Polyvinyl chloride

Polyvinyl chloride (/ˌpɒlivaɪnəl ˈklɔːraɪd/;[5]

colloquial: polyvinyl, vinyl[6]; abbreviated:
PVC) is the world's third-most widely
produced synthetic plastic polymer, after
polyethylene and polypropylene.[7] About
40 million tonnes are produced per year.
 Polyvinyl chloride

Names

IUPAC name
poly(1-chloroethylene)[1]

Other names
Polychloroethylene

Identifiers

CAS N b
CAS Number 9002-86-2

Abbreviations PVC

ChEBI CHEBI:53243

ChemSpider none

ECHA InfoCard 100.120.191

KEGG C19508

MeSH Polyvinyl+Chloride

Properties

Chemical formula (C2H3Cl)n[2]

Magnetic susceptibility −10.71×10−6 (SI, 22 °C)

(χ) [3]

Except where otherwise noted, data are given for

materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F],
100 kPa).

Infobox references
 Mechanical properties
Elongation at break 20–40%
Notch test 2–5 kJ/m2
Glass Transition 82 °C (180 °F)[4]
Temperature
Melting point 100 °C (212 °F) to
260 °C (500 °F)[4]
Effective heat of 17.95 MJ/kg
combustion
Specific heat (c) 0.9 kJ/(kg·K)
Water absorption 0.04–0.4
(ASTM)
Dielectric Breakdown 40 MV/m
Voltage
PVC comes in two basic forms: rigid
(sometimes abbreviated as RPVC) and
flexible. The rigid form of PVC is used in
construction for pipe and in profile
applications such as doors and windows.
It is also used in making bottles, non-food
packaging, food-covering sheets,[8] and
cards (such as bank or membership
cards). It can be made softer and more
flexible by the addition of plasticizers, the
most widely used being phthalates. In this
form, it is also used in plumbing, electrical
cable insulation, imitation leather, flooring,
signage, phonograph records,[9] inflatable
products, and many applications where it
replaces rubber.[10] With cotton or linen, it
is used to make canvas.

Pure polyvinyl chloride is a white, brittle

solid. It is insoluble in alcohol but slightly
soluble in tetrahydrofuran.

Discovery
PVC was accidentally synthesized in 1872
by German chemist Eugen Baumann.[11]
The polymer appeared as a white solid
inside a flask of vinyl chloride that had
been left exposed to sunlight. In the early
20th century the Russian chemist Ivan
Ostromislensky and Fritz Klatte of the
German chemical company Griesheim-
Elektron both attempted to use PVC in
commercial products, but difficulties in
processing the rigid, sometimes brittle
polymer thwarted their efforts. Waldo
Semon and the B.F. Goodrich Company
developed a method in 1926 to plasticize
PVC by blending it with various additives.
The result was a more flexible and more
easily processed material that soon
achieved widespread commercial use.

Production
Polyvinyl chloride is produced by
polymerization of the vinyl chloride
monomer (VCM), as shown.[12]
About 80% of production involves
suspension polymerization. Emulsion
polymerization accounts for about 12%,
and bulk polymerization accounts for 8%.
Suspension polymerization affords
particles with average diameters of 100–
180 μm, whereas emulsion polymerization
gives much smaller particles of average
size around 0.2 μm. VCM and water are
introduced into the reactor along with a
polymerization initiator and other
additives. The contents of the reaction
vessel are pressurized and continually
mixed to maintain the suspension and
ensure a uniform particle size of the PVC
resin. The reaction is exothermic and thus
requires cooling. As the volume is reduced
during the reaction (PVC is denser than
VCM), water is continually added to the
mixture to maintain the suspension.[7]

The polymerization of VCM is started by

compounds called initiators that are mixed
into the droplets. These compounds break
down to start the radical chain reaction.
Typical initiators include dioctanoyl
peroxide and dicetyl peroxydicarbonate,
both of which have fragile O-O bonds.
Some initiators start the reaction rapidly
but decay quickly, and other initiators have
the opposite effect. A combination of two
different initiators is often used to give a
uniform rate of polymerization. After the
polymer has grown by about 10 times, the
short polymer precipitates inside the
droplet of VCM, and polymerization
continues with the precipitated, solvent-
swollen particles. The weight average
molecular weights of commercial
polymers range from 100,000 to 200,000,
and the number average molecular
weights range from 45,000 to 64,000.

