 + = y 2 +
2 g (b1 y1 ) 2 2 g (b2 y 2 ) 2

21
 Chapter 2

80 2 80 2
8+ = y2 +
2 × 32.2 × (5 × 8) 2 2 × 32.2 × (4 × y 2 ) 2
6.211
8 + 0.0621 = y 2 + 2
y2
y 2 − 8.0621 y 2 + 6.211 = 0
3 2

y 2 = 7.964 ft

(ii)
80
V1 = = 2 ft/sec
5×8
V 2
Fr = = = 0.125 < 1 subcritical
gy 9.81 × 8
E1 = E2 + ∆z
Q2 Q2
y1 + = y 2 + + ∆z
2 g (b1 y1 ) 2 2 g (b2 y2 ) 2
802 802
8+ = 7 . 964 + + ∆z
2 × 32.2 × (5 × 8) 2 2 × 32.2 × (5 × 7.964) 2
8.0621 = 8.0266 + + ∆z
y2 − 8.0621 y2 + 6.211 = 0
3 2

∆z = 0.035 ft

2.14
80
V1 = = 8 m/sec
0.5 × 20
8
Fr = = 3.612
9.81 × 0.5

y2 =
y1
2
[
1 + 8 F12 − 1 ]
y2 =
0.5
2
[ ]
1 + 8 × (3.162) 2 − 1 = 2.316 m

Losses H L = E1 − E 2
2 2
V1 V
H L = y1 + − y2 − 2
2g 2g

22
 Chapter 2

2
82 1  80 
H L = 0.5 + − 2.316 −  
2 × 9.81 2 × 9.81  20 × 23.6 
= 1.294 m

2.15
Q = 80 m3 / s
54
V1 = = 11.25 m/s
8 × 0.6
11.25
Fr = = 4.63
9.81 × 0.6
y
[
y2 = 1 1 + 8 F12 − 1
2
]
y2 =
0.6
2
[ ]
1 + 8 × (4.63) 2 − 1 = 3.646 m

2.16
0.2V22
Losses at junction =
2g
10
V1 = = 0.67 m/s
10 ×1.5
0.67
Fr = = 0.173 subcritical
9.81×1.5
E1 = E2 + ∆z + Losses
2 2
V1 V 0.2V22
y1 + = y2 + 2 + 0.1 +
2g 2g 2g

0.67 2 10 2
1.5 + = y 2 + 1.2 × + 0.1
2 × 9.81 2 × 9.81 × (8 y 2 ) 2
y 2 − 1.432 y 2 + 0.0956 = 0
3 2

y 2 = 0.29 m

2.17
B =8m
Q = 8 × 2 × 3 = 48 m 3 / s
E1 + ∆z = E 2
32 48 2
2+ + 0.15 = y 2 +
2 × 9.81 2 × 9.81× (8 y 2 ) 2

23
 Chapter 2

1.835
2.609 = y 2 +
y 22
y 2 − 2.609 y 2 + 1.835 = 0
3 2

y 2 = 2.245 m

2.18
V 3
F= = = 0.533
g× y 9.81 × 3
V1 y1 = V2 y2
3 × 3 = V2 y2
V2 = 9 / y2
E1 = E2 + ∆z
2
32 1  9
3+ = y2 +   + 0.3
2 × 9.81 2 × 9.81  y2 
y2 − 3.16 y2 + 4.128 = 0
3 2

y2 = 1.66 m

2.19
V1 = 2 g (160 − 120)
= 28 m/sec
Q = BV1 y1
1200
y1 = = 2.14 m
20 × 28

V2 28 2
F =
2
= = 37.35
gy1 9.81 × 2.14
r1

y2 =
y1
2
[
1 + 8F22 − 1 ]
y2 =
2.14
2
[ ]
1 + 8 × 37.35 − 1 = 17.46 m

1200
V2 = = 3.44 m/s
20 × 17.46
Energy losses = E 1 -E 2
28 2 3.44 2
= 2.14 + − 17.46 − = 24 m
2 × 9.81 2 × 9.81

24
 Chapter 2

2.20
Q= 18 m3/sec; B= 6 m; q= 18/6 = 3 m3 / s / m

18
V1 = = 10 m/s
6 × 0.3
V2 10 2
Fr12 = = = 33.97
gy1 9.81 × 0.3

y2 =
0.3
2
[ ]
1 + 8 × 33.97 − 1 = 2.328 m sequential depth

q2
E= y+
2 gy 2
at y = 0.3
32
E = 0.3 + = 5.397
2 × 9.81 × 0.32
0.4587
5.397 = y +
y2
y2 − 5.397 y2 + 0.4587 = 0
3 2

y2 = 5.38 m alternate depth

Head loss = E1 -E 2
q12 q22
= y1 + − y 2 −
2 gy12 2 gy22
32 32
= 0.3 + − 2 . 328 −
2 × 9.81× 0.32 2 × 9.81× 2.3282
= 5.397 − 2.413 = 2.98 m

2.21

(i)
q= 15 ft3/sec/ft
Q= 6 x 5 x 3 = 90 ft3/sec

25
 Chapter 2

V 3
Fr1 = = = 0.2364 subcritical
g×y 32.2 × 5
2
V1 32
E1 = y1 + =5+ = 5.14
2g 2 × 32.2
E1 = E2 = E3 = E4 = E5 = E6
Section 2 :
E1 = E2
90 2
5.14 = y2 +
2 × 32.2 × 5.82 × y22
y2 − 5.14 y2 + 3.74 = 0
3 2

y2 = 4.99 ft
Section 3 :
E1 = E3
90 2
5.14 = y3 +
2 × 32.2 × 5.6 2 × y32
y3 − 5.14 y3 + 4.01 = 0
3 2

y3 = 4.977 ft
Section 4 :
E1 = E4
902
5.14 = y4 +
2 × 32.2 × 5.42 × y42
y4 − 5.14 y4 + 4.31 = 0
3 2

y4 = 4.965 ft

Section 5 :
E1 = E 5
90 2
5.14 = y 5 +
2 × 32.2 × 5.2 2 × y 52
y 5 − 5.14 y 5 + 4.65 = 0
3 2

y 5 = 4.95 ft
Section 6 :
E1 = E 6

26
 Chapter 2

90 2
5.14 = y 6 +
2 × 32.2 × 5 2 × y 62
y 6 − 5.14 y 6 + 5.031 = 0
3 2

y 6 = 4.933 ft

(ii)
H1 = H 2
E1 + ∆z = E2
2 2
V1 V
y1 + + ∆z = y2 + 2
2g 2g
for the water surface to be horizontal
y1 + ∆z = y2
2 2
V1 V
= 2
2g 2g
902
9=
52 y22
y2 = 6 ft
∆z = y2 − y1 = 6 − 5 = 1 ft

2.22

Q= 50 ft3/sec
50
V1 = = 3.33 ft/sec
3× 5
50
V2 = = 5 ft/sec
2.5 × 4
H1 = H 2
E1 = E 2 + ∆z

2 2
V V
y1 + 1 = y 2 + 2 + ∆z
2g 2g
3.33 2 52
3+ = 2.5 + + ∆z
2 × 32.2 2 × 32.2
∆z = 0.28 ft

27
 Chapter 2

2.23
Y2 =
1.5
2
[ ]
1 + 8 × 25 − 1 = 9.88 ft

V1
Fr = 5 =
32.2 ×1.5
V1 = 34.75 ft/sec
34.75 ×1.5
V2 = = 5.275 ft/sec
9.88
head loss = E1 − E2
34.752 5.2752
1.5 + − 9.88 − = 9.939 ft
2 × 32.2 2 × 32.2

2.24
Assume rectangular cross section and horizontal channel bed
V2 4.3
Fr2 = = = 0.3323
gy 2 32.2 × 5.2

y1 =
y2
2
[ ]
1 + 8 F22 − 1

y2 =
5.2
2
[ ]
1 + 8 × (0.3323) 2 − 1 = 0.968 ft

q = 5.2 × 4.3 = 22.36 ft 3 / sec/ ft

22.36
V1 = = 23.099 ft/sec
0.968
E1 = E3 neglecting losses through the gate
2 2
V V
y1 + 1 = y 3 + 3
2g 2g
23.099 2
y3 = 0.968 + = 9.25 ft
2 × 32.2
22.36
V3 = = 2.41 ft/sec ∴ y 3 = 9.16 ft
9.25
22.36
V3 = = 2.44 ft/sec ∴ y 3 = 9.157 ft
9.16

2.25
A = (8 + 2 y ) y
Q2 Q2
E= y+ = y+
2 gA2 2 × 9.8 × (8 + 2 y ) 2 y 2

28
 Chapter 2

Y E (Q=10) E (Q=20) E (Q=40) E (Q=50)

0.3 1.066 3.363 12.55 19.44
0.5 0.7515 1.506 4.527 6.79
0.7 0.8177 1.171 2.58 3.64
0.8 0.886 1.145 2.183 2.96
0.9 0.9655 1.162 1.948 2.54
1 1.051 1.204 1.815 2.27
1.1 1.14 1.262 1.7477 2.11
1.2 1.233 1.33 1.723 2.018
1.4 1.756 1.957
1.5 1.8 1.968
1.6 1.85 1.997
2 2.142 2.22
4 4.02 4.03

2.26
D = Hydraulic depth
α = Velocity Coefficient
d = ycosθ
p αQ 2
E=H =Z+ +
γ 2 gA 2
γd cos θ αQ 2 αQ 2
= Z+ + = Z + y cos θ +
2

γ 2 gA 2 2 gA 2
dE αQ 2 dA
= 0 = cos θ +
2
(−2 A −3 ) at critical depth
dy 2g dy

αQ 2 B dA
cos θ 2 = 3
where =B
g A dy
gD cos θ 2
V2 =
α

V2
= 1 = Fr2
gD cos θ 2
α
V
Fr =
gD cos θ 2
α

29
 Chapter 2

2.28
V1 = 2 × 32.2(400 − z )
Q = 80000 = 200 × y1 2 × 32.2(400 − z )
80000 49.844
y1 = =
200 2 × 32.2(400 − z ) 400 − z
V 2 2 × 32.2 × (400 − z ) 3
F =
2
r1 = = 0.04 × (400 − z ) 2
gy1 49.844
32.2 ×
400 − z
y2 1
=
y1 2
[
1 + 8 F12 − 1]
220 − z 1 3 
=  1 + 8 × 0.04 × (400 − z ) 2 − 1
49.844 2 
400 − z
 3 
(220 − z ) × 400 − z = 24.922  1 + 0.32(400 − z ) 2 − 1
 
By trial and error, z = 166.5 ft.

30
 Chapter 3
CRITICAL FLOW

3-1
∝= f ( y )
Q2
=E d cos θ + ∝
2 gA2
Q2
E = γ cos 2 θ + ∝
2 gA2
For critical flow

dE Q2 d  ∝ 
= 0= cos 2 θ +   (1)
dy 2 g dy  A2 
d  ∝  1 d∝ 2 dA 1  d ∝ 2 ∝ dA 
= 2 −∝ = −
dy  A  A dy
2
A3 dy A2  dy A dy 
d  ∝  1 d ∝ 2 ∝  1 d ∝ 2 ∝  A
 2  =2  − B cos θ  =2  − cos θ  where D =
dy  A  A  dy A  A  dy D  B

Equation 1

Q2  1  d ∝ 2 ∝ 
cos 2 θ +  2 − cos θ   =
0
2 g  A  dy D 
V 2 2 ∝ d ∝
=cos 2 θ  cos θ −
2g  D dy 
Solving for V2

2 g cos 2 θ
V2 =
2 ∝ d ∝
 D cos θ − dy 
 
2 g cos θ
V=
2 ∝ 1 d ∝
 D − cos θ dy 
 
V
Fr = 1
2 g cos θ
2 ∝ 1 d ∝
 D − cos θ dy 
 

31
 Chapter 3

V
=
Or, Fr = 1
2 g cos θ
2 ∝ d ∝
 D − dd 

3.3
Q
V A
=F = = 1
cos θ cos θ
gD gD
∝ ∝
Q 60
=
A D = = 20.09
cos θ 9.81
g
∝ 1.1
T +b
A= y
 2 
T = 4y + b

4 y + 2b
=
A = y (2 y + b) y
2
D=
(2 y + b) y
4y + b
3 3
(2 y + b) y yc2 ( 2 yc + b ) 2
A (2 y + b) y
D= = =
20.09
4y + b 1
( 4 yc + b ) 2
By trial error, yc = 0.9835m

3.4

V
=FD = 1 For critical depth
cos θ
gD
∝
Q Q
A =1 A D= cos θ
cos θ g
gD
∝ ∝

Q
For θ = 0 and ∝= 1 A=
D = 25.54
g
( Bo + Sy ) y =+
A= (8 0.5 yc ) yc where Bo = 8m, S = 0.5

32
 Chapter 3

B = Bo + 2Sy = 8 + y c

A ( 8 + 0.5 yc ) yc
D= = = 25.54
B 8 + yc
Using trial and error y c = 2.074 m
1
 ( B + 0.5 yc ) yc  2
( Bo + 0.5 yc ) yc  o  = 25.54
 8 + yc 

3.5

Y A R B D=A/B Z=A D
0 0 0 0 - -
2 23.4 1.34 16.6 1.41 27.79
4 58.3 2.68 18.2 3.203 104.34
6 95.7 3.7 19.2 4.984 213.65
8 134.8 4.5 19.8 6.808 351.72
10 174.6 5.15 20 8.73 515.88
12 214.4 5.65 19.6 10.939 709.11
14 252.5 5.99 18.3 13.798 937.93
16 287 6.13 16 17.938 1215.54
18 315.4 6.01 12 26.283 1616.96
20 331.7 5.08 0 ∞ ∞

Q 850
=
Zc = = 271.38
g 9.81
Using graphical method y c= 6.8 m

3.6
V12 V2
E =y1 + =y2 + 2
2g 2g
Q12 Q22
y1 + =
y2 +
2 gB12 y12 2 gB22 y22

Rectangular Channel
q2 q2
y1 + =y2 +
2 gy12 2 gy22
q2  y2 − y2 
y1 − y2 =  1 2 2 2 
2 g  y1 y2 

33
 Chapter 3

q2 y2 y2 q2
=2 1 2 but, yc = 3
g ( y1 + y2 ) g

2 ( y1 y2 )
2

yc = 3
( y1 + y2 )

3.7
For
Q
For θ = 0 and ∝= 1 =z A=D
g
i. Trapezoidal

A = (b+ zy)y D=
( b + zy ) y
b + 2 zy
( b + zyc ) yc 
1.5

=
Q
g b + 2 zyc
ii. Triangular

A= Zy3 D = 0.5 y
Q 2 2.5
= zyc
g 2
1
Q z  2.5
yc =  
z g
iii. circular

 
1 1  θ − sin θ 
=
A (θ − sin θ ) do2 D= A=   do
8 8  sin θ 
 2 
1 (θ − sin θ )
1.5
Q
= d o2.5
θ
0.5
g 16 
 2sin 
 2
d d   θ   do  θc 
yc =o + o  cos 180 − c   = 1 − cos 
2 2  2  2  2

34
 Chapter 3

3.8
i. using a step, with constant width

V V1 250 / (5 × 50)
=
Fr = = = 0.143 < 1 subcritical
cos θ gy1 9.81× 5
gD
∝
E1 = ∆z + E2
q2 (250 / 50) 2
=
= 3
yc 3 = 1.366m
g 9.81
=Vc 250 / (1.366=
× 50) 3.66m / s

V12 V2
y1 + = y2 + 2 + ∆z
2g 2g
( 3.66 ) + 1.366
2
1
+ 5 =∆z +
2 × 9.81 2 × 9.81

∆z = 5.051 – 2.049 = 3 m
ii. Reduction in the channel width

q= 250/50 = 5 m3/sec/m

q2 52
E1 = y+ =
5+ =
5.05m
2 gy 2 2 × 9.81× 52
(E – y) 2gy2 = q2

= q (2 gy 2 E − 2 gy 3 )0.5
dq −0.5
= 0.5  2 gy 2 E − 2 gy 3   4 gEy − 6 gy=2
 0 (Max q)
dy
4g Ey = 6gy2 y c = 2/3 E
y c = 2/3x 5.05 = 3.367 m

0.5
qmax = 2 × 9.81× 3.367 2 × 5.051 − 2 × 9.81× 3.3673  =19.35 m3/sec/m

B min = Q / q max = 250 / 19.35 = 12.92 m

Reduction in width = 12.95 / 50 x 100 = 25.8%

iv. Width Reduction and bottom step

• Use ∆z < 3.0 m
• Solve problem (i) to find y2 ≠ y c

35
 Chapter 3

• Solve problem (ii) to go from y2 to y c by reducing the channel width.

3.9
Q 96
E1 = ∆z + E2 V= = = 1.896 m/s
1
A1 12 × 4.22 =1.896
1.8962
E1 =4.22 + = 4.4m
2 × 9.81
E2 = 4.4 - 0.2 = 4.2 m

Q 96 96
V= = =
2
A2  10 + 10 + 2 y2  (10 + y2 ) y2
  y2
 2 
2
96
= y2 +
4.2
(10 + y2 ) y2 × 2 × 9.81
2 2

21.67
4.2 − y2 = y2 = 4.05 (by trial and error)
10 y2 + y22
Q 96
F=1 = A= D = 30.65
g 9.81
 (10 + yc ) yc 
0.5

(10 + yc )   =
30.65
 10 + 2 yc 
1.5
10 yc + yc2 
Or, = 30.65
(10 + 2 yc )
0.5

3
10 yc + yc2 
Or, = 939.45
(10 + 2 yc )
y c = 1.97 m (by trial and error)

3.11
X = Ky m
Triangular K = S m=1 X = S Y
Rectangular K = B o / 2 m = 0
m
1
Parabola K =  m = 1/n Y=a x n
a
ycm +1
Yc

= ∫ Ky dy 2 K
Ac 2= m

0
m +1
=
Bc 2=
xc 2 Kycm

36
 Chapter 3

3
 2 K m +1 
y
Q2 A Q 2
Ac  m + 1 c 
3

2
= c = =
gAc Bc g Bc 2 Kycm
Q2 8K 3 1 4K 2
= = y 3m +3 yc2 m +3
( m + 1) ( m + 1)
3 c 3
g 2 Kycm
1
 Q 2 ( m + 1)3  2 m +3
yc =  2 
 g 4 K 

3.12
Y=axn
3 = a ( 4.5) 2
A = 0.14815
Critical depth
Q
=A D (1)
g
50 2 2
= TY Y
32.2 3 3
1.5
16.187 = TY (2)

2
T 
Also Y = 0.148  
2
T = 5.196 Y 0.5 (3)

Putting Eq 3 in Eq 2,
16.187 = 5.196 Y0.5 Y 1.5
Y c = 1.765

3. 13
Slope = 1 ft / mile = 1 /(1760 x 3)
do  θ
= Y 1 − cos 
2  2
Q
=A D
g
1 (θ − sin θ )
1.5
100
= d o2.5
θ
0.5
32.2 16 
 2sin 
 2

37
 Chapter 3

0.5
 
θ − sin θ 
=2.2028 
θ 
(θ − sin θ )
 sin 
 2 
or, θ ≅ 135.2o (trial and error)
8 135.2 
or, Yc = 1 − cos =2.48
2  2 
This problem may also be solved by using Figure 3.7.

3.14
Q
= A= D 17.62
g
A = (Bo + 5y) y = (10 +2y ) y

D=
(10 + 2 y ) y
10 + 4 y
0.5
 10 y + 2 y 2 
= (10 y + 2 y ) 
17.62 2

 10 + 4 y 
Critical depth yc = 1.33

3.15
Q =15 ft3/sec
Q 15
=
Zc = = 2.64
g 32.2
Using fig. 3.7
Zc 2.64
=2.5
= 0.0472
Do 52.5
Y
= 0.215
Do
Yc = 5 × 0.215 = 1.075

3.16
Q 300
= A= D = 52.868
g 32.2
Use the notations in problem 1.1.
Assume that the critical depth occurs in the lower portion
1 θ
= A (θ − sin θ ) do2 B = 2d o sin
8 2
Using θ = 48.59 0

38
 Chapter 3

302  48.59 
=
A  π − sin 48.59=
 44.125 ft
2

2  180 
48.59
B=2 × 30sin = 58.99 ft
2

The critical depth is located in the lower portion.

Trial and error procedure

θ critical = 47.2o

D 47.2 
=
Ycritical 1 − cos
2 2 
D = 2do = 60
60
Yc = [1 − 0.916] =2.52
2

3.17
Q 10
=
Zc = = 1.762
g 32.2
Z c 1.762
= = 0.05506
Do2.5 42.5
Using Fig 3.7,
Y / Do = 0.23
Y c = 0.23 x 4 = 0.92

3.18
Q =Cd A 2 gH =0.7 ×10 y2 2 × 32.2 × 60
Q = 435.127 y2
v3 435.127 y2
=F3 =
gy3 10 × 9 32.2 × 9
F3 = 0.284 y2
y3 
y= −1 + 1 + 8 F32 
2
2  
9
y2= −1 + 1 + 8 ( 0.284 ) y22 
2

2 
y2
+ 1= 1 + 0.645 y22
4.5

= 20.25 (1 + 0.645 y22 )

y22 + 9 y2 + 20.25
12.06 y22 – 9 y2 = 0 y2 = 0.766

39
 Chapter 3

Q = 0.746 x 435.127 = 324.6 cfs

Q2 Q2
ρF = Fs1 − Fs 2= + Z1 A1 − − Z 2 A2
gA1 gA2
(324.6) 2  1 1  0.746
=  −  + 30 × 60 ×10 − × 0.746
= ×10 1364.037 ft 3
32.2 ×10  60 0.746  2
Thrust = r ρ F = 62.4 x 1364.037 = 85115.9 lb

3.19
Q = 2 x 4 = 8 ft3/sec/ft
v 2
=Fr = = 0.176
gD 32.2 × 4
Subcritical
E1 = ∆z + E2

v12 q2
+
= y1 + y2 + ∆z
2g 2 gy22
22 82
= +4 + y2 + 0.5
2 × 32.2 32.2 × 2 × y22
0.9938
=
3.562 + y2
y22
y23 − 3.562 y22 + 0.9938 =0
Y2 = 3.48
v2 = 8 / 3.48 = 2.99 ft/sec

3.20
q = 250 / 50 = 5 m3/sec/m
q2 52
E= y+ =5+ =
5.05m
2 gy 2 2 × 9.81× 52
y c= 0.67 E = 3.367 m
q = gyc3 = 9.81× 3.3673 =19.35 m3/sec/m
B min = 250 / 19.35 = 12.92 m

3.23
1.5
=F = 0.2395 subcrtical
9.81× 4
Q= 1.5 x 4 =6 m3/sec/m Q = 6 x 5 = 30 m2/s
q2 36
=
yc =
3 3 = 1.543m if there is no converging transition
g 9.81

40
 Chapter 3

q2 62
E=
y+ =
4+ =
4.114
2 gy 2 2 × 9.81× 42

y c= 0.67 E = 2.74 m

q2
yc = 3 q = 14.2 m3/sec/m
g
Min Width = 30 / 14.2 = 2.11 m

41
Chapter 4
UNIFORM FLOW

4.1
Given: Compute Yn (Normal Depth)
B= 5m
Q=5m3/s
n=0.013
S0=0.001

a) Design curves Method

nQ
Section Factor: 1 / 2 = (0.013)(5)/(0.001)1/2= AR2/3
S 0
Thus, AR / B = 2.055/58/3= 0.028
2/3 8/3

For a rectangular Channel and AR2/3/ B2/3= 0.028,

Figure 4.5 gives Yn/ B=0.128,
Thus, Yn= 0.64 m.

b)Trial and error method

We have A=BYn=5Yn (Area)
P=2Yn+B=2Yn+5(Wetted perimeter)
A 5Yn
R= =
P 2Yn + 5
Therefore, AR2/3= (5Yn )[ ]2 / 3 =2.055
5Yn
(2Yn + 5)
or, 14.62Yn–2.055(2Yn+5)2/3=0 ----------------------------------------(1)

Substituting values in Eq 1, we get the following results:

Y f(y)
0.6 -0.69
0.7 0.984
0.64 -0.05
0.645 0.037

Therefore, Yn=0.64m

c) Numerical Methods
The programs in Appendix C may be used to compute Yn.

