IALA 1006-Ed.-4-Plastic-Buoys - Dec-2018

IALA GUIDELINE
G1006
PLASTIC BUOYS
Edition 4
December 2018
DOCUMENT HISTORY
Revisions to this IALA document are to be noted in the table prior to the issue of a revised document.
Date Details Approval
December 1997 1st issue Council 18
Entire Document
December 2005 Reformatted to reflect IALA documentation Council 35
hierarchy
Entire document
May 2008 Review and update at IALA Floating aids 2008 Council 43
workshop and EEP11/12
Pages 4,6,7,8 and 9
December 2013 References to GUIDELINE 1040 deleted and Council 56

replaced by IALA GUIDELINE “1077 Maintenance
of Aids to Navigation”
All pages, all sections
December 2018 Council 68
Complete revision and update of the document
IALA Guideline G1006 – PLASTIC BUOYS

Edition 4 - December 2018 P2
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 8
2. SCOPE ............................................................................................................................................... 8
3. POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN EVALUATING PLASTIC BUOYS ........................................................ 8
3.1. Operational Performance ........................................................................................................................ 8
3.2. Life Cycle Cost Comparison...................................................................................................................... 8
3.3. Plastic Material Types .............................................................................................................................. 9
3.4. Change In Material Properties of Plastics During Design Life.................................................................. 9
3.5. Change In Colour of Plastics During Design Life ...................................................................................... 9
3.5.1. General ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
3.5.2. Ways to assess the expected lifetime of the colour ................................................................................................................. 10
3.6. Transmission of Forces And Safe Working Load .................................................................................... 10
3.7. Metal Parts............................................................................................................................................. 11
3.7.1. Standard parts .......................................................................................................................................................................... 11
3.7.2. Metallic Inserts ......................................................................................................................................................................... 11
3.7.3. Buoy ballast .............................................................................................................................................................................. 11
3.8. Radar Visibility ....................................................................................................................................... 11
3.9. Static Electrical Charge Build-Up ........................................................................................................... 11
3.10. Lettering Methods ................................................................................................................................. 11
3.11. Design Requirements for Use of Plastic Buoys in Ice Built Up Areas..................................................... 13
3.11.1. Buoy hull 13
3.11.2. Buoy shape ............................................................................................................................................................................... 13
3.12. Design Requirements for Use of Plastic Buoys in Very Hot Climates .................................................... 13
3.13. Design Requirements for Use of Plastic Buoys in Extreme Sea Conditions ........................................... 14
3.14. Handling and Storage............................................................................................................................. 14
3.15. Repair and Maintenance ....................................................................................................................... 14
3.16. Quality Control and testing.................................................................................................................... 14
3.16.1. General 14
3.16.2. Quality Assurance Tests ............................................................................................................................................................ 14
3.17. Recycling / Disposal ............................................................................................................................... 16
4. POLYETHYLENE PLASTIC BUOYS........................................................................................................ 17
4.1. Polyethylene Material – General ........................................................................................................... 17
4.2. Mechanical Properties and Standards for Polyethylene ....................................................................... 17
4.3. General Considerations with Regard to the Construction of Polyethylene Plastic Buoys .................... 18
4.3.1. Wall thickness ........................................................................................................................................................................... 18
4.3.2. Reserve buoyancy ..................................................................................................................................................................... 18

Edition 4 – December 2018 P3
CONTENTS
4.3.3. Multi colour possibilities........................................................................................................................................................... 18
4.3.4. Expansion and shrinkage of polyethylene plastic parts ............................................................................................................ 18
4.3.5. Filling polyethylene plastic buoys ............................................................................................................................................. 18
4.3.6. Adhesion of colour or foils for buoy lettering........................................................................................................................... 19
4.4. Rotational Moulded Polyethylene Plastic Buoys ................................................................................... 20
4.4.1. Manufacturing of rotational moulded polyethylene plastic parts ............................................................................................ 20
4.4.2. Manufacturing of rotational moulded polyethylene buoys made by one enclosed module.................................................... 21
4.4.3. Manufacturing of rotational moulded polyethylene plastic buoys made by two or more enclosed modules, welded ........... 22
4.4.4. Manufacturing of modular plastic buoys with rotational moulded enclosed modules as floats .............................................. 25
4.5. High Density Polyethylene Plastic Buoys ............................................................................................... 29
4.5.1. Manufacturing of high density polyethylene plastic parts ....................................................................................................... 29
4.5.2. Manufacturing of high density polyethylene plastic buoys ...................................................................................................... 30
5. GLASS REINFORCED PLASTIC (GRP) ................................................................................................... 36
5.1. General .................................................................................................................................................. 36
5.2. Construction .......................................................................................................................................... 36
5.3. Examples of GRP Buoys ......................................................................................................................... 36
5.3.1. Filling ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 36
5.3.2. Fasteners / Mooring attachment .............................................................................................................................................. 36
6. POLYURETHANE / ELASTOMER COATED FOAM ................................................................................. 37
6.1. Elastomer Material – General ................................................................................................................ 37
6.2. Mechanical Properties and Standards for Elastomer Plastic ................................................................. 37
6.2.1. Polyurethane elastomer properties.......................................................................................................................................... 37
6.2.2. Polyethylene solid foam sheet properties ................................................................................................................................ 38
6.3. Construction Details of Elastomer Plastic Buoys ................................................................................... 39
6.3.1. Manufacturing of plastic parts.................................................................................................................................................. 39
6.3.2. Assembly of elastomer buoy parts ........................................................................................................................................... 40
6.4. Shapes and Sizes of Elastomer Buoys .................................................................................................... 41
6.4.1. Multi-colour possibilities of elastomer buoys .......................................................................................................................... 41
6.4.2. Use of elastomer buoys in ice built up areas ............................................................................................................................ 41
7. IONOMER FOAM BUOYS .................................................................................................................. 42
7.1. General .................................................................................................................................................. 42
7.2. Construction .......................................................................................................................................... 42
7.3. Example of Ionomer Foam Buoy............................................................................................................ 42
8. BUOY EQUIPMENT ........................................................................................................................... 43
8.1. Light Units .............................................................................................................................................. 43
8.2. Monitoring Systems and Sensors .......................................................................................................... 43
8.3. Radar Reflector ...................................................................................................................................... 43

CONTENTS
8.4. RACON ................................................................................................................................................... 44
8.5. AIS .......................................................................................................................................................... 44
8.6. Top marks .............................................................................................................................................. 44
8.7. Retroreflective Material ........................................................................................................................ 44
9. ACRONYMS & DEFINITIONS.............................................................................................................. 45
9.1. ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................................................ 45
9.2. Definitions .............................................................................................................................................. 46
10. REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 48
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 11
2. SCOPE ............................................................................................................................................. 11
3. POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN EVALUATING PLASTIC BUOYS ...................................................... 11
3.1. Operational Performance ...................................................................................................................... 11
3.2. Life Cycle Cost Comparison.................................................................................................................... 11
3.3. Plastic Material Types ............................................................................................................................ 12
3.4. Change In Material Properties Of Plastics During Design Life ............................................................... 12
3.5. Change In Colour Of Plastics During Design Life .................................................................................... 12
3.5.1. General ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
3.5.2. Ways to assess the expected lifetime of the colour ................................................................................................................. 13
3.6. Transmission of Forces And Safe Working Load .................................................................................... 13
3.7. Metal parts............................................................................................................................................. 14
3.7.1. Standard parts .......................................................................................................................................................................... 14
3.7.2. Metallic Inserts ......................................................................................................................................................................... 14
3.7.3. Buoy ballast .............................................................................................................................................................................. 14
3.8. Radar visibility ........................................................................................................................................ 14
3.9. Static Electrical Charge Build-Up ........................................................................................................... 14
3.10. Lettering methods ................................................................................................................................. 14
3.11. Design Requirements For Use Of Plastic Buoys In Ice Built Up Areas ................................................... 16
3.11.1. Buoy hull 16
3.11.2. Buoy shape ............................................................................................................................................................................... 16
3.12. Design Requirements For Use Of Plastic Buoys In Very Hot Climates ................................................... 16
3.13. Design Requirements For Use of Plastic Buoys In Extreme Sea Conditions .......................................... 17
3.14. Handling and storage ............................................................................................................................. 17
3.15. Repair & Maintenance ........................................................................................................................... 17
3.16. Quality control and testing .................................................................................................................... 17
3.16.1. General 17
3.16.2. Quality Assurance Tests ............................................................................................................................................................ 17

CONTENTS
3.16.2.1. Design Confirmation ............................................................................................................ 17
3.16.2.2. Prototype Testing before series production .......................................................................... 18
3.16.2.3. Manufacturing Quality Control tests ..................................................................................... 18
3.16.2.4. Testing during the service life ............................................................................................... 18
3.17. Recycling / Disposal ............................................................................................................................... 19
4. POLYETHYLENE PLASTIC BUOYS........................................................................................................ 20
4.1. Polyethylene material – general ............................................................................................................ 20
4.2. Mechanical properties and standards for polyethylene ....................................................................... 20
4.3. General considerations with regard to the construction of polyethylene plastic buoys ...................... 21
4.3.1. Wall thickness ........................................................................................................................................................................... 21
4.3.2. Reserve buoyancy ..................................................................................................................................................................... 21
4.3.3. Multi colour possibilities........................................................................................................................................................... 21
4.3.4. Expansion and shrinkage of polyethylene plastic parts ............................................................................................................ 21
4.3.5. Filling polyethylene plastic buoys ............................................................................................................................................. 21
4.3.6. Adhesion of colour or foils for buoy lettering........................................................................................................................... 22
4.4. Rotational moulded polyethylene plastic buoys ................................................................................... 23
4.4.1. Manufacturing of rotational moulded polyethylene plastic parts ............................................................................................ 23
4.4.2. Manufacturing of rotational moulded polyethylene buoys made by one enclosed module.................................................... 24
4.4.3. Manufacturing of rotational moulded polyethylene plastic buoys made by two or more enclosed modules, welded ........... 25
4.4.3.1. Manufacturing procedure of rotational moulded polyethylene plastic buoys, welded............ 25
4.4.3.2. Typical spar- and conical buoys, rotational moulded, welded ................................................ 25
4.4.3.3. Use of rotational moulded welded spar and conical buoys in ice built up areas...................... 26
4.4.3.4. Typical spars, rotational moulded, welded............................................................................ 27
4.4.4. Manufacturing of modular plastic buoys with rotational moulded enclosed modules as floats .............................................. 28
4.4.4.1. Modular plastic buoys with complete plastic design.............................................................. 28
4.4.4.2. Modular plastic buoys with hybrid metal/plastic design........................................................ 30
4.4.4.3. Typical modular plastic buoys with enclosed modules as floats ............................................. 31
4.5. High density polyethylene plastic buoys ............................................................................................... 32
4.5.1. Manufacturing of high density polyethylene plastic parts ....................................................................................................... 32
4.5.1.1. Pipes manufactured by extrusion-process............................................................................. 32
4.5.1.2. Other high density polyethylene plastic parts ....................................................................... 32
4.5.2. Manufacturing of high density polyethylene plastic buoys ...................................................................................................... 33
4.5.2.1. Typical high density polyethylene spar and conical plastic buoys ........................................... 35
4.5.2.2. Typical high density polyethylene plastic spars ..................................................................... 37
4.5.2.3. Use of high density polyethylene plastic buoys in ice build-up areas...................................... 38
5. GLASS REINFORCED PLASTIC (GRP) ................................................................................................... 39
5.1. General .................................................................................................................................................. 39
5.2. Construction .......................................................................................................................................... 39
5.3. Examples of GRP buoys.......................................................................................................................... 39
5.3.1. Filling ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 39
5.3.2. Fasteners / Mooring attachment .............................................................................................................................................. 39