Once the reaction has run its course, the

resulting PVC slurry is degassed and
stripped to remove excess VCM, which is
recycled. The polymer is then passed
through a centrifuge to remove water. The
slurry is further dried in a hot air bed, and
the resulting powder is sieved before
storage or pelletization. Normally, the
resulting PVC has a VCM content of less
than 1 part per million. Other production
processes, such as micro-suspension
polymerization and emulsion
polymerization, produce PVC with smaller
particle sizes (10 μm vs. 120–150 μm for
suspension PVC) with slightly different
properties and with somewhat different
sets of applications.
PVC may be manufactured from either
naphtha or ethylene feedstock.[13]
However in China, where there are
substantial stocks, coal is the main
starting material for the Calcium carbide
process. The acetylene so generated is
then converted to VCM which usually
involves the use of a Mercury based
catalyst. The process is also very energy
intensive with much waste generated.

Microstructure

The polymers are linear and are strong.

The monomers are mainly arranged head-
to-tail, meaning that there are chlorides on
alternating carbon centres. PVC has
mainly an atactic stereochemistry, which
means that the relative stereochemistry of
the chloride centres are random. Some
degree of syndiotacticity of the chain gives
a few percent crystallinity that is influential
on the properties of the material. About
57% of the mass of PVC is chlorine. The
presence of chloride groups gives the
polymer very different properties from the
structurally related material
polyethylene.[14] The density is also higher
than these structurally related plastics.

Producers
About half of the world's PVC production
capacity is in China despite the closure of
many Chinese PVC plants due to issues
complying with environmental regulations
and poor capacities of scale. The largest
single producer of PVC as of 2018 is Shin-
Etsu Chemical of Japan, with a global
share of around 30%.[13] The other major
suppliers are based in North America and
Western Europe.

Additives
The product of the polymerization process
is unmodified PVC. Before PVC can be
made into finished products, it always
requires conversion into a compound by
the incorporation of additives (but not
necessarily all of the following) such as
heat stabilizers, UV stabilizers, plasticizers,
processing aids, impact modifiers, thermal
modifiers, fillers, flame retardants,
biocides, blowing agents and smoke
suppressors, and, optionally, pigments.[15]
The choice of additives used for the PVC
finished product is controlled by the cost
performance requirements of the end use
specification (underground pipe, window
frames, intravenous tubing and flooring all
have very different ingredients to suit their
performance requirements). Previously,
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were
added to certain PVC products as flame
retardants and stabilizers.[16]

Phthalate plasticizers

Most vinyl products contain plasticizers

which dramatically improve their
performance characteristic. The most
common plasticizers are derivatives of
phthalic acid. The materials are selected
on their compatibility with the polymer, low
volatility levels, and cost. These materials
are usually oily colourless substances that
mix well with the PVC particles. About 90%
of the plasticizer market, estimated to be
millions of tons per year worldwide, is
dedicated to PVC.[15]

Di-2ethylhexylphthalate

While Di-2ethylhexylphthalate (DEHP) has

been medically approved for many years
for use in medical devices, it was
permanently banned for use in children's
products the US in 2008 by US Congress
[17]; the PVC-DEHP combination had
proved to be very suitable for making
blood bags because DEHP stabilises red
blood cells, minimising haemolysis (red
blood cell rupture). However, DEHP is
coming under increasing pressure in
Europe. The assessment of potential risks
related to phthalates, and in particular the
use of DEHP in PVC medical devices, was
subject to scientific and policy review by
the European Union authorities, and on 21
March 2010, a specific labeling
requirement was introduced across the EU
for all devices containing phthalates that
are classified as CMR (carcinogenic,
mutagenic or toxic to reproduction).[18]
The label aims to enable healthcare
professionals to use this equipment safely,
and, where needed, take appropriate
precautionary measures for patients at
risk of over-exposure.
DEHP alternatives, which are gradually
replacing it, are Adipates,
Butyryltrihexylcitrate (BTHC), Cyclohexane-
1,2-dicarboxylic acid, diisononylester
(DINCH), Di(2-ethylhexyl)terephthalate,
polymerics and trimellitic acid, 2-
ethylhexylester (TOTM).

Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate was a common plasticizer

for PVC but is being replaced by higher molecular
weight phthalates.

Metal stabilizers
Liquid mixed metal stabilisers are used in
several PVC flexible applications such as
calendered films, extruded profiles,
injection moulded soles and footwear,
extruded hoses and plastisols where PVC
paste is spread on to a backing (flooring,
wall covering, artificial leather). Liquid
mixed metal stabiliser systems are
primarily based on barium, zinc and
calcium carboxylates. In general liquid
mixed metals like BaZn, CaZn require the
addition of co-stabilisers, antioxidants and
organo-phosphites to provide optimum
performance.
BaZn stabilisers have successfully
replaced cadmium-based stabilisers in
Europe in many PVC semi-rigid and flexible
applications.[19]

In Europe, particularly Belgium, there has

been a commitment to eliminate the use
of cadmium (previously used as a part
component of heat stabilizers in window
profiles) and phase out lead-based heat
stabilizers (as used in pipe and profile
areas) such as liquid autodiachromate and
calcium polyhydrocummate by 2015.
According to the final report of Vinyl
2010[20] cadmium was eliminated across
Europe by 2007. The progressive
substitution of lead-based stabilizers is
also confirmed in the same document
showing a reduction of 75% since 2000
and ongoing. This is confirmed by the
corresponding growth in calcium-based
stabilizers, used as an alternative to lead-
based stabilizers, more and more, also
outside Europe.