42
 Chapter 4

4.2
Given: Compute: Yn (normal depth)
Q=50m3/s
n=0.013
B0=10m
S0=0.001
a) Design Curves Method:
b) Section Factor: nQ/S01/2= (0.013)(50) /(0.001)1/2=20.55

AR2/3 = 20.55 and AR2/3/ B8/3= 0.0443

Entering in figure 4.5 with S=2 and AR2/3/ B8/3= 0.044 we get
Yn/B0=0.145
and, Yn=(0.145)(10)
or
Yn= 1.45m
b) Trial and Error method

for Trapezoidal channel we have: A = (10 + 2Yn )Yn , and R=

(10 + 2Yn )
(10 + 2Y
n 1 + 22 )Y
n

or,
(10 + 2Yn )
Yn [(10 + 2Yn )Yn ]
2/3
AR2/3=
(10 + 2Y )2/3
=20.55
1+ 2
n
2

Rearranging the equation:

[(10 + 2Yn )Yn ]2 / 3 − 20.55(10 + 2Yn )2/3
1+ 4 = 0 -----------------{1}
By trial and error, the solution to equation 1 is:
Yn= 1.46m

c) Numerical methods
A similar result will be obtained by using the programs in appendix C to solve for the normal
depth
From the graph we get Yn= 3.6m

For the critical depth we have:

Q  A 150
=A  = =47.89
g T  9.81

or; [(b + 0.583 y ) y ]

3/ 2
[b+y(1.667)]1/2 = 47.89 for 0< Yc<4
Where, b=15, therefore:
[15 y + 0.583 y ] 2 3/ 2
=47.89
[15 + 1.667 y ]1 / 2
Solving by trial and error for y, we get
yc=2.15 m.
43
 Chapter 4

4.4
Given Q=150 m3/s
S0=2/1000
n=0.03
Compute Yn and Yc
Compute section factor: Qn/S01/2= (150)(0.03)/(0.002)1/2= 100.62
From Manning’s equation: AR2/3=100.62
For 0< y ≤4:
TT=b+y/1.5+y/2 (Top width)
AT=(b+TT)y/2=(b+b+1.1667y)y/2 (flow area)
( ) (
PT=15 + y 1 + 1.5 2 + y 1 + 2 2 )
PT=15+4.0388y (wetted perimeter)

Make a plot of AT RT 2/3 vs. y to compute the normal depth

Y AT PT RT RT2/3 ATRT2/3
2 32.33 23.08 1.40 1.25 40.41
4 69.33 31.16 2.22 1.70 117.86
3 50.25 27.12 1.853 1.51 75.81

4.5
Given:
Trapezoidal Channel 1H: 1V
b=10m
S0=0.0005
Q=60 m3/s
n=0.013 (for concrete)
Determine flow depth (normal depth)

Solution:
For a trapezoidal channel with 1H: 1V we have:
A=(b+T)y/2=(b+b+2y)/2=(b+y)y
T=b+2y
( )
P=b+2 2 y
Manning’s equation becomes: Qn/S01/2=A 5/3 P-2/3

Or,
( )
Qn/S01/2=(by+y2)5/3/{b+2 2 y }2/3
Where, Qn/S01/2= (60) (0.013)/ (0.0005)1/2=34.88
[
Then, 10 y + y 2 ] [10 + 2(
5/3
2) y ]
−2 / 3
− 34.88 = 0

44
 Chapter 4

This equation can be solved by trial and error or by using numerical methods as presented in
appendix C. The solution is yn=2.10m.

4.6
According to Manning’s equation:
AR 2/3=nQ/S01/2[ for n and S0 constants we have Q ∝ AR 2 / 3 ]
For a circular cross − section the section factor is :
2/3
 D0 2
 (θ − Sinθ )
8 / 3 (θ − Sinθ )
 8 
5/3
AR =
2/3
= 0.04496 D0
1 θD
2 0(2/3
) θ 2/3
See Table1.1 for geometric factors.
The value of θ corresponding to maximum discharge is found by equating the first derivative of AR 2/3 :
∂ ( AR 2 / 3 ) / ∂θ = 0, or

[5 / 3(θ − Sinθ ) ]
8/3
0.0496 D0
(1 − Cosθ )θ 2 / 3 − 2 / 3θ −1/ 3 (θ − Sinθ ) 5 / 3 = 0
2/3

θ 4/3

Equating the term in brackets to zero and simplifying we get : θ (1.5 − 2.5Cosθ ) + Sinθ = 0
Solving for θ 〉 0 by trial and error we get,θ = 5.278
The corresponding depth is : yn = 0.5(1 − Cos (5.278 / 2))
or , yn / D0 = 0.938

In terms of flow velocity the Manning’s equation gives:

R2/3=nV/S01/2
Then, for constant n and S0, the velocity is maximum, when R2/3 is maximum, or:
V ∝ R2/3
For a circular section: R2/3 =[1/4(1-Sinθ/θ)D0]2/3(see Table 1.1). Following the same reasoning as
for the discharge, the angle θ Corresponding to the maximum velocity is given by: ∂ (R2/3)/ ∂ θ=0
Sinθ −1 / 3
or: 2 / 3( D0 / 4) 2 / 3 (1 − ) [( Sin θ–θ Cosθ)/ θ2]=0
θ
Solving for θ results in: θm=4.493

The corresponding depth for maximum velocity is:

yn=Do/2(1-Cos4.493/2)
or, yn/D0=0.812

4.7
A8 / 3
Max(Q) ⇒ Max( ) ⇒ Min( P)
P2/3

( )
For a triangular section: P=2y 1 + s 2 where s is the lateral slope

45
 Chapter 4

Also,
A=sy2
Then,
 2 
P=2y 1 + A 4 
 y 
To find the min (P), dP/dy=0 is to be satisfied.
or, dP/dy=2(1+A2/y4) –A2/y2=0
but, A2=s2y4, then,
1+ s2 
y=1/s  
 2 
Substituting this expression in the equation for P we get:

P=2 
1+ s2  1+ s2
 =
(
2 1+ s2 ) ( )
 2  s 2 s
dP/ds=2–1/s2–1=0
or, s=1
or, θ=450x2
d2P/ds2=2/s>0 implies P is minimum.

ii. Trapezoidal section :

A=(b+sy)y --------------------------(1)
( )
P= b+2 1 + s 2 y ------------------ (2)
(
dP/dy=2 { 1 + s 2 − s} − b / y )
for minimum wetted perimeter dP/dy=0
or:
( )
b=2y( 1 + s 2 − s ) ----------------(3)
substituting 3 in 1 we have:
A=[2y( (1 + s ) − s + sy] y
2

A
or, y=
(2{ 1 + s } − s ) 2

from Eq 2, we have,
P=2y[2 (1 + s ) − s ]
2

or, P=2 (A{2 [1 + s ] − s})

2

To find s corresponding to minimum P, dP/ds=0 is to be satisfied.

2s
for A ≠ 0, we get −1 = 0
1+ s2 ( )
3
or, s= =tan300. Thus, the most efficient section for a channel is half a hexagon.
3

46
 Chapter 4

4.8
The channel having the least wetted perimeter for a given area has the maximum flow capacity.
The area and the wetted perimeter for a circular channel are:
A=1/8(θ–Sinθ) D02, P=1/2 θ D0
Solving for D0 in the equation for the area:
 8A 
D0=  
 θ − Sinθ 
Substituting in to the perimeter:

 8A 
P= θ /2  
 θ − Sinθ 
The wetted perimeter is minimum when dP/dθ=0
 θ  (8 A)
− (θ − Sinθ ) (1 − Cosθ )
1 −3 / 2
dP/dθ= 
 (θ − Sinθ ) 2  2
dP/dθ=0, when θ = π .

This corresponds to a semicircular section.

4.9
Sin 2θ 
5/3

θ − 
2 
For flow in a pipe flowing partially full that Q p = Q f 
(πθ )
2/3
in which Qp=flow for

partially full pipe and Qf=flow when pipe is full.If D,=pipe diameter, yn=normal depth and
S0=slope of the energy grade line in the case of full pipe flow (equal to the slope of the pipe
bottom in pipe angle is given by:
 2y 
θ = Cos −1 1 − n 
 D0 
Christensen’s equation for partially full pipes, based on experimental data, is given by:
 Qp 
  = 0.46 − 0.5 cos(πy n / D0 ) + 0.04(2πy n / D0 )
Q 
 f  exp
Plot yn/D0 vs. Qp/Qf using the analytical result and Christensen’s equation. Compute and plot
np/nf with respect to y/D0 assuming that n is a function of depth.

Solution:
Prove that Qp=Qf(θ–0.5Sin2θ)5/3/( π θ2/3)
a)Find an expression for the area of a circular segment for the element showed in the figure
we have:

y=RCosθ
dy=–RSinθdθ

47
 Chapter 4

The area of the segment under the element is given by:

A= ∫ 2 xdy
x2+y2=R2 therefore:
−R
(
A= ∫ 2 R 2 − y 2 dy )
−y
θ

Or, in terms of θ, A=2R2 ∫ Sin θdθ

2

Solving by integration by parts we get,

A=2R2 [θ–0.5Sin2θ]---------------------------------------(1)
Put θ in terms of yn.
When, yn<R
yn=R–RCosθ
2yn=2R(1–Cosθ)
2yn/D0=1–Cosθ
or, θ=Cos-1(1–2yn/D0)

The same equation results when yn>R.

θ=Cos-1(1–2yn/D0) --------------------------------(2)

Use Manning’s equation

Qp=
( 5/3
1 Ap S 0
1/ 2

,
)
2/3
n Pp
where Ap is given by equation1
For full-pipe flow:

Qf =
(
1 Af S0
5/3 1/ 2
)
2/3
n Pf

Then, Qp/ Qf=

(A p
5/3
Pf
2/3
) ---------------------------(3)
2/3 5/3
Pp A f
Recalling that Pp=2Rθ, Af=πr2, and Pf=2πR and substituting equations 1 and 2 into 3 we get,
(Qp/ Qf )T= (θ–0.5Sin2θ)5/3/( π θ2/3)------------------(4)
Where T refers to a theoretical result.

2.Compute np/nf
Assuming that the difference between theoretical equation 4 and experimental results
(Qp/ Qf )exp is due to a variation of n with respect to yn, we have

Qf exp=
(
1 Af S0
5/3 1/ 2
)
and, Qp exp=
5/3
1 Ap S 0
1/ 2

,
( )
2/3 2/3
nf Pf np Pp
Then,

48
 Chapter 4

(Qp/ Qf)exp =(n /n )

(A p
5/3
Pf
2/3
) ----------------------(5)
f p 2/3 5/3
Pp A f
The last term on the right hand side of Eq 5 is the same as Eq 3 and the result is given by Eq
4. Therefore,

(Qp/ Qf) exp=(nf/np) (Qp/ Qf )T

(np/ nf) exp=(Qf/Qp)exp (Qp/ Qf )T

Where, (Qp/ Qf )T is calculated from Eq 4 and (Qf/Qp)exp is calculated with Christensen’s

equation.

3. Construction of curves
Equations 4, 6 and Christensen’s are functions of yn/D0. To solve Eq 4, angle θ must be
calculated first by using Eq 2.Table1 summarizes this calculation.

Table1: Qp/ Qf , np/ nf for circular pipes as function of yn/D0

yn/D0 θ (rad) (Qp/ Qf )T (Qp/ Qf) exp (nf/np)

0.1 0.6435 0.0209 0.0168 1.2403
0.2 0.9273 0.0876 0.0679 1.2403
0.3 1.1593 0.1958 0.1537 1.2737
0.4 1.3694 0.3370 0.2731 1.2338
0.5 1.5708 0.5000 0.4200 1.1905
0.6 1.7722 0.6719 0.5821 1.1541
0.7 1.9823 0.8373 0.7415 1.1291
0.8 2.2143 0.9775 0.8779 1.1148
0.9 2.4981 1.0658 0.9679 1.1012

4.10
For the horse-shoe section the following graphical method will be used:
1. Compute the value of nQ/ S from the given data.
2. Plot a graph of y verses the section AR2/3
3. The normal depth is the value of y corresponding to the ordinate AR2/3= nQ/ S .

For this particular problem we have:

1. nQ/ S =0.03x800/(0.0005)1/2=1073.31
2. for the horse-shoe section:

y(m) A(m2) R(m) AR 2/3(m 4/3)

5 91.06 3.35 203.87
10 210.63 5.63 666.59
12 260.37 6.28 886.74
13 285.37 6.57 1001.55

49
 Chapter 4

13.5 297.87 6.71 1059.44

13.75 304.06 6.77 1087.88
15 334.94 7.06 1232.64
20 448.44 7.67 1744.09

The normal depth is yn=13.55m. This value was obtained by plotting the first and the last
columns of the previous table and taking the value corresponding to nQ/ S =1073.

4.11
Given: n=0.0125
B0=1.2m
Q=210l/s, 350l/s, 450l/s
Channel gradient: 0.67, 0.07, 0.17, 0.3 m/Km
Compute: Normal Depths.

Case1: S0=0.00067 and Q=0.21m3/s, nQ/S01/2=0.10141

AR2/3=(B0yn)5/3/(2yn+B0)2/3
Solve for yn by trial and error or by using the computer programs in Appendix C.

(1.2yn)5/3/(2yn+1.2)2/3=0.10141 or, yn=0.262m

The other cases are solved in a similar way by using the appropriate values of Q and S0.The
following Table summarizes the results.

Computation of Normal Depths for Nimes Aqueduct

Case Section Q0(m3/s) S0 nQ/ S 0 yn(m)

1 ELEVATED CHAN. 0.21 0.00067 0.10141 0.262
2 ELEVATED CHAN. 0.35 0.00067 0.16902 0.375
3 ELEVATED CHAN. 0.45 0.00067 0.21731 0.448
4 POND DU GARD 0.21 0.00007 0.31375 0.587
5 POND DU GARD 0.35 0.00007 0.5229 0.869
6 POND DU GARD 0.45 0.00007 0.67232 1.062
7 SUBTERRANEAN CH. 0.21 0.00017 0.2013 0.424
8 SUBTERRANEAN CH. 0.35 0.00017 0.3355 0.618
9 SUBTERRANEAN CH. 0.45 0.00017 0.43142 0.748
10 SUBTERRANEAN CH. 0.21 0.00030 0.1515 0.347
11 SUBTERRANEAN CH. 0.35 0.00030 0.2526 0.500
12 SUBTERRANEAN CH. 0.45 0.00030 0.32476 0.603

4.12
Given: B0=15ft
Q=150cfs
S=1.5
50
 Chapter 4

n=0.024
S0=2.5ft/mi
1mi=5280ft

Solution:
S0=2.5ft/5280ft/mi=0.000473
For steady–uniform flow the channel flow depth will be the normal depth, then we use
Manning’s equation to solve for y=yn

n Q/ S01/2 =1.49 (AR2/3)

AR2/3=0.024x150/(1.49x90.000473)1/2=111.09

1. Design curves method

Use Figure 4.5 for AR2/3/B08/3=0.081 and s=1.5 to get yn/B0=0.21 or yn=0.21x15=3.15ft

2. Trial and Error

Solve for yn by trial and error (or using a root finding computer program).
[(B0 + sy n ) y n ]5 / 3
= 111.09
[ ]
2/3
AR = 2/3
B0 + 2 y n 1 + s 2

[(15 + 1.5 y n )y n ]5 / 3 = 111.09

[15 + 2 y ]
or 2/3
n 1 + 1.5 2

or yn=3.17 ft

4.13
Given: S0=10ft/mi
n=0.045
Q=50ft3/s
Parabolic cross-section of problem 3.12
x2
y= where, P=distance between the focus and the vertex.
4P
Compute: uniform flow depth
4.5 2
Using the coordinates (4.5, 3), P is computed as P = =1.6875
4(3)
x2
Then, the equation of the parabolic section is: y =
6.75
Also: A=(2/3)Ty, T=2x, P=T+(8/3)y2/T
or, A=0.1975x3
P=2x+0.02926x3
nQ/(1.49S01/2)=(0.045)(50)/{(1.49)(0.001891/2)}=34.7348 -----------------------(1)

51
 Chapter 4

A5 / 3 0.06698 x 5
and 2 / 3 = ----------------------------(2)
P (
2 x + 0.02926 x 3
2/3
)
Equating 1 and 2 and solving for x we get,

x=4.9336 ft

x2
Finally, yn= or yn= 3.606 ft
6.75

4.14
Given:
Circular cross section
D0=8ft
S0=1ft/m
Q=30ft3/s
Concrete lined
Compute: flow depth, y

Solution: Assume steady-uniform flow, therefore y=yn

S0=1/5280=0.000189
n=0.013(from table4.1)
nQ/(1.49S01/2)=(0.013)(30)/(1.49)(0.000189)1/2=19.019

1. Design curves

Using Figure 4.5 for AR2/3/D08/3=19.019/88/3=0.0742 we get yn/ D0=0.33 or yn=0.33(8) =2.64 ft.

2. Numerical solution

Expressing AR 2/3
in terms of the angle θ we get,
[1 / 8(θ − Sinθ )D ]
0
2 5/3
= 19.019
((1 / 2)θD0 )
2/3

The solution is:

D0  θ
θ = 2.46rad , which corresponds to 1 − Cos  =2.64 ft. Therefore, yn = 2.64 ft
2  2
4.15
Given:
Sewer of problem 3-15
D0=5ft
S0=2ft/mi=0.00038
Q=15ft3/s
Concrete lined
Compute: Normal depth

52
 Chapter 4

Solution:
AR2/3= nQ/(1.49S01/2) = (0.014)(15)/(1.49)(0.00038)1/2 = 7.23

1. Design curves method

Use Figure 4.5 with AR2/3/D08/3=7.23/58/3=0.09891 and get, yn/ D0=0.39 or yn=1.95 ft

2. Numerical solution

Expressing AR 2/3
in terms of the angle θ we get
[1 / 8(θ − Sinθ )D ] 0
2 5/3

=7.23
((1 / 2)θD0 ) 2/3

The solution is:

D0  θ
θ = 2.6861 rad , which corresponds to 1 − Cos  =1.94 ft. Therefore, yn =1.94 ft.
2  2
4.16
Given:
Q=28m3/s
S=1
B0=8m
S0=0.0001
y=3m
Compute y if Q is doubled.

Solution:
Assuming steady-uniform flow compute Maning’s coefficient using data for Q=28m3/s and
Manning’s equation.
Assuming constant n for the new flow we can compute the new flow depth.
n= (AR2/3S01/2)/Q
For a trapezoidal channel,Table1.1 gives:
A=(B0+syn)yn=(8+3)3=33
(B0 + sy n ) y n = (8 + 3)3 =2.00
R=
(B0 + 2 y n 1 + s 2
2/3
) ( 8 + 2(3) 2
1/2
)
and n=33(2) (0.0001) /28=0.0187
Section Factor for 56m3/s:
nQ (0.0187)(28 x 2)
AR2/3= = =104.76
S0 0.0001

1. Design Curves method

AR 2 / 3
Use Figure 4.5 for 8/3
= 0.41 and s = 1.0 to get yn/B0=0.56
B0
or, yn=0.56x8=4.48m

2. Numerical solution
Solving for yn from

53
 Chapter 4

[(8 + (1) yn ) yn ]5 / 3 − 104.76(8 + (2) yn )

2/3
2 = 0, we obtain
yn = 4.40m

4.17
Given:
Long rectangular channel
Change in flow depth from 4ft to 5ft
Determine: Percentage change of rate of discharge.
From Manning’s equation: Q= (1.49/n)AR2/3S01/2

At 4ft: Q1= (1.49/n)

( By1 )
5/3
S01/2
(B + 2 y1 ) 2/3

At 5ft: Q2= (1.49/n)

(By1 )5 / 3 S01/2
(B + 2 y1 )2 / 3
5/3 2/3
Q1  y1   B + 2 y2 
Then =   
Q2  y 2   B + 2 y1 
Assuming a wide rectangular channel:
B+2y2 ≈ B
B+2y1 ≈ B ,

Then, Q1/Q2= (0.8)5/3=0.689

or , Q1/Q2=68.9 % i.e., Q1 is 68.9 % of Q2

4.18
Assuming that the flow must be controlled by improving the channel conditions two possible
solutions are:

a) Improve Lining
The conveyance of the channel can be increased by reducing the channel resistance. If the
channel is lined, for example with concrete, the Manning’s coefficient will decrease and the
channel capacity will be increased. Different lining processes should be considered.

b) Increasing the flow area.

If the cross-section area is increased, the capacity of the channel will increase. For example, a
trapezoidal section could be a good choice. If any case, the cost of excavation and other local
conditions will dictate the viability of this option.