CONTENTS
6. POLYURETHANE / ELASTOMER COATED FOAM ................................................................................. 40
6.1. Elastomer material – general................................................................................................................. 40
6.2. Mechanical properties and standards for elastomer plastic ................................................................. 40
6.2.1. Polyurethane elastomer properties.......................................................................................................................................... 40
6.2.2. Polyethylene solid foam sheet properties ................................................................................................................................ 41
6.3. Construction details of elastomer plastic buoys ................................................................................... 42
6.3.1. Manufacturing of plastic parts.................................................................................................................................................. 42
6.3.2. Assembly of elastomer buoy parts ........................................................................................................................................... 43
6.4. Shapes and sizes of elastomer buoys .................................................................................................... 44
6.4.1. Multi-colour possibilities of elastomer buoys .......................................................................................................................... 44
6.4.2. Use of elastomer buoys in ice built up areas ............................................................................................................................ 44
7. IONOMER FOAM BUOYS .................................................................................................................. 45
7.1. General .................................................................................................................................................. 45
7.2. Construction .......................................................................................................................................... 45
7.3. Example of Ionomer foam buoy ............................................................................................................ 45
8. BUOY EQUIPMENT ........................................................................................................................... 46
8.1. Light units .............................................................................................................................................. 46
8.2. Monitoring systems and sensors ........................................................................................................... 46
8.3. Radar reflector ....................................................................................................................................... 46
8.4. RACON ................................................................................................................................................... 47
8.5. AIS .......................................................................................................................................................... 47
8.6. Top marks .............................................................................................................................................. 47
8.7. Retroreflective Material ........................................................................................................................ 47
9. ACRONYMS & DEFINITIONS.............................................................................................................. 48
9.1. ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................................................ 48
9.2. Definitions .............................................................................................................................................. 49
10. REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 51
List of Tables
Table 1: Recycling possibilities of different materials used for plastic buoys ..................................................... 19
Table 2: Polyethylene types and the manufacturing processes.......................................................................... 20
Table 3: Small harbour or river markers ............................................................................................................. 24
Table 4: Typical spar and conical buoys, welded ................................................................................................ 25
Table 5: Typical spars, rotational moulded, welded ........................................................................................... 27

CONTENTS
Table 6: Typical modular buoys .......................................................................................................................... 31
Table 7: Typical high density polyethylene spar- and conical-buoys .................................................................. 36
Table 8: Typical high density polyethylene plastic spars .................................................................................... 37
Table 9: Polyethylene foam properties ............................................................................................................... 41
Table 10: Polyurethane elastomer properties .................................................................................................... 41
List of Figures
Figure 1: Painting................................................................................................................................................ 15
Figure 2: Painting................................................................................................................................................ 15
Figure 3: Adhesive foil......................................................................................................................................... 15
Figure 4: Mounted plates.................................................................................................................................... 15
Figure 5: Engraving ............................................................................................................................................. 15
Figure 6: Plastic spray method ........................................................................................................................... 15
Figure 7: Mould-In-Graphic................................................................................................................................. 15
Figure 8: Polystyrene foam ................................................................................................................................. 22
Figure 9: Polyurethane foam .............................................................................................................................. 22
Figure 10: Polystyrene billets .............................................................................................................................. 22
Figure 11: Mould filled with plastic powder ....................................................................................................... 23
Figure 12: Closed mould ..................................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 13: Opened mould ................................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 14: Insert .................................................................................................................................................. 23
Figure 15: Float ................................................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 16: Small marker ...................................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 17: Plastic lifting eye ................................................................................................................................ 24
Figure 18: Metal lifting and mooring eyes.......................................................................................................... 24
Figure 19: Butt fusion welding ............................................................................................................................ 25
Figure 21: Exploded drawing .............................................................................................................................. 26
Figure 22: Conical buoy....................................................................................................................................... 26
Figure 23: Spar buoy ........................................................................................................................................... 26
Figure 24: Conical buoy in light ice ..................................................................................................................... 26
Figure 25: Spar .................................................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 26: Spar .................................................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 27: Ice growth .......................................................................................................................................... 28

CONTENTS
Figure 29: Coloured polyethylene plates on polyethylene superstructure ......................................................... 29
Figure 31: Painted aluminium superstructure .................................................................................................... 30
Figure 32: Complete plastic design, 3 modules .................................................................................................. 31
Figure 33: Complete plastic design, 2 modules .................................................................................................. 31
Figure 34: Hybrid metal/plastic design ............................................................................................................... 32
Figure 35: Extrusion process ............................................................................................................................... 32
Figure 36: Co-extrusion ....................................................................................................................................... 32
Figure 37: Extruded pipes ................................................................................................................................... 32
Figure 38: Compression moulded parts .............................................................................................................. 33
Figure 39: Combination plastic and metal parts ................................................................................................ 33
Figure 41: HDPE extrusion welding..................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 42: Multi coloured plastic pipes ............................................................................................................... 35
Figure 43: Spar buoy afloat ................................................................................................................................ 36
Figure 44: Multi colour spar buoy ....................................................................................................................... 36
Figure 45: Spar buoy ........................................................................................................................................... 36
Figure 46: Multi-colour spar ............................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 47: Spar afloat ......................................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 48: Spar with top mark ............................................................................................................................ 37
Figure 49: Spar in solid ice field .......................................................................................................................... 38
Figure 50: Spar buoy in solid ice field ................................................................................................................. 38
Figure 51: Spar in crushed ice ............................................................................................................................. 38
Figure 52: GRP buoy ........................................................................................................................................... 39
Figure 53: GRP buoy afloat ................................................................................................................................. 39
Figure 54: Rolled body of closed-cell polyethylene ............................................................................................. 42
Figure 55: Bound closed cell polyethelene post heating..................................................................................... 42
Figure 56: Coating of elastomer polyurethane ................................................................................................... 42
Figure 57: Non-slip surface ................................................................................................................................. 43
Figure 58: Sectional view of an elastomer buoy ................................................................................................. 43
Figure 59: Assemby of an elastomer buoy.......................................................................................................... 43
Figure 60: Elastomer buoy with self contained lantern ...................................................................................... 44
Figure 61: Solar powered lit elastomer buoy ...................................................................................................... 44
Figure 62: Solar and wind powered lit elastomer buoy with measurement equipment .................................... 44
Figure 63: Ionomer foam .................................................................................................................................... 45
Figure 64: Radar reflector ................................................................................................................................... 46
Figure 65: Buoys with retroreflective stripes, mounted in a recess .................................................................... 47

CONTENTS
Figure 66: Polyethylene chain ............................................................................................................................. 49
Figure 67: Linear and branched polyethylene chain ........................................................................................... 49

Edition 4 - December 2018 P 10
1. INTRODUCTION
A plastic buoy may be defined as a floating aid with at least the buoy hull constructed of a plastic material.
Plastic buoys have been in production and use since the 1980’s.
Plastic buoys are commercially available in a wide variety of sizes and shapes, from small one-piece buoys
with a diameter of 0.16 m to very large modular buoys with diameters of 4 m. Plastic buoys can be
classified as unitary (one-piece) buoys or modular (multiple component) buoys.
They are produced mainly from polyethylene materials in different designs.
2. SCOPE
This guideline has been developed to assist marine aids to navigation (AtoN) manufacturers and authorities
when developing and selecting plastic buoys for different purposes. It also provides information about
plastic material types, manufacturing techniques, quality control considerations, and standard test
procedures commonly in use.
3. POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN EVALUATING PLASTIC BUOYS

3.1. OPERATIONAL PERFORMANCE
Due to the lower material density of plastic when compared to steel, plastic buoys are typically significantly
lighter than steel buoys. Lightweight buoys require careful design to avoid a rapid rolling or pitching motion
which will detract from their operational effectiveness in waves, wind and current.
The operational performance of a plastic buoy should be stated for different environmental conditions to
permit the selection of the correct buoy design. There are many different designs of plastic buoys available
to accommodate a variety of environmental conditions.
The use of a hydrostatic study for the plastic buoy by an accredited Naval Architect can assist in the buoy
selection process. Please refer to IALA Guideline G1099 on the Hydrostatic design of buoys.
3.2. LIFE CYCLE COST COMPARISON
Plastic buoys typically have a shorter design life than steel buoys and require replacement earlier than steel
buoys. Factors that directly affect the anticipated design life of a plastic buoy are the degradation of plastic
strength and the fading of the colour.
The purchase cost of plastic buoys is dependent on the construction technology. Plastic buoys can have
lower ongoing maintenance costs through the elimination of sand-blasting and painting costs as well as
reductions in vessel, personnel, mooring and transportation costs. Sea-based maintenance can be achieved
on most plastic buoys, including jet spray washing and other normal service tasks. Various maintenance
procedures are suitable for different plastic materials. More guidance is available in IALA Guideline G1077
Maintenance of Aids to Navigation.
ANNEX A presents the advantages and disadvantages of plastic buoys.
The use of plastic buoys to replace legacy steel buoys is typically warranted when lower overall life cycle
costs can be achieved while also meeting the operational performance requirements as a marine Aid to
Navigation.

