Dams

INTRODUCTION
A dam is a hydraulic structure constructed across a river or a stream
to impound part of runoff from the catchments u/s of the dam. During wet
periods the water is conserved and is used in the lean or dry seasons as per
requirement. The rate at which water is required to meet the demands of
irrigation, hydropower, water supply; flood control rarely conforms to the
pattern of water availability.
INVESTIGATION SURVEY
The object of investigation and studies for a dam site is to evolve a
suitable location, design and construction of the dam structure which is
expeditious, economical and at the same time effects the desired
impounding of water.
TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY
The topographical survey may be preliminary and final.
a) Preliminary Survey
Besides reconnaissance of area, the preliminary survey aims at obtaining
sufficient details to establish merits and demerits of various site, the most
economical and suitable dam site & tentative cost. It also includes trial
borings, geological and hydrological studies.
b) FINAL SURVEY
Final survey is conducted in respect of the finally selected site to more
precise data for detailed design and precise estimates of the construction
cost, besides the following:-
(1) The dam site topographical map is prepared to cover an area
sufficient to accommodate all possible arrangements such as spillway,
outlet works diversion works etc. the plan cover an area 200m u/s and
400m d/s.
(2) The reservoir submergence plan may be prepared showing elevation
high enough to allow anticipated maximum reservoir level.
(3) Command area plan is prepared.
(4) River is surveyed 10km u/s and 10km d/s.
(5) L- Section is prepared for the canals.
(6) Survey plan of power house is prepared
(7) L-Section of penstock and tail race channel is prepared.
(8) Survey plan of surge tank area is prepared.
(9) Plan table surveying for the selection of suitable site for residential
colony, workshop complex is done.
(10) Estimate is done for excavation filling and concrete work etc.
(11) Computation of the quantum of land acquisition and compensation
for the land and the property to be submerged.
(12) Determination of the type and height of the dam
(13) Areal survey as the reservoir is usually large and the areal survey
will be good enough for computing the capacity at various levels and
land/properties to be submerged.
(14) Determination of capacity
(a) Reservoir area is computed in M-m 3 or ha – m by using the
planimeter on contour map.
(b) Storage is measured using a formula such as cone formula
h
V  ( A1  A2  A1 A2 ) Where h is the contour interval.
3

Following graphs shows area –elevation and storage – elevation curve.

GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION
Geological Investigation is carried out to collect data regarding
(i) Geological features folds, faults, fissures etc their nature and
extent.
(ii) Water tightness of the reservoir basin
(iii) Existing and potential slide area
(iv) Assessment of valuable minerals in reservoir area
(v) Ground water condition
(vi) Seismic conditions etc.
FOUNDATION INVESTIGATION
Foundation Investigation for earth, rock fill, masonry dams includes
investigation to determine properties of foundation soil, hidden weak spots
and shear zones etc and depth of overburden usual methods of exploration
comprise
(i) Bore holes
(ii) Excavation of open pits
(iii) Tunneling into the side of the valley
(iv) Core drilling

Meteorological Studies
(i) On the watershed plan is shown normal annual isohyets (rain fall
contours) location of rain gauge stations, stations, and gauge and discharge
sites and inter provincial boundaries.
(ii) Assessment of rainfall in the catchments
(iii) Collection and evaluation of data and frequencies of heavy rain
fall
(iv) Mean monthly temperature, wind velocities, relative humidity
Hydrological Investigation
These investigations include:-
Discharge observation, past flood, hydrograph to fix spillway capacity,
rainfall. Runoff correlation studies etc.
SEDIMENT STUDIES
Loss of storage capacity by silting is a very vital issue for
determining the useful life of the reservoir. Sediment observation shall be
carried for 3 years for suspended load, bed load and natural soil conditions
including catchments characteristics from point of erosion.
CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL INVESTIGATION
A map showing the location of construction material is prepared.
E.g. rock, coarse aggregate, cement, etc.
COMMUNICATION
Map is prepared to show, existing roads, proposed roads water and
rail routes with information on load and size limitation, electric power
source and transmission lines, telephone lines and re-routing of
communication system if disrupted.
ENVIRONOMENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS
The impact of the project on navigation, fish culture, wild life, ground
water and ecology of the area is determined.
SLECTION OF DAM SITE
There are various considerations for the final selection of a dam site.
(i) Good catchments u/s of dam
(ii) Minimum length of dam
(iii) Minimum height of dam
(iv) Suitable foundation
(v) Availability of suitable location for spillway.
(vi) Availability of suitable construction material
(vii) Ensure adequate capacity of reservoir
(viii) Rim of dam and basin of reservoir water light
(ix) Minimum construction and maintenance cost
(x) Suitable site for residential colony and offices
(xi) Diversion of river possible during the project period
(xii) Land to be submerged should be of low value
(xiii) Location of dam and appurtenant (related works) should be in
one province
(xiv) Good water supply carrying min sediments
SELECTION OF TYPE OF DAM
 It depends on following factors.
Topography
U-Shaped volley suitable for concrete overflow dam. A narrow V-
shaped volley is suitable for arch dam. A wide gorge with separate site for
spillway is suitable for earthen dam.
Geology and nature of dam
(i) Masonary and concrete dams are constructed on rocky
foundation.
(ii) Well compacted gravel foundation is suitable for low gravity
dam, earthen dam and rock fill dam.
(iii) Silty and fine sandy foundation is suitable for earth dam.
(iv) Clay foundation is suitable for earthen dam