Tin-based stabilizers are mainly used in

Europe for rigid, transparent applications
due to the high temperature processing
conditions used. The situation in North
America is different where tin systems are
used for almost all rigid PVC applications.
Tin stabilizers can be divided into two
main groups, the first group containing
those with tin-oxygen bonds and the
second group with tin-sulphur bonds.

Heat stabilizers

One of the most crucial additives are heat

stabilizers. These agents minimize loss of
HCl, a degradation process that starts
above 70 °C (158 °F). Once
dehydrochlorination starts, it is
autocatalytic. Many diverse agents have
been used including, traditionally,
derivatives of heavy metals (lead,
cadmium). Metallic soaps (metal "salts" of
fatty acids) are common in flexible PVC
applications, species such as calcium
stearate.[7] Addition levels vary typically
from 2% to 4%. Tin Mercaptides are widely
used globally in rigid PVC applications due
to their high efficiency and proven
performance. Typical usage levels are 0.3
(pipe) to 2.5phr (foam) depending on the
application. Tin stabilizers are the
preferred stabilizers for high output PVC
and CPVC extrusion. Tin stabilizers have
been in use for over 50 years by
companies such as PMC Organometallix
and its predecessors. [21] The choice of the
best PVC stabilizer depends on its cost
effectiveness in the end use application,
performance specification requirements,
processing technology and regulatory
approvals.

Properties
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PVC is a thermoplastic polymer. Its

properties are usually categorized based
on rigid and flexible PVCs.
 Property Rigid PVC Flexible PVC

Density [g/cm3][22] 1.3–1.45 1.1–1.35

Thermal conductivity [W/(m·K)][23] 0.14–0.28 0.14–0.17

4,500–8,700 psi (31– 1,450–3,600 psi (10.0–

Yield strength[22]
60 MPa) 24.8 MPa)

490,000 psi
Young's modulus
(3.4 GPa)[24]

Flexural strength (yield) 10,500 psi (72 MPa)[24]

Compression strength [psi] 9,500 psi (66 MPa)[24]

Coefficient of thermal expansion (linear)

5×10−5[24]
[mm/(mm °C)]

Vicat B [°C][23] 65–100 Not recommended

Resistivity [Ω m][25][26] 1016 1012–1015

Surface resistivity [Ω][25][26] 1013–1014 1011–1012

Mechanical

PVC has high hardness and mechanical

properties. The mechanical properties
enhance with the molecular weight
increasing but decrease with the
temperature increasing. The mechanical
properties of rigid PVC (uPVC) are very
good; the elastic modulus can reach 1500-
3,000 MPa. The soft PVC (flexible PVC)
elastic limit is 1.5–15 MPa.

Thermal and fire

The heat stability of raw PVC is very poor,

so the addition of a heat stabilizer during
the process is necessary in order to
ensure the product's properties. Traditional
product PVC has a maximum operating
temperature around 140°F (60°C) when
heat distortion begins to occur.[27] Melting
temperatures range from 212°F to 500°F
(100°C to 260°C) depending upon
manufacture additives to the PVC. The
linear expansion coefficient of rigid PVC is
small and has good flame retardancy, the
limiting oxygen index (LOI) being up to 45
or more. The LOI is the minimum
concentration of oxygen, expressed as a
percentage, that will support combustion
of a polymer and noting that air has 20%
content of oxygen.

As a thermoplastic, PVC has an inherent

insulation that aids in reducing
condensation formation and resisting
internal temperature changes for hot and
cold liquids.[27]

Electrical
PVC is a polymer with good insulation
properties, but because of its higher polar
nature the electrical insulating property is
inferior to non polar polymers such as
polyethylene and polypropylene.

Since the dielectric constant, dielectric

loss tangent value, and volume resistivity
are high, the corona resistance is not very
good, and it is generally suitable for
medium or low voltage and low frequency
insulation materials.