For further information see also IALA Guideline G1047 Cost Comparison Methodology of Buoy
Technologies.
3.3. PLASTIC MATERIAL TYPES
The required strength of a buoy plastic hull is dictated by the operational environment (sheltered, exposed,
ice, etc.) and buoy handling operations. Different plastic materials are available for use in the
manufacturing of plastic buoys and each type has different properties which provide different performance
characteristics. Some plastic materials may offer better resistance to marine fouling than others. Plastic
buoys should be sufficiently robust to withstand fouling being scraped off, or water jet spraying, regularly
throughout the working life of the buoy.
For plastic buoys, the following plastic materials are primarily used:
• polyethylene (PE);
• glass reinforced plastic (GRP);
• polyurethane / elastomer coated foam;
• ionomer foam.
Polyethylene is the most common plastic used for the manufacturing of plastic buoys. Therefore this
guideline mainly deals with polyethylene plastic buoys (chapter 4).
3.4. CHANGE IN MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS DURING DESIGN LIFE
Degradation of plastics due to ultraviolet (UV) light must be considered. The type of plastic material
selected and the addition of UV inhibitors used to protect the plastic will impact the design life.
Degradation of the plastic due to UV causes the plastic to become more brittle and this loss of ductility
reduces the impact strength of the plastic during the design life. The amount of exposure to UV in the
operating environment must be considered, degradation of plastic strength and loss of ductility is
accelerated in latitudes with greater exposure to UV energy.
At latitudes with higher UV exposure and higher temperatures, the loss of strength occurs faster than at
latitudes with lower UV exposure.
The rate of degradation varies based on the type of plastic selected and the addition of UV inhibitors or UV
stabilisers to protect the mechanical properties of the plastic. Buoy manufacturers should provide rapid
weathering tests of the plastic material to prove their predicted long-term stability of the mechanical
properties with respect to UV radiation. Test standards could be:
• ASTM G155 Standard practice for operating xenon arc light apparatus for exposure of non-metallic
materials;
• ISO 4582: 2017 Plastics - determination of changes in colour and variations in properties after
exposure to glass-filtered solar radiation, natural weathering or laboratory radiation sources;
• ISO 4892 (1-4) Plastics - methods of exposure to laboratory light sources.
3.5. CHANGE IN COLOUR OF PLASTICS DURING DESIGN LIFE
3.5.1. GENERAL
Colour fading due to UV radiation is to be expected. The fade resistance of the colour pigment used to
colour the base plastic resin will determine the length of time the colour will be compliant with IALA

Recommendation R0108 (E-108) – Surface Colours Used as Visual Signals on Marine Aids to Navigation and
the IALA Guideline G1134 Surface Colours used as Visual Signals on AtoN.
The performance of the pigment system is a crucial factor in determining the anticipated useful life of any
plastic components. Colour fading will occur more rapidly in latitudes with greater UV radiation.
It is a common misperception that UV inhibitors and stabilisers are added to protect against the fading of
colour. These additives are used to slow the rate of degradation of the mechanical properties of the plastic
and not to prevent colour fading.
Colour pigments used for all plastics should be of the highest quality suitable for marine use and UV
exposure.
Buoy manufacturers should provide rapid weathering tests of the plastic material to prove their predicted
rate of colour fading with respect to UV radiation during the design life.
3.5.2. WAYS TO ASSESS THE EXPECTED LIFETIME OF THE COLOUR
A common industry practice to measure colour fading is to use accelerated UV weathering in a Xenon
Weatherometer in accordance with appropriate standards completed by a third party accredited test
laboratory. Test standards could be:
• ISO 4892 (1-4) Plastics - methods of exposure to laboratory light sources;
• EN 16472 Plastics - method for artificial accelerated photo ageing using medium pressure mercury
vapour lamps;
• ASTM D2244 - 16 Standard practice for calculation of colour tolerances and colour differences from
instrumentally measured colour coordinates;
• ASTM D2565 ‐ 16 Standard Practice for Xenon Arc Exposure of Plastics Intended for Outdoor
Applications;
• ISO 1664‐4 Colorimetric evaluation of colour coordinates and colour differences according to the
approximately uniform CIELAB colour space.
3.6. TRANSMISSION OF FORCES AND SAFE WORKING LOAD
Due to the lower tensile strength of plastic when compared to steel, the transmission of lifting and mooring
loads requires careful consideration. While mooring loads are typically well distributed throughout the
plastic hull during operation, additional loads are imposed during buoy deployment and retrieval.
Most buoys will have both a lifting eye and a mooring eye. Depending on the buoy design, the lifting eye
and the mooring eye can be designed as follows:
• Integrated as part of the plastic hull;
• A galvanized/coated steel or stainless steel structure for attachment of the hull floats and super
structure.
The transmission of forces between the mooring point and lifting point is critical in the safe handling of
plastic buoys. The operational conditions for buoy deployment and retrieval must be considered as sea
state and current can result in dynamic loads in lifting of the buoy.
Buoy manufacturers should clearly identify the design of force transmission and the design factors used to
specify safe working load.

3.7. METAL PARTS
A common plastic buoy may include the following metal parts:

• lifting eye(s);
• mooring eye(s);
• standard parts (fasteners);
• inserts;
• ballast (in the case of cast iron or steel).
The metal parts of a buoy should be selected in such way that no galvanic corrosion is produced when
joining different materials. Sometimes it is necessary to insulate metal parts (paint, insulating hull, bitumen
coat).
Because of the mooring eye wear an appropriate reserve is required which depends on the maintenance
intervals. With measurements made during the maintenance process, the wear can be determined. The
mooring eye should be replaceable in case of wear.
3.7.1. STANDARD PARTS
It is highly desirable to use non-corrosive standard parts, for example from hot-dipped galvanized steel,
marine-grade aluminium, marine grade stainless steel or brass.
3.7.2. METALLIC INSERTS
Metallic inserts are used for fastening items to the buoy such as the lantern, lettering, daymarks, etc. They
can be made from the materials mentioned in section 3.7.1.
In the manufacturing process, care should be taken to ensure that threaded inserts are fixed and aligned
correctly in the material, otherwise they should be avoided.
Care should be taken and the right amount of torque should be used when securing fasteners into threaded
inserts to avoid detachment or pull-out from the buoy body.
3.7.3. BUOY BALLAST
Ballast is often used to achieve buoy stability. An adjustable ballast weight system provides the ability to
optimise performance for a variety of operational and environmental conditions.
If the ballast is permanently mounted inside the buoy, it must be secured in place so that no movement is
possible.
3.8. RADAR VISIBILITY
Plastic buoys require the use of a passive radar reflector to be visible to radar. Additional information is
available in the IALA NAVGUIDE and section 8.3 below.
3.9. STATIC ELECTRICAL CHARGE BUILD-UP
It may be necessary to incorporate a grounding strap on plastic buoys to prevent the build-up of static
electricity which may cause shock or damage to electronic equipment.
3.10. LETTERING METHODS
Most administrations apply the position name/number on the buoy body. Solutions for long-term stability
of the lettering should be explored. Possible solutions can be (not applicable on all buoy types):

Figure 2: Painting Figure 3: Painting Figure 4: Adhesive foil
• Painting (Figure 2, Figure 3)

• Application of adhesive foils (Figure 4)
• Mounted plates (welded or fixed by screws, Figure
6)
• Engraving (Figure 7)
• Plastic spray method (Figure 1)
• Mould-In-Graphic (only for long term use of the
buoy on the same position, Figure 5)
Figure 6: Mounted plates
Figure 1: Plastic spray method
Figure 5: Mould-In-
Graphic
Figure 7: Engraving

3.11. DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR USE OF PLASTIC BUOYS IN ICE BUILT UP AREAS
A year-round use of plastic buoys can save money as winter work and using fleet or contractors to retrieve
buoys can be reduced. Some plastic buoys, especially spar and conical shaped buoys are suitable for ice
conditions. These can be:
• Ice floes in current or moving ice fields;
• The buoy is frozen in a solid ice field.
The impacts on the buoy can be abrasion, cutting, compression effects, tension and bending.
To withstand these conditions, the buoy hull material must be sufficiently robust and its shape must be
constructed accordingly.
3.11.1. BUOY HULL
The main reason for ice damage to buoys is insufficient strength in the buoy hull. This may be due to
insufficient wall thickness or abrasion because of wrong selection of plastic material type. Changes in wall
thickness also present stress concentration points at the transition of thickness area and therefore wall
thickness should be consistent.
3.11.2. BUOY SHAPE
The buoy should be strong enough to go under the ice and survive until the ice floe has moved away. The
buoy shape, strength, lifting and mooring points should be constructed accordingly. The size of the lifting
eyes frequently requires a compromise between minimum size for ease of handling and reducing the points
for ice accretion.
When possible, top marks should be avoided. If installed, a disposable solution is possible, but environment
protection should be considered.
Some polyethylene plastic buoys are suitable for use in ice conditions, see sections 4.4.3.3 and 4.5.2.3.
Additional information is available in the Report of the IALA workshop on challenges of providing AtoN
services in polar regions and the IALA Guideline G1108 on The challenges of providing AtoN services in
polar regions.
3.12. DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR USE OF PLASTIC BUOYS IN VERY HOT CLIMATES
Careful design considerations should be made when using plastic buoys in very hot climates (equatorial
regions) as some effects could severely impair the performance of the equipment in place.
The following are examples of problems that may result from prolonged exposure of plastic material to
high temperature. They should be considered to help determine if the design is suitable for the application
(this list is not intended to be exhaustive).
• parts that bind or corrode from differential expansion of dissimilar materials;
• materials change in dimension, either totally or selectively;
• packing, gaskets, seals, etc. become distorted, bind, and fail causing mechanical or integrity failures;
• gaskets display permanent set;
• closure and sealing strips deteriorate;
• shortened operating lifetime;
• colour fading, cracking or crazing of plastic materials;

• outgassing of plasticizers.
The high rates of solar radiation (UV) in these regions can cause surface temperatures to increase by 15 to
30°C above ambient temperatures and surface temperatures can reach 80°C. As a result, it is important to
consider studies made by various manufacturers comparing material degradation, reaction and resilience
under these extreme conditions. For additional information, please see the IALA Guideline G1136 on
Providing AtoN Services in Extremely Hot and Humid Climates.
3.13. DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR USE OF PLASTIC BUOYS IN EXTREME SEA CONDITIONS
Plastic buoys can be used in most sea conditions. However, extreme sea conditions (breaking waves,
hurricane, debris) will cause high mechanical stress on buoys. The potential for extreme environmental
conditions should be considered when selecting plastic buoys to ensure the design and materials are
sufficiently robust to survive.
3.14. HANDLING AND STORAGE
The handling of a plastic buoy generally does not differ from steel buoy handling. The weight of a plastic
buoys is typically less than steel buoys making them easier to manoeuvre. The equipment required to lift
plastic buoys into place can be a reduced and does not require the same lifting capacity as steel buoys.
Long-term storage should be done according to the manufacturer instructions (for example to avoid
deforming of spar buoys).
When plastic buoys are stored outside for a long time (for example on a buoy yard) they should be
protected against UV to protect them from premature aging and fading.
3.15. REPAIR & MAINTENANCE
Maintenance procedures are outlined in IALA Guideline G1077 on Maintenance of Aids to Navigation,
Annex A2 synthetic buoys.
3.16. QUALITY CONTROL AND TESTING
3.16.1. GENERAL
A well-designed and manufactured plastic buoy of good and lasting quality can provide reliable
performance at sea for many years with good colour retention and safety of handling.
During the manufacturing process of the buoy body and the metal parts, some important quality control
mechanisms should be applied:
• The manufacturer should have an internal quality control procedure, for example ISO 9001 or
comparable;
• If required, each buoy can be delivered with a quality control report. The contents of the report should
be determined beforehand and satisfy the customer’s requirements;
• The customer should establish an internal system to monitor the life cycle of the buoy.
3.16.2. QUALITY ASSURANCE TESTS
In order to ensure the buoy longevity, the following quality tests can be applied.
3.16.2.1. Design Confirmation
Prior to production of prototypes, the design should be thoroughly reviewed to confirm performance
expectations. The following reviews are recommended:

• Hydrostatic and hydrodynamic analysis to determine anticipated performance;
• Approval of design for transmission of loads .
3.16.2.2. Prototype Testing before series production
After manufacturing the first samples of plastic parts these could be checked according to the following
requirements:
• Measurement of the overall dimensions of each part;
• Measurement of the weight of each part;
• Measurement of the wall thickness on different points;
• Check the water tightness of the enclosed modules by pressure tests;
• Check the surface for imperfections;
• Chromaticity measurements;
• Mechanical tests;
• Sawing of the compartments to get detail information (destructive testing).
In addition to the inspection points described above, the following tests should be performed on the
assembled prototype buoys:
• Tension tests up to the anticipated breaking load for all lifting and mooring points;
• Hydrostatic stability tests to confirm actual performance versus anticipated performance (for detail
information see IALA Guideline G1099 on the Hydrostatic design of buoys.
3.16.2.3. Manufacturing Quality Control tests
Depending on customer requirements the following tests can be performed on each buoy body or batch:
• Measurement of the overall dimensions;
• Measurement of the weight;
• Measurement of the wall thickness at different points;
• Checking the water tightness;
• Checking the integrity of the foam filling (if applicable);
• Tension tests up to a specified work load;
• Check the surface finish;
• Chromaticity measurements (in accordance with IALA Recommendation R0108 (E-108) on Surface
Colours Used as Visual Signals on Marine Aids to Navigation.
3.16.2.4. Testing during the service life
The IALA Guideline G1077 on Maintenance of Aids to Navigation, Annex A2 synthetic buoys gives general
information regarding the maintenance of plastic buoys.
In particular, the following tests should be performed at regular intervals:
• Chromaticity measurement to ensure continued compliance with the requirements of IALA
Recommendation R0108 (E-108) – Surface Colours Used as Visual Signals on Marine Aids to Navigation;

• Inspection of the buoy for deterioration, tension tests to verify assumptions regarding the anticipated
useful life and safety of all lifting components.
3.17. RECYCLING / DISPOSAL
Buoy designs and materials should be selected to minimise their environmental impact upon disposal at the
end of their useful life. Considerations should be given to the three “R’s” of environmental protection,
namely reuse, waste reduction and material recycling. Also, it is desirable that manufacturing processes be
environmentally friendly. The buoy design proposed is 100% recyclable. The following table gives
information about the recycling possibilities of different materials used for plastic buoys.
Additional Information is available in IALA Guideline G1036 on Environmental Management in Aids to
Navigation.
Table 1: Recycling possibilities of different materials used for plastic buoys
Component Material Type Ease of Recycling Recycling Method

Hull Polyethylene Easy – Readily Accepted Plastics Recycling Depot
Polyurethane Foam Is to separate from the Plastics Recycling Depot
other buoy materials
Glass reinforced plastic (GRP) Not recyclable
Foam Filling Fused Expanded Polystyrene Easy – Readily Accepted Plastics Recycling Depot
Polyurethane Foam Is to separate from the Plastics Recycling Depot

other buoy materials
Superstructure Polyethylene Easy – Readily Accepted Plastics Recycling Depot
Aluminium Easy – Readily Accepted Metal Recycling Depot
Radar Reflector Aluminium Easy – Readily Accepted Metal Recycling Depot
Ladders & Stainless Steel Easy – Readily Accepted Metal Recycling Depot
Railings
Core Structure Polyethylene Easy – Readily Accepted Plastics Recycling Depot
Galvanized Steel Easy – Readily Accepted Metal Recycling Depot
Lifting & Stainless Steel Easy – Readily Accepted Metal Recycling Depot
Mooring
Connection Bars
Threaded Stainless Steel Easy – Readily Accepted Metal Recycling Depot
Inserts
Brass Easy – Readily Accepted Metal Recycling Depot
Fasteners Stainless Steel Easy – Readily Accepted Metal Recycling Depot
Ballast Concrete Easy – Readily Accepted Clean Fill Designated Infill
Steel Easy – Readily Accepted Metal Recycling Depot
Cast Iron Easy – Readily Accepted Metal Recycling Depot

4. POLYETHYLENE PLASTIC BUOYS
4.1. POLYETHYLENE MATERIAL – GENERAL
Polyethylene is a thermoplastic. At a temperature of about 100°C it behaves plastically and after cooling
the material solidifies. Thus, it can be easily formed and welded under the influence of heat. This provides
the ability to make repairs to plastic buoys made of polyethylene. The high ductility and the high cold break
resistance are advantageous.
Within the polyethylene family, there are different types of plastic that have different densities and
molecular structures and therefore different material properties. The most common types used in the
manufacturing of plastic buoys are:
• Linear Low Density Polyethylene (LLDPE);
• Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE);
• Medium Density Polyethylene (MDPE);
• High Density Polyethylene (HDPE);
• Ultra High Density Polyethylene (UHDPE);
The following table gives an overview about the polyethylene types and the manufacturing processes for
each.
Table 2: Polyethylene types and the manufacturing processes
Polyethylene Resin Type Rotational Moulding process Extrusion process

Linear Low Density, Low Density, Medium
X
Density
High Density X
The key difference between the two methods of forming the plastic is the use of pressure.
• The rotational moulding process uses only heat to transform plastic resin into a finished shape.
• Plastic pipes and plates manufactured in an extrusion process are formed using heat under high
pressure which forms strong molecular chains resulting in greater strength, impact and abrasion
resistance.
The different polyethylene types and their different manufacturing processes lead to two main
polyethylene plastic buoy types:
• “rotational moulded polyethylene plastic buoys” made of plastic parts fabricated by the rotational
moulding process, see section 4.4;
• “high density polyethylene plastic buoys” made of plastic parts fabricated with high-density
polyethylene pipes, plates and components, see section 4.5.
4.2. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND STANDARDS FOR POLYETHYLENE
The following mechanical properties of polyethylene material must be carefully chosen as base for a high
quality plastic buoy. They can be tested according to the standards named in brackets behind them.
• density (ISO 1183/ASTM D-4883/ASTM D-1505);

• hardness (DIN 53505);
• yield strength (DIN EN ISO 527-1, DIN EN ISO 527-2);
• fracture strength (DIN EN ISO 527-1, DIN EN ISO 527-2);
• elongation (DIN EN ISO 527-1, DIN EN ISO 527-2);
• abrasion resistance (DIN 53516);
• impact resistance (ISO 6603-2).
4.3. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS WITH REGARD TO THE CONSTRUCTION OF

POLYETHYLENE PLASTIC BUOYS
4.3.1. WALL THICKNESS

The wall thickness of the plastic parts should be optimised for the buoy size, its shape and the intended
use. The range is from 5 – 40 mm.
4.3.2. RESERVE BUOYANCY
The composition of a buoy of several enclosed modules offers the advantage that a reserve of buoyancy
remains in case of damage to one or modules.
A safety buoyancy also can be achieved by filling the buoy body with floatation material according to
chapter 4.3.5.
4.3.3. MULTI COLOUR POSSIBILITIES
The composition of a buoy with different parts or several enclosed modules offers the advantage that
multi-colour buoys can be realised. Examples of these buoys can be found in the chapters in which the
different buoy types are described.
4.3.4. EXPANSION AND SHRINKAGE OF POLYETHYLENE PLASTIC PARTS
Polyethylene material will expand and contract about 3 to 5 %, depending on the colour and ambient
temperature. Care should be taken in the design to ensure compatibility between different materials (e.g.
elongated or oversized clearance holes).
4.3.5. FILLING POLYETHYLENE PLASTIC BUOYS
Polyethylene plastic buoys can be filled with polystyrene or polyurethane foam, which can have the
following advantages:
• Filling could increase the impact stability/shock resistance;
• In case of leakage the filling can prevent the buoy from sinking.

If filling is used, it must be of the highest quality closed-cell
specification to prevent water absorption.
Information about the density and the water absorption
behaviour of the foam should be taken in to consideration.
Filling material should be of sufficient quality to survive the
expected lifetime of the buoy.
Some disadvantages may exist in the use of foam filling:
• Some polyurethane foam types may not be recyclable.
Furthermore the combination of polyethylene and
foam is not easy to separate. Figure 8: Polystyrene foam
• For filling foam into the floats additional holes are
necessary. These are weak spots and must be closed carefully after the filling.
Figure 8 shows a rotational moulded float filled with polystyrene foam, Figure 9 shows a polyurethane
foam filled float. High density polyethylene buoys are frequently filled with polystyrene billets as shown in
Figure 10.
Figure 9: Polyurethane foam Figure 10: Polystyrene billets
4.3.6. ADHESION OF COLOUR OR FOILS FOR BUOY LETTERING

Polyethylene provides poor adhesion for conventional paints or foils for buoy lettering. Specialized hot
plastic spraying processes or “Mould in Graphics” are available and have been used successfully. For further
information see section 3.10.

4.4. ROTATIONAL MOULDED POLYETHYLENE PLASTIC BUOYS
A great variety of different types and sizes of rotational moulded polyethylene plastic buoys is available on
the market. Depending on the type, size/diameter and area of application different designs of polyethylene
plastic buoys exist. Generally, small buoys are made from one or more enclosed modules, while larger
types may be modular plastic or hybrid metal/plastic.
The following sections give an overview of the manufacturing procedure of rotational moulded plastic parts
and typical rotational moulded plastic buoys.
4.4.1. MANUFACTURING OF ROTATIONAL MOULDED POLYETHYLENE PLASTIC PARTS
Rotational moulding can be used for the production of large, hollow, seamless plastic parts (enclosed
modules). During the rotational moulding process the base resin (Low Density, Linear Low Density, Medium
Density) is transformed with heat only.
A thin-walled hollow mould gives the outer shape of the plastic part. The mould is filled with plastic
powder, is then slowly rotated multi-axially, and heated. The melting temperature of the plastic depends
on the plastic material used (Figure 11 and Figure 12).
Figure 11: Mould filled with plastic powder Figure 12: Closed mould
During the heating process, the plastic resin becomes

molten and slowly settles on the inner mould surface,
the multi-axial rotation is programmed to create a
relatively uniform distribution of the plastic. The
plastic is heated until it is properly cured and then the
cooling phase of the process begins. The wall
thickness depends on the amount of plastic resin used
and this will determine the amount of time required
to properly cure the plastic. Wall thicknesses may be
from 5 mm to 40 mm depending on the required
Figure 13: Opened mould
strength and design of the buoy (Figure 13).
It is also possible to integrate metal parts into the
plastic parts during the moulding process used for
mooring and lifting and fastening systems (Figure 14).
Rotational moulding is particularly suitable for small
to medium series production. The advantages are the
relatively low mould costs and the almost unlimited Figure 14: Insert
possibilities of shaping.