SPILLWAY LOCATION
A suitable site for the required size and type of spillway governs the
type of dam to be constructed.
SAFETY CONSIDERATION
The type of dam suitable for the given foundation and site conditions
is also governed by the safety consideration.
AVAILABILITY OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
Economical availability of construction materials determines the
type of dam to be constructed.
EARTHQUAKE ZONE
Earthquake for us should be considered in the design of a dam.
Purpose
 The type of dam to be constructed depends on the purpose to be
served e.g. storage dam for hydel power, irrigation & floods.
Aesthetic consideration
If it is for recreational purpose then aesthetic beauty is also
considered.
Life of dam
Concrete and masonry dams have more life then earthen and rockfill
dam.
Type of dams
Gravity dam (Advantages)
(i) Suitable narrow gorge
(ii) Built to any height
(iii) Low maintenance
(iv) No spillway required if overflow dam
(v) Outlets can be provided
(vi) Section can be thinner
(vii) Failure not sudden
Disadvantage
(i) Required sound rock foundation
(ii) More costly
(iii) Require skilled labor + construction plant
(iv) Costly construction material
(v) Raising difficult if net provided in original design
(vi) Not suitable in seismic zone
Arch dam

Advantages
(i) Suitable for moderate foundation
(ii) Suitable for V- shaped gorge
(iii) Cheaper then solid gravity dam
(iv) Less base width so less uplift pressure
Disadvantages
(i) Requires sound rock abutments to resist arch thrust
(ii) The cost of dam + spillway cost may make it uneconomical
(iii) Required skilled labor
(iv) Requires precise formwork
(v) Unsuitable for wide gorge
Buttress dam
Advantages
(i) Requires 60% less concrete than slide gravity dam
(ii) Less pressure on foundation and better distribution of
compression stresses
(iii) Power house can be located between buttresses
(iv) Full use of structural conc. Strength can be made.
(v) Decreased uplift pressure
(vi) More stable against sliding
(vii) Specially adapted where further increase in reservoir capacity
required. Inspection and maintenance easier
(viii) Higher speed of construction because of large exposed area
(ix) Can be built on permeable
Disadvantages
(i) Less stable against lateral thrust and earthquake.
(ii) Require rich concrete mix
(iii) More exposed to failure due to military witch.
(iv) Highly skilled labor required
(v) Sensitive to even minor deterioration as very this concrete
(vi) Careful supervision required during construction
(vii) Not suitable where high labor cost
Earth and rock fill dam

Advantages
(i) Adaptable to any type of foundation
(ii) Permit subsequent raising
(iii) Adaptable in seismic zone
(iv) Economical in 1st cost
(v) Wide verity of material can be used
(vi) Comparatively unskilled labour can be employed
(vii) Modern excavation and compaction equipment helps speedy
construction
Disadvantages
(i) Exposed to damage by floods
(ii) Cannot be used as overflow dam
(iii) High maintenance cost
(iv) Unsuitable for high rainfall region
(v) Instrumentation necessary to study behavior of dam during and after
construction adds to its cost.
(vi) Outlet at low level cannot be provide so silt removed not possible.
(vii) Failure sudden without warning
(viii) Cannot be constructed for greater height.
Classification of dams
Dams are classified as follows:-
1) Classification based on hydraulic design
(i) Overflow dams
Overflow dams are designed to pass surplus flood water over the
crest. They are made of concrete or masonary and called spillway dams.

(ii) Non-overflow dams

A non-overflow dam is desi8gned in such a way so that no surplus
flood water overtops it. Surplus water is allowed to pass through spillway
constructed separately.