Chemical
PVC is chemically resistant to acids, salts,
bases, fats, and alcohols, making it
resistant to the corrosive effects of
sewage, which is why it is so extensively
utilized in sewer piping systems. It is also
resistant to some solvents, this, however,
is reserved mainly for uPVC (unplasticized
PVC). Plasticized PVC, also known as
PVC-P, is in some cases less resistant to
solvents. For example, PVC is resistant to
fuel and some paint thinners. Some
solvents may only swell it or deform it but
not dissolve it, but some, like
tetrahydrofuran or acetone, may damage
it.
Applications

PVC is used extensively in sewage pipe due to its low

cost, chemical resistance and ease of jointing

Pipes

Roughly half of the world's polyvinyl

chloride resin manufactured annually is
used for producing pipes for municipal
and industrial applications.[28] In the water
distribution market, it accounts for 66% of
the market in the U.S., and in sanitary
sewer pipe applications, it accounts for
75%.[29][30] Buried PVC pipes in both water
and sanitary sewer applications that are 4
inches (100 mm) in diameter and larger
are typically joined by means of a gasket-
sealed joint. The most common type of
gasket utilized in North America is a metal
reinforced elastomer, commonly referred
to as a Rieber sealing system.[31] Its light
weight, low cost, and low maintenance
make it attractive. However, it must be
carefully installed and bedded to ensure
longitudinal cracking and overbelling does
not occur. Additionally, PVC pipes can be
fused together using various solvent
cements, or heat-fused (butt-fusion
process, similar to joining high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) pipe), creating
permanent joints that are virtually
impervious to leakage.

In February 2007 the California Building

Standards Code was updated to approve
the use of chlorinated polyvinyl chloride
(CPVC) pipe for use in residential water
supply piping systems. CPVC has been a
nationally accepted material in the U.S.
since 1982; California, however, has
permitted only limited use since 2001. The
Department of Housing and Community
Development prepared and certified an
environmental impact statement resulting
in a recommendation that the commission
adopt and approve the use of CPVC. The
commission's vote was unanimous, and
CPVC has been placed in the 2007
California Plumbing Code.

Electric cables

PVC is commonly used as the insulation

on electrical cables such as teck; PVC
used for this purpose needs to be
plasticized. Flexible PVC coated wire and
cable for electrical use has traditionally
been stabilised with lead, but these are
being replaced with calcium-based
systems.

In a fire, PVC-coated wires can form

hydrogen chloride fumes; the chlorine
serves to scavenge free radicals and is the
source of the material's fire retardance.
While hydrogen chloride fumes can also
pose a health hazard in their own right, it
dissolves in moisture and breaks down
onto surfaces, particularly in areas where
the air is cool enough to breathe, and is
not available for inhalation.[32] Frequently
in applications where smoke is a major
hazard (notably in tunnels and communal
areas), PVC-free cable insulation is
preferred, such as low smoke zero halogen
(LSZH) insulation.

Construction

"A modern Tudorbethan" house with uPVC gutters

and downspouts, fascia, decorative imitation "half-
timbering", windows, and doors

PVC is a common, strong but lightweight

plastic used in construction. It is made
softer and more flexible by the addition of
plasticizers. If no plasticizers are added, it
is known as uPVC (unplasticized polyvinyl
chloride) or rigid PVC.

uPVC is extensively used in the building

industry as a low-maintenance material,
particularly in Ireland, the United Kingdom,
in the United States and Canada. In the
U.S. and Canada it is known as vinyl or
vinyl siding.[33] The material comes in a
range of colors and finishes, including a
photo-effect wood finish, and is used as a
substitute for painted wood, mostly for
window frames and sills when installing
insulated glazing in new buildings; or to
replace older single-glazed windows, as it
does not decompose and is weather-
resistant. Other uses include fascia, and
siding or weatherboarding. This material
has almost entirely replaced the use of
cast iron for plumbing and drainage, being
used for waste pipes, drainpipes, gutters
and downspouts. uPVC is known as
having strong resistance against
chemicals, sunlight, and oxidation from
water.[34]

Double glazed units

Signs

Polyvinyl chloride is formed in flat sheets

in a variety of thicknesses and colors. As
flat sheets, PVC is often expanded to
create voids in the interior of the material,
providing additional thickness without
additional weight and minimal extra cost
(see Closed-cell PVC foamboard). Sheets
are cut using saws and rotary cutting
equipment. Plasticized PVC is also used to
produce thin, colored, or clear, adhesive-
backed films referred to simply as vinyl.
These films are typically cut on a
computer-controlled plotter (see Vinyl
cutter) or printed in a wide-format printer.
These sheets and films are used to
produce a wide variety of commercial
signage products, including car body
stripes and stickers.

Clothing

Black PVC trousers

PVC fabric is water-resistant, used for its
weather-resistant qualities in coats, skiing
equipment, shoes, jackets, aprons, and
sports bags.