4.19
Given
Rectangular Channel
B=4m
Q=9m3/s

54
 Chapter 4

S0=0.005
n=0.014
Determine if the flow is sub-critical or supercritical

Solution:
i) Compute Critical Depth:
yc= 3 Q 2 /( gB 2 ) (see problem 3.11)

yc= 3 9 /(9.81x16 ) =0.802m

ii) Assume steady-uniform flow and compute the normal depth:
nQ
AR2/3=
S0
2/3
AR =1.065
(By n )5 / 3
or, = 1.065
( B + 2 y n )2 / 3
or, yn=0.5m

3) Compute yn and yc
In this case yn < yc

4.20
Given:
Trapezoidal channel
B0=20ft
s=1.5
Q=220cfs
S0=0.00032
n=0.022
Determine if the flow is subcritical or super critical.

Solution:
i) Compute critical depth:
Section Factor Z=Q / g =220/ 32.2 =38.77

a) Design Curves Method

Use Figure 3.7 for Z/B02.5=0.0217 and s=1.5
to obtain, yc/B0=0.076 or yc=1.52ft

b) Solving by trial and error (or using numerical methods)

Solve for A D =38.77 or:

55
 Chapter 4

[(B0 + sy c )y c ]3 / 2 = 38.77
(B0 + 2sy c )1 / 2
[(20 + 1.5 y c ) y c ]3 / 2 = 38.77 or,yc= 1.49ft
(20 + 2(1.5) y c )1 / 2
ii) Compute Normal Depth:
nQ 0.022(220)
Section factor: or, =181.59
1.49 S 0 1.49 0.00032
Design Curves:
Use Figure 4.5 for AR2/3/B08/3 = 0.0616 and s=1.5 to get yn/b0=0.18 or yn=(0.18)(20)=3.6ft

Trial and Error:

Solve for yn from
[(B0 + sy n )y n ]5 / 3 − 181.59(B0 + 2 y n 1 + 1.5 2 )
2/3
=0

or, [(20 + 1.5 y n ) y n ]

5/3
(
− 181.59 20 + 2 y n 1 + 1.5 2 ) 2/3
=0

yn=3.61 ft

iii) Compare yn and yc

The flow is subcritical as yn > yc .

4.21
Given:
Trapezoidal Channel
Q=15m3/s
B0=10m
S=2
yn=2m
Compute the flow depth for Q=20m3/s.

Solution:
Assuming steady-uniform flow and determine Manning’s coefficient from the data for 15m3/s:
A=(B0+syn)yn=28m2
 (B0 + sy n ) 
R= y n  =1.478m
 B + 2 y (1 + s 2 ) 
 0 n 
2/3 1/2 1/2
n=AR S0 /Q=n/S0 =2.422
for, Q=20m3/s, AR2/3=nQ/ S01/2=2.422x20=48.44 or,
[(10 + 2 yn ) yn ]5 / 3 − 48.44(10 + 2 (5) yn ) 2 / 3 = 0
or, yn = 2.34m

56
 Chapter 4

The flow depth yn for Q=20m3/s is 2.34m

4.22
Given:
Compound Channel S0=0.001
n=0.021(main channel)
n=0.039 (flood plains)
Compute i) Equivalent n (ne)
ii) Velocity-head coefficient ( α )
iii) Slope of the energy grade line (Sf)
Assuming that the flow is 5m, use Eq 4.35 for ne and 4.47 for α . Alternatively, Eq 4.36, 4.37 or
4.38 may be used to estimate ne.

The following Table shows the computations for the compound channel. It has been subdivided
into sub-sections 1, 2 and 3.

Computation of ne and α for compound channel

Section ni Pi Ai Ri Ki Pini3/2 Ki3/Ai2

1 0.021 30 106 3.533 11708.88 0.091 1.429x108
2 0.039 7.236 6 0.829 135.77 0.056 6.952x104
3 0.039 7.236 6 0.829 135.77 0.056 6.952x104
∑ 44.47 118 11980.42 0.203 1.430x108

ne= ( ∑ Pini3/2/ ∑ Pi)2/3=(0.203/44.47)2/3

ne=0.028
α = ( ∑ {Ki3/Ai2}) ( ∑ Ai)2/ Ki=1.16
The discharge should be known in order to compute Sf using Eq 4.48. However, if steady-
uniform flow is assumed, the compound channel will have Sf=S0

Thus, Sf = S0 = 0.001

4.23
Given: Rectangular channel
B=12ft
y=3ft
n=0.035
So=0.001
Compute: i) Critical depth (yc) for the flow corresponding to y=3 ft
ii) Determine if the flow is critical, subcritical or super critical.
i) Compute the flow rate:
Q=(1.49/n)AR2/3S01/2=(1.49/0.035)(12x3){(12x3/(12+6)}2/3(0.001)1/2
Q=76.93cfs or q=76.93/12=6.41cfs/ft

57
 Chapter 4

q2
The critical depth is yc= 3
g
6.412
yc= 3 =1.085 ft
32.2
As yc < y, flow is subcritical.

58
Chapter 5
GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW

5.1
Given:
dy S o − S f
Gradually varied flow equation: =
dx 1 − F 2
Wide rectangular channel
Manning and Chezy formulae
Prove that:
1 − ( yn y ) 3
10
dy
a) = So using Manning’s formula
1 − ( yc y )
3
dx
and
1 − ( yn y )
3
dy
b) = So using Chezy’s formula
1 − ( yc y )
3
dx
Solution:
The geometric properties for a wide rectangular channel can be approximated by,
A = by
P=b
R = by/b = y and
D=y
Therefore, AR2/3=by5/3 and the Froude number can be expressed as
Q2
F2 =
2 gb 2 y 3
a) Using Manning’s equation the slope of the energy grade line for gradually varied flow is
nQ 2 nQ 2
Sf = = (1)
AR 2 3 b 2 y 10 3
Also, for uniform flow
nQ
S o = 2 10 3
b yn
or
n 2Q 2
S o y 10
n
3
= (2)
b2
When the flow is critical, the Froude number is one. Thus,
Q2
Fc = 2 3 = 1
2

2b gy c
and

59
 Chapter 5

F2
= F 2 = ( yc y )
3
2
(3)
Fc
Substituting Eqs 1, 2 and 3 in the gradually varied flow equation we get,
dy S o − S o ( y c y )
=
1 − ( yc y )
3
dx
dy S o (1 − ( y n y ))
10 3
or =
1 − ( yc y )
3
dx
b) If Chezy’s equation is used, then
= (by ) y 1 2
Q
AR 1 2 = 12
CS f
Q2 Q2
Or, S f = and S o =
C 2b 2 y 3 C 2 b 2 y n3
Q2
or, S o y n3 =
C 2b 2
Combining the expressions for Sf and So we get
S f = So ( yn y )
3

Therefore, the gradually varied flow equation becomes

(
dy S o 1 − ( y n y )
=
3
)
1 − ( yc y )
3
dx

5.2
Consider the control volume:

The momentum equation establishes that the sum of forces acting on the control volume must be
equal to the net change in momentum inside the control volume, For the X-direction this is
expressed mathematically as,
ρ (Q + dQ )(V + dV ) − ρQV = F1 − F2 − F f + W sin θ (1)
Where,
F1 =Pressure force at section 1
F2 = Pressure force at section 2
Ff = Force due to friction
W = Weight of the fluid inside the control volume
Assuming a hydrostatic pressure distribution, the pressure forces may be expressed as:

F1 = γ y A
(
F2 = γ y + dy A + γ ) dAdy
2
(
≈ γ y + dy A )
and the friction force as
F f = τ o Pdx = γRS f Pdx = γAS f dx (see Eq 4.7)

60
 Chapter 5

where,
γ = specific weight,
y = location of the centroid of the cross section perpendicular to the flow,
τo= shear stress at the channel wall,
P=wetted perimeter and,
Sf= slope of energy grade line.

Substituting the expression for F1,F2 and Ff into Eq 1, simplifying and neglecting second order
terms like dx dV we get,
QdV Vq
+ dx = Ady − AS f dx + AS o dx (2)
g g
Vqdx
Where, W sin θ was substituted by γAS o dx and is the contribution of the lateral flow to
g
the change in momentum inside control volume.

Further simplification leads to:

dy  qQ  Q dV
=  S o − S f − 2  − (3)
dx  gA  gA dx
 AdQ − QdA 
But, dV =   ; therefore, the last term on the right hand side becomes
 A2 
2
Q Qq Q dA
dV = 2
− 3 (4)
gA gA gA Dx
Recalling that for a prismatic channel
dA dA dy dA
= and =B
dx dy dx dy
Equation (4) becomes,
Q Qq Q 2 dy
dv = − B
gA gA gA 3 dx
substituting Eq 5 in Eq 3 and solving for dy/dx we get,
dy S o − S f − 2qQ gA
2 2

= (6)
dx Q2B
1−
gA 3

dy S o − S f − 2qQ gA
2

or, = (7)
dx 1− F 2
where, F is the Froude number. When q is zero, Eqs 6 and 7 become the differential equation for
gradually varied flow at constant discharge without lateral flow.

61
 Chapter 5

5.3
a)

Comment: At the upstream reservoir yRes>yc and in channel 1 y<yc ⇒ There is a control section
near reservoir and channel 1 is steep.
Channel 2 is horizontal ⇒ y n = ∞ and S o < S c ⇒ The flow must go from supercritical to
subcritical through a hydraulic jump. At the free flow the critical depth must occur again.

b)

Comment: At the upstream reservoir yRes> yn >yc ⇒ the control section is downstream and
channel 1 is mild with subcritical flow.
In channel 2, the flow becomes super critical after the slope changes from mild to steep. Because
the down stream reservoir is very high a hydraulic jump is formed to raise the water level over
the critical depth.

62
 Chapter 5

c)

Comment:
Both channels are mild (yn >yc always)
The water profile crosses the critical depth just before the downstream reservoir.

d)

Comment:
Both channels are mild (yn <yc always)
There is a control section near the upstream reservoir.
A hydraulic jump forms close to the down stream reservoir.

5.4
Analyze a sluice gate as a flow control device from a lake.
Assume that the channel bottom slope is
i) Mild
ii) Steep

Notation: NDL=Normal depth line, CDL= Critical depth line

The problem will be illustrated with several possible combinations of channel slope and gate
openings close and far from the reservoir. The more appropriate location for the gate will be
suggested based on the analysis.

63
 Chapter 5

MILD CHANNEL
a) Gate located ‘far’ from the lake outlet. Gate opening less than the critical depth.

The control section is located at the gate.

b) Gate far from the lake outlet. Gate opening greater than the critical depth.
In this case the outflow from the lake does not depend on the gate opening.

Cases (a ) and (b) will be the same for a gate near the lake. The water level at the gate position is
very close to the reservoir level, therefore; if the gate is located very far from the reservoir, the
size of it will increase considerably. From this point of view to locate the gate near the reservoir
is more convenient.

STEEP CHANNEL
a) Gate near the lake outlet. Gate opening less than the normal depth.

There is a control section at the gate.

64
 Chapter 5

b) Gate near the lake outlet. Gate opening greater than the normal depth.

The control section is at the gate.

c) Gate far from channel entrance. Gate opening less than the normal depth.

There is a control section at the channel entrance.

d) Gate far from channel entrance. Gate opening greater than the normal depth.

There is a control section at the channel entrance.

From the cases presented before it can be concluded that the more appropriate location for the
gate in order to establish a control section is near the reservoir for both steep and mild channels.

65
 Chapter 5

5.5
Given:
Manning’s formula
Gradually varied flow equation
Show that dy dx → ∞ as y → 0

Solution
From,
n 2Q 2
Manning’s equation: S f =
A2 R 4 3
Q2 Q2B
Froude: F 2 = 2 = 2
A gD A g
For a wide rectangular channel, we have R ≈ y and A=By,
Then,

n 2Q 2
Sf =
B 2 y 10 3
Q2
and F2 =
B2 y3g
Substituting the expression for Sf and F2 into the gradually varied flow equation we get:
dy
=
( )
B 2 y 10 3 − n 2 Q 2 g
dx ( )
B 2 y 3 g − Q 2 y1 3
Taking the limit when y → 0 the result is
lim y →0 (dy dx ) = ∞

5.6
Given:
5m wide rectangular channel (concrete-lined)
So =0.004
n = 0.013
Ho= 2m (lake level)
Compute:
i) Q in the canal (neglecting head losses)
ii) Q if So is changed to 0.001 and head losses are 0.1V 2 2 g .
i)Compute Q
1) Assume steep or critical slope, then
2
y c = µ o = 4/3 m= 1.33 m
3
and q 2 = y o3 g
or, q = y o3 g = 4.822 m3/m-s

66
 Chapter 5

Q= qb = 24.111 m3/s

2) Compute the critical slope

1
Q = Ac Rc2 3 S c1 2
n
 Qn (2 y c + b )2 3 
2

or, S c =  
 (by c )
53

 0.3134(8 / 3 + 5)2 3 
2

Sc =  
 (5 × 4 / 3)5 3 
Sc= 0.00266

3) Compare So and Sc
In this case So > Sc , then the canal is steep and the flow will be,
Q = 24.11m3/s
ii) If So =0.001 and K= 0.1 (minor loss co-efficient)
then,
1) Compute yc by using the energy equation at the entrance,
V2 V2
H o = yc + + 0.1 (assuming steep channel)
2g 2g
H o = y c + 1.1 y c 2
y c = 1.29 m

2) Compute Q for steep channel,

q = y c3 g
q = 4.589 m3/m-s
Q= qb= (4.589)(5) =22.945m3/s
Q=22.945m3/s →This is the maximum discharge in the canal
3) Compute the critical slope
n 2 Q 2 (2 y c + b )4 3
Sc =
(byc )10 3
Sc =
(0.08897 )(12.577 )
499.49
S c = 0.00224

4) Compare S o and S c
In this case S o 〈 S c , then the channel slope is mild and there is not control section at the
entrance. Therefore, the previous analysis does not apply.

67
 Chapter 5

We can assume that the flow will reach normal depth near the lake then; Q is given by
Manning’s uniform flow formula. The flow depth can be obtained combining the energy and
Manning’s equation.
Doing this we get:

1+ k 4 3
H = y+ R So
2 gn 2
43
1+ k by 
H = y+   So
 2y + b 
2 gn 2
Substituting H = 2m, k = 0.1 b = 5, n = 0.013 and g = 9.81
And solving for y we get the normal depth as
y n = 1.668m
Q is obtained from Manning’s equation and the answer is

Q = 20.33 m 3 s
5.7
Lakes A and B are connected by a 10m-wide rectangular channel.
n = 0.013
S o = 0.001
L = 2000m
Sketch the water surface profile in the channel if:
i) Lake B is at EL. 155
ii) Lake B is at EL. 161
Computation of critical depth

2
yc = Ho (Wide rectangular channel)
3
H o = 168 − (158 − (0.001)(2000 )) = 8m
yc = 5.33m
Unit discharge for critical flow:
q = gy c 3 = 9.81(5.33)3

q = 38.58 m 3 s − m

Total discharge: Qc = Bq = 3.77 m 3 s

The critical slope is: Sc =

nQc 2
=
(0.013)(385.77 )2
A2 R 2 3 23
(10 × 5.33)2  53.3 
 10 + 10.67 

68
 Chapter 5

S c = 0.0025
Given that S c 〉 S o the channel is classified as MILD.

To get the uniform flow conditions we solve for y n

From:
1
Q = AR 2 3 S o1 2 (Manning’s equation)
n
V2 V2
And Ho = y + +k (energy at the entrance)
2g 2g
Assuming k = 0 (zero entrance losses) and using V = Q A
We have
Q2 R 4 3So
Ho = y + = y+
2 gA 2 2n 2 g
R 4 3So
Solving for y: y = Ho −
2ng
Or
43
 By  So
y = H o −  
 B + 2y  2 gn 2
Solving for y (by trial and error or by numerical methods) one gets
y n = 6.77 m
The flow profile is now sketched knowing the normal and critical depths in the channel.

In both cases, a M2 curve is produced.

For EL. 155 a free-fall condition at the downstream end exists.

5.8.
Given: Concrete-lined channel
N = 0.013
B = 15m (rectangular shape)
L = 15000m
Reservoir Elevations: Water surface = 129.65m
Bottom = 121.4m

i) Determine Q, sketch and label the water surface profile.

S o = 0.001 , Water elevation at downstream reservoir (y) is 109m

yc = 2 3 H o H o = 129.65 − 121.4 = 8.25m

69
 Chapter 5

yc = 5.5m (Critical depth)

q = g y c3 = 9.81(5.5) 2
3
q = 40.4 m (unit charge for critical depth)
s−m
Qc = qB = 606 m 3 s (Critical flow)
The critical slope is

n 2 Qc n 2 Q c2 p 4 3
Sc = =
AR 4 3 A10 3

where, p = wetted perimeter = 26m

A = area = 82.5 m 2
(0.013) 2 (606) 2 (2 × 5.5 + 15) 4 3
Sc =
(15 × 5.5)10 3
S c = 0.00196

S c 〉 S o = is a mild channel

Combining Manning’s equation for uniform flow and the energy equation between the
reservoir and the channel entrance we get:
R 4 3 So
H o = yn + (Equation 5.18 neglecting entrance losses)
2n 2 g
43 0.001
Or  15 y n 
8.25 = y n +   2 × 9.81 × 0.013 2
 15 + 2 y n 

Solving for y n we get y n = 6.634m

Then, Q = A(R )2 3 S o
1 12
n
2
99.52  99.52  3
 (0.001)
Q= 12

0.013  28.27 

Q = 560 m 3 s

ii). S o = 0.008

70
 Chapter 5

In this case the channel slope is STEEP, S c 〈 S o . Thus, the discharge is given by
Qc = 606 m 3 s the normal depth is obtained directly from Manning’s equation

nQc
AR 2 3 =
So
23
 15 y n 
15 y n =   = 88.08
15 + 2 y n 
Or y n = 3.35m

5.9
Start with the total energy equation:
αV 2
H = Ζ+ y+ [1]
2g
The change in energy along the channel is:
d  αV 2 
dH dΖ dY
= + +   [2]
dX dX dX 2 gdX
dΖ
Recall that = − S o (channel bottom slope)
dX
dH
= S f (Energy grade line slope)
dX
And Q = VA

Then for L=1, equation 2 becomes:

d  Q 2 A 2 
+  
dY
− S f = −So + [3]
dX 2 gdX
For constant discharge along the channel we have:

d  Q 2 A 2  2 d 1 A 2 
 =Q  
2 gdX 2g dX
d 1 A 2 
Or   = −2 A − 3 dA
dX dX

But A = f ( y, x ) (the cross-sectional are is also a function of y)

Therefore,

71
 Chapter 5

dA dA dA
= + dY dX (Chain rule)
dX dX dY
Also
B = dA dY Then, equation 3 becomes:
Q 2  dA dA dY 
− S f = − S o + dY dX −  + 
gA3  dX dY dX 
Or:
V 2 dA
So − S f +
dY gA dX
=
dX BV 2
1−
gA
5.10
For a wide rectangular, derive expressions for the channel bottom slope to be mild, step and
critical.
By definition a mild channel satisfy S c 〈 S o and a steep channel satisfy Sc 〉 So

Therefore, we look for an expression for S c in the terms of the critical flow conditions and
determine the channel type (mild or steep) using these inequalities.

For a wide rectangular channel the hydraulic radius can be approximated as:
R≅ y
From Manning’s equation we get,

1.49
Q= AR 2 3 S c1 2 Where Q = qB
n
For critical flow conditions
qc B =
1.49
(Byc ) yc 3 2 S c1 2
n
2
 q n 
Finally, Sc =  c 
1.49 yo 5 3 
The critical flow depth and discharge may be computed using the methods of chapter 3.

5.11
Given:
Chute spillway blasted through rock (not lined) S o = 0.075(1.5 ft 20 ft )
Water level at the entrance 10ft above the channel bottom.

Compute: Flow depth and discharge in the chute.

72
 Chapter 5

Solution:
Assume control at channel entrance, then:

yo = 2 3H o = 6.667 ft (Critical depth)

qc = gy c 3 = 97.68 ft 3 s − ft
23
 By 
Qc = qc B = 1.49(By )  S c1 2
 2 yc + B 
Simplifying and solving for S c we get:

2
 q n 
Sc =  c  ( See problem 5.10)
1.49 yc 5 3 
S c = 0.0094〈〈 S o (Using n=0.035 for blasted rock).

The normal depth is given by Manning’s equation as:

23
 By n 
 (By ) =
nqB

 2 yn + B  1.49 S o
The result is y n = 1.147 f = y n 〈 y 〈 yc ⇒

The channel is STEEP the flow is supercritical and the profile type is S2.

5.12
a.

b.

73
 Chapter 5

c.

d.

74
 Chapter 5

e.

5.13

5.14.
Given:
Trapezoidal channels
Q = 800cfs
N = 0.028
S=1
B = 15 ft
Compute: y c and y n sketch the water surface profile.
For the channel 1: S o = 0.0005

75
 Chapter 5

Use Manning’s equation to get the normal depth:

nQ
= AR 2 3 ⇒
(0.028)(800) = AR 2 3
1.49 S o1 2 1.49(0.0005)1 2
Or AR 2 3 = 672.32

Enter the design curve with

AR 2 3 672.32
= = 0.491
b8 3 (15)8 3
To get y n b = 0.6 ⇒ y n = 0.6 × 15 = 9 ft
Or solve for y n from:

( )
672.32 = [(15 + y n ) y n ]5 3 / 15 + 2 z y n
23

The result is: y n = 9.09 ft

To compute the critical depth, solve for y c from:

[(15 + yc )yc ]3 2 [15 + 2 yc ]−1 2 = 800 = 140.98

32.2
The solution is: yc = 4.05 ft

(Alternatively, you can use design curve for critical depth).

For channel 2 S o = 0.05

Normal depth: AR 2 3 =
nQ
⇒
(0.028)(800) = 67.232
1.49 S o1 2 1.49 0.05
Solve for y n from:

( )
[(15 + y n )y n ]5 3 / 15 + 2 2 y n 2 3 = 67.232
y n = 2.46 ft
In channel 1 the flow is sub critical and in channel 2 the flow is supercritical.

76
 Chapter 5

5.15
y n for channel 1 was computed in problem 5-14
y n For channel 2 is obtained from:

[ ]
[(15 + y n )y n ]5 3 15 + 2 2 y n
23
=
nQ
1.49 S o
nQ
In this case, = 867.96 and y n = 10.40 ft.
1.49 S o

Channel 1 has supercritical flow and channel 2 has subcritical flow.