The enclosed modules, manufactured as
described above, can either be used directly as a
buoy, be welded to buoys or mounted as floats on
a core structure.
Figure 16 shows a small enclosed module (small
marker, 0.5 m diameter, 0.7 m height), Figure 15
shows a big enclosed module (float, length 2.17
m, outer radius 1.21 m, wall thickness 20 mm).
Figure 16: Figure 15: Float
4.4.2. MANUFACTURING OF ROTATIONAL MOULDED
Small
POLYETHYLENE BUOYS MADE BY ONE
marker
ENCLOSED MODULE
Rotational moulded plastic buoys made of one enclosed module are often used as small harbour or river
markers.
The lifting and the mooring eyes are made as a part of the plastic body (Figure 17) or from additional metal
components (Figure 18).
The application of these (small) plastic buoys usually requires only a monochrome version, the multi-colour
variant is not needed.
Typical technical data are:
Table 3: Small harbour or river markers
Parameter Value
application area harbour, rivers,
marinas
diameter in the water ≈ 0.5
line (m)
height above water ≈2
line/focal plane (m)
height over all (m) ≈3
Figure 18: Metal lifting and mooring eyes

Figure 17: Plastic lifting eye

4.4.3. MANUFACTURING OF ROTATIONAL MOULDED POLYETHYLENE PLASTIC BUOYS MADE BY TWO OR
MORE ENCLOSED MODULES, WELDED
4.4.3.1. Manufacturing procedure of rotational moulded polyethylene plastic buoys,

welded
Buoys, which consist of two or more enclosed modules, are usually welded together from rotational
moulded plastic parts. Figure 19 and Figure 20 are showing the welding process (butt fusion welding).
Figure 19: Butt fusion welding
The advantages of this modular design using enclosed modules can be:
• The wall thickness of the lower elements can be made bigger than
from the upper elements because of stability and ballast reasons;
• The underwater elements do not necessarily have to be executed in
the traffic-efficient colour (cost savings); Figure 20: Butt fusion
welding
• Multi-colour buoys can be realised easily;
• The buoy can be divided into a few waterproof sections (reserve buoyancy);
• The radar reflector and other devices can easily be placed inside the buoy body (upper part).
4.4.3.2. Typical spar- and conical buoys, rotational moulded, welded

Widely used spar- and conical buoys up to 1.5 m are the buoys described in the following table (3 typical
sizes).
Table 4: Typical spar and conical buoys, welded
Parameter big spar/conical middle spar/conical small spar/conical buoy

buoy buoy
application area sea, coast, coast, estuary estuary, shallow water
estuary
biggest diameter in the water ≈ 1.0 – 1.6 ≈ 0.8 – 1.0 ≈ 0.4 - 0.8
line (m)
height above water line/focal ≈3 ≈ 2.6 ≈2
plane (m)
height over all (m) ≈6 ≈5-6 ≈2-5

Figure 22 and Figure 23 are showing examples. Figure 21 shows an exploded drawing and the possibility to
realise multi-coloured plastic combinations. By welding individual plastic parts or enclosed modules, the
required color combinations can be realised.
Figure 22: Conical Figure 23: Spar

buoy buoy Figure 21: Exploded drawing
4.4.3.3. Use of rotational moulded welded spar and conical buoys in ice built up areas
For general demands concerning the design and use of plastic
buoys in ice conditions, see section 3.11. Rotational moulded
welded plastic buoys may be used in operational areas with light
ice conditions. An example of a rotational moulded conical buoy
in light ice is shown in Figure 24.
It is the movement of ice and especially free flowing ice that
causes damage to the buoys. The type of rotational moulding
polyethylene and the wall thickness of the hull are critical for
survival. Manufacturers should state the ice resistance capability
for rotational moulded plastic buoys. In aggressive ice conditions
the use of high density polyethylene plastic buoys (see section
4.5) with greater strength and abrasion resistance are
recommended.
Figure 24: Conical buoy in light ice

4.4.3.4. Typical spars, rotational moulded, welded
Spars with the following characteristics are common, two typical types are shown:
Table 5: Typical spars, rotational moulded, welded
Parameter Small spar Medium spar

application area marinas, inland coastal, ports, inland
waterways waterways
diameter (m) ≈ 0.25 – 0.4 ≈ 0.4 – 0.6
height above water line/focal plane (m) ≈ 0.75 – 1.5 ≈ 1.5 – 2
height over all (m) ≈2–3 ≈4–5
Figure 25 and Figure 26

show examples.
Figure 25: Spar Figure 26: Spar

4.4.4. MANUFACTURING OF MODULAR PLASTIC BUOYS WITH ROTATIONAL MOULDED ENCLOSED MODULES
AS FLOATS
For bigger plastic buoys (diameter more than 1.5 m up to 4 m) rotational moulded enclosed modules are
used as floats.
The floats are mounted on a core structure, which consists of
plastic pipes (complete plastic design, section 4.4.4.1) or a
metal construction (hybrid metal/plastic design, section
4.4.4.2).
The advantage of the modular design are:
• The modular design can simplify handling and transport;
• Defective parts can be changed easily;
These plastic buoys can withstand light ice conditions. The
effect of ice growth has to be considered (Figure 27). Figure 27: Ice growth
4.4.4.1. Modular plastic buoys with complete plastic design

Modular buoys with a plastic core structure
(complete plastic design) consist at least of
the following elements (Figure 28):
• enclosed modules as floats;
• polyethylene tail tube (HDPE);
• polyethylene superstructure;
• mooring and lifting eyes made of steel;
• cast iron ballast weight.
The main advantage of these buoys is that no
maintenance is required (except the mooring
and lifting eyes).
Multi-colour-combinations can be realised as
follows:
• The floats can be made of different
colours;
• They can be combined according to the
needed colour combination;
• On a polyethylene superstructure a cap
with the needed colour combination can
be mounted;
Figure 28: Exploded drawing

• It is also possible, to mount coloured
polyethylene plates on the
polyethylene superstructure (Figure
29).
Figure 29: Coloured polyethylene plates on

polyethylene superstructure

4.4.4.2. Modular plastic buoys with hybrid metal/plastic design
Modular buoys with hybrid metal/plastic design are consisting at least of the following elements (Figure
30):
• enclosed modules as floats;
• steel tail tube or skirt;
• aluminium or plastic superstructure;
• mooring and lifting eye made of steel;
• cast iron ballast weight.
Multi-colour-combinations can be realised as follows:
• The floats can be made of different colours and combined according to the needed colour combination
• An aluminium superstructure can be painted with different colours (Figure 31);
• Other possibilities are the mounting of a cap with the needed colour combination or coloured
polyethylene plates.
Figure 31: Painted aluminium

superstructure
Figure 30: Exploded drawing

4.4.4.3. Typical modular plastic buoys with enclosed modules as floats
The following sizes of modular plastic buoys with polyethylene floats are typical, regardless of whether it is
the complete plastic design (section 4.4.4.1) or the hybrid metal/plastic design (section 4.4.4.2):
Table 6: Typical modular buoys
Parameter small modular middle modular big modular

spar/conical buoy spar/conical buoy spar/conical buoy
application area coastal, shelter, open sea, coastal, open sea
rivers, ports estuary estuary
biggest diameter in the water line ≈ 1.5/1.8/2 ≈ 2.2 -2.6 ≈3-4
(m)
height above water line/focal plane ≈ 1.7 - 4.2 ≈ 3.8 - 6.5 ≈5-8
(m)
height over all (m) ≈ 2.7 - 7.9 ≈ 8.6 ≈ 12 - 15
Figure 32 and Figure 33 show plastic buoys in complete plastic design.
Figure 32: Complete plastic design, 3 modules Figure 33: Complete plastic design,
2 modules
The buoy shown in Figure 35 is an example for a hybrid metal/plastic design.

It is equipped with grey polyethylene floats and a high visibility metallic spar, offering the day mark of the
buoy. See IALA Guideline G1094 on Daymarks for Aids to Navigation.

4.5. HIGH DENSITY POLYETHYLENE PLASTIC BUOYS
4.5.1. MANUFACTURING OF HIGH DENSITY POLYETHYLENE PLASTIC PARTS

4.5.1.1. Pipes manufactured by extrusion-process
Plastic extrusion is a high-volume manufacturing process in which
plastic is melted and formed into a continuous profile. The base resin
is transformed with heat under significant pressure. This process is
used to produce tubes/pipes, plates etc.
The significantly higher molecular weight of the high density resin and
the extrusion process create a material with significantly greater
strength, abrasion and impact resistance than the polyethylene
formed in rotational moulding.
Figure 34: Extrusion process
Figure 35: Hybrid metal/plastic design Figure 36: Co-extrusion
The process starts with feeding plastic from a funnel into the
extruder. In the extruder, the plastic is compacted by a rotating
screw, melted and pressed through a nozzle. The nozzle gives the end
product its profile. This is followed by the cooling process, which is
usually achieved by a water bath. Figure 34 shows pipe
manufacturing by extrusion process.
Pipes can be extruded in a single colour or they may be extruded with
the outside 20% in a separate colour, this process is called “co-
extrusion”, the main part of the wall thickness is in black. (Figure 36).
Figure 37: Extruded pipes
Pipes used for polyethylene buoys are mainly used in pressured lines
like water and other liquids. The most common material is HD 100 polyethylene. The wall thickness and the
pressure class vary depending on the SDR (Standard Dimension Ratio). Typical for buoy applications are SDR
17 and SDR 26. Figure 37 shows extruded pipes as raw material for spars.
4.5.1.2. Other high density polyethylene plastic parts
Other polyethylene plastic parts (mainly the smaller and special parts) can be made by the cutting of high
density polyethylene plates, pipes and compression moulded parts, etc., see Figure 38. A combination with
metal parts is also possible (Figure 39).