PVC fabric has a niche role in specialty

clothing, to either create a artificial leather
material or at times simply for its effect.
PVC clothing is common in Goth, Punk,
clothing fetish and alternative fashions.
PVC is less expensive than rubber, leather,
and latex which it is used to simulate.

Healthcare
The two main application areas for single-
use medically approved PVC compounds
are flexible containers and tubing:
containers used for blood and blood
components, for urine collection or for
ostomy products and tubing used for
blood taking and blood giving sets,
catheters, heart-lung bypass sets,
hemodialysis sets etc. In Europe the
consumption of PVC for medical devices
is approximately 85,000 tons each year.
Almost one third of plastic-based medical
devices are made from PVC.[35] The
reasons for using flexible PVC in these
applications for over 50 years are
numerous and based on cost
effectiveness linked to transparency, light
weight, softness, tear strength, kink
resistance, suitability for sterilization and
biocompatibility.

Flooring

Flexible PVC flooring is inexpensive and

used in a variety of buildings, including
homes, hospitals, offices, and schools.
Complex and 3D designs are possible,
which are then protected by a clear wear
layer. A middle vinyl foam layer also gives
a comfortable and safe feel. The smooth,
tough surface of the upper wear layer
prevents the buildup of dirt, which
prevents microbes from breeding in areas
that need to be kept sterile, such as
hospitals and clinics.

Wire rope

PVC may be extruded under pressure to

encase wire rope and aircraft cable used
for general purpose applications. PVC
coated wire rope is easier to handle,
resists corrosion and abrasion, and may
be color-coded for increased visibility. It is
found in a variety of industries and
environments both indoor and out.[36]

PVC has been used for a host of consumer

products. One of its earliest mass-market
consumer applications was vinyl record
production. More recent examples include
wallcovering, greenhouses, home
playgrounds, foam and other toys, custom
truck toppers (tarpaulins), ceiling tiles and
other kinds of interior cladding.

PVC piping is cheaper than metals used in

musical instrument making; it is therefore
a common alternative when making
instruments, often for leisure or for rarer
instruments such as the contrabass
flute.[37]

Chlorinated PVC
PVC can be usefully modified by
chlorination, which increases its chlorine
content to or above 67%. Chlorinated
polyvinyl chloride, (CPVC), as it is called, is
produced by chlorination of aqueous
solution of suspension PVC particles
followed by exposure to UV light which
initiates the free-radical chlorination.[7] The
reaction produces CPVC, which has
thermal and chemical properties that are
superior to PVC.

Health and safety

Degradation
Degradation during service life, or after
careless disposal, is a chemical change
that drastically reduces the average
molecular weight of the polyvinyl chloride
polymer. Since the mechanical integrity of
a plastic depends on its high average
molecular weight, wear and tear inevitably
weakens the material. Weathering
degradation of plastics results in their
surface embrittlement and microcracking,
yielding microparticles that continue on in
the environment. Also known as
microplastics, these particles act like
sponges and soak up persistent organic
pollutants (POPs) around them. Thus
laden with high levels of POPs, the
microparticles are often ingested by
organisms in the biosphere.

However, there is evidence that three of

the polymers (HDPE, LDPE, and PP)
consistently soaked up POPs at
concentrations an order of magnitude
higher than did the remaining two (PVC
and PET). After 12 months of exposure, for
example, there was a 34-fold difference in
average total POPs amassed on LDPE
compared to PET at one location. At
another site, average total POPs adhered
to HDPE was nearly 30 times that of PVC.
The researchers think that differences in
the size and shape of the polymer
molecules can explain why some
accumulate more pollutants than
others.[38] The fungus Aspergillus
fumigatus effectively degrades plasticized
PVC.[39] Phanerochaete chrysosporium
was grown on PVC in a mineral salt
agar.[40] Phanerochaete chrysosporium,
Lentinus tigrinus, Aspergillus niger, and
Aspergillus sydowii can effectively
degrade PVC.[41]

Plasticizers

Phthalates, which are incorporated into

plastics as plasticizers, comprise
approximately 70% of the U.S. plasticizer
market; phthalates are by design not
covalently bound to the polymer matrix,
which makes them highly susceptible to
leaching. Phthalates are contained in
plastics at high percentages. For example,
they can contribute up to 40% by weight to
intravenous medical bags and up to 80%
by weight in medical tubing.[42] Vinyl
products are pervasive—including toys,[43]
car interiors, shower curtains, and flooring
—and initially release chemical gases into
the air. Some studies indicate that this
outgassing of additives may contribute to
health complications, and have resulted in
a call for banning the use of DEHP on
shower curtains, among other uses.[44]
Japanese car companies Toyota, Nissan,
and Honda eliminated the use of PVC in
car interiors since 2007.