77
Chapter 6
COMPUTATION OF GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW

6.1
The forces acting on the control volume shown in the next figure are:

F1 = µA y  Hydrostatic force at section 1

∂x
F2 + F3 = µA y + µA ∆x  Hydrostatic force at Section 2
∂x
Ff = T0P∆x = µA∆xSf  Friction force
Wx = µA∆x sinθ = µA∆xS0  Weight component in the x-direction

The sum of forces gives

∑Fx = F1 – F2 – F3 – Ff + Wx

dy
∑Fx = µA∆x (- -Sf + S0)
dx
According to the principle of conservations of momentum, the sum of the forces acting on the
control volume plus the net rate of momentum is flux must be equal to the time rate of change of
momentum inside the control volume.

The net rate of momentum influx produces

78
 Chapter 6

d
ρAV2 - ρ(AV2 + (AV2) ∆x)
dx
Or
d
ρ (AV2) ∆x
dx

The time rate of change of momentum is

∂
( ρAV∆x )
∂t

Then, the principle of conservation of momentum becomes:

∂ µ −µ ∂ dy
( AV∆x ) = ( AV 2 )∆x − µA∆x ( + Sf − S0 )
∂t g g ∂x dx

∂ µ
For steady-state conditions, ( AV∆x ) = 0
∂t g

1 ∂ dy
Then, ( AV 2 ) = A (S0 - - Sf) --------------(1)
g ∂x dx

∂
Expanding the derivative ( AV 2 ) we get,
∂x
2
∂( AV ) 2
∂A dy ∂(d )
=V 2 +A A2
∂x ∂y dx ∂x

∂A dy ∂A dy dy
= V2 - 2V2 = -V2 B
∂y dx ∂y dx dx

Then Eq 1becomes:

− V 2 dy dy
- B = A(S0 − − Sf ) )
g dx dx

Or

− Q 2 B dy dy
3
= (S0 − − Sf )
gA dx dx

79
 Chapter 6

Solving for dy/dx :

dy S 0 − Sf
=
dx Q 2B
1−
gA 3

This is same as Eq 6.3 with α = 1.

6.2
Given
Rectangular Channel
10 mts. Wide
Concrete Lined
S0 = 0.01
Constant take upstream, neglect entrance losses.
H0 = 6m

Compute : (i) Flow depth 800 m downstream

(ii) Distance where y = 2.5 m

Method of solution : Direct Step

Mannin’s coefficient : n = 0.013 for concrete

From example 5.3 : y0 = 4m

Q = 250.6 m3/5
Steep Channel
yn = 2.37 m
The water surface profiles have critical depth at the entrance. A S2 curve will develop from the
entrance to the normal depth.

Table P6.2 shows the detailed computations of the flow profile by Direct Step method. These
computations may be easily made using a spreadsheet program.

80
 Chapter 6

The flow depth at 800 m downstream of the lake is 2.4/m. The flow depth will be 2.5 m at 470
m from the lake.
Table P6.2 – Direct Step Method

6.3

Given

Trapezoidal channel

S0 = 0.001

Q = 75 m3/s

B0 = 50m

s = 1.5

Control at downstream end that raises the water depth to 12 m.

n = 0.025

Determine : Amount by which the channel banks must be raised along its length.

Solution Compute the critical path.

81
 Chapter 6

Q
=A D
g

75 [(50 + 1.5 y 0 )y 0] 2
= 1
9.81
(50 + 1x1.5 y 0 ) 2

Solving for y0 we get, y0 = 0.608 m

2
nQ
Compute the normal depth: = AR 3
S0
5

(0.025 )(75) [(50 + 1.5 y n )y n ] 3

= 2
0.001
(50 + 2 1 + 1.5 2 y n ) 3
The normal depth, yn = 10106 m
y0<yn => Mild channel. The new backwater curve is M1.
Table P6.3 shows the computations of the new profile. The last column (Dh) is the minimum
distance by which the banks must be raised if the flow was uniform before the construction of
the central structure.
A freeboard must be provided for safety reasons. The water depth will be normal at 11.8 km
upstream from the central structure.

82
 Chapter 6

6.4

Given:

5 km long canal with free over fall at the downstream end.

Y0 = 4m (at the fall)
n = 0.013
V2
Entrance loss = 0.2
2g
B0 = 8.0 m
s = 1.5
S0 = 0.0001
Determine : The minimum water level held in the lake for these conditions.

Solution : Compute the channel discharge using the critical depth relation

Q
A D =
g

Where A = (8+4x1.5)4 = 56

(8 + 4 x1.5)4
D = = 2.8
8 + 2 x 4 x1.5

And Q = 56 2.8 9.81

Q = 293.49 m3/s

Table P6.4 shows the computations of the flow profile using Standard Step Method.

The water depth downstream of the entrance section is 6.34m. Using the velocity-head of this
section the local losses are :

V2
0.2 = (0.2)(0.356) = 0.071
2g

The minimum water level in the lake is :

Hlake = 6.34 + 0.07 = 6.41 m

83
Chapter 6

84
 Chapter 6

6.5
Given
Natural stream with the following cross section:
n = 0.035
Q = 80 m3/s
Flow depth at a bridge downstream = m
S0 = 0.0002

Determine : Flow depth 3.0 km upstream of the bridge.

Solution:
First, determine the type of flow profile by comparing the normal depth, critical depth
and the water elevation at the bridge.
For the normal depth, we solve for yn from
S
3
nQ A
= 2
S0
P3
where
nQ (0.035)(80)
= = 198
S0 0.0002
Then
[(10 + 2 yn ) yn ]1.667
= 198 assu min g yn < 5m
(10 + 2 5 yn ) 0.6667
The solution is yn = 4.833 m
For the critical depth we solve,

Q
A√D =
g

Or
3

[10 + 2y 0 )y 0 ] 2
1
= 25.54 assuming y0 < 5
[10 + 2 x 2y 0 ] 2

Or, y0 = 1.662 m
Given that ybridge > yu > y0, the channel is MILD and the curve is M1 type.

Table P6.5 shows the computations of the backwater flow profile using Standard Step method.
At 3km upstream from the bridge, the water depth is y = 7.46 m

85
 Chapter 6

6.14
Given : The tailrace system of a hydropower plant shown in the next figure, with

Q = 1688m3/5

Downstream water elevation = 504.00 m.

Determine : The water level in each manifold.

86
 Chapter 6

The system was divided into 7 sections. Table 1 shows the channel properties for each section.
The following assumptions are made to solve this problem.
1. All channels and tunnels are concrete-lined with n = 0.013
2. The transitions are assumed rectangles in cross-section.
3. The horse-shoe section is “standard with D = 18 m (see figure below)
4. The flow through each turbine is the same : Q = 1688/2
or Q = 844 m3/s
Standard horse-shoe section.

Table 1: Channel Properties

Channel N2 and Upstream Downstream
L (m) S0 Q (m3/s)
section Elev. (m) Elev. (m)
1 C-C 492.56 492.10 502.92 0.000915 1688
2 B-B 496.52 492.56 137.16 0.028871 1688
3 B-B 496.52 496.52 97.54 0.0 1688
4 Transition 2 488.50 496.52 122.0 -0.06245 844

87
 Chapter 6

5 Horse-shoe 2 489.50 188.90 573.0 .0001047 844

6 Transition 1 488.90 496.52 198.0 -0.03848 844
7 Horse-shoe 1 489.50 488.90 405.0 0.001431 844

TRANSITIONS GEOMETRY

The backwater profile is started at compound section A-A with a water depth of 11.9m of the
weir. The computations are carried out upstream using Standard Step Method as shown in Table
2. This corresponds to channel N2 1 in Table 1.

The energy and continuity equations are used at the junction of Channel 1 and channel 2 to
obtain the elevation at the beginning of channel 2, as follows:

CHANNEL FUNCTION ANALYSIS.

Energy E1 = E2 + Losses
2 2
VA V
EA+yA+ = EB+yB+(1+k) B --------- (1)
2g 2g

88
 Chapter 6

Continuity : QA = QB
VAAA = VBAB = Q --------- (2)
Assuming negligible losses at the junction (k=0) and combining Eq. 1 and Eq. 2, we get,
2 2
QA 1 V
YA+ 2
= Z B + y B + B = H B ----- (3)
2g AA 2g

H2 is known from the last line in Table 2:

HB = 504.275 m
If the bottom surface at the junction is continuous we have,
EA = EB = 492.56 m
Then YA can be obtained from Eq. 3 as
YA = 11.607 m
and AA = 1158.37 m2
VA = 1.457 m/s
Table 3 shows the computation of the water profile in channel 2 beginning with YA = 11.607m.
Table 4 continues the computations for channel 3 (horizontal channel). The standard step
method was used in both cases.

An energy analysis similar to the one made for the junction was made for the branch where
channel 3 joins channels 4 and 6. The details are as follows:-

Energy Equation (neglecting losses):

2
VB
ZB + YB + = HA ----------- (4)
2g

Vc 2
ZC + YC+ = HA ----------- (5)
2g
Continuity Equation :
QA = QB + QC ---------- (6)
and
QB = QC = QA/2 ---------- (7)
From Eq. 4 :

89
 Chapter 6

2
QB
YB + 2
= HA-ZB ------------ (8)
2gAB
Using QB = 844 m3/s and HA = 504.288 m and ZB = 496.52 m from the last section of table 4, to
solve for YB in eq. 8, we get :
YB = 7.706 m
Similarly we have YA = 7.706 m. There are the downstream depth for channels 4 and 6.
Assuming that the width of the downstream section in the rectangular transitions is equal to the
top width of the main channel of section B-B we have, for y=9.45m, the width is 99.23m. The
width of the upstream end of the transition is equal to the diameters of the standard horse-shoe
section, this is 18 m. The channel is increased linearly between these two values. Table 1 shows
the length of each transition.
The equation for gradually varied flow in a channel with variable cross-section derived in
problem 5-9 was used here. The Improved Euler method with the modifications required for a
rectangular transition was used in the computations. Table 5 and 6 show these results.
Finally, the Direct Step Method with the help of a table of the geometric properties of a standard
horse-shoe section was used to compute the water surface profile in the tunnels. Table 7 and 8
show the computations. Interpretation between the last two lines of these table gives:
From Table 7, at manifold 1, y = 16.75 m (Elev. 506.25m)
From Table 8, at manifold 2, y = 16.71 m (Elev. 506.21m)

90
Chapter 6

91
Chapter 6

92
Chapter 6

93
 Chapter 6

6.17
Given :
The channel of problem 3.18
Rectangular outlet
B0 = 10 ft.
L = 500 ft.
S0 = 0.001
Q = 324.6 cfs
Invert Elev. At the entrance = 122 ft.
Concrete channel (n = 0.013)
Plot the water surface profile
Solution:
The bottom elevation at the river entrance is :
122-500 x 0.001 = 121.5 ft.
The water depth at this section is :
131-121.5 = 9.5 ft.
The normal depth is obtained from
5
3
(10 y n ) (0.013 )(324.6)
2
= = 89.56
1.49 0.001
(10 + 2y n ) 3

Yn = 4.896 ft.
324.6 2
2 ( )
Q 3 10
The critical depth is Y0 = 3 =
g 32.2
Y0 = 3.199 ft.
Therefore
Y river > Yn > Y0 => MILD CHANNEL, M1 PROFILE
Table P6.17 shows the result obtained by using Standard Step Method..

94
Chapter 6

95
 Chapter 6

6.18
Given
Ybridge = 12 ft.
Trapezoidal channel
B0 = 20 ft.

S = 20

S0 = 0.0003

Q = 800cfs

n = 0.025

Determine how far the effect of dogging due to the debris accumulated at the bridge entered.

Solution :

Consider that the flow was uniform before the accumulation of debris. Then compute the normal
depth as :

nQ
AR2/3 = 1
1.49S0 2

Or
5

[20 + 2y n )y n ] 3
= 774.97
[20 + 2 5 y n ] 2
3

Then Yn = 7.59 m

Now determine if the flow is subcritical or supercritical by computing the critical depth and
comparing it with the normal depth.

96
 Chapter 6

Q
A √D =
g

Or
5

[20 + 2y 0 )y 0 ] 3
= 140.98
[20 + 2 5 y 0 ] 2
3

Y0 = 32.28 m.
Then Y0 < Yn => sub critical flow.
Also ybridge > yn > y0 => M1 profile, starting at a depth of 12 m at the bridge and
approximating the normal depth asymptotically.

Table P6.18 shows the computations obtained by using Direct Step Method.

The effect of clogging extends 36775 ft (6.96 mi) upstream of the bridge.

Table P6.18 (Direct Step Method).

97
 Chapter 6

6.19
Given:
10 ft. square Box CULVERT
Lculvert = 150 ft.
Sculver = 0.01
Depth upstream box entrance : 15 ft = M0

The accumulation of debris at a channel crossing 0.5 mi downstream of the culvert raises the
water level 5 ft. at the crossing. The channel characteristics are:
Trapezoidal
B0 = 10 ft.
S = 1.5
Uniform flow prior to the accumulation
1.2ft
SCHANNEL = = 0.00045
2640ft
where 0.5mi = 2640 ft.
Compute and plot the water-surface profile in the channel and inside the culvert.
The following sketch shows the channel and culvert profile.

Solution:
The culvert discharge is given by the orifice equation, as discussed in Chapter 10, Sec. 10.4.
In this case H0 > 1.2 D, where D is the height of the culvert. Using eq. 10.14, we get,

98
 Chapter 6

Q = CB0D 2g (H 0 − CD )

where B0 is the culvert width and C is a coefficient of contraction. For a squared-edge entrance
C = 0.6,
Then,
Q = (0.6)(10)(10) 2 x 32.2(15 − (0.6)(10)
Q = 1444.5 ft3/5
The critical depth for the culvert is computed from

Q
A Dh =
g

Where Dh = hydraulic depth. Then,

3/2
Y0 = 254.56
Finally
Y0 = 8.65 ft.
Compute the normal depth in the culvert to determine the type of profile
nQ (0.013 )(1444.5)
1
= 1
= 126.03.
1.49S0 2
(1.49)(0.01) 2

Solve for the normal depth from

5
2 3
(10 y n )
AR 3
= 2
= 126.03
(2y n + 10) 3

The answer is Yn= 6.348 ft.

We have yn<y<y0 and the curve is S2 type. The flow inside the culver4t approaches the normal
depth asymptotically.

Now, we compute the normal and critical depth in the trapezoidal channel.
For normal depth solve,

99
 Chapter 6

[(10 + 1.5 y n )y n ] 3
0.013 x1444.5
2
= 1
= 594.11
(10 + 2 3.25 y n ) 3
(1.49)(0.00045 ) 2

Yn = 6.657 ft.

For critical depth solve:

[(10 + 1.5 y 0 )y 0 ]1.5 1444.5

1
= = 254.56
32.2
(10 + 2 x1.5 y 0 ) 2

Y0 = 6.329 ft.

Yn > y0 => MILD CHANNEL.

FLOW PROFILE:
The water profile in the channel is computed beginning with the water elevation at the bridge
(yb=yn+5 ft.), yb = 11.66 ft. The computations in the channel are carried out upstream from the
bridge up to a distance of 2640 ft. The computations in the culvert start upstream, at the central
section near the culvert inlet. They are carried out up to a distance of 150 ft. downstream, where
the culvert meets the channel. It is assumed that the flow depth is critical near the culvert inlet.

The Standard Step Method was used in these computations.

Table 9-19a and 9-19b show the results.

SKETCH OF WATER SURFACE PROFILE

Figure 1 is a sketch of the water surface profile. After the accumulation of debris at the
bridge the outlet of the culvert is submerged. The culvert flow is partially full and a hydraulic
jump forms inside. (Read section 10.4 for more details on culverts).

100
Chapter 6

101
Chapter 6

102
 Chapter 6

6.20
Given
Rectangular Channel
B = 10 m
Concrete Lined (n = 0.013)
S0 = 0.01

Constant level lake upstream, H = 6m.

If the flow depth at the channel entrance is critical, determine the location where the flow depth
is 3.9, 3.7, 3.5, 3.3 and 3.0 m

Solution:
From example 5.3, we know that :
Y0 = 4m (at entrance)
Q = 250.6 m3/5
Yn = 2.37m
The Direct Step Method is particularly appropriate for this type of problem. Table 6.20 shows
the computations.
The locations required are :

Flow depth (m) Location from the entrance (m)

3.9 0.51
3.7 5.09
3.5 15.89
3.3 35.64
3.0 93.31

103
Chapter 6

104
 Chapter 6

6.21
Given
Rectangular Channel
B0 = 10m
Q = 50 m3/s
Concrete lined (deteriorated) : n = 0.015
S0 = 0.0006
Free outfall downstream.
Assume y = y0 at 4y0 upstream of the fall.

Compute Water depth 2 km upstream of the fall and the water surface profile.

Solution:
Compute critical and normal depth to determine if the channel is mild or steep.
Q 3
Critical depth = B0 y 0 2
g

50 3
= 10 y 0 2
9.81
Y0 = 1.366 m => 4 y0 = 5.46 m

Normal depth

2
nQ
AR 3
=
S0

( y n B0 ) 3 (0.015 )(50)
2
= = 30.619
0.0006
( 2 y n + Bo ) 3

Solving for yn, we get yn = 2.274 m.

105
 Chapter 6

Yn > y0 => MILD CHANNEL

Table 6.21 shows the computations by using the Standard Step Method.
The water depth 2 km upstream of the fall is 2.23 m.

6.22

Given
Trapezoidal Channel
B0 = 10 m
S = 1.5
Q = 80 m3/5
S0 = 0.002
n = 01.015
∆Ydam = 10 m
Compute : Flow depth at 250, 500 and 750 m upstream from the dam.
Solution
Q
Critical depth computation : A D =
g

Or
80 [(10 + 1.5 y 0 )y 0 ]1.5
= 1
9.81
(10 + 2 x1.5 y 0 ) 2
Y0 = 1.707 m

106
 Chapter 6

Normal Depth Computation :

2
nQ
AR 3
=
S0
5

[(10 + 1.5 y n )y n ] 3 0.015 x 80

2
= 1
= 26.833
(10 + 2y n 1 + 1.52 ) 3
(0.002) 2

Yn = 1.742 m

The channel bottom slope is practically the critical slope (yn ≈ y0). Assuming that the initial
flow in the channel is uniform, the dam will raise the water elevation above the critical depth
forming a C1 profile upstream of the dam.
Table 6.22 shows the computations for the water profile using Standard Step Method. The initial
water depth at the dam is yn = ∆ydam = 11.74 m.
The required flow depth are :
Location Water depth
(upstream of dam, m) (m)

250 11.24
500 10.74
750 10.24

107
 Chapter 6

6.23
Given :
Yn = 2m
Rectangular Channel
B0 = 10m
S0 = 0.001
n = 0.020
∆Ybridge = 1m
Determine the distance from the bridge at which y = 2.5 m

Solution:
Assuming that previous to the construction of the bridge the channel had uniform flow;
then, at the bridge section the water depth is
Ybridge = 2+1 = 3m
The channel flow is given by :
2
1 1
Q= AR 3 S0 2
n
5
3 1
1 (10 x 2)
Q= 2
(0.001) 2
0.02
( 4 + 10) 3
Q = 40.111 m3/s
The critical depth is
Q
Y03/2 = Bo
g
2
40.111 3
Y0 =[ ]
9.81X 10
Y0 = 1.179 m
Y0 < yn => MILD CHANNEL
Yb > yn => M1 profile
Table 6.23 shows the result using direct step method.

108
 Chapter 6

The flow depth is 2.5 m at 777 m upstream of the dam.