Figure 38: Compression moulded parts Figure 39: Combination plastic and metal parts
4.5.2. MANUFACTURING OF HIGH DENSITY POLYETHYLENE PLASTIC BUOYS

High Density Polyethylene plastic buoys are fabricated by skilled technicians using extruded HDPE pipes,
HDPE plates and small HDPE parts. The manufacturing process includes the cutting and welding of the
components to create the desired design shape.
A number of different design shapes can be achieved but there are some limitations based on the
diameters of extruded pipes used as floats. As a result, the majority of buoys have a spar type shape.
Larger buoys are fabricated with bulkheads to form several watertight buoyancy modules that offer the
advantage of reserve of buoyancy in case of damage to one or more segments. Additional security of the
reserve buoyancy is also achieved by filling the buoy body with floatation material like polystyrene, see
chapter 4.3.5.
Buoy manufacturing by welding together extruded pipe sections is particularly suitable for small series
production and customised buoy solutions. The advantages are a robust body of extruded pipe with the
possibility to integrate components and devices inside the buoy body. It is possible to attach metal parts
with bolts parts or plastic inserts by extrusion welding. In either case the skin of the buoy distributes loads
evenly to the whole buoy body.
Standards for the extrusion-made pipes are:
• EN 12201-1, plastics piping systems for water supply Polyethylene (PE). Part 2: Pipes;
• EN ISO 1133, plastics – Determination of the melt mass-flow rate (MFR) and the melt volume-flow rate
(MVR) of thermoplastics (ISO 1133:1997);
• EN ISO 2505, thermoplastics pipes. longitudinal reversion. Test method and parameters (ISO
2505:2005);
• EN ISO 3126, plastics piping systems – Plastics piping components – Measurement and determination
of dimensions;
• EN ISO 6259-1, thermoplastics pipes. Determination of tensile properties. Part 1: General test method
(ISO 6259-1:1997);
• EN ISO 13920, Welding- General tolerances for welded constructions – Dimensions for length and
angles Shape and position;
• ISO 6259-3, Thermoplastics pipes – Determination of tensile properties – Part 3: Polyolefin pipes;
• ISO 13953, Polyethylene (PE) pipes and fittings – Determination of the tensile strength and failure
mode of test pieces from a butt-fused joint;

• ISO 16770, Plastics – Determination of environmental stress cracking (ESC) of polyethylene – Full-notch
creep test (FNCT);
• ISO/TR 10358, Plastics pipes and fittings – Combined chemical-resistance-classification table.
HDPE pipes can be joined together by butt fusion welding, the resulting fusion weld is stronger than the
pipe (Figure 40). This process allows pipes of different colours to be joined together and permits the
creation of watertight sections with the addition of internal bulkheads.
HDPE plates and parts can be joined to the pipes using an HDPE Extrusion Welding process which utilises
heat to bond molten HDPE welding wire to the surfaces between pipe and plate (Figure 41). This process is
typically used to add strengthening plates for lifting and to make transitions between components strong
and watertight.
The possibilities to produce multi-colour plastic
buoys according to the IALA maritime buoyage
system (MBS) are as follows:
• Enclosed modules can be made of
different colours. They can be welded
together according to the needed colour
combination;
• Extruded pipes can be manufactured in
multi colour combinations (for example
red-white). The different multi coloured
plastic pipes can be welded together
(Figure 42);
• Other possibilities are the welding of Figure 40: Butt fusion welding
coloured plastic plates on the buoy body
or the mounting of a cap with the needed
colour combination.
There is a large range of high density
polyethylene plastic buoys types and sizes
available on the market. The following chapters
give an overview about the most common
types.
Figure 41: HDPE extrusion welding

Figure 42: Multi coloured plastic pipes
4.5.2.1. Typical high density polyethylene spar and conical plastic buoys
Widely used as spar- and conical buoys up to 1.5m are the buoys described in the following table (3 typical
sizes). Figure 43, Figure 44 and Figure 45 are showing examples.
Table 7: Typical high density polyethylene spar- and conical-buoys
Parameter Large spar/conical Middle spar/conical Small spar/conical

buoy buoy buoy
application area sea, coast, estuary coast, estuary estuary, shallow water
biggest diameter in ≈ 1.0 – 1.6 ≈ 0.8 – 1 ≈ 0.4 - 0.8
the water line (m)
height above water ≈3 ≈ 2.6 ≈2
height over all (m) ≈6 ≈5-6 ≈2-5

Figure 43: Spar buoy afloat
Figure 45: Spar buoy

Figure 44: Multi colour spar buoy

4.5.2.2. Typical high density polyethylene plastic spars
Most HDPE spars consist mainly of one or more plastic pipe sections manufactured by an extruding-
process. The top and the bottom parts are also made of plastic and become mainly fusion welded on the
pipe(s).
• The buoy can be divided into a few waterproof sections;
• Radar reflector and other devices are usually placed inside the buoy body;
• Buoys can be easily customized according to specifications;
• They can be equipped with a light-unit (self contained (IPSL) or battery powered);
• The buoys are usually filled with polystyrene or polyurethane foam;
• Most spars can be used can be used as “all-year-round” buoys in ice covered areas;
• The large spars with thick walls of greater than 30 mm can be used as ice buoys in arctic areas.
Spars with the following characteristics are common. Figure 46, Figure
47 and Figure 48 show examples.
Parameter Small spar Medium spar Large spar

application area marinas, coastal, ports, offshore,
inland waters inland waters coastal
diameter (m) ≈ 0.16 – 0.3 ≈ 0.4 – 0.7 ≈ 0.8 – 1
height above water ≈ 2.0 – 3 ≈ 2.5 – 3.5 ≈ 3.0- 4
height over all (m) ≈ 2.5 – 6 ≈ 6.0 – 9 ≈ 8.0 – 11
Table 8: Typical high density polyethylene plastic spars
Figure 48: Spar with top

Figure 46: Multi-colour spar Figure 47: Spar afloat mark

4.5.2.3. Use of high density polyethylene plastic buoys in ice build-up areas
For general demands concerning ice stable design of plastic buoys see section 3.11.
Plastic buoys made of extruded HDPE plastic, which is characterised by increased strength and abrasion
resistance, are particularly recommended for use under aggressive conditions.
Figure 49 and Figure 50 show a high density polyethylene plastic buoy frozen in a solid ice-field. Figure 51
demonstrates buoy use in crushed ice.
The main reason for destruction of plastic buoys by ice is insufficient strength in the buoy hull. The wall
thickness and the polyethylene material should be chosen to suit the application and manufactured
homogeneously during the production process.
Figure 49: Spar in solid ice field Figure 50: Spar buoy in solid ice field
Figure 51: Spar in crushed ice

5. GLASS REINFORCED PLASTIC (GRP)
5.1. GENERAL
GRP is the usual abbreviation for glass reinforced plastic which in its most common form consists of glass
matt bonded by polyester resin.
5.2. CONSTRUCTION
Complex shapes can be produced by laying-up resin and glass reinforcement into a mould by hand (or spray
machine). The cylindrical buoy body is normally formed by joining two half body shapes. It is important to
note that the joint is often the weakest area of the body.
The strength of GRP is dependent of the ratio of glass fibre to resin and thus this is another area which
requires definition and quality control. High strength (required in ice conditions) can be achieved by the use
of carbon or Kevlar fibres but the costs may be high. These fibres may be used in specific stress areas of the
buoy.
The outer layer of resin, the gel coat, prevents water absorption into the glass reinforcement and should be
protected from mechanical damage. This is usually provided by some form of fendering.
5.3. EXAMPLES OF GRP BUOYS
Figure 52 and Figure 53 show samples

of GRP buoys.
5.3.1. FILLING
In the event of a collision, a GRP buoy
may well crack from an impact which
would only dent a steel buoy. To
prevent the buoy from sinking it
should be divided into separate
watertight compartments or filled
with polyurethane foam or
polystyrene foam. Figure 52: GRP buoy Figure 53: GRP buoy afloat
5.3.2. FASTENERS / MOORING
ATTACHMENT
Care should be taken when bonding metal attachment points into GRP due to the considerable difference
in thermal expansion rates between metals and plastics, and the inherent flexibility of the GRP. Another
option is to use through bolted fixings with generous backing plates and resilient washers or coatings
between the metal and the GRP.
5.4. REPAIR AND MAINTENANCE
GRP buoys will require cleaning, repainting and any necessary repair to the gel coat.
Repair of GRP is usually straightforward but does require standards of cleanliness and specific working
temperatures. Effective drying of damaged laminates or foam cores may also be difficult in cold climates. It
may be necessary to use heaters to warm and dry damage areas and to ensure effective curing of the
repair.

The final surface colour of GRP buoys can be incorporated into the gel coat. If this not the case or if a colour
change is required, then buoys will require normal painting to achieve the required surface colours.
GRP buoys may be cleaned onsite using water jetting. However care should be taken to avoid polluting the
surrounding environment with paint flakes and surface materials.
The area in which foam filled buoys are used should be considered since oily water in around the port
environment could penetrate damaged buoys, making the repair of it very difficult.
6. POLYURETHANE / ELASTOMER COATED FOAM

6.1. ELASTOMER MATERIAL – GENERAL
These buoys typically consist of a thick, flexible marine grade polyurethane elastomer skin on a flexible
closed cell foam core. They have the advantage of overall flexibility and resilience. The flexibility will also be
an advantage when the buoy has to be serviced in rough weather.
The main feature of elastomer buoys lies in its lightweight float of high elasticity, manufactured with
closed-cell polyethylene solid foam sheet (no water absorption) and spray coated with a 8 - 20 mm thick
layer of coloured polyurethane elastomer.
Thanks to its solid construction, they are virtually unsinkable, even in case of a strong impact. Besides, they
can withstand repeated collisions without deforming (recovery capacity). The elastomer polyurethane
allows the application of an anti-fouling treatment.
6.2. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND STANDARDS FOR ELASTOMER PLASTIC
6.2.1. POLYURETHANE ELASTOMER PROPERTIES

The following mechanical properties of polyurethane elastomer material must be carefully chosen as the
base for a high quality plastic buoy. They can be tested according to the standards named in brackets
behind them.
• density (BS 4370);
• tensile strength (ISO 527);
• ultimate elongation (ISO 527);
• hardness (DIN 53505);
• breaking resistance (DIN EN ISO 6383-1);
• water vapour diffusion resistance (EN 1931) ;
• fatigue motion resistance (EOTA TR008).