In 2004 a joint Swedish-Danish research

team found a statistical association
between allergies in children and indoor air
levels of DEHP and BBzP (butyl benzyl
phthalate), which is used in vinyl
flooring.[45] In December 2006, the
European Chemicals Bureau of the
European Commission released a final
draft risk assessment of BBzP which
found "no concern" for consumer exposure
including exposure to children.[46]
EU decisions on phthalates

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Risk assessments have led to the

classification of low molecular weight and
labeling as Category 1B Reproductive
agents. Three of these phthalates, DBP,
BBP and DEHP were included on annex
XIV of the REACH regulation in February
2011 and will be phased out by the EU by
February 2015 unless an application for
authorisation is made before July 2013
and an authorisation granted. DIBP is still
on the REACH Candidate List for
Authorisation. Environmental Science &
Technology, a peer reviewed journal
published by the American Chemical
Society states that it is completely safe.[47]

In 2008 the European Union's Scientific

Committee on Emerging and Newly
Identified Health Risks (SCENIHR)
reviewed the safety of DEHP in medical
devices. The SCENIHR report states that
certain medical procedures used in high
risk patients result in a significant
exposure to DEHP and concludes there is
still a reason for having some concerns
about the exposure of prematurely born
male babies to medical devices containing
DEHP.[48] The Committee said there are
some alternative plasticizers available for
which there is sufficient toxicological data
to indicate a lower hazard compared to
DEHP but added that the functionality of
these plasticizers should be assessed
before they can be used as an alternative
for DEHP in PVC medical devices. Risk
assessment results have shown positive
results regarding the safe use of High
Molecular Weight Phthalates. They have
all been registered for REACH and do not
require any classification for health and
environmental effects, nor are they on the
Candidate List for Authorisation. High
phthalates are not CMR (carcinogenic,
mutagenic or toxic for reproduction),
neither are they considered endocrine
disruptors.

In the EU Risk Assessment the European

Commission has confirmed that Di-
isononyl phthalate (DINP) and Di-isodecyl
phthalate (DIDP) pose no risk to either
human health or the environment from any
current use. The European Commission's
findings (published in the EU Official
Journal on 13 April 2006)[49] confirm the
outcome of a risk assessment involving
more than 10 years of extensive scientific
evaluation by EU regulators. Following the
recent adoption of EU legislation with the
regard to the marketing and use of DINP in
toys and childcare articles, the risk
assessment conclusions clearly state that
there is no need for any further measures
to regulate the use of DINP. In Europe and
in some other parts of the world, the use
of DINP in toys and childcare items has
been restricted as a precautionary
measure. In Europe, for example, DINP can
no longer be used in toys and childcare
items that can be put in the mouth even
though the EU scientific risk assessment
concluded that its use in toys does not
pose a risk to human health or the
environment. The rigorous EU risk
assessments, which include a high degree
of conservatism and built-in safety factors,
have been carried out under the strict
supervision of the European Commission
and provide a clear scientific evaluation on
which to judge whether or not a particular
substance can be safely used.

The FDA Paper titled "Safety Assessment

of Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate
(DEHP)Released from PVC Medical
Devices" states that [3.2.1.3] Critically ill or
injured patients may be at increased risk
of developing adverse health effects from
DEHP, not only by virtue of increased
exposure relative to the general
population, but also because of the
physiological and pharmacodynamic
changes that occur in these patients
compared to healthy individuals.[50]

Lead

Lead had previously been frequently added

to PVC to improve workability and stability.
Lead has been shown to leach into
drinking water from PVC pipes.[51]

In Europe (EU 28) the use of lead-based

stabilizers was gradually replaced. The
VinylPlus voluntary commitment which
began in 2000, saw European Stabiliser
Producers Association (ESPA) members
complete the replacement of Pb-based
stabilisers in 2015.[52][53]

Vinyl chloride monomer

In the early 1970s, the carcinogenicity of

vinyl chloride (usually called vinyl chloride
monomer or VCM) was linked to cancers
in workers in the polyvinyl chloride
industry. Specifically workers in
polymerization section of a B.F. Goodrich
plant near Louisville, Kentucky, were
diagnosed with liver angiosarcoma also
known as hemangiosarcoma, a rare
disease.[54] Since that time, studies of PVC
workers in Australia, Italy, Germany, and
the UK have all associated certain types of
occupational cancers with exposure to
vinyl chloride, and it has become accepted
that VCM is a carcinogen.[7] Technology
for removal of VCM from products has
become stringent, commensurate with the
associated regulations.