109
Chapter 7
RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW

7.1
v2
H =Z+y+
2g

Q2
H0 = H-z = y +
2gA 2

dH 0 dy Q 2 dA
= −
dx dx gA 3 dx

dy Q 2 B dA
S0 = −
dx gA 3 dx

 Q2  dy
S0 = 1 − 2 3
 ------------------ (1)
 gB y  dx

Q2
H0 =Y+
2gA 2

dH 0
For critical section =0
dx

dH 0 2Q 2
=1− =0
dy 2gB 2 y 3

Q2
Yc =3 --------------------- (2)
gB 2

110
 Chapter 7

Or
Q2
3
= Yc
gB 2 y c

2
V1 Yc
=
2g 2

2
V1 Yc 3
∴ Hmin = Yc + = Yc + = Yc
2g 2 2

From eqn (2)

3 Q2
Hmin = 3
2 gB 2

From Eqn. (1)

x y
Q2
∫ S0 dx =
0 Y0
∫ (1 − gB 2 y 3
)dy

Q2 Q2
S0 x = y+ − y c
2gB 2 y 2 2gB 2 y 0
2

3 3
1 Yc 1 Yc
S0 x = y+ 2
− Yc −
2 Y 2 Yc 2

3
1 Yc 3
S0 x = Y+ 2
− Yc
2Y 2

111
 Chapter 7

7.2
dB dB
θ = tan-1 =
dx dx
θdx = dB -- (1)

Q = BY 2g (H 0 − y )

Q
B = -- (2)
Y 2g (H 0 − y )

Q2
H0 =Y+
2gA 2
At the critical depth,
dH 0 2Q 2
= 1− =0
dy 2gB 2Y 3

112
 Chapter 7

Q2 Q2 Vc 2
Yc = 3 Yc = =
gB 2 gB 2 y c
2
g

Vc 2 Yc 3
H0 = Yc + = Yc + = Yc
2g 2 2

3 Q2
H0 = 3
2 gB 2

Q 1
Bmin = 3
g H0 2
(2 )
g

From (1)

x B

∫ θ dx =
0
∫ dB
B min

θx = B - Bmin

Q Q 1
θx = −
Y 2g (H 0 − y )
3
g H0
(2 )2
3

7.4

Y2 = Y1
b2 = b1
E1 = E2
M2 = M3

113
 Chapter 7

γ = b3/b1
S = Y3/Y1
E1 = Y1 + V12/2g
E3 = Y3 + V32/2g
Q1 = Q2 = Q3
A1V1 = A2V2 = A3V3
b1y1 v1 = b2 y2v2 = b3y3 v3

2 2
V1 v
∆E = Y1 + − y3 − 3
2g 2g

2 2
V1 2gy 1 2gy 3 V3
∆E = [1 + 2
− 2 2
]
2g v1 v 1 V1

2
v 2 2S 1
∆E = 1 [1 + 2 − 2
− 2 2] ---------- (1)
2g Fr 1 Fr 1 r S

114
 Chapter 7

Momentum
rQ
P1 + P2 - P3 = (v 3 − v 1 )
g

γy 1 b1
2

P1 =
2
γ (b3 −b 1 )y 2 γ (b3 −b 1 )y 1
2 2

P2 = P2 =
2 2
γb3 y 1
2

P3 =
2

γQ (v 3 − v 1 ) γy 1 b1 γy 1 b3 γy 1 b1 γy 3 b3
2 2 2 2

= + − −
g 2 2 2 2
b1y 1v 1
(v 3 − v 1 ) = ½ b3 [ y 1 − y 3 ]
2 2

b1y 1v 1 b1 y 1
v 1 − v 1 ) = ½ b3 [ y 1 − y 3 ]
2 2
(
g b3 y 2

2 2 2
v1 1 1 b3 y 1 y 3
( − 1) = ( − )
gy 1 γs 2 b1 y 12 y 12

1 1
Fγ 1 ( − 1) = γ (1− S 2 )
2

γ 2
2

Fγ 1 γ γS 2
2

− Fγ 1 = −
2

γs 2 2

γ Fγ 1 γS 2
2

Fγ 1 + = +
2

2 γS 2
----------- (2)

115
 Chapter 7

Eqn. 2 can be solved for S

Fγ 1 (γ − 1)
2
S =1+
γ2

Fγ 1 (γ − 1) Fγ 1 (γ − 1)
2 4
S2 =1+2 +
γ2 γ4

Eqn. (1)
2
V 2 2S 1
∆E = 1 [1 + − − 2 2
2g Fγ 1
2
Fγ 1
2
γ S

2(γ − 1)
2
V1 2 1 2
∆E = [1 + − 2 − −
2g Fγ 1
2
γ + 2Fγ 1 2(γ − 1) Fγ 2
γ2

γ 2 − 2Fγ 1 2(γ − 1)
2
V1 2 1 2 2 2
= [1 + − 2 − − + 2]
2g Fγ 1
2
γ + 2Fγ 1 2(γ − 1) γ − 2Fγ 1 2(γ − 1) Fγ
2 2
γ γ

γ 2 − 2Fγ 1 (γ − 1)
2 2
V1 2 2
= [1 − 4 − + 2]
γ − 2Fγ 1 (γ − 1) 2 γ γ
4
2g

 2 1 1 2Fγ 2 (γ − 1)
2
v 1
= 1 [1 − + 2  − 2 + + 2]
 γ γ  γ γ γ
4
2g

Fr 2 (r − 1)
2
v 1
= 1 [(1 − . ) 2 + 2 ]
2g r γ4

116
 Chapter 7

 
2 b2
2
 Fr ( − 1) 
v1  b1 2 b1 
= (1 − ) +2 4 
2g

b3  b3  
 
  b1  
 

v1
2
 b1 2 2 b1
3

∆E =  (1 − ) + 2 Fr 4
(b3 − b1 )  ---- (3)
2g  b3 b3 

2
v b
∆E = 1 (1 − 1 ) 2
2g b3

b3
As Fr < 0.5 and > 1.5, the last term in eqn. (3) vanish also y1 = y2 = y3
b1

v 1  2b1 b1  v 1  2V3 V3 
2 2 2 2

∆E = 1 − +  = 1 − + 
2g  b3 b3 2  2g  V1 V12 

1
[v 1 − 2v 3v 1 + v 3 ]
2 2
=
2g

(V1 −V3 ) 2
∆E =
2g
7.5

1
[ −1+ 1+ 8Fr1 ]
2
Yr =
2
½
1 1 2 1 
= − + 8Fr1 1 +
 8Fr 2 
1 
2 2   

117
 Chapter 7

 1 1 
= -½ + ½ (8Fr12)½ 1 + + ........ 
 2 8Fr 2 
 1 

= -½ + √2 Fr1

Yr = √2 Fr1 - ½ for Fr1 > 2

7.6
 V  
2
V
2

hi = E1 – E2 = Y1 + 1  − Y2 + 2 
 2g   2g 
 

q2  1 1 
= (y1 – y2) +  − 2 
2g y 2 
 1 y2 

q2  y
2

= (y1 – y2) + 1 − 1 
2  2 
2gy 1  y2 

q2  y 2 + y1 
= (y1 – y2) +[1-  
2  y 2 
2gy 1  2 

Fr1 y 1 ( y 2 + y 1 )
2

hi = (y1 – y2) +[1- 2

]
2 y2

y2 y2
Fr12 =½ [ + 1]
y1 y1

 1 y2  y 2  y1 
hi = (y1-y2) 1 −  + 1 2 ( y 2 + y 1 )
 4 y 1  y1  y 2 

118
 Chapter 7

 1 ( y 1 + y 2 )2 
hi = (y1-y2) 1 − 
 4 y 1y 2 

4 y 1y 2 − y 1 − y 2 − 2y 1y 2
2 2
= (y1-y2)
4 y 1y 2

y 1 + y 2 − 2y 1y 2
2 2
= - (y1-y2)
4 y 1y 2

( y 2 − y 1 ) ( y 2 − y 1 )2
=
4 y 1y 2

( y 2 − y 1 )3
hi =
4 y 1y 2
7.7

119
 Chapter 7

2 2
v1 v
+ y 1 = 2 + y 2 + hi
2g 2g

2
v
60 = 2 +6
2g

2
v2
= 54
2g

Xb
= 2 sin 2α
h0

Xb = 54 x 2 x sin 2 (20)

Xb = 104 sin 40

For design
Xb = 0.8 x 104 x sin 40 = 53.5

7.8

V1 = 2 x 32.2 (60 − 6) = 58.97 ft / sec .

120
 Chapter 7

Q
Y1 =
58.97B

2
V1 58.97 2 x 58.97 B B
Fr12 = = = 6368.69
gy 1 32.2 Q Q

Y2 1
= [ −1+ 1+ 8Fr1 ]
2

y1 2

Y2 58.97B 1 8 x 6368.89 B
= [ −1+ 1+ ]
y1 2 Q

q  50957.095 
Y2 = − 1+ 1+ 
117.94  q 

Stilling basin design

Assume,
Fr1 = 11.79, y2 = 12.39 y1 = 0.766

121
 Chapter 7

1
L1 = [1.5 + (Fr1 – 4.6)] y2
11

1
= [1.5 + (11.79 – 4.6)] x 12.39 = 26.68
11

h = [1 + 0.13 (Fr1 – 4.6)] y1

= [1 + 0.13 (11.79 – 4.6)] 0.766

= 1.48 ≈ 1.5

L2 = 2.5 h

= 2.5 x 1.5 = 3.75

hs = h/2 = 1.5/2 = 0.75

L = 26.68 + 3.75= 30.4

L ≥ 4y2
≥ 4 x 12.39 ≥ 49.56

L = 50
d2 = 0.85 x 12.39 = 10.5

122
 Chapter 7

7.9

Q = 360,000 Cfs

V1 = 2(32.2)(140 + y 2 )

V1 = 8.02 140 + y 2

Q = B1. v1. y1

Q Q
Y1 = =
50 x 6 8.02 140 + y 2 2407.49 140 + y 2

64.32 (140 + y 2 )
2
V
Fr1 2
= 1 =
gy 1 Q
32.2 .
2407.49 140 + y 2

(140 + y 2 ) 2
= 4809.03
Q

123
 Chapter 7

Y2 1
= [ −1+ 1+ 8F1 ]
2

Y1 2

 3 
2407.49 140 + y 2 1 (140 + y 2 ) 2 
Y2 = − 1+ 1+ 8 x 4809.03 
Q 2 Q 
 

 3 
Q 38472.24
Y2 140 + y 2 = − 1+ 1+ (140 + y 2 ) 2  ----- (1)
4814.98 

Q 

For Q = 260,000

3
Y2 140 + y 2 = − 74.77 + 74.77 1+ 0.107(140 + y 2 ) 2
Trial and error,

Y2 = 90.5

360,000
Y1 = = 9.85
2407.49 140 + 90.5

Design of Flip bucket :

2
V 121.76
Assume no losses ∴h0 = 1 = = 230
2g 2 x 32.2

Yb =0 α = 30

xb
= 2 sin 2α
h0

Xb = 230 x 2sin 60 = 398

For design,
Xb = 0.8 x 398 = 318.7  320

1
Bucket redius = 15m x = 49.2  50
0.3048

Bucket top above the bucket invert by = 10/100 x 50 = 5

124
 Chapter 7

Design of Roller bucket:-

Fig. 7.20

p
=2 Cd = 0.485
Hd

Fig. 7.21

He
=1 Kd = 0.02
Hd

Q = 360,000 Cfs

Le = Ln-2(N Kp + Ka) He

Le = 6 x 50 – 2(5 x 0.02) He

Le = 300 – 0.2 He

360,000 = 0.485 Le 2 x 32.2He 1.5

92484.9 = (300-0.2 He) He1.5

92494.9 2
He3 = Trial and error He = 46.61
(300 − 0.2He ) 2

If we take Y2 = 90.5 and y1 = 9.85, from the first part,

V1 = 2 x 32.2 (140 + 90.5 − 9.85) = 119.21 ft/sec.

360,000
Y1 = = 10
119.21x 6 x 50

119.21 R
Fr1 = = 6.62  Fig. 7.28 2
= 0.25
32.2 x 10 V
y1 + 1
2g

119.212
R = 0.25 (10 + = 57.67 ≈ 58
2 x 32.2

125
 Chapter 7

R
Fig. 7.26 a wing Fr = 6.62 and 2
= 0.25
V
y1 + 1
2g

Tmin
= 10 Tmin = 10 x10 = 100
y1

From Fig. 7.26 b

Tmax
= 13 Tmax = 10 x13 = 130
y1

For best performance Tmin ≈ tail water depth

Ts
=9 Ts = 9 x 10 = 90
y1

R = 58’

0.05 R = 2.9

0.125 R = 7.25

0.5 R = 59

126
 Chapter 7

Stilling basin : notation on figure 7.24

Fr1 = 6.62 y1 = 10 y2 = 90.5

L1 = [1.5 + 1/11 (Fr1 – 4.6)] y2

= [1.5 + 1/11(6.62 -2.6)] 90.5 = 152.4

h = [1 + 0.13(Fr1 – 4.6)] y1

= [1 + 0.13 (6.62-4.6) 10 = 12.6

L2 = 2.5 h = 2.5 x 12.6 = 31.6

hs = h/2 = 12.6/2 = 6.3

L = L1 + L2 = 152.4 + 31.6 = 184

L ≥ 4y2 ≥ 4 x 90.5 = 362

L = 362

d2 = 0.85 x 90.5 = 76.95

i : Roller bucket
ii : Flip bucket
iii : Roller bucket

7.10
Q = 260,000 Cfs Hs = 46.61

He 55.93
= = 1.2  Fig. 7.21 type 2 Kp = -0.005
Hd 46.61

He
= 1.2  Fig. 7.20 c/cd = 1.015
Hd
C = 0.485 x 1.015 = 0.492
Le = Ln – 2 (NKp + Ka)Hc

127
 Chapter 7

Le = 50 x 6 – 2 [5 x (-0.005) + 0] 55.93 = 302.796

Q = 0.492 x 302.796 2 x 32.2 59.931.5

Q = 500,063.73 Cfs at H = 55.93
He 37.23
= = 0.8 Fig. 7.21 type 2 Kp = 0.025
Hd 46.61
He
= 0.8 Fig. 7.20 c/cd = 0.965
Hd
C = 0.483 x 0.965 = 0.468
Le = Ln – 2 (NKp + Ka)Hc

= 50 x 6 – 2 [5 (0.25)+0] 37.23 = 290.69

Q = 0.468 x 290.69 2 x 32.2 37.231.5

= 248,003.84 Cfs
Q = 248,003.84 Cfs at H = 37.23

128
 Chapter 7

7.11

Le = Ln – 2 (NKp + Ka)Hc
Fig. 7-21 Kp = 0.0125
Le = 4 x 50 – 2(3 x 0.0125)32
Le = 197.6
p 64
= =2 Fig. 7.20.8 cd = 0.49
Hd 32

Q = C Le 2g He1.5

= 0.49 x 197.6 2x 32.2 x 321.5

= 140653.59 Cfs at H = 32

He = 48
Hc 48
= = 1.5 Fig. 7.21 Kp = -0.025
Hd 32
Le = 4 x 50 – 2[3 x (-0.025)]48 = 207.2

H
Fig. 7.20 b = 1.5  c/c1= 1.05 C = 1.05 x 0.49 = 0.5145
Hd

129
 Chapter 7

Q = 0.5145 x 207.2 2x 32.2 x 481.5

Q = 284498.44 Cfs at H = 48

7.12
Q = CLc H1.5
Q = 3.8 Lc H1.5

C = 3.8 = Cd 2g = Cd 2 x 32.2

For S I

3 .8
C = 2 x 9.81 = 2.097
2 x 32.2

Q = C. Lc. H1.5
Q = 2.057 x 100 x 101.5 = 6631.295 m3/s

130
 Chapter 7

7.13
(i) Flip bucket :
- so much spray un-desirable for road, bridge and electric equipments.
- Act enough submergence D.S
- Water level fluctuation
- current and eddies around the plunge pool
(ii) Roller bucket
(iii) Stilling basin :
- control the jump location
- Low apron level, may required a lots up cavitations and
concrete
- Chute blocks and baffle blocks and end stills are used in control the jump.

7.14

p 100
Fig. 7-20 = =4  Cd = 0.492
Hd 25

131
 Chapter 7

Fig. 7.21 Kp = 0.0125

Le = Ln – (N Kp + Ka) He
Le = 60 x 5 – 2(4 x 0.0125 +0) 25 = 297.5
Q = 0.492 x 297.5 2x 32.2 x 25 1.5
= 146826.67 Cfs

H 30
= = 1.2 Fig. 7.20 b C/Cd = 1.01
Hd 25

C = 1.01 x 0.492 = 0.497

Fig. 7.21 Kp =0
Le = 60 x 5 – 2 (4 x 0 + 0)25 = 300
Q = 0.497 x 300 2x 32.2 x 301.5
= 196608.54 Cfs

H 40
= = 1.6 Fig. 7.20 b C/Cd = 1.07
Hd 25

C = 1.07 x 0.492 = 0.5264

Fig. 7.21 Kp = -0.025

Le = 5 x 60 – 2(4 x (-0.025)+ 0) 40 = 308
Q = 0.5264 x 308 x 2x 32.2 x 401.5
= 329154.25 Cfs

EL = 150 Q = 196608.54 Cfs

EL = 160 Q = 329154.25 Cfs

132
 Chapter 7

7.15

Fig. 7.20 Q
p 36
= =2 Cd = 0.49 Le = 20
Hd 18

Q = 0.49 x 20 x 2x 9.81 18 1.5 = 3315 m3/sec.

H 20
Elev. 300 = = 1.11 Fig. 7.20 b C/Cd = 1.05
Hd 18

C = 1.05 x 0.49 = 0.5145

Q = 0.5145 x 20 2x 9.81 201.5 = 4076.7 m3/sec.

H 30
Elev. 310 = = 1.67 Fig. 7.20 b C/Cd = 1.09
Hd 18

C = 1.09 x 0.49 = 0.5341

133
 Chapter 7

Q = 0.5341 x 20 2x 9.81 x 301.5 = 7774.7 m3/s

7.16 Assume Hd = 30
Hd = 0.75 (652 – Hcrest) = 30 ∴ Hcrest = 612

60000 = Cd L 2x 32.2 x 301.5

p
=2 Cd = 49 Vs bed level = 552
Hd

60000 = 0.49 x L x 2x 32.2 301.5

L = 92.9

H 8
Elev. 620 = = 0.267 Fig. 7.20 b C/Cd = 0.86
Hd 30

C = 0.86 x 0.49 = 0.42

Q = 0.42 x 92.9 2x 32.2 x 81.5 = 7085.05 Cfs

H 36
Elev. 648 = = 1.2 Fig. 7.20 b C/Cd = 1.02
Hd 30

C = 1.02 x 0.49 = 0.5

Q = 0.5 x 92.9 2x 32.2 x 361.5 = 80516 Cfs

7.17

134
 Chapter 7

Q
=A D
g

800 ( B0 + 5 y ) y
= ( B0 + 5 y ) y
32.2 (B0 + 25 y )

(15 + y )y
140.98 = (15 + y )y
15 + 2y
Yc = 4.05
2
nQ 0.028 x 800
AR 3
= =
S2 0.05

[(15 + y )y ]3
5

= 100.176
[15 + 2 2y ]
2
3

Yn1 = 3.11

2
nQ 0.028 x 800
AR 3 = =
S2 0.0003

[(15 + y )y ]3
5

= 1293.265 Yn2 = 12.8

[15 + 2 2y ]
2
3

800
V1 = = 14.204 ft/sec.
3.11(15 + 3.11)
V 14.204
Fr1 = = = 1.419
gy 32.2 x 3.11

Y2 =
3.11
2
[
1 + 8 x1.419 2 − 1 ] = 4.877

135
 Chapter 7

The jump will move upstream till the exact position where Y1, Y2 will be satisfied.

7.18

(i) L = 100’
p 28
= = 1.167 Cd = 0.483 using Fig. 7.20 a
Hd 24

At Elev. 165
H 35
= = 1.46 Fig. 7.20 b C/Cd = 1.05
Hd 24

C = Cd x 1.05 = 0.483 x 1.05 = 0.507

Q = 0.507 x 100 x 2x 32.2 x 351.5 = 84246.7 ft3/sec.

(ii) assume n = 0.013 for concrete

To find critical depth
Q
=A D
g

84246.7
= bY 1.5 = 100 y 0
1 .5

32.2
Yc = 28.04

136
 Chapter 7

2
n 2Q 2  0.013 x 84246.7  1
Sc = =  4
4  100 x 28.04   100 x 28.04  3
A2R
3  
 100 + 2 x 28.04 
= 0.00324

70
But So = = 0.1 ∴ S0 ≥ Sc Steep channel
700
To find the normal depth

2
3
nQ
AR =
S0

2
 100 y n 3 0.013 x 84246.7
100 yn   =
 100 + 2y n  0 .1
2
 100 y n  3
Yn   = 34.6335
 100 + 2y n 
Trial and error yn = 8.96

From point C to point n, S2 profile. Then yn will be the lowest possible epth other than spilling.
The type of the flow profile developed in the steep canal depends mainly on the tail water
situation.
(iii) Y1 = 8.96 Fr1 = 5.5

Y2 =
Y1
2
[
− 1+ 1+ 8Fr 2 ]
 2 
8.96   84246.7  1 
= − 1+ 1+ 8  
2   100 x 8.36  32.2 x 8.96 
 
Y2 = 65.81
Tail water level = 65.81 + 60 = 125.81

137
 Chapter 7

(iv) h2 = E1 – E2
 v
2
  2

=  y1 + 1  −  y 2 + v1 
 2g   2g 
   

 1 
2 2
 84246.7  1  84246.7 
h2 = 8.96 +   − 125.81+   
 100 x 8.96  2 x 32.2   100 x 125.81  2 x 32.2 

= 19.73
7.19
Q = 50,000 Cfs
2
3
nQ
AR =
S0
2

(100 y n ) 3 0.013 x 50000

100 y n 2
=
0 .1
(100 + 2y n ) 3

2
 100 y n 3
y n   = 20555
 100 + 2y n 

Trial and error = 6.44

50000
Y1 = 6.44 v1 = = 77.64 ft/sec. Fr1 = 5.39
100 x 6.44

Y1 
− 1+ 1+ 8Fr1 
2
Y2 =
2  

6.44
= [ − 1+ 1+ 8(5.39) 2 ] = 45.989
2

But the tail water level = 72

Tw = 72 – 60 = 12
There is not enough submergence – use flop bucket

138
 Chapter 7

Flip bucket design:

2
v 77.64 2
h0 = 1 = = 93.6 ft.
2g 2 x 32.2
Yb =0 α = 300
Xb
= 2 sin2α
h0
Xb = 93.6 x 2 sin 60 = 162.12

For design, Xb= 0.8 x 162.12 = 129.7

Bucket radius = 15 m = Sc
Bucket lip above the bucket invert by = (10/100) x 50 =5

7.20

Invert elev =z
Y2 = 50 – z

V1 = 2 xg (200 − z )
Q = Bv1y1

2700 = 50 y1 2 x 9.81(200 − z )

2700 12.19
Y1 = =
50 19.62(200 − z ) 200 − z

139
 Chapter 7

19.62 (200 − z ) (200 − z )½

2
v
Fr1 2
= 1 =
gy 1 9.81x 12.19
= 0.1641 (200-z)1.5
y2 1
= ( −1 + 1 + 8Fr1 )
2

y1 2

50 − z
12.19
=
1
2
[− 1+ 1 + 8 x 0.1641(200 − z )1.5 ]
200 − z

(50-z) 200 − z = − 6.095 + 6.095 1+ 1.3128 (200 − z )1.5

Trial and error z = 25.06 m

Y2 = 24.94 m

If one-row of battle block and en sill is used the invert deviation may be raised and when it saves
excavation and stabilizes the jump.

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Chapter 8
COMPUTATION OF RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW

8.1
The computer program can be written in two ways:
a. By using a false transient approach wherein the two-dimensional unsteady flow
equations are solved.
b. By solving the steady flow equations.

Note that in both the approaches, the governing equations are hyperbolic partial differential
equations. However, the equations are two dimensional in the first approach and are one-
dimensional in the second approach. Herein, results are represented for the first approach. In this,
concepts of coordinate transformation and artificial viscosity are used. Results by MacCormack
scheme and by Lax scheme are presented in Fig. 8.1.

3.5
MacCormack Lax

3
Flow depth (m)

2.5

2
0 1 2 3 4 5
Distance (m)

Figure 8.1: Surface profile in a channel contraction

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 Chapter 8

8.2
Flow depths at all the points are computed by using the computer program developed in 8.1. The
maximum flow depth at any section is considered to be the shok wave. Thus, the height and
location of the shock wave is determined. Results for the height of the shock wave are presented
in Fig. 8.2. Both MacCormack scheme and the Lax scheme is used to determine the shock wave.

3.5
MacCormack Lax
Shock height (m)

2.5

2
0 1 2 3 4 5
Distance (m)

Figure 8.2: Height of the shockwave in a channel contraction

8.3
MacCormack scheme is suitable for both sub- and super critical flows. Therefore, the computer
program given in the appendix can be used to compute the flow. Note that this problem is same
as the computation of a hydraulic jump.