6.2.2. POLYETHYLENE SOLID FOAM SHEET PROPERTIES
Table 9: Polyethylene foam properties
physical condition solid

colour coloured
melting point 105 - 110 °C
flash point 420 - 440 °C (ASTM D1929-16)
ignition temperature 430 - 450 °C (DIN 54836)
density from 30 to 100 kg/m3
water solubility insoluble
water absorption 1 - 2%
Table 10: Polyurethane elastomer properties
Properties Value Result Method

density kg/m³ ≈ 900 BS 4370
tensile strength MPa ≈ 17 ISO 527
elongation at break % ≈ 342 ISO 527
hardness shore (A) ≈ 90 DIN 53505
breaking strength N/mm ≈ 35 DIN EN ISO 6383-1
fire resistance self-extinguishing
thermal resistance behaves consistently with temperatures -40 °C to +180 °C

6.3. CONSTRUCTION DETAILS OF ELASTOMER PLASTIC BUOYS
6.3.1. MANUFACTURING OF PLASTIC PARTS

The manufacturing process of the
elastomer buoy float is based on a solid
rolled body of closed-cell polyethylene
foam sheet and bound by heat (Figure
54, Figure 55). No chemical substance is
involved in it.
The thickness of the polyurethane
elastomer layer should be optimised to
the size, the shape, the environmental
conditions and the use of the buoy
should be sufficiently robust. The most
common thickness range used is from 8 Figure 54: Rolled
– 20 mm. body of closed-
The rolled body is covered by a coating cell Figure 55: Bound closed cell
of elastomer polyurethane (Figure 56); polyethylene polyethelene post heating
thus forming an elastic skin on an elastic
core. So the body buoy is solid, compact,
extremely flexible, has a great
recovering capacity and zero water
absorption. The initial colour of the body
is given by the elastomer coating. The
elastomer surface allows later painting.
The core of the elastomer buoys may be
manufactured from material of varying
density, which allows the adaptation to
local needs depending on location,
environmental conditions or external
influences.
Figure 56: Coating of elastomer polyurethane

On the upper area of the float a
coating of silica granulation is applied
to provide a non-slip surface for
maintenance staff (Figure 57).
The float of elastomer buoys is a solid
part, never manufactured in modules.
The process of manufacturing and
materials used in the elastomer floats
are the same as those used in fenders
for vessel berthing in ports. They are
able to withstand repeated strong
collisions. Thus, the replacement of the
float is not anticipated. Figure 57: Non-slip surface
6.3.2. ASSEMBLY OF ELASTOMER BUOY PARTS

The assembly of the buoy involves other parts such as metal
structure, tail tube, superstructure, etc. (Figure 58).
It is important to avoid movement or rotation between the plastic
and the metallic parts.
Figure 59 shows the assembly of an elastomer buoy (diameter 3m)
in horizontal position.
Figure 58: Sectional view of an

elastomer buoy
Figure 59: Assemby of an elastomer buoy

6.4. SHAPES AND SIZES OF ELASTOMER BUOYS
As they need no mould, the choice of shapes and sizes is flexible. The diameters of the elastomer buoys on
the market are between 0.8 to 3.6 m, the height of the float can be up to 2.8 m. Figure 62 , Figure 61 and
Figure 60 show examples of elastomer buoys.
6.4.1. MULTI-COLOUR POSSIBILITIES OF ELASTOMER BUOYS
For producing multi-colour buoys the elastomer provides good adhesion for paints.
6.4.2. USE OF ELASTOMER BUOYS IN ICE BUILT UP AREAS
For general demands concerning the design and use of plastic buoys in ice conditions, see section 3.11.
• The floats of elastomer buoys are flexible and have a good recovering capacity;
• If necessary, an additional reinforcement mesh can be added to the polyethylene foam core or/and
the polyurethane elastomer coating.
Figure 62: Solar and wind Figure 61: Solar powered lit Figure 60: Elastomer
powered lit elastomer buoy with elastomer buoy buoy with self contained
measurement equipment lantern

7. IONOMER FOAM BUOYS
7.1. GENERAL
The life and durability of ionomer foam buoys is entirely dependent on the quality of the foam used. The
flexibility of the foam can provide good impact resistance but the resistance to aggressive abrasion is not
good. This last factor is important for buoys which dry out on a hard bottom at a tidal site or may be subject
to moving ice conditions.
A foam buoy hull can sustain considerable damage or loss of material without sinking. A damaged buoy
cannot be repaired by the user. The material is not recyclable.
7.2. CONSTRUCTION
These buoys are usually constructed by wrapping closed-cell foam

(ionomer foam which is produced in sheet form) around a central
structural core. The layers of foam are heat sealed together during
the wrapping process. The outer layer of the rolled foam can be
"densified" through the application of pressure and heat to make a
hard, smooth surface.
Colour pigments are usually incorporated into the foam during the
extrusion process, so the colour is continuous throughout the entire
hull and daymark. The buoys include a structural steel framework,
steel lifting and mooring eyes and stainless steel connecting
hardware.
The manufacturing technique particularly lends itself to the
production of one-off designs as a variety of body shapes can be
made without the need for a mould. Buoys of this type are
significantly lighter than steel buoys of the same size.
7.3. EXAMPLE OF IONOMER FOAM BUOY
Figure 63 shows an example of an ionomer foam buoy.
Figure 63: Ionomer foam

8. BUOY EQUIPMENT
Similar to steel buoys, additional equipment can be mounted in or on plastic buoys. The following sections
give an overview about such components.
8.1. LIGHT UNITS
Plastic buoys can be equipped with lanterns (powered by solar, wind or wave energy or by a primary
battery) or self-contained lanterns (Integrated Power Systems Lanterns (IPSL)).
IPSL are becoming increasingly smaller. At the same time, their functionality increases. The IALA NAVGUIDE
2018 and the IALA Guideline G1064 on Integrated Power Systems Lanterns give information in detail.
If the plastic buoy is used in ice conditions according to sections 3.11, 4.4.3.3 and 4.5.2.3, the self-contained
lantern or the stand alone lantern must also be designed to be ice-resistant. On some plastic buoys
(especially spars) a primary battery instead of a solar power supply is used.
8.2. MONITORING SYSTEMS AND SENSORS
Modern IPSL can be equipped with remote monitoring and remote control system or sensors. Depending
from the buoy location different communication methods for data transfer can be used.
The status of the lantern, the power supply and other devices as well as buoy-related data can be acquired,
transferred and displayed. This enables further optimisation of the technical maintenance operation,
especially with regard to the cost intensive buoy tender fleet.
The IALA Guideline G1008 on Remote Control and Monitoring of Aids to Navigation gives information in
detail.
8.3. RADAR REFLECTOR
A radar reflector is a passive device designed to enhance the radar

conspicuity of aids to navigation (Figure 64). The IALA NAVGUIDE
provides more information.
Most plastic buoys are equipped with a radar reflector, mounted
inside or outside of the buoy body.
The advantage of an integrated radar reflector is that the radar
reflector is protected from environment conditions.
The disadvantage is, that the surrounding plastic wall reduces the
reflection performance (RCS) of the radar reflector. The effects
have to be taken into consideration. According to
experience/measurements the reduction of the reflection
performance of polyethylene plastic material is only small.
Generally the radar reflector should not be mounted behind
conducting components, for example solar panels, lettering plates, Figure 64: Radar reflector
etc.

8.4. RACON
A radar beacon (racon) enhances the radar detection and identification of the object on which it is
mounted. For detail information refer to the IALA- NAVGUIDE and the IALA Guideline G1010 on Racon
Range Performance.
8.5. AIS
Buoys can be equipped with AIS-transponders to transmit different messages. Remote monitoring is also
possible. For detailed information please refer to IALA Recommendation A-126 on the Use of the Automatic
Identification System (AIS) in Marine Aids to Navigation Services and IALA Guideline G1098 on The
Application of AIS - AtoN on Buoys”.
8.6. TOP MARKS
The shape and the dimensions of top marks are described in IALA Guideline G1094 on Daymarks for Aids to
Navigation. Top marks can also be designed to enhance the radar response.
The use of top marks should be avoided in ice build-up areas, because they can be damaged by ice.
8.7. RETROREFLECTIVE MATERIAL
Plastic buoys can be equipped with retroreflective material, so the mariner can detect the position and
colour at night by use of a searchlight (Figure 65).
For detail information look at the IALA Guideline G1094 on Daymarks for Aids to Navigation and the IALA
Recommendation R0106 (E‐106) on Retroreflecting Material on Aids to Navigation Marks within the IALA
Maritime Buoyage System.
Figure 65: Buoys with retroreflective stripes, mounted in a recess

9. ACRONYMS & DEFINITIONS
9.1. ACRONYMS
AIS Automatic Identification System

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
AtoN Aids to Navigation
BS British Standard
°C Degrees Celsius
CIE Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (International Commission on Illumination)
DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung
EN European Norm
EOTA European Organisation for Technical Assessment
ESC Environmental Stress Cracking
FNCT Full-notch Creep Test
GRP Glass Reinforced Plastic
HDPE High density Polyethylene
IALA International Association of Marine Aids to Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities ‐ AISM
IPSL Integrated Power System Lantern
ISO International Organisation for Standardisation
kg Kilogram
LDPE Low-Density Polyethylene
LLDPE Linear Low-Density Polyethylene
MDPE Medium Density Polyethylene
m metre
m3 cubic metre
MBS Maritime Buoyage System
MFR Mass-Flow Rate
mm millimetre
MPa Mega Pascal
MVR Melt Volume-flow Rate

N Newton
NCS Natural Colour System

nm nanometre

PE Polyethylene
RACON Radar Beacon
RADAR Radio Detection and Ranging

RCS Radar Cross Section
SDR Standard Dimension Ratio
TR Technical Report
UNE Una Norma Espanola
UV Ultra Violet (light) (10 – 380 nm)
9.2. DEFINITIONS
Polyethylene (PE) - Polyethylene is probably the polymer seen most in daily life. It is one of the polymers
called polyolefins. It has a very simple structure, the simplest of all commercial polymers. A molecule of
polyethylene is nothing more than a long chain of carbon atoms, with two hydrogen atoms attached to
each carbon atom. The following picture illustrates linear polyethylene, only with the chain of carbon atoms
being many thousands of atoms long.
Figure 66: Polyethylene chain
High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) – HDPE is called linear polyethylene as the carbon atoms have only
hydrogen atoms attached to them. This is much stronger than other forms of polyethylene which have
branches of polyethylene
attached to each carbon atom and
which are cheaper to
manufacture.
Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE)

LDPE polyethylene is not as strong
as high density polyethylene and
is less costly to manufacture. It
has a different structure which
reduces strength. Some of the
carbon atoms, instead of having
hydrogens attached to them, will
have long chains or branches of
polyethylene attached to them.
This is called branched, or low-
density polyethylene. Figure 67: Linear and branched polyethylene chain

Linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) is a substantially linear polymer polyethylene with significant
numbers of short branches. Linear low-density polyethylene differs structurally from conventional low-
density polyethylene (LDPE) because of the absence of long chain branching. The linearity of LLDPE results
from the different manufacturing processes of LLDPE and LDPE.
Medium density polyethylene (MDPE) may be preferred over LDPE for many applications requiring
strength or stiffness in addition to ease of processing. MDPE is characterised by fewer and shorter side
chains than LDPE.
Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP) is a composite material. It is a fibre-reinforced polymer made of
a plastic reinforced by fine fibres made of glass. It is stronger than many metals (when compared by
weight), and can be moulded into complex shapes. The plastic matrix is usually a thermoset polymer such
as epoxy or polyester resin, or it may be a thermoplastic.
Polyurethane Foam is a polymer composed of organic units joined by carbamate (urethane) links.
Polyurethane polymers are traditionally and most commonly formed by reacting a di- or poly-
isocyanate with a polyol. Polyurethane foam can be made using small amounts of blowing agents to give
less dense foam providing better cushioning/energy absorption or thermal insulation.
Expanded Polystyrene Foam is a rigid and tough, closed-cell foam with a normal density range of 11 to 32
kg/m3. It is usually white and made of pre-expanded polystyrene beads that are fused together in a final
expansion phase using steam to provide heat and pressure
Elastomer Coating. An elastomer is essentially a polymer that displays properties of elasticity. They are
made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and/or silicon. Elastomers are polymers that have viscoelasticity, this
means they have both viscosity and elasticity, and very low inter-molecular forces which mean they have
low elastic modulus. At room temperature, elastomers are soft and deformable. An elastomer coating can
be used to seal, work as an adhesive, or to protect flexible objects.
The polymers molecular structure is set out in such a way that when it is stretched it may return to its
normal state. The flexibility that an elastomer can offer is around 5-700% depending on the specific
elastomer created. If the elastomer had short chains or no cross-links, the structure would not have the
elastic properties and any deformation would be permanent. When elastomers are cooled they have less
elastic properties, as the mobile chains reduce.
Ionomer Foam. A copolymer of ethylene and methacrylic acid typically used as a coating and packaging
material. It can also be extruded as a continuous sheet of foam with a closed-cell structure. Foam density,
cell structure, and sheet thickness can be varied as required within certain physical limits. Different sheet
widths are achieved by varying extruder heads. Multiple-layer sheets can be created using heat to create
rolls and cylinders.
Closed Cell Foam. A foam where at least 90% of the tiny cells of the foam are completely closed. This
contrasts with “Open Cell Foam” where the tiny cells are broken and air or water will fill the “open” space
inside the material. Closed cell foams will absorb a small percentage of water, the water absorption varies
depending on the type of foam.