Dioxins

PVC produces HCl upon combustion

almost quantitatively related to its chlorine
content. Extensive studies in Europe
indicate that the chlorine found in emitted
dioxins is not derived from HCl in the flue
gases. Instead, most dioxins arise in the
condensed solid phase by the reaction of
inorganic chlorides with graphitic
structures in char-containing ash particles.
Copper acts as a catalyst for these
reactions.[55]

Studies of household waste burning

indicate consistent increases in dioxin
generation with increasing PVC
concentrations.[56] According to the EPA
dioxin inventory, landfill fires are likely to
represent an even larger source of dioxin
to the environment. A survey of
international studies consistently identifies
high dioxin concentrations in areas
affected by open waste burning and a
study that looked at the homologue
pattern found the sample with the highest
dioxin concentration was "typical for the
pyrolysis of PVC". Other EU studies
indicate that PVC likely "accounts for the
overwhelming majority of chlorine that is
available for dioxin formation during
landfill fires."[56]

The next largest sources of dioxin in the

EPA inventory are medical and municipal
waste incinerators.[57] Various studies
have been conducted that reach
contradictory results. For instance a study
of commercial-scale incinerators showed
no relationship between the PVC content
of the waste and dioxin emissions.[58][59]
Other studies have shown a clear
correlation between dioxin formation and
chloride content and indicate that PVC is a
significant contributor to the formation of
both dioxin and PCB in
incinerators.[60][61][62]

In February 2007, the Technical and

Scientific Advisory Committee of the US
Green Building Council (USGBC) released
its report on a PVC avoidance related
materials credit for the LEED Green
Building Rating system. The report
concludes that "no single material shows
up as the best across all the human health
and environmental impact categories, nor
as the worst" but that the "risk of dioxin
emissions puts PVC consistently among
the worst materials for human health
impacts."[63]

In Europe the overwhelming importance of

combustion conditions on dioxin
formation has been established by
numerous researchers. The single most
important factor in forming dioxin-like
compounds is the temperature of the
combustion gases. Oxygen concentration
also plays a major role on dioxin
formation, but not the chlorine content.[64]
The design of modern incinerators
minimises PCDD/F formation by
optimising the stability of the thermal
process. To comply with the EU emission
limit of 0.1 ng I-TEQ/m3 modern
incinerators operate in conditions
minimising dioxin formation and are
equipped with pollution control devices
which catch the low amounts produced.
Recent information is showing for
example that dioxin levels in populations
near incinerators in Lisbon and Madeira
have not risen since the plants began
operating in 1999 and 2002 respectively.
Several studies have also shown that
removing PVC from waste would not
significantly reduce the quantity of dioxins
emitted. The European Union Commission
published in July 2000 a Green Paper on
the Environmental Issues of PVC. "[65] The
Commission states (page 27) that it has
been suggested that the reduction of the
chlorine content in the waste can
contribute to the reduction of dioxin
formation, even though the actual
mechanism is not fully understood. The
influence on the reduction is also expected
to be a second or third order relationship.
It is most likely that the main incineration
parameters, such as the temperature and
the oxygen concentration, have a major
influence on the dioxin formation". The
Green Paper states further that at the
current levels of chlorine in municipal
waste, there does not seem to be a direct
quantitative relationship between chlorine
content and dioxin formation.

A study commissioned by the European

Commission on "Life Cycle Assessment of
PVC and of principal competing materials"
states that "Recent studies show that the
presence of PVC has no significant effect
on the amount of dioxins released through
incineration of plastic waste."[66]
End-of-life

The European waste hierarchy refers to the

five steps included in the article 4 of the
Waste Framework Directive:[67]

1. Prevention: preventing and reducing

waste generation.
2. Reuse and preparation for reuse:
giving the products a second life
before they become waste.
3. Recycle: any recovery operation by
which waste materials are
reprocessed into products, materials
or substances whether for the
original or other purposes. It includes
 composting and it does not include
incineration.
4. Recovery: some waste incineration
based on a political non-scientific
formula[68] that upgrades the less
inefficient incinerators.
5. Disposal: processes to dispose of
waste be it landfilling, incineration,
pyrolysis, gasification and other
finalist solutions. Landfill is restricted
in some EU-countries through Landfill
Directives and there is a debate about
Incineration For example, original
plastic which contains a lot of energy
is just recovered in energy instead of
 being recycled. According to the
Waste Framework Directive, the
European Waste Hierarchy is legally
binding except in cases that may
require specific waste streams to
depart from the hierarchy. This
should be justified on the basis of
life-cycle thinking.

The European Commission has set new

rules to promote the recovery of PVC
waste for use in a number of construction
products. It says: "The use of recovered
PVC should be encouraged in the
manufacture of certain construction
products because it allows the reuse of
old PVC ... This avoids PVC being
discarded in landfills or incinerated
causing release of carbon dioxide and
cadmium in the environment".