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Chapter 9
CHANNEL DESIGN

9.1
Given Q = 50 m3/S
S0 = 0.0002
Channel material : Rock
Design the canal.
Solution:
For rock in good conditions n = 0.035 and side slopes could be almost vertical (S = 0.25)
From Monning’s equation, we get,
2
nQ (0.035 )(50)
AR 3
1
= 1
= 123.74
S0 2
(0.0002) 2

For S = 0.25, we can take B0 = 2y, then :

A = (2y + 0.25y) y = 9/4 y2

P = 2y + ½ 1.25 y = 2.259 y

9 y2
R= = 0.879 y
4 2.559 y
And
2 2

AR 3 = (2.25 y 2 )(0.879 y ) 3
123.74 = 2.0646 y2.67
Or
y = 4.63 m.
Then B0 = 2y = 9.26 m
SELECT CHANNEL BOTTOM WIDTH
Use B0 = 10.0 m, then for AR2/3 = 123.74, the value of y obtained by solving:

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 Chapter 9

[(10 + 1.25 y )y ] 3

2
= 123.74
(10 + 2.062 y ) 3

The answer is y = 5.37 m.

ADD APPROPRIATE FREEBOARD.

Freeboard equation : Fb = 0.8 x 5.37 = 2.0 m
From Table 9.1, Fb = 0.75 m
Use Fb = 0.75 m

DETERMINE CHANNEL DEPTH

The total depth is :
YT = 5.37 + 0.75 = 6.12m
CHECK MINIMUM ALLOWANCE VELOCITY
Flow Area = 60.9m2
Flow Velocity : Q/A = 50/60.9 = 0.82 m/s > Vmin. Ok
(Vmin. = 06.m/s)
SKETCH CHANNEL CROSS-SECTION

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 Chapter 9

9.2
Design :
Irrigation Channel
100 km2 farmland
0.1 m3/s/km2 (water demand)
S0 = 1/2000
Soil is stuff clay.
Solution:
1. Permissible –Velocity Method:
We choose a trapezoidal channel with side slopes of 1:1 (from Table 9.2). For stiff clay n
= 0.025. The discharge is Q = 100 km2 x 0.1 m3/s/km2)
= 10 m3/s
From Table 9.3 the permissible velocity is : Vp = 1.8 m/s.
A = Q/V = 10/1.8 = 5.56 m2
nQ
R= [ 1
] 1 .5
AS 0 2

(0.025 )(10)
R= [ 1
] 1 .5
2
(0.0005 ) (5.56)
R = 2.85 m (Hydraulic Radius)
Water perimeter : P = A/R = 1.95 m
Then, compute the water depth :
A = (B0 + y)y = 5.56
P = B0 + 2…..y = 1.95
Or B0 = 1.95-2√2y
Then
A = (1.95-2√2y+y)y = 5.56
or 1.828 y2 – 1.95y + 5.56 = 0

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 Chapter 9

This equation has not real roots ! The reason for the inconsistency is that the permissible
velocity is very high for this flat channel. The problem could be solved by reducing the channel
flow velocity.
Let’s try: Vp = 0.9 m/s
A = Q/vp = 10/0.9 = 11.11 m2
0.025 x10
R= [ ] 1 .5 = 1.01 m
0.0005 x11.11
P = 11.01 m
Solve for ‘y’ now :
A = (B0 + y)y = 11.11
P = B0 + 2√2 y = 11.01

=> B0 = 11.01 - 2√2 y

A = (11.01 - 2√2 y + y)y = 11.11

or 1.828y2 – 11.01 y + 11.11 =0

Solving for ‘y’, we get.

Y = 1.282 m

Therefore, B0 = 7.38 m.

The other root of the quadratic equation is real, but less than zero. The result is physically
impossible.

The freeboard could be : Fb = 0.8 x1.28 = 1.01 m

or 0.75 m, depending on the criterion followed.

Using 0.75 (Table 9.1), the cross-section depth is

D = 1.287 + 0.75 = 2.03 m
Choose d = 2.0 m
CHANNEL SKETCH.

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 Chapter 9

9.3
Given:
Runoff Area = 200 km2
Flow = 0.5 m3/s/m2
Material size = 2 mm.
S0 = 0.00002
Design the channel by using :
(i) Permissible velocity method,
(ii) Tractive Force method and (iii) Regime Theory.

1. Permissible Velocity Method:

For fine sand (loose sandy soil) we have
Side slope = 2:1 (Trapezoidal Channel)
Manning’s n = 0.020
Permissible Velocity = 0.57 m/s.
Then A = Q/V = 100/0.57 = 175.439 m2

nQ 0.02 x100
R= [ 1
] 1 .5 = [ ] 1 .5
AS 0 2
175.439 x 0.00002

147
 Chapter 9

R = 4.0699 m
175.439
P = A/R = = 43.106 m
4.0699

P = B0 + 2 1+ 5 2 = 43.106
or
B0 = 43.106 - 2√5 y

Also A = (B0 + 5y)y = 175.439

Substituting B0 in the expression for the area, we get,

(43.106 - 2√5 y + 2y)y = 175.439

or
-2.472 y2 +43.106 y – 175.439 = 0

The solutions for ‘y’ are :

Y0 = 6.472 m, y2 = 10.966 m

The first root (y1) gives B0 = 14.16 m, while the second gives B0 <1 which is not possible.
Add 0.78 m of freeboard to have a total height of 7.25 m and use B0 = 14m.

CHANNEL DIMENSIONS USING PREMISSIBLE VELOCITY METHOD.

2. TRACTIVE FORCE METHOD.
This is a fine method (<5 mm), therefore, the effect of angle of repose is negligible.

The permissible shoes stress is Jcrit = 0.06 lb/ft2 or 2.872 M/m2 (From Figure 9.4 assuming clew
water).
The unit tractive force on the side is 0.76 @ S0y

=> Jt = 0.76 x 999 x 9.81x 0.00002 x y

Equating ‘Jt’ to ‘Jcrit’, we get, y = 19.28 m.

This method predicts a very high value of ‘y’. The reason is that the channel slope is extremely
small. This results in a very small coefficient of tractive force (0.76&S0) and, therefore, a very

148
 Chapter 9

high flow depth. Actually, Manning’s equation predicts a negative value of the bottom width,
which is totally unrealistic.
3. REGIME THEORY
From table 9.4, the silt factor can be taken as low as 1.44. The higher the value of silt
factor, the wider the channel is, then we look for a better proportionate channel.
fs = 1.44
P = 4.75 √Q = 4.75 x 10 = 47.5 m
R = 0.47 (Q/fs)1/3 = 1.932 m
A = PR = 91.76 m2.
Also
A = (B0 + 2y)y = 91.76

P = B0 + 2√(1+4) y = 47.5

Eliminating B0 from these two equations, we get,

-2.472 y2 + 47.5 y -91.76 = 0

The roots are : y1 = 2.18 m and y2 = 17.04 m

For y = y1, B0 = 37.76m. The other root gives B0 < 0

Then, use y = 2.18, B0 = 37 m and 0.82 m of freeboard. However, the channel is very wide and
shallow. This is not a good option. The permissible velocity method gave a better proportionate
channel.

9.4
Design a storm sewer,
Area = 4 km2
Runoff = 0.15 m3/s/km2
S0 = 1/2000

Try using a concrete pipe : n = 0.013

Discharge Q = 0.15 x 4 = 0.6 m3/5

149
 Chapter 9

Slope S0 = 0.0005
nQ (0.013)(0.6)
= = 0.35
S0 0.0005

AR 2 / 3 0.35
Then, 2/3
= = 0.16
D D 2.667
The valve 0.16 was taken using Figure 4.5. The value yn/D0 was used approximately as 0.5 to
AR 2 / 3
get =0.16. This ensures that the final cross-section is close to the most efficient hydraulic
D2/3
section.
Then D = 1.34m, use D = 1.37m (54 inches pipe). Then θ = 3.11 rad and the flow depth is y =
0.67m.
Also : A = 0.72 m2
V = Q/A = 0.6/0.72 = 0.83m
V > Vmin. Ok.
Use a circular concrete pipe with D = 1.37 m

9.5
Design an irrigation channel.
Q = 1100 ft3/s
S0 = 2 ft/mile = 2/5280 = 0.00038
Soil is clay.
Solution:

Tractive Force Method.

(a) For clay we select a trapezoidal channel with s=1 (Table 9.2) and n = 0.024.
For fairly compact clay and a voids ratio of 0.8, the critical shear stress is (Fig. 9.5)

Jc = 0.17 lb/ft2

(b) Determine the flow depth.

Jc = 0.17 = 0.76 HyS0

150
 Chapter 9

0.17
Y = = 9.43 ft.
(0.76)(62.4)(0.00038)

(c) Compute B0 : For clay use n = 0.024, then

5

[( B0 + y ) y ] 3 (0.024)(1100)
2
= = 908.92
1.44 x 0.00038
[ B0 + 2 2 y ] 3

For y = 9.43 ft, the solution for B0 is B0 = 19.95ft.

Use B0 = 20 ft (Try solving this problem by the permissible velocity method!).

Use a freeboard of 2.57 ft. to have a total channel depth of :

d = 9.43 + 2.57 = 12 ft.

9.6
Design a flood control channel for
Q = 500ft3/s
S0 = 0.003
Channel paved with bricks (n = 0.013)
This is a non-erodible channel which could be designed using the criterion of the most efficient
hydraulic section. A trapezoidal section is selected.

The most efficient trapezoidal section is half of a hexagon for which

A = √3 y2
P = 2√3 y
R =½y

(0.013)(500)
Section Factor : AR2/3 = 1
= 79.65
2
1.49(0.003)

151
 Chapter 9

y 2/3
Then √3 y2 ( ) = 79.65
2
1.091y2.667 = 79.65

Finally y = 5ft.
From here, we get,
A = 43.3 ft2

3
A = (B0 + y )y = 43.3 ft2
3
3 3
B0 = √3 y - y=2 y
3 3
Finally B0 = 5.77 ft.
Flow Velocity = Q/A = 500/43.3 = 11.55 ft/s.
This velocity is acceptable for a paved channel.
Add 2.5 ft. of freeboard.
Channel Sketch.

9.7
Given
2 km long tunnel with horseshoe section (standard).
Material : sound rock
Inlet bottom level : 100 m

152
 Chapter 9

Exit bottom level : 98.5 m

Q = 100 m3/s (design flow)
Free flow in the tunnel
Downstream water level 102 m
(a) Plot the water surface profile for the design flow.
(b) Plot the water surface profile for Q = 150 m3/s and downstream elevation = 105 m.
Solution:
(a) First select the tunnel dimensions. Use
n = 0.035 (rock)
100 − 98.5
S0 = = 0.00075
2000
(0.035 )(100 )
Section Factor: AR2/3 = = 127.80
(0.00075 )½
A DIAMETER FOR THE HORSE-SHOE SECTION HAS TO BE ASSUMED HERE. A
TABLE CONTAINING THE PROPERTIES OF A STANDARD HORSE-SHOE SECTION
MAY ALSO BE NEEDED.
For a horse-shoe section at full capacity
A
= 0.8293 and R/D = 0.2538
D2
where D is the diameter of a standard horse-shoe section.

Then AR2/3 = (0.8293 D2) (0.2538D)2/3 = 127.80

Therefore, the minimum diameter should be D = 9.32 m.
Try D = 15 m and compute the normal depth.
By using a table of Standard horse-shoe section, we get:
y A R AR2/3
(m) (m2) (m) (m8/3)
5 60.37 2.971 124.78 Low !
5.1 62.55 3.03 131.10 High !
The normal depth is 5.05 m (approximated from the values in the previous table)

153
 Chapter 9

100
For uniform conditions, the flow velocity is V =
61.46
V = 1.63 m/s, The Frovde number is :
V 1.62
= = 0.136 < 1
gDh 9.81x14.6

Then, the flow is sub critical.

The critical depth is computed next:
Q A3 / 2
Section factor : =
g T 1/ 2

Q
where = 100/√9.81 = 31.93
g
Also:
y A T
A3/2T-1/2 Remarks
(m) (m2) (m)
3.0 32.78 13.62 50.85 high
1.95 18.88 12.87 22.87 low
2.55 26.73 8.83 46.49 high
2.25 22.77 13.10 30.01 low
2.40 24.75 13.21 33.87 high
From the last two lines we know that y0 = 2.3 m. This confirms that y0 < yn and the channel is
MILD.
The downstream depth is 102-98.5 = 3.5 m < yn.
Therefore, the profile is M2 type.
Table 9.7 shows the computations of the water surface profile for Q = 100 m3/5.

(b) Flow profile for Q = 150 m3/5 and downstream depth of 105-98.5 = 6.5 m.
Section Factor : AR2/3 = 191.70
Normal depth computation:
y A R AR2/3
Remarks
(m) (m2) (m) (m8/3)
6.0 75.83 3.738 170.72 low

154
 Chapter 9

6.3 80.28 3.483 184.45 high

6.45 82.51 3.534 191.4 Ok

From the table we get yn = 6.45 m. In this case the normal depth is equal to the downstream
water depth; therefore, the flow in the tunnel is uniform at yn = 6.5m.
The possibility of a smaller horse-shoe section should be considered for this problem. In this
case, a new diameter (between 15m and 10 m) should be assumed and the computations repeated
again.

9.8
155
 Chapter 9

Design a grass-lined channel for Q = 100 ft3/s, S0 = 0.03

Solution : Use Permissible Velocity Method.

For Bermuda grass and sandy silt the

permissible velocity is V – 1.8 m/s = 5.9 ft/s (from Table 9.3)
Use n = 0.030 (Manning’s n is grossed channels varies depending on the depth of flow, the shape
and slope of the channel and the grass growth conditions. A more detail analysis is
recommended for any particular case and circumstances).
Lateral slope : use 2 : 1 (Tropezoidal cross-section)

Q 100
Then : A = = = 16.95ft 2
V 5 .9

0.03 x100
Section Factor : AR2/3 = = 11.62
1.49 x 0.03

Also R = 0.57 ft and P = 29.84 ft.

Then : (B0 + y)y = 16.95 => B0 = 29.84-2√5 y

Substituting B0 in the section factor formula and solving for y, we get,

3.47 y2 – 29.84 y + 16.95 =0

From here : y = 0.61ft. Therefore, B0 = 27.11 ft.

The channel is very wide compared to the water depth. In order to have better proportional
dimensions, we can try s=6. In this case, we have,

P = B0 + 2 1+ 36 y = 29.84

Then, B0 = 29.84-2√37 y

and (29.84 y – 11.165 y2) = 16.95

Finally we get, y1 = 0.82 ft. and B0 = 19.87 ft.

156
 Chapter 9

Y2 = 1.85 ft. and B0 = 7.29 ft.

We have two options for the channel. The top width in both cases will be similar. Take the
second choice as our option:
y = 1.85 ft.

B0 = 7.29 ft.

The freeboard given by the US Bureau of Reclamation formula is

Fb = 0.8 x1.85 = 1.2 ft.

157
Chapter 10
SPECIAL TOPICS

10.1 Given : Rectangular channel connecting lakes B & C

B0 = 10 m
L = 1000m
S0 = 0.0002
n = 0.013
Channel bottom at Lake B entrance = 94 m.

(i) Plot the delivery curve if the water level in Lake B is of constant elevation El = 100 m
and the water level in Lack C is variable.

Solution:
Use the computer program given in Appendix D4 for simultaneous solution of the energy
equations for the channel reaches.

The input variable are :

NCHAN =1 sΦ = 0.0002
MAXI = 25 CHL = 1000
G = 9.81m/s2 CMAN = 0.013
TOL = 0.0001 BOT = 10
TOP = 6.0 m 2Φ = 0.0
YB = 6.0 m NR = 20
CHELEV = 94 ALPHA= 1
QΦ is VARIED from 20 m3/s to 251 m3/s to get the delivery curve.

158
 Chapter 10

For every discharge, compute the critical depth and check that y0 ≤ yd where yd =
downstream depth (given by the depth at section 2.1 in the program output) and y0 = critical
depth.

The critical depth is obtained from

Q2 Q2
y0 = 3 = 3
B 2g 981

The discharge corresponding to uniform flow conditions in this channel is

Qn = 127.41 m3/s
However, the channel is short ; therefore, the discharge increases to a maximum of
approximately 252 m3/s. These conditions can be verified with the computer program.
Table 10.1a shows the results. The delivery curve is obtained by plotting Q vs yd from this table.
(ii) Plot the channel discharge for different upstream lake levels (Lake B) if the water level in
Lake C is El = 98 m.
The maximum discharge is obtained when the downstream depth is critical, this is
3
QMAX = Yd Y B0

Or

Qmax = [98 − (94 − 1000 x 0.0002)] 3 x 9.81 x10

Qmax = 269m3/5

The normal discharge is given by

2
4.2 x10 4.2 x10 3
Qn =( )( ) 0.0002
0.013 4.2 x 2 + 10
Qn = 79.21 m3/s
Other points for the discharge curve can be obtained by using the Standard Step method program
given in appendix D2. The input data for this program is
Bφ = 10 m ZD = 93.8
S = 0.0 G = 9.81 m/s2

159
 Chapter 10

Sφ = 0.0002 ALPHA= 1.0

yD = 4.2 m
x(I)  use N Values between 0 and -1000 m
Q  Variable
The upstream depth for every flow corresponds to the valve of y at station 1000.
Table 10-1b shows the Q and Yup Valves.
(iii) Plot a diagram between the water levels in both lakes and the channel discharge if the
water levels in both lakes are variable.
Take for example Q=200M3/s. Use the Standard Step method program given in Appendix D2.
For the same discharge input different Valves of downstream depth, yd, and determine the
upstream depth, yup. Table 10-1c shows the results.
Repeat the same process with different discharge and plot yd vs yup for each flow.

160
Chapter 10

161
Chapter 10

162
 Chapter 10

10.2
For a concrete spillway with θ =300 and Ho = 8m, determine the development of the boundary
layer thickness along the spillway length.
Solution:
For a concrete spillway take k5=0.5mm and n=0.013.
(k5=equivalent sand-roughness, n=Manning’s coefficient).
The boundary layer development can be computed using equation 10-5.

∂ X K
= 0.021( s ) 0.11 ( s ) 0.10
Xs hs Xs
For our spillway hs/xs = cos30 = 0.866
Or
δ = 0.0213 (0.0005)0.1X51.1

δ = 0.010 X51.1

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 Chapter 10

Table 10.2 shows the boundary layer development Note that Xs is measured from the water
surface over the spillway crest. The distance along the Spillway length is denoted by x.

TABLE 10.2 Boundary Layer Growth

X5(m) X(m) δ (cm) X5(m) X(m) δ (cm)

6.93 0.0 8.4 12 5.07 15.3

8.00 1.07 9.8 15 8.07 19.6
10 3.07 12.5

10.3
Given: Same spillway as problem 10.2
Determine: c , y99, f e, ye .
Solution:
The average air concentration depends upon the angle θ ; then, for θ =300 :

C =0.75(sinθ)0.75 (Eq.10.6)

C =0.446 or 44.6 %

To estimate the uniform water depth at 99 % air concentration (y99) we need to computed the
water depth corresponding to pure water. This is
nq
Yw =( )3/5 (wide rectangular channel)
S0

Where q = θ/L = Cd He1.5, He = total energy head on the crest. Neglecting the velocity
head and assuming Ho = Hd a typical valve for Cd is 4.0 (When Hd is in feet). Then:
q = (8x3.28)1.5x0.4 = 53.76 ft3/ft
q = 5.0 m3/s-m
0.013 x 5
Then yw = ( ) 0 .6 = 0.23 m
2
tan 30
From Eq.10.7 we get:

164
 Chapter 10

sin 3 θy w 0.25
ygg = yw+1.35yw[ ]
n 2g 3
or, substituting the numbers :
Y99=0.43m

Given fw = 0.015 we get ‘fe’ from Eq.10.8

fw
as: fe = 4
1 + 10c
or
fe=0.0107
Finally the bulk flow depth is given by Eq.10.12
1
fe q 2 3
Ye= ( )
8gS 0

ye=0.18m

10.4
Given : A box culvert 2m wide by 4m high
S0=0.005
n=0.013
Downstream end un-submerged
Compute the rating curve

Solution:
Assuming inlet control we compute the culvert discharge using the weir and orifice
equations.
For un-submerged entrance (H<1.2D)

2 2
Q = CBH gh
3 3
Use B = 2m, C = 0.9 and g = 9.81 m/s2 to get

Q = 3.07H3/2 if H < 4.8m

165
 Chapter 10

For submerged entrance (H > 1.2D)

Q = CBD CBD 2g (H − CD )

Use C = 0.6 to get Q = 21.26 H − 2 .4 , If H > 4.8m

Also the critical and normal depth are given by

Q2 Q2
Yc = 3 = 3
Bg 19.62
5

(By ) 3
And 2
= 0.184 Q (use S0 = 0.005)
(2y + B ) 3

Table 10.4 shows the results : head, H, discharge critical and normal depths.
For flow between 0.5m3/5 and 43m3/5 the control is at the inlet (supercritical flow).
Therefore in this range of flows, the weir and orifice equations give the correct discharge.
Table 10.4
Rating Curve
H(m) Q(m3/5) Yc(m) Yn(m)
0.5 1.08 0.38 0.27
1.0 3.07 0.78 0.56
1.5 5.64 1.17 0.86
2.0 8.68 1.57 1.20
2.5 12.14 1.96 1.55
3.0 15.95 2.35 1.93
3.5 20.10 2.74 2.34
4.0 24.56 3.13 2.77
4.5 29.31 3.52 3.22
5.0 34.28 3.91 3.69
5.5 37.43 4.15 3.99
6.0 40.34 4.36 4.27
6.5 43.05 4.55 4.52
7.0 45.60 4.73 4.76

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 Chapter 10

10.5
Given:
Box culvert of problem 10A with
S0 = 0.001
L =100m
Tail water level remains below the culvert top at the outlet.

Compute : The rating curve.

Solution:
Determine of the control is at the inlet or not .Table 10-5a show the normal and critical depths
for several discharge (these are the Q values computed in problem 10.4)

Table 10-5a
Q Yc Yn
(m3/s) (m) (m)
1.08 0.38 0.473
3.07 0.78 1.00
5.64 1.17 1.60
8.68 1.57 2.27
12.14 1.96 3.03
15.95 2.35 3.93
20.10 2.74 4.70
24.56 3.13 5.63
29.31 3.52 6.62

From Table 10-5a we conclude that the flow is sub-critical and the control is at the outlet. For
outlet control the discharge and the water profile depends on the culvert length and the tail water
level at the down streams end. It also depends on the head water level.