2) Classification of dams on the basis of materials used in dam

construction
Gravity dams
 It depends on self weight to resist the action of water stored on u/s
side. It is rigid type of dam constructed of concrete normally.
Arch Dam
It is curved dam convex u/s that depends principally on arch action
for its stability. The load is transferred to abutments. It is rigid type and
made of concrete or masonry.
Buttress Dam
It is also called follow dam and made of concrete. It is rigid type.
Water load acts on concrete slab (RCC) and through buttresses is
transferred to foundation.
(3) Classification Based on function
Storage Dam
Storage (or conservation) dams are constructed to store water during the
rainy season when there is a large flow in the river. The stored water is
utilized later during the period when the flow in the river is reduced and is
less than the demand. The water stored in the reservoir is used for a
number of purposes, such as irrigation, water supply and hydropower.
Storage dams are the most common type of dams and in general the dam
means a storage dam unless qualified otherwise.
Diversion Dam
A diversion dam is constructed for the purpose of diverting water of the
river into an off-taking canal (or a conduit). A diversion dam is usually of
low height and has a small storage reservoir on its upstream. The diversion
dam is a sort of storage weir which also diverts water and has a small
storage. Sometimes, the terms weirs and diversion dams are used
synonymously.

Detention dams:
Detention dams are constructed for flood control. A detention dam retards
the flow in the river on its downstream during floods by storing some flood
water. Thus the effect of sudden floods is reduced to some extent. The
water retained in the reservoir is later released gradually at a controlled rate
according to the carrying capacity of the channel downstream of the
detention dam. Thus the area downstream of the dam is protected against
flood.
Check Dam
It is low dam for checking uncontrolled transportation of sediments.
Diversion cum Storage Dam
It serves dual purpose of storing and diversion
(4) Classification Based on height of the dam
Large Dam
All dams above 15m height, crest length not less than 500m, storage not
less than 100000m3 and max flood discharge capacity is not less than
2000m3/sec are called large dams.
Small Dam
All dams below 15m are called small dams.
APPROVEMENT OF COST OF A MULTIPURPOSE RESERVOIR
PROJECT
River valley projects are essentially multipurpose for irrigation and
hydel power generation besides indirect benefits which are achieved form
than such as drinking water flood protection, fishing, navigation, tourism
etc. The cost of construction of the project is determined on the basis of the
uses for which the reservoir is planned. The main objective of the
allocation is to distribute the cost on justifiable basis amongst the various
purposes beneficiations.
There are different methods toe cost allocations. (Page 132 Sharma)
The following example will illustrate these methods.
5.1 A multipurpose valley project has the salient cost data as under.
Apportion the cost among the irrigation and power generation:-
Total cost of the project = Rs 100 crore
Cost of dam portion = Rs 70 crores
Cost of dam irrigation system = Rs 30 crores
Cost of power specialties like penstock
Trash rack structures etc = 10 crores
Cost of dam irrigation specialties = 5 crores
Height of Dam = 150m
Live storage = 2000 M-m3
Storage utilized for power 1200 M-m3
Storage utilized for irrigation = 800 M-m3
Single purpose dam
(i) For power generation= Dam height 135m,
(1200 M-m3 live storage) Cost Rs.70 crores
(ii)For irrigation (800 M-m3 live storage) = Dam ht. 105m
Cost = 50 crores

SOLUTION
(i) By Equitable Justifiable Method
Cost of common civil works = 70 - 10 - 5 = 55 crores
According to this method, the amount is to be proportional among
power and irrigation facilities in the sation of cost of dam estimated,
assuming it was constructed for providing irrigation and power benefits
separately
Hence, share of cost debitable to
55  70
Power =  32crore
(70  50)
 55  50
Share of cost debitable to irrigation = (70  50)  23crore

Total cost to be born by power

=32 + 10 =42 crores
Total cost to be born by Irrigation
= 23 + 5 + 30 = 58 crores
(Note: Total cost of transmission and power hence are not included in
the above analysis as it is to be born by power)
(ii) By Equal Apportionment Method
 100  10  5 
Specific cost share of joint cost 
2
 Total Application
 

Irrigation Power Total

5 10 15 crore
42.5 42.5 85 crore
47.5 52.5 100 crore

5.2 Apportion the cost of a multipurpose project of the following

cost data:-
Total cost = 100 crores
Estimate use-storage capacity
(a) Fore Flood Control = 5000 M-m3
(b) For Power = 2500 M.cu. m.
(c) For Irrigation = 2500 M-m3
Separable cost, flood control =10 crores
Irrigation = 50 crores
Power = 30 crores
Total = Rs 90 crores
Solution:
 Joint cost (total – separable cost) = 100 – 90 = Rs. 10 crores
10  5000
For flood control, share of joint cost (in ratio of use) = 
10000

RS5crore
10  2500
For Irrigation =  RS 2.5 crore
10000
10  2500
For Power =  RS 2.5 crore
10000

Therefore total cost chargeable to:-

Flood control =10 + 5 = Rs. 15 crores
Irrigation = 50 + 2.5 = Rs. 52.5 crores
Power = 30 + 2.5 = Rs. 32.5 crores
Total = Rs 100 crores
Assignment # 03
Solve Example 5.1(page 134) of Dam Engg by Sharma for the
following data:-
Total cost of project = Rs 100 crores +R. No = x
Cost of Dam portion = 0.7x
Cost of Irrigation = 0.3x
Similarly Change other data and than solve.