10. REFERENCES
• IALA NAVGUIDE
• IALA Recommendation R0106 (E‐106) on Retroreflecting Material on Aids to Navigation Marks
within the IALA Maritime Buoyage System;
• IALA Recommendation R0108 (E-108) on Surface Colours Used as Visual Signals on Marine Aids to
Navigation;
• IALA Recommendation A-126 on the Use of the Automatic Identification System (AIS) in Marine
Aids to Navigation Services;
• IALA Guideline G1008 on Remote Control and Monitoring of Aids to Navigation;
• IALA Guideline G1010 on Racon Range Performance;
• IALA Guideline G1036 on Environmental Management in Aids to Navigation;
• IALA Guideline G1047 on Cost Comparison Methodology of Buoy Technologies;
• IALA Guideline G1064 on Integrated Power System Lanterns;
• IALA Guideline G1077 on Maintenance of Aids to Navigation;
• IALA Guideline G1094 on Daymarks for Aids to Navigation;
• IALA Guideline G1098 on The Application of AIS - AtoN on buoys;
• IALA Guideline G1099 on The Hydrostatic design of buoys;
• IALA Guideline G1108 on The Challenges of Providing AtoN Services in Polar Regions;
• IALA Guideline G1134 on Surface Colours used as Visual Signals on AtoN
• The IALA NAVGUIDE;
• IALA Guideline G1136 on Providing AtoN Services in Extremely Hot and Humid Climates;
• Report of the IALA Workshop On Challenges of Providing AtoN Services in Polar Regions 2013;
• ASTM G155 Standard practice for operating xenon arc light apparatus for exposure of non-metallic
materials;
• ISO 4582: 2017 Plastics - determination of changes in colour and variations in properties after
exposure to glass-filtered solar radiation, natural weathering or laboratory radiation sources;
• ISO 4892 (1-4) Plastics - methods of exposure to laboratory light sources;
• ISO 9001 Quality management;
• EN 16472 Plastics - method for artificial accelerated photo-ageing using medium pressure mercury
vapour lamps;
• ASTM D2244 - 16 Standard practice for calculation of colour tolerances and colour differences from
instrumentally measured colour coordinates;
• ASTM D2565 ‐ 16 Standard Practice for Xenon Arc Exposure of Plastics Intended for Outdoor
Applications;
• ISO 1664‐4 Colorimetric evaluation of colour coordinates and colour differences according to the
approximately uniform CIELAB colour space;

• ISO 1183 Plastics - methods for determining the density of non-cellular plastics;
• ASTM D-4883 Standard test method for density of polyethylene by the ultrasound technique;
• ASTM D-1505 Standard test method for density of plastics by the density-gradient technique;
• BS 4370 Methods of test for rigid cellular materials;
• DIN 53505 Testing of rubber - shore a and shore d hardness test;
• DIN EN ISO 527-1 Plastics - determination of tensile properties - part 1: general principles;
• DIN EN ISO 527-2 Plastics - determination of tensile properties - part 2: test conditions for moulding
and extrusion plastics;
• DIN 53516 Testing of rubber and elastomers; determination of abrasion resistance;
• ISO 6603-2 Plastics - determination of puncture impact behaviour of rigid plastics - part 2:
instrumented impact testing;
• DIN EN ISO 6383-1 Plastics - film and sheeting - determination of tear resistance - part 1: trouser
tear method;
• EN 1931 Flexible sheets for waterproofing - bitumen, plastic and rubber sheets for roof
waterproofing - determination of water vapour transmission properties;
• EOTA TR008 Determination of the resistance to fatigue movement;
• EN 12201-1 Plastics piping systems for water supply Polyethylene (PE). Part 2: Pipes;
• EN ISO 1133 Plastics – Determination of the melt mass-flow rate (MFR) and the melt volume-flow
rate (MVR) of thermoplastics (ISO 1133:1997);
• EN ISO 2505 Thermoplastics pipes, longitudinal reversion, test method and parameters (ISO
2505:2005);
• EN ISO 3126 Plastics piping systems – Plastics piping components – Measurement and
determination of dimensions;
• EN ISO 6259-1 Thermoplastics pipes. Determination of tensile properties. Part 1: General test
method (ISO 6259-1:1997);
• EN ISO 13920 Welding- General tolerances for welded constructions – Dimensions for length and
angles shape and position;
• ISO 6259-3 Thermoplastics pipes – Determination of tensile properties – Part 3: Polyolefin pipes;
• ISO 13953 Polyethylene (PE) pipes and fittings – Determination of the tensile strength and failure
mode of test pieces from a butt-fused joint;
• ISO 16770 Plastics – Determination of environmental stress cracking (ESC) of polyethylene – Full-
notch creep test (FNCT);
• ISO/TR 10358 Plastics pipes and fittings – Combined chemical-resistance-classification table;
• ASTM D1929-16 Standard test method for determining ignition temperature of plastics;
• DIN 54836 Testing of combustible materials; determination of ignition temperature.

ANNEX A ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PLASTIC BUOYS
ADVANTAGES
• Plastic does not corrode.
• It is easier to maintain: only removal of marine growth, no painting for plastic parts required.
• There is less maintenance on shore for the plastic components (no grit blasting, no painting with the
exception of GRP). Therefore, less resources may be utilized.
• Plastic buoys are of lower weight (1/2 to 1/3 mass of the equivalent diameter steel buoys). Therefore
maintenance may be able to use smaller buoy tenders.
• The whole life costs may be less than steel buoys, see also IALA Guideline G1047 on Cost Comparison
Methodology of Buoy Technologies.
• Since the 1980´s plastic buoys have been operated successfully.
• There are a number of commercial companies offering plastic buoys.
• Most plastic is recyclable.
• Where plastic buoys are of modular construction, it is possible to change individual parts or segments if they
are damaged or need refurbishment.
• Large modular buoys are easier to transport and store, as parts can be disassembled for transport.
• The number of spare parts (whole buoys held) can be reduced.
• It is possible to encase a radar reflector within a plastic buoy’s superstructure.
DISADVANTAGES
• It is more difficult to change the colour of a plastic buoy, as conventional painting is not reliable for plastic
surfaces.
• Generally plastic buoys have a shorter lifetime than steel buoys.
• Plastic buoy components will be specific to each manufacturer and may therefore not be interchangeable.


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IALA GUIDELINE

Date Details Approval

December 1997 1st issue Council 18

December 2013 References to GUIDELINE 1040 deleted and Council 56

IALA Guideline G1006 – PLASTIC BUOYS

IALA Guideline G1006 – PLASTIC BUOYS

IALA Guideline G1006 – PLASTIC BUOYS

IALA Guideline G1006 – PLASTIC BUOYS

IALA Guideline G1006 – PLASTIC BUOYS

IALA Guideline G1006 – PLASTIC BUOYS

IALA Guideline G1006 – PLASTIC BUOYS

IALA Guideline G1006 – PLASTIC BUOYS

IALA Guideline G1006 – PLASTIC BUOYS

3. POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN EVALUATING PLASTIC BUOYS

IALA Guideline G1006 – PLASTIC BUOYS

IALA Guideline G1006 – PLASTIC BUOYS

IALA Guideline G1006 – PLASTIC BUOYS

A common plastic buoy may include the following metal parts:

IALA Guideline G1006 – PLASTIC BUOYS

• Painting (Figure 2, Figure 3)

Figure 6: Mounted plates

Figure 1: Plastic spray method

IALA Guideline G1006 – PLASTIC BUOYS

IALA Guideline G1006 – PLASTIC BUOYS

IALA Guideline G1006 – PLASTIC BUOYS

IALA Guideline G1006 – PLASTIC BUOYS

3.17. RECYCLING / DISPOSAL

Component Material Type Ease of Recycling Recycling Method

Polyurethane Foam Is to separate from the Plastics Recycling Depot

IALA Guideline G1006 – PLASTIC BUOYS

Polyethylene Resin Type Rotational Moulding process Extrusion process

IALA Guideline G1006 – PLASTIC BUOYS

4.3. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS WITH REGARD TO THE CONSTRUCTION OF

4.3.1. WALL THICKNESS

IALA Guideline G1006 – PLASTIC BUOYS

Figure 9: Polyurethane foam Figure 10: Polystyrene billets

4.3.6. ADHESION OF COLOUR OR FOILS FOR BUOY LETTERING

IALA Guideline G1006 – PLASTIC BUOYS

During the heating process, the plastic resin becomes

IALA Guideline G1006 – PLASTIC BUOYS

Figure 18: Metal lifting and mooring eyes

IALA Guideline G1006 – PLASTIC BUOYS

4.4.3.1. Manufacturing procedure of rotational moulded polyethylene plastic buoys,

Figure 19: Butt fusion welding

4.4.3.2. Typical spar- and conical buoys, rotational moulded, welded

Parameter big spar/conical middle spar/conical small spar/conical buoy

height over all (m) ≈6 ≈5-6 ≈2-5

IALA Guideline G1006 – PLASTIC BUOYS

Figure 22: Conical Figure 23: Spar

Figure 24: Conical buoy in light ice

IALA Guideline G1006 – PLASTIC BUOYS

Parameter Small spar Medium spar

Figure 25 and Figure 26

Figure 25: Spar Figure 26: Spar

IALA Guideline G1006 – PLASTIC BUOYS

4.4.4.1. Modular plastic buoys with complete plastic design

Figure 28: Exploded drawing

IALA Guideline G1006 – PLASTIC BUOYS