167
 Chapter 10

We compute the rating curve for the maximum flow in the culvert for a given tail water level.
Recall that for a tail water level below the top of the culvert, the maximum flow in the culvert
occurs when the tail water level is less or equal to the critical depth.
This is Qmax = qmaxB0

y0 g =
3 3
Qmax = y TAIL g

Using these equations, the following rating curve for maximum flow as a function of the tail
water level is obtained.

Table 10-5 b
Rating Curve
YTAIL qmax Qmax
(m) (m3/sm) (m3/s)
0.5 1.11 2.22
1.0 3.13 6.26
1.5 5.75 11.5
2.0 8.86 17.72
2.5 12.38 24.76
3.0 16.27 32.54
3.5 20.51 41.02
4.0 25.06 50.12

168
 Chapter 10

10.6
Given: Culvert of prob.10-5
L=100m
The tail water level is 4.5m above the culvert invert at the outlet.
Compute and plot the water surface profile.

Solution:
The culvert of prob. 10-5 is 4m high; therefore , the outlet for the conditions given here is
going to be submerged. Also the flow in the culvert is SUBSRITICAL (See Table 10-5a).

Under these conditions the control is at the outlet and culvert flow full or pressurized..

10.7
Given : Logarithmic Velocity Distribution.
Prove that the flow velocity at 0.368d is the depth-averaged flow velocity.
Solution:
Assume velocity distribution of the form
v = a ln (by)
where y is the flow depth and ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants.

Integrating ‘v’ across the flow depth, we have,

169
 Chapter 10

v = a [ln (bd) -1]

Then,
ln c = 1 => v = a [ln (bd)-ln e]

bd
or v = a ln ( )
e

But e = 2.718 => 1/e = 0.368,

Finally v = a ln (0.368db)
Then y = 0.368d corresponds to the depth at which the flow velocity is the depth averaged flow
velocity.

10.8
Given :
Flow velocity at 0.2 d and 0.8 d
Logarithmic velocity distribution.
Show that the average
v 0.2 d + V0.8 d
Vav =
2
gives the depth-averaged flow velocity with an error of 2 %.
Recall that v = a ln (by)
v 0.2 d + V0.8 d
Then Vav =
2
a ln (b0.2d ) + a ln(b0.8d )
Vav =
2
a
Vav = ln(04bd)2
2
Vav = a ln (0.4 bd)
The relative error is expressed as

v - Vav a ln(0.368db ) − a ln(0.4bd )

ε = =
v a[ln(bd ) − 1]

170
 Chapter 10

where v was taken from Prob. 10.7

0.084
ε =
ln( bd ) − 1

Typically b ≈ 30/k (sec. Prob. 1.4) and 30d/k > 200 => ε ≈ 2% or less!

10.9
The water level in the upstream lake of the channel system shown in Fig. 10.10 remains constant
at El. 108 m; the water level in the downstream lake may vary between El.98 and 108 m.

(i) Compute the rates of discharge on the channel for different downstream lake levels and
plot the delivery curve.

A computer program similar to the one presented in Appendix …. for the computation of
backwater flow profiles using simultaneous solution approach was used to solve this problem.
The computation of the delivery curve only requires to specify the discharge and the program
solves for the water depth.

Table 10.9 presents relevant water depth for selected discharges.

Table 10.9
Normal, Critical and Downstream Depth at Channel 2
Q yn y0 yd
m3/5 m m m
100 4.148 2.140 8.721
150 5.172 2.738 8.620
200 6.028 3.252 8.461
250 6.772 3.708 8.230
300 7.439 4.122 7.880
350 8.387 4.504 7.290
400 8.606 4.859 5.248

171
 Chapter 10

Figure 10.9 shows the delivery curve for the system. A maximum depth of 8.8 m at the
downstream end of channel 2 corresponds to zero flow conditions. As the water level decreases
the flow increases very rapidly, for high water level in the downstream reservoir. An increase in
discharge from 0 to 200 m3/s corresponds to only 0.30 m variation in the reservoir level. At this
condition the channel is carrying approximately a half of the maximum flow for the system.

10.10
Given

172
 Chapter 10

Branch channel system consisting of the two channels of Prob. 10.9 and a branch channel
(channel 3) this takes off from the junction of channels 1 and 2.

Channel 3 is, L3 = 1000m

Same cross section as Ch. 2
n = 0.015
water level at downstream end = 105

(i) Compute and plot the delivery curves for channels 2 and 3 for the different downstream
lake levels downstream of channel 2.

Solution:
A computer program for the solution of this problem using simultaneous solution procedure can
be written following the explanations of Section 6.8. In this case, the solution will be easily
obtained in a straight forward manner from the computer program. However, other procedure
that uses the ‘traditional’ integration techniques (like Euler or Runge Kutta) to solve the
gradually varied flow differential equation will be discussed here. In this case, the computations
are more tedious because a trial and error procedure must be applied.

The first step is to determine the maximum discharge in channel 3. Theoretically, this
corresponds to the valve for which the reservoir level is the critical depth. However, in this case
the flow is restricted by the capacity of channel 1. After a trial and error process, trying to match
the water elevation coming from reservoir 1 towards the junction with the constant elevation at
reservoir 3, the maximum flow in channel 3 is estimated as 478 m3/s, corresponding to a water
elevation of 7.0 m at the junction. An elevation of 5.2 m at the junction represents zero flow in
channel 3. So we look for water elevation at the junction between 7 and 5.2 m.

Now, by trial and error we find several combinations of flow and head that satisfy the continuity
and the energy equations at the junction and, at the same time satisfy the boundary conditions of

173
 Chapter 10

each channel. Table 10.10 shows the discharges head of the junction and depth at reservoir 2
that occur simultaneously.

Table 10.10
Discharge and water depth for the channel system.
Q ch1 Qch3 Qch2 ynor y0 yjunc yd H
m3/s m3/s m3/s m m m m m
500 448 52 2.94 1.46 6.76 7.34 106.54
520 393 127 4.73 2.48 6.43 6.88 106.08
530 355 175 5.62 3.00 6.19 6.41 105.61
535 320 215 6.26 3.39 6.02 5.87 105.07
537 308 229 6.47 3.52 5.93 5.50 104.70
538 298 240 6.63 3.62 5.88 5.13 104.33

Differences in velocity head at the junction were neglected in the computations. During the trial
and error process a maximum difference of ±5 cm between the reservoir elevation of channel 2
(105 m) and the valve computed with the program was allowed.

As mentioned before, the maximum flow in channel 3 is approximately 478 m3/s corresponding
to a water elevation of 7.0 m at the junction. Elevations greater than 7.0 m correspond to flows
less than 475 m3/s in channel 1, causing a situation where the continuity equation is not satisfied.

Water elevations less than 7m at the junction correspond to flows greater than 478 m3/s in
channel 1. In these cases there is flow going from the junction towards reservoir 2 and 3.
The steps followed to obtain the values in table 10.10 are :
(i) Assume a discharge in channel 1 and compute the backwater profile up to the junction.
We know that this flow must be greater than 478 m3/s.

(ii) With the water depth at the junction obtained in Step 1, assume a discharge for channel 3
and use trial and error to match the end of the flow profile with the reservoir elevation.

174
 Chapter 10

(iii) Once step 2 is satisfied, apply the continuity equation at the junction to find the discharge
in channel 2.
(iv) Knowing the discharge in channel 2 and the water depth at the junction, compute the
backwater profile for channel 2 and obtain the reservoir elevation.
Repeat the same procedure for different discharges to get the delivery curve. Figure 10.10 shows
the results for channel 2.

175
Chapter 11
UNSTEADY FLOW

11.1
Vw = absolute velocity. Assume rectangular channel.

Continuity eqn :
(Vo+∆V-Vw)(Yo+∆y) = (Vo-Vw)yo
Voyo+yo∆y-Vwyo+Vo∆y+∆y∆v-Vw∆y = voyo-vwyo
(vo-vw) ∆y = -yo∆v
(vw-vo) ∆y = yo∆v
∆v
Vw-vo = yo
∆y
∆v
C = yo ----------------(1)
∆y
Momentum equation:
r r
½[ ( y o + ∆y ) 2 − ½ry o ] = (v o -v w )y o [(v o - v w ) - (v o + ∆v - v w )]
2

2 g
1 2 y
[ y o + ∆y 2 + 2y o ∆y − y o ] = (v o - v w ) o [v 0 − v w − v o − ∆v + v w ]
2

2 g

y0
y0 ∆ y = v0-vw (- ∆ v)
g
∆y
v0-vw = -g
∆v
∆y
C = g ---------------- (2)
∆v
∆y y0
From (1): =
∆v C
y0
From (2): C = g
C
C2 = gy0

176
 Chapter 11

C = gy 0

Note that C is relative to flow velocity Vo.

11.2

Q 7 .5
V1 = = = 1m / sec .
B1y 1 5 x1.5

y1 − y 2
(y1 − y 2 )
2 2
(v1-v2)2 = g
2y 1y 2
9.81(1.5 − y 2 )
(1-0)2 = (2.25-y22)
2 x1.5 y 2

(1.5 − y 2 )
0.3058 = (2.25-y22)
y2
Use trial & error,
y2 = 1.914 m

v 2 y 2 − v 1y 1 0 − 1x1.5
vw = = = 3.623m / sec
y 2 − y1 1.914 − 1.5

177
 Chapter 11

11.3
2 2 2 3
V v V1 b 2 b
∆E = y1 + 1 − y 2 − 2 = [(1 − 1 ) 2 + 2 Fr1 1 3 (b2 − b1 )
2g 2g 2g b2 b2

( 7 .5 4 y 1 ) 2 1 ( 7 .5 4 y 1 ) 2 4 ( 7 .5 4 y 1 ) 2 4 3
= y1+ − 1 .5 − = [(1 − ) 2 + 2 (1)
2 x 9.81 2 x 9.81 2 x 9.81 5 2 x 9.81 5 4
0.1792 0.1792 0.07339
= y1+ 2
− 1.5 − 0.05097 = 2
[0.04 + 3
]
y1 y1 y1
y16-1.55097y5-0.172y3-0.01315 =0
Y1 = 1.474 m
Y1` = (1.914-1.5)5/4+1.474 = 1.9915 m

11.4

( 7 .5 7 .5 y 1 ) 2 1 ( 7 .5 7 .5 y 1 ) 2 7 .5 2 ( 7 .5 7 .5 y 1 ) 2 7 .5 3
y1+ − 1 .5 − = [(1 − ) +2 ( −2.5)
2 x 9.81 2 x 9.81 2 x 9.81 5 9.81x y 1 54

1 1 1 − 0.344
y1+ 2
− 1 .5 − = 2
[0.25 + 3
]
2 x 9.81xy 1 2 x 9.81 2 x 9.8 xy 1 y1

y16 -1.55097y5+0.0382y3+0.01753 =0

trial and error

y1 = 1.533 m
y1` = (1.914-1.5)5/7.5+1.533 = 1.809 m.

178
 Chapter 11

11.5

Q1=Q2
A1(v1-vw) = A2(v2-vw) Eqn. 11.8

ρ
Q[(v1-vw)-(v2-vw)] = γ y 2 A2 - γ y 1 A1
g
A1
A1(v1-vw)[v1-vw- (v1-vw)] = g( y 2 A2 - y 1 A1)
A2

A1
A1 (v1-vw)2(1- ] =
A2

A1
(vw-vw)2(A2-A1) = g( y 2 A2 - y 1 A1)
A2

A2 g
(v1-vw)2 = [( A 2 y 2 - A 1 y 1 )
A1 ( A2 − A1 )

A2 g
C=vw-v1 = [( A 2 y 2 - A 1 y 1 ) eqn. 11.17
A1 ( A2 − A1 )

179
 Chapter 11

11.6

This is a positive wave

C= gy
In fig. a : The depth at 1 is less than the depth at 2, the wave celerity c2 > c1. As the wave
travel it tends to over take the front edge. Therefore, the wave tent becomes
steeper until a bare form (figure b).
- a similar argument can be done for the negative wave front and it will flatten as
it travel in the channel.

11.7

180
 Chapter 11

( y 1 + y 2 )g
(v1-v2)2= (y1-y2)2 ---- (1)
2y 1y 2
To the left side new singe

V2 = -vy2 = y v1=-v1

( y 1 + y )g
(v1-v)2 = (y1-y)2 ---- (2)
2y 1y
To the right side new singe

V2=v v1=v1` y2=y y1=y1`

( y 1 `+ y )g
(v1`+v)2 = (y1`-y)2 ---- (3)
2y 1 `y
Solving eqn (2) and (3), Find v and y

v 1y 1 − v 2 y 2
vw =
y1 − y 2

v 1y 1 − vy
Left side vw =
y − y1

v 1 `y 1 `+vy
Right side vw` =
y − y 1`
11.8

181
 Chapter 11

( y 1 + y 2 )g
(v1-v2)2= (y1-y2)2 ---- (1)
2y 1y 2
Applying eqn (1) to left side new singe
( y 1 + y 2 )g
(v1-v2)2= (y1-y2)2 ---- (2)
2y 1y 2
Applying eqn.(1) to right side new singe
( y 1 `+ y 2 `)g
(v1`+v2`)2 = (y1`-y2 `)2 ---- (3)
2y 1 `y 2 `
By geometric continuity
y2 + F = y2` -------- (4)
By hydraulic continuity
V2 y2 = v2`v2`
Solving 2,3,4,5 we get v2, y2, v2`, y2`

11.9
Stationary wave.
Au (vu-vw) = Ad (vd-vw)
Au (vw-vu) = Ad (vw-vd)
Auvw-Advw = Auvu – Advd
vw (Au – Ad) = Qu – Qd
Qu − Qd
vw =
Au − Ad

182
Chapter 12
GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW

12.1- Derive the continuity equation for the one-dimensional unsteady flow using infinitesimal
length of channel show in the figure.

The law of conservation of mass can be expressed as : “The time rate of increase of the mass
inside the control volume must be equal to the net rate of mass inflow into the control volume “.
From the figure we have the rate of mass in flow
H
as P1Q1= V1 A Where H=specific weigh of water.
g
The rate of outflow is:

H ∂A ∂V
P2Q2 = (A+ ∆x )(V + ∆x )
g ∂x ∂x
Then the net rate of flow is :

∆m = P2Q2 - P1Q1
or
H H ∂A ∂V
∆m = AV − ( A + ∆x )(V + ∆x )
g g ∂x ∂x

183
 Chapter 12

Neglecting second-order terms and simplifying we get :

H ∂A H ∂V
∆m = V ∆x - A ∆x (1)
g ∂x g ∂x
The time rate of increase of mass inside the control volume is given by :
∂m H ∂A
= ∆x (2)
∂t g ∂t
According to the law of conservation of mass, Eq.1 is equal to Eq.2, therefore
∂A ∂A ∂V
+V +A = 0 (3)
∂t ∂x ∂x

∂Q ∂( AV ) ∂A ∂V
Recalling that Q=VA and = =V +A
∂x ∂X ∂x ∂x
We get the law of conversion of mass, Eq.3 as:
∂A ∂Q
+ = 0
∂t ∂x
This is the continuity equation in conservative form without lateral flow (Eq. 12.4).

12.2
Derivation of the momentum equation.
The law of conservation of momentum can be expressed as:
“The time rate of increase of momentum is equal to the net rate of momentum influx plus the
summation of the forces acting inside the control volume “.
First we obtain an expression for the forces acting in the control volume shown in

Problem 12.1
F1 = HA y Pressure forces
∂y
F2 = HA y + HA ∆x
∂x
F3 = HASf∆x Force due to friction

184
 Chapter 12

Sf = slope of the energy grade line.

F4 =W = HAS0∆x Gravity Force

S0 = channel bottom slope

Adding the forces in the x-direction we get the resultant force:

∂y
FR = -HA ∆x - HASf ∆x + HASa ∆x
∂x
The momentum influx is
H H
ρ 1 Q1 V1 =
2
A1V12 = AV
g g
The momentum influx:

2 ∂( AV )
3
H H
ρ 2 Q2 V2 = 2
A2V2 = [AV + ∆x ]
g g ∂x
The net change in momentum:
−H ∂ 2
ρQ2V2 – PQ1V1= (AV ) ∆x
g ∂x
Then, the time rate of momentum is given by :
∂(mv ) ∂ H
= ( AV ∆x )
∂t ∂t g
Finally, the conservation of momentum is
∂ H H ∂ 2 ∂g
( AV ∆x ) =- (AV ) ∆x - HA ∆x +HAS0 ∆x - HASF ∆x
∂t g g ∂x ∂x
Time rate of change of momentum Net rate of momentum influx Summation of forcer acting on the control volume

Simplifying this equation we get:

∂ ∂ ∂y
(AV) + (AV2) + gA = gA (S0-Sf) (1)
∂t ∂x ∂x
Recalling that
∂ ∂A ∂(V 2 )
(AV2) = V2 +A
∂x ∂x ∂x

185
 Chapter 12

∂A ∂V
= V2 + 2A
∂x ∂x
∂A ∂V
= V (V + 2A ) (2)
∂x ∂x
∂( AV ) ∂A ∂v
and =V +A (3)
∂t ∂t ∂t
Substituting Eq.2 and Eq.3 in Eq.1 result in
∂A ∂A ∂V ∂y ∂V ∂V
V( +V +A ) + gA +AV +A = gA(S0- SF )
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂t
Dividing by A and noting that the first term in the left hand side is equal to zero (se
prob.12.1,Eq.3), the find expression is:

This is the momentum equation or dynamic equation.

g ∂y +V ∂V + ∂V = g(S0- SF )
∂x ∂x ∂t

12.3
Derive Eq.5.5 from Eq.12.17
Equation 5.5 is:
dy (S -S )
= 0 f) 2
dx BQ
1−
gA3

∂V ∂ V2
Equation 12.17 is: +g ( +y) = g (S0-Sf)
∂t ∂x 2g
We know that Eq. 5.5 apply to STE ∆Dy , gradually varied flow, then:
∂V
=0
∂t
Then, Eq. 12-17 becomes
∂ V2
g ( + y ) = g(S0-Sf) (1)
∂x 2g

186
 Chapter 12

Recalling that: Q=VA then:

(V 2 / 2g ) ∂(Q 2 / 2gA 2 )
g =g
∂x ∂x
Q 2 B ∂y
=- (2)
g A 3 ∂x
∂A
Using the fact that B=
∂y
Substituting Eq.2 into Eq.1 we get
BQ 2 dy dy
- +g = g(S0-Sf) (3)
A3 dx dx

Note that the partial derivatives are not needed in equation 3.

Rearranging Eq.3, we get:

dy
= V (S 0 -S f) )
dx BQ 2
1−
gA3

This is Eq.5-5 (Gradually varied flow equation).

12.4
If we use stage (the equation of water surface above a specified datum), Z instead of flow depth
,g, show that the continuity momentum equations for a prismatic channel become:
∂Z ∂Z A ∂v
+V + +VS0 = 0
∂t ∂x B ∂x
∂V ∂V ∂Z
+V +g +gSf = 0
∂t ∂x ∂x
Solution:
The relation between Z and y is
Y = Z-Z0 Where Z0 is the elevation of the channel bottom.

187
 Chapter 12

∂y ∂Z ∂Z 0 ∂Z
Then =V - = +S0
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
Where S0 is the channel bottom slope.
∂y ∂z
Also =
∂t ∂t
∂y ∂y ∂Z ∂z
Substituting and in terms of and we get:
∂x ∂t ∂x ∂t
continuity Equation:
∂y A ∂v ∂y
+ + =0 →
∂t B ∂x ∂x
∂z A ∂v ∂z
+ +V +VS0 = 0
∂t B ∂x ∂t
Momentum Equation : (Eq. 12-16)
∂z ∂v ∂z ∂V ∂v
V[B +A +BV +BVS0 ]+A [ +V +gS0 +gSf – gS0] = 0
∂t ∂x ∂t ∂t ∂x

The first term in brockets is identically zero because of the continuity equation, Therefore
∂V ∂v ∂z
A[ +V +g +gSf] = 0
∂t ∂x ∂x
Or
∂V ∂v ∂z
+V +g +gSf = 0
∂t ∂x ∂x

12.5
The momentum equation is
∂Q ∂ −
+ (QV+gA Y ) = gA(S0-Sf)
∂t ∂x
∂Q
If the flow is steady we have =0
∂t

188
 Chapter 12

∂ −
For uniform flow we have: (Qv+ gA Y ) = 0
∂x
Then, the momentum equation becomes
gA (S0-Sf) = 0

Or S0 = Sf .

12.6
If the wind stress on the flow surface is included, prove that the continuity and momentum
equations becomes:

∂y ∂Q q
B + - =0
∂t ∂x l

∂Q Q ∂Q ∂ Q ∂g q
+ +Q ( )+gA - gA(S0 -Sf) – u – Kw BVW2 cosθ= 0
∂t A ∂x ∂x A ∂x l

In which u=Velocity component of the latest flow in the positive x-direction, Vw= wind velocity
and Kw=dimensionless wind stress coefficient.
The addition of wind stress on the surface flow does not modify the continuity therefore , is
remains the same as Eq.12.5, this is
∂y ∂Q q
B + - =0
∂t ∂x l
The wind force can be expressed empirically as :
Fw = KwVw2

Where Kw was defined as a dimensionless wind-stress coefficient.

If θ is the angle between the wind direction and the x-direction, the component of the wind force
is the x-direction is:
Fw = KwVw2cosθ∆x

189
 Chapter 12

Adding this terms to the summation of forces in the momentum equation (problem 12.2) we get:

H ∂Q H ∂(QV ) ∂y q
∆x = - ∆x - HA∆x +HAS0∆x - HASf∆x - KwVw2cosθ + a
g ∂t g ∂x ∂x l
Expending the partial derivative and simplifying we get:

∂Q ∂Q ∂v ∂y q
+V +Q +gA - gA(S0 – Sf) - KwVw2cosθ + a =0
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂x l
Or
∂Q Q ∂Q ∂ Q ∂y q
+( ) + Q ( ) +gA + gA(S0 – Sf) - a - KwVw2cosθ + = 0
∂t A ∂x ∂x A ∂x l

190
Chapter 13
NUMERICAL METHODS

13.1
A computer program is developed for the transient by using the Method of
Characteristics. The channel length is divided into 50 reaches (51 nodes). Other input
values are as per the problem statement.