Industry initiatives

In Europe, developments in PVC waste

management have been monitored by
Vinyl 2010,[69] established in 2000. Vinyl
2010's objective was to recycle 200,000
tonnes of post-consumer PVC waste per
year in Europe by the end of 2010,
excluding waste streams already subject
to other or more specific legislation (such
as the European Directives on End-of-Life
Vehicles, Packaging and Waste Electric
and Electronic Equipment).

Since June 2011, it is followed by

VinylPlus, a new set of targets for
sustainable development.[70] Its main
target is to recycle 800,000 tonnes/year of
PVC by 2020 including 100,000 tonnes of
difficult to recycle waste. One facilitator
for collection and recycling of PVC waste
is Recovinyl.[71] The reported and audited
recycled PVC tonnage in 2016 was
568,695 tonnes.[72]

One approach to address the problem of

waste PVC is also through the process
called Vinyloop. It is a mechanical
recycling process using a solvent to
separate PVC from other materials. This
solvent turns in a closed loop process in
which the solvent is recycled. Recycled
PVC is used in place of virgin PVC in
various applications: coatings for
swimming pools, shoe soles, hoses,
diaphragms tunnel, coated fabrics, PVC
sheets.[73] This recycled PVC's primary
energy demand is 46 percent lower than
conventional produced PVC. So the use of
recycled material leads to a significant
better ecological footprint. The global
warming potential is 39 percent lower.[74]
Restrictions

In November 2005 one of the largest

hospital networks in the U.S., Catholic
Healthcare West, signed a contract with B.
Braun Melsungen for vinyl-free intravenous
bags and tubing.[75]

In January 2012 a major U.S. West Coast

healthcare provider, Kaiser Permanente,
announced that it will no longer buy
intravenous (IV) medical equipment made
with polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and DEHP
(di-2-ethyl hexyl phthalate) type
plasticizers.[76]
In 1998, the U.S. Consumer Product Safety
Commission (CPSC) arrived at a voluntary
agreement with manufacturers to remove
phthalates from PVC rattles, teethers, baby
bottle nipples and pacifiers.[77]

Vinyl gloves in medicine

Plasticized PVC is a common material for

medical gloves. Due to vinyl gloves having
less flexibility and elasticity, several
guidelines recommend either latex or
nitrile gloves for clinical care and
procedures that require manual dexterity
and/or that involve patient contact for
more than a brief period.[78] Vinyl gloves
show poor resistance to many chemicals,
including glutaraldehyde-based products
and alcohols used in formulation of
disinfectants for swabbing down work
surfaces or in hand rubs.[78] The additives
in PVC are also known to cause skin
reactions such as allergic contact
dermatitis. These are for example the
antioxidant bisphenol A, the biocide
benzisothiazolinone, propylene
glycol/adipate polyester and
ethylhexylmaleate.[78]

Sustainability
PVC is made from petroleum. The
production process also uses sodium
chloride. Recycled PVC is broken down
into small chips, impurities removed, and
the product refined to make pure white
PVC. It can be recycled roughly seven
times and has a lifespan of around 140
years.

In the UK, approximately 400 tonnes of

PVC are recycled every month. Property
owners can recycle it through nationwide
collection depots. The Olympic Delivery
Authority (ODA), for example, after initially
rejecting PVC as material for different
temporary venues of the London Olympics
2012, has reviewed its decision and
developed a policy for its use.[79] This
policy highlighted that the functional
properties of PVC make it the most
appropriate material in certain
circumstances while taking into
consideration the environmental and
social impacts across the whole life cycle,
e.g. the rate for recycling or reuse and the
percentage of recycled content.
Temporary parts, like roofing covers of the
Olympic Stadium, the Water Polo Arena,
and the Royal Artillery Barracks, would be
deconstructed and a part recycled in the
VinyLoop process.[80][81]
See also
Chloropolymers
Plastic pressure pipe systems
Plastic recycling
Polyethylene
Polypropylene
Polymer clay
Polyvinyl fluoride
Polyvinylidene chloride
Polyvinylidene fluoride
PVC clothing
PVC decking
PVC fetishism
 Vinyl roof membrane

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Bibliography

Titow, W. (1984). PVC Technology .

London: Elsevier Applied Science
Publishers. ISBN 978-0-85334-249-6.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media

related to Polyvinyl chloride.

The European PVC Portal (European

Council of Vinyl Manufacturers)
Polyvinyl Chloride International
Chemical Safety Cards—CDC/NIOSH
 The Vinyl Council of Canada
US Vinyl Institute

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