Results of surface profile due to sudden closure of the downstream gate at different time
levels are presented in Fig. 1(a). Reflection of the wave is observed. Variation of flow
depth with time at different locations in the reservoir is shown is Fig. 1 (b).

t=0 t=500 s t=1000 s t=1500 s t=2000 s

7

6.5
Flow depth (m)

5.5

5
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
Distance (m)

Fig. 1 (a) Surface profile at different times

191
 Chapter 13

1.5 km 2.5 km 3.0 km 5.0 km

7
Flow depth (m)

5
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Time (s)

Fig. 1 (b) Variation of the flow depth with time at different locations.

13.2
The results are obtained by using different dt/dx. Result indicates diffusion errors in the wave
shape as dt/dx becomes smaller.

5.8
dt/dx=0.20
Flow depth (m)

dt/dx=0.10
5.6
dt/dx=0.05

5.4

5.2

5
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Distance (m)

Fig. 13.2 Effect of dt/dx on the wave propagƒvation

192
Chapter 14
FINITE-DIFFERENCE METHOD

14.3
Use Von Newman analysis to show that the following scheme is unstable.

∂f f i +1 − f i −1
k k

=
∂x 2∆x
k +1 k
∂f fi − fi
= , where f refers to both ‘y’ and ‘v’ variables.
∂t ∆t

Solution
The linearized Saint-Venant equation (eq. 14.64 and 14.65) are
∂V ∂V ∂y
+V0 +g =0
∂t ∂x ∂x
∂Y ∂V ∂y
+D0 + V0 =0
∂t ∂x ∂x

Van newman assumed that the error has the form of a fourier series, this is

ε(x,t) = ∑X(t) ejmx where j=√-1

The finite difference approximation of the linearized equations using the given scheme is
K +1 V0 ∆t K K g ∆t K K
V = Vi -
K
( ) (V i +1 −V i −1 ) - ( ) (Y i +1 -Y i −1 )
i
2 ∆x 2 ∆x

Y
K +1
i
=Yi −
K D0
2
 ∆t  K
 ( K
)V  ∆t  K
 V i +1 −V i −1 − 0 
 ∆x  2  ∆x 
( K
 Y i +1 −Y i −1 )

The exact solution to these equation are:

Yexact = Ycomp + ε

193
 Chapter 14

Vexact = Vcomp + ε

Where Vcomp is the approximation given by a real computer with limited accuracy. Since the
exact solution, Vexact and Yexact most satisfy the difference equation too we conclude that the
same must be true for the error as long as the system is linear, therefore we have:

K +1 V0 ∆t K K g ∆t K K
V
K
= Vi - ( ) (V i +1 −V i −1 ) - ( ) (W i +1 -W i −1 )
i
2 ∆x 2 ∆x

K +1 D0 ∆t K K Vo ∆t K K
W = Wi -
K
( ) (V i +1 −V i −1 ) - ( ) (W i +1 -W i −1 )
i
2 ∆x 2 ∆x
Where v and w represent the round of error introduced by the real-computer computations and
given by
k
V i
= A k e jmx

W i
= B k e jmx

Since the system is linear, we can consider only one term in the error series; therefore, the
error Equations becomes:
For υ
Vo g
A(t+∆t) e jmx = A(t) e jmx - r [A(t) e jm ( x + ∆x ) - A(t) e jm ( x − ∆x ) ] - r [B(t) e jm ( x + ∆x ) - B(t) e jm ( x − ∆x ) ]
2 2
∆t A(t + ∆t)
Where r= , Calling η= the amplification factor we have :
∆x A(t )
Vo Vo
η A(t) e jmx = A(t) e jmx - r [A(t) e jmx e jm∆x + r A(t) e jmx e − jm∆x
2 2
g g
- r [B(t) e jmx e jm∆x + r B(t) e jmx e − jm∆x
2 2

Cancelling e jmx and simplifying the equation we obtain:

e jm∆x -e -jm∆x e jm∆x -e -jm∆x
[η-1+V0r ( ) ] A+gr( ( )B = 0
2 2

194
 Chapter 14

e j ∫ -e -j ∫
Defining ∫ =m∆x and recalling that sin ∫ = we obtain:
2
[η-1+V0r sin∫j]A+gr sin∫B = 0

K +1
A similar procedure for the W i
equation gives:

[η-1+V0r sin∫j]B+D0r sin∫A=0

In this derivation it was assumed that

A(t + ∆t) B(t + ∆t)
η= =
A(t ) B( t )

To obtain a non-trivial solution for the amplitude (A and B) the following condition must be
satisfied :
η -1+V0rsinδj grsinδj
= 0
D0rsinδj } -1+V0rsinδj

Or
(η-1+V0r sin δj)2 + D0gr2Sinδ =0

η-1+V0r sin δj = ±j D0 g + sinδ

Finally η = 1- (V0 ± D0 g )+ sinδj

In order to have the error bounded the condition must be η <1

Where η is the module of η

Or
(1 + (V0 ± D0 g )2 t2 sin2δ)½ < 1

195
 Chapter 14

This reduces to the impossible condition

(V0 ± D0 g )2 t2 sin2δ) <0

Therefore the error cannot be bounded and the scheme is UNSTABLE .

14-6
The linearized Saint-Venant equations are:

∂V ∂V ∂Y
+V0 + = 0 -------------- (1)
∂t ∂x ∂x

∂Y ∂V ∂Y
+ D0 +V0 = 0 -------------- (2)
∂t ∂x ∂x

Predictor part of Mac Cormack Scheme applied to equation 1:

x k K K x x
V −V i i
+ V0 V −Vi i −1
−
+gY Y i i
= 0 ----------- (3)
∆t ∆x ∆x

v I
X
= v
k
I
 ∆t  K
−V 0 
K
(  ∆t  K
 V i −V i −1 − g 
 ∆x 
) K
 Y i −Y i −1
 ∆x 
( ) ----- (4)

Similarly:

v
X
i +1I
= v
k
i +1
 ∆t  K
−V0  ( K  ∆t  K
 V i +1 −V i − g 
 ∆x 
) K
 Y i +1 −Y i
 ∆x 
( ) (5)

The corrector part for the same equation is:

xx k x x x x
V −V i V −V i −Y i
i
+ V0 i +1
+gY i +1
=0 (6)
∆t ∆x ∆x

or

196
 Chapter 14

v
Xx
i
= v
k
i
 ∆t  x
−V0 
x
(  ∆t  x
 V i +1 −V i − g 
 ∆x 
x
 Y i +1 −Y i
 ∆x 
) ( ) (7)

The predictor part for equation Z is:

k k
Y
x
i
−Y i
k

+ D0 (
(V −V i i −1 −
+V0 Y Y
k
i
k
i −1
=0 (8)
∆t ∆x ∆x
* ∆t k k ∆t k k
Y i
= - D0
∆x
(V i - V i −1 ) –V0
∆x
(V i - V i −1 ) (9)

* k ∆t k k ∆t k k
Y i +1
= Y i +1 - D0
∆x
( V i +1 -V i ) – V0
∆x
( Y i +1 -Y i ) (10)

The corrector part for equation Z is :

*x k k k * *
Y −Y i i
+ D0 ( (V i +1
−V i
) +V0 Y i +1
−Y i
=0 (11)
∆t ∆x ∆x
or
*x k ∆t k k ∆t * *
Y = Y i - D0 (V i +1 −V i )V0 Y −Y i (12)
i
∆x ∆x i +1

The flow velocity in the next time step is given by

* *k
+
=V V
k +1 i i
V i
2
(13)

Substituting Eqns. 4 and 7 into Eq.13 and defining ∆t/∆x=r we obtain:

k k k k k
V − V r (V i −V i −1) − gr (Y i − Y i −1) k * * *
− V0 1 − (V i +1 −V i ) − gr (Y i +1 −Y i
*

+V
k +1 i 0 i
V i
=
2 2
(14)

* *
Using Eq.4 and Eq.5 we can express V i +1 −V i as:
* * k k k k k k k k
V i +1
−V i =V i +1 −V i − V0 1 − (V i +1 +V i −1 − 2V i ) − gr (Y i +1 + Y i −1 − 2Y i ) (15)

Similarly by using Eq. 9 and Eq.10 we get:

197
 Chapter 14

* * k k k k k k k k
Y i +1
−Y i =Y i +1 −Y i − D0 R − (V i +1 +V i −1 − 2V i ) − V0 r (Y i +1 + Y i −1 − 2Y i ) (16)

Substituting Eq.15 and Eq.16 into Eq. 14 we have:

V
k +1
i
= v
K
I
−
V 0t
2
[V k
i +1
k
( k k
−V i −1 − V0 t V i +1 +V i −1 − 2V i − gt Y i +1 + Y i −1 − 2Y i −
k
) ( k k k
)]
υ
gt
2
[Y k
i +1
k
( k k
−Y i −1 − D0 t V i +1 +V i −1 − 2V i −Vot Y i +1 + Y i −1 − 2Y i
k
) ( k k k
)] (17)

The error must also obey equation 17 then:

 k −
ν ν υ + υ i −1 − 2υ i ω i +1 ω i −1
− 2ω i 
k k k
k k k
+
υ = υi − V0 r ( )
k +1 k i +1 i −1
) −V 0 r ( i +1
) − gr (
i
 2 2 2 
 

ω ω ) − D0 r (υ i +1 υ i −1 υ i ) −V 0 r (
ω + ω i −1 − 2ω i 
k k k k k
− +
k
−2
k k

− gr  ( )  (18)
i +1 i −1 i +1

 2 2 2 
 

Where υ i = A(t ) e
k mjx k mjx
and w i
= B( t ) e , and j = − 1

Defining the amplification factor as

A(t + ∆t)
}=
A(t )

and substituting the expression for ν i and

k k
w i
into Eq.18, we have :

 m∆xj
−e
− m∆xj m∆xj
−e
− m∆xj

} Ae
xmj
= Ae
xmj
−V 0 r e
xmj
 A( e ) − AV 0 r ( e − 1) −
 2 2 
m∆xj − m∆xj
−e
Bgr ( e
mxj
− 1) − gr e
2
 m∆xj
−e
− m∆xj m∆xj
−e
− m∆xj m∆xj
+e
− m∆xj

B( e ) − D0 rA( e − 1) −V 0 rB( e − 1) (19)
 2 2 2 

198
 Chapter 14

m∆xj − m∆xj m∆xj − m∆xj

+e e −e
Introducing δ =m∆x, cos∫= e , sin ∫ = into eq. 19 and simplifying,
2 2
we get.

A } − 1 +V 0 r sin ∫ j − r 2 (cos ∫ −1)(V 2 D g )  +B[gr(sin∫j-2V0r(cos∫-1)] = 0 (20)

 0 0 

Similarly to equation B, we have

* *k
+
=Y Y
k +1 i i
Y i
2
(21)

After substituting Eqns. 4,5,9, and 10 into eq. 21 and simplifying, we obtain

=Y i − D0 [V i +1 −V i −1 − V 0 r (V i +1 +V i −1 − 2V i )
k +1 k r k k k k k
Y i
2
k k k V0 r k k k k k k k k
− gr (Y i +1 + Y i −1 − 2Y i )] − [(Y i +1 −Y i −1 − D0 r (V i +1 +V i −1 − 2V i )V0 r (Y i +1 + Y i −1 − 2Y i (
2
22)

Writing Eqn. 22 in terms of the expression for the error, using the trigonometric
equalities for cosδ and sinδand simplifying, we arrive to :
A [D0r(sinδj-2rv0(cosδ-1)] + B[ } -1-r2(D0g+v02)]
For a non-trivial solution of A and B, the following condition must be satisfied.
} − 1 + 
V 0 r sin ∫ j − r (cos ∫ −1)(V 02 D 0 g )  gr(sin∫j-2V0r(cos∫-1)
2


D0r(sin∫j-2V0(cos∫-1)) } − 1 − r 2 (D0 g +V 0 )(cos ∫ − 1) + V0 r sin ∫ j

2

Must be equal to zero. Expanding the determinant and simplifying, we get.

For a decay in the error the modulus of 3 must be less than 1.0. If we define,
Cn = as the Courant Number, the modulus of 3 is :

199
 Chapter 14

A plot of the amplification factor, 3, versus the frequency parameter, δ, for different Courant
Number shows that the scheme is STABLE if Cn ≤1. If Cn > 1 the amplification factor grows
larger than 1 and the scheme becomes unstable.

For Gabutti scheme follows the same procedure presented for MaiCormack .

14.7
The stability analysis for Preissman scheme is discussed in the following references:
(a) Lyn, DA and Goodwin P “Stability of a General Preissman Scheme”, Journal of
Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 113, F=1, 1987
(b) Samuels, P.G and Skeels, CP “Stability limits for Preissman Scheme”, Journal of
Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 116, N28, 1990

200
Chapter 16
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT

16.1
Table 16.1: Fraction of individual size classes in the sample
i D_fi Ψ_fi F_fi D_i Ψ_i f_i
1 0.125 -3 0 0.1767767 -2.5 0.01
2 0.25 -2 0.01 0.35355339 -1.5 0.05
3 0.5 -1 0.06 0.70710678 -0.5 0.12
4 1 0 0.18 1.41421356 0.5 0.07
5 2 1 0.25 2.82842712 1.5 0.01
6 4 2 0.26 5.65685425 2.5 0.02
7 8 3 0.28 11.3137085 3.5 0.04
8 16 4 0.32 22.627417 4.5 0.18
9 32 5 0.5 45.254834 5.5 0.2
10 64 6 0.7 90.509668 6.5 0.22
11 128 7 0.92 181.019336 7.5 0.08

100

90
80

70

60
% finer

50

40
30

20
10

0
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Size (mm)

Figure 16.1: Grain size distribution

D50 = 32 mm
D90 = 126 mm
Ψm = 4.02
Dg = 2^( Ψm) = 16.223 mm
σ2 = 8.19

201
 Chapter 16

σg = 2^( σ) = 7.269
Gravel bed river

16.2
Eq. 16-30 is used. The solution is shown is Table 16.2. Columns 1 and 2 are from the problem
statement. Column 3 is obtained by R ep = (D/ν).√ (R.g.D). Column 4 is obtained by using Eq.
16-30.

Table 16.2: Non-dimensial critical shear stress by Brownlie equation

Sediment size, D
R Rep Ζ*c
(mm)
0.25 1.65 15.90327 0.1144
0.5 1.65 44.98125 0.088855
2 1.65 359.85 0.06822
16 1.65 8142.475 0.061262

16.3
Eqs. 16-44, 16-45 and 16-48 are used to calculate the non-dimensional bed load for different
values of non-dimensional shear stress. The range of values for the non-dimensional shear stress
is from 0.05 to 1.0 with an incremental value of 0.05. Computations for the three methods are
shown in Table 16.3. The plots are presented in Fig. 16.3.

Table 16.3: Computation of bed load by different formulas

ζ* (i) (ii) (iii)
0.05 0.001315 0.000453 0
0.1 0.097612 0.044842 0.078728
0.15 0.264451 0.129833 0.278276
0.2 0.47877 0.244542 0.570197
0.25 0.731702 0.384451 0.939737
0.3 1.018054 0.546814 1.377492
0.35 1.334301 0.729718 1.876806
0.4 1.677846 0.931722 2.43265
0.45 2.046669 1.151688 3.041052
0.5 2.439143 1.388686 3.698775
0.55 2.853921 1.641934 4.403111
0.6 3.289862 1.910764 5.151755
0.65 3.745984 2.194596 5.942714
0.7 4.221432 2.492918 6.774238
0.75 4.715448 2.805275 7.644781
0.8 5.22736 3.131258 8.55296
0.85 5.756564 3.470498 9.497528
0.9 6.30251 3.822657 10.47736
0.95 6.864701 4.187428 11.49141
1 7.44268 4.564525 12.53875

202
 Chapter 16

15

12
Non-dimensional bed load

i
9
ii
iii
6

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Non-dimensional shear stress

Fig. 16.3 Variation of the non-dimensional bed load with non-dimensional shear stress

16.4
Eq. 16-83 is valid for uniform (normal) flow condition:
g
U = α r 1/ 6 H 2 / 3 S 1/ 2
Cf
Discharge per unit width = qw=U.H
Thus,

g
qw = α r 1/ 6
H 5 / 3 S 1/ 2
C f

Or,
 C 1f / 3 q w2 
H = 2 
 α gS 
 r 

16.5
Considering sand to be between 0.65 mm and 2 mm, Fs = 0.19, from Table 16.1.
Wilcok-Crowe model:
S = 0.012; qw = 4 m2/s

203
 Chapter 16

16.6
Eq. 16-80 is used. αr = 8.32 and ks = 3D90 is used. The computations are presented in Table 16.6.
A plot between the depth and discharge is shown in Fig. 16.6.

Table 16.6: Computation of discharge

H S D_90 K_s C_f U UH
0.9 0.00005 0.000425 0.001275 0.002 0.501 0.451
1 0.00005 0.000425 0.001275 0.002 0.541 0.541
1.1 0.00005 0.000425 0.001275 0.002 0.579 0.637
1.2 0.00005 0.000425 0.001275 0.001 0.617 0.740
1.3 0.00005 0.000425 0.001275 0.001 0.654 0.850
1.4 0.00005 0.000425 0.001275 0.001 0.689 0.965
1.5 0.00005 0.000425 0.001275 0.001 0.725 1.087
1.6 0.00005 0.000425 0.001275 0.001 0.759 1.215
1.7 0.00005 0.000425 0.001275 0.001 0.793 1.348
1.8 0.00005 0.000425 0.001275 0.001 0.827 1.488
1.9 0.00005 0.000425 0.001275 0.001 0.860 1.633
2 0.00005 0.000425 0.001275 0.001 0.892 1.784
2.1 0.00005 0.000425 0.001275 0.001 0.924 1.940
2.2 0.00005 0.000425 0.001275 0.001 0.956 2.102
2.3 0.00005 0.000425 0.001275 0.001 0.987 2.270
2.4 0.00005 0.000425 0.001275 0.001 1.018 2.442
2.5 0.00005 0.000425 0.001275 0.001 1.048 2.620

2.5

2
Flow depth (m)

1.5

0.5
0 1 2 3
Discharge per unit width (cumec/m)

Fig. 16.6: Depth-discharge relationship

204
Chapter 17
SPECIAL TOPICS

17.1
Given: Reservoir with the following data:
(i) Spillway outflow = 50 H1.5, where H = head above the spillway crest in feet.
(ii) Reservoir with vertical sides and surface area of 300000ft2
(iii) The inflow increases linearly from zero at t = 0 to 500 ft3/s at t = 15 min. Then
linearly decreases to 100 ft3/s in 10 min. to remain constant afterwards.
(iv) Reservoir at spillway crest elevation at t=0

Solution:
To solve this problem, follow the procedure described in Section 17.4
For a given outflow, the spillway head can be obtained as :
H = (O/H)0.667
Then, the corresponding storage is S = 300000 Hm3. If a Dt of 5 minutes is selected, then the
relation 0 vs 0+25/Dt is easily obtained. Table 17.1a presents the computations. Figure 17.1a
shows this relation.

With the inflow hydrograph and Fig. 17.1a the routing is done by following the steps of the
procedure given in section 17.4

205
Chapter 17

206
Chapter 17

207
Chapter 17

208
 Chapter 17

Table 17.1b shows the computations. The inflow and outflow hydrographs are presented in Fig.
17.1b

17.3
Given,
Detention pond with the following characteristics:
(i) Spillway crest level = 10 ft.
(ii) Spillway discharge equation, Q = 100(E-10)1.5, E in ft.
(iii) Pond surface area at El. 0 ft = 200000 ft2 and it increases linearly to 300000 ft3 at El.40
ft.
(iv) Inflow for t < 10 min. is 5t (t in seconds). After 10 min. the inflow remains constant at
3000 fs.
(v) Pond level at t = 0 at El. 8 ft.
Compute : Outflow hydrograph from the pond until t = 20 min.

Solution :
(i) Express the pond surface area and the storage volumen as a function of the spillway head
elevation E, this is :
A = 225000 + (e-10)2500

Z
S= ∫
0
Adz = 200000 z + 1250 z 2

Therefore, for any value of E the previous relations give the area and the storage volume.
The spillway discharge equation gives the outflow corresponding to the given E. These three
variables, A, S and Q are computed in the first columns (columns 2 to 4 in Table 17.3a). The last
column is the at flow-storage relation 2S/Dt + 0 where an interval of one minute was chosen for
the routing. Figure 17.3 a shows the relation 0 Vs 2S/Dt + 0

209
 Chapter 17

(ii) Following the procedure outlined in section 17.4, Tble 17.3 is obtained. The last column
in this table is the water elevation over the spillway corresponding to the particular time
of the routing.

(iii) Figure 17.3b shows a plot of the inflow and outflow hydrographs. It also shows the
spillway head during the routing time.

210
Chapter 17

211
Chapter 17

212
 Chapter 17

17.4 Given
∆t
X = 0.5 and a = 1, in the Muskingum-Cunge model.
∆x
Show that the wave does not attenuate as if is routed through a channel reach.

Solution :
Compute the constants for the Muskingum-Cunge model
0.5 ∆t − α∆x / a 0.5∆t − 0.5 ∆x
Co = = a
0.5∆t + (1 − α ) ∆x 0.5 ∆t + 0.5 ∆x
a a
a∆t − ∆x
=
a∆t + ∆x
∆t
(a − 1)
∆x ∆t
Co = =0 because a =1
∆t ∆x
(a + 1)
∆x
0.5 ∆t + ( α∆x / a ) 0.5∆t + 0.5 ∆x
C1 = = a =1
0.5∆t + (1 − α ) ∆ x 0.5 ∆t + 0.5 ∆x
a a
And
− 0.5 ∆t + (1 − α )∆x / a − 0.5∆t − 0.5 ∆x
C2 = = a
0.5∆t + (1 − α ) ∆ x 0.5 ∆t + 0.5 ∆x
a a

− ∆t + ∆x
= a
∆t + ∆x
a
But ∆x = ∆t, therefore, Cz = c
a
Subsequently, in the routing expression (eq. 17.12) the values of C0, C1 and Cz, we get,

Ok+1 = Co I k + 1 +C1 Ik + C2 Ok
Ok+1 = Ik
From this equality we conclude that the inflow at time ‘t’ is exactly the outflow at time t +∆t and
the wave is not attenuated.

213
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