18986
18986
18986
Agata Guzik
2009-09-11
This dissertation is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science in Adaptive Architecture and Computation from University College London
Declaration
I, Agata Guzik , confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own.
Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this
has been indicated in the thesis
Declaration
Agata Guzik
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Digital fabrication inspired design. UCL
Influence of fabrication parameters on a design process. MSc AAC
Abstract:
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Digital fabrication inspired design. UCL
Influence of fabrication parameters on a design process. MSc AAC
Table of Contents
Declaration........................................................................................................................... 2
Abstract................................................................................................................................. 3
Table of contents............................................................................................................... 4
Table of figures................................................................................................................... 5
Chapter 1: Acknowledgements 6
Chapter 2: Introduction 7
Chapter 3: Background 12
Chapter 6: Discussion 48
Chapter 8: References 57
Chapter 9: Appendices 63
Table of contents
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Table of figures:
Figure 1: (a) The Weaire-Phelan structure (Drenckhan & Weaire, 2004) and (b) (c) Water Cube
Beijing (Ingenia, 2007). ............................................................................................................ 8
Figure 2: Greater London Authority by Foster and Partners (a) (Constructing Excellence, 2003)
............................................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 3: (a) 3-axis CNC milling machine (b) 5-axis vertical milling machine (Mahanoy, 2008).
............................................................................................................................................. 11
Figure 4: The programmed wall project by DFab Laboratory (Gramazio & Kohler, 2006). ...... 14
Figure 5: Facade Gantenbein Winery, Fläsch, (Switzerland (Gramazio & Kohler, 2006). ........ 15
Figure 6: The perforated wall 1 & 2 by DFab Laboratory (Gramazio & Kohler, 2006). ........... 17
Figure 7: Styrofoam moulds milled by multi-axis milling machine for construction of Zollhof
Towers (Afify & Elghaffar, 2007). .......................................................................................... 18
Figure 8: The implication on Instant House generative procedure (Botha & Sass, 2006). ...... 18
Figure 9: Genetic algorithm TSP optimisation (Saiko, 2005). ................................................. 22
Figure 10: Raster image and its 3d representation created by colour brightness analysis. .... 24
Figure 11: 3d raster image representation –Progress of a CNC milling fabrication process. .. 26
Figure 12: Two phases of 2,5-axis milling machine: (1) roughing, (2) finishing ...................... 28
Figure 13: Fabrication study model #2, (a-b) roughing cycle, (c) finishing cycle ..................... 30
Figure 14: Fabrication study model #1, (b) collision between machine's head and material . 31
Figure 15: (1) layer by layer material subtraction and (2) smoothing trajectory aligned to
model surface created by a basic sorting algorithm. ............................................................. 32
Figure 16: Fabrication study model #3, optimisation efficiency testing. ................................ 35
Figure 17: Tool paths and model surface in (1) roughing cycle and (2) smoothing cycle ......... 36
Figure 18: 5-axis vertical CNC milling machine parameters and elements ............................. 37
Figure 19: Form generation process using genetic algorithm. #1........................................... 41
Figure 20: Form generation process using genetic algorithm. #2........................................... 42
Figure 21: Tool path trajectory of an output code for 5-axis milling machine. ....................... 47
Table of figures
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Acknowledgements
I thank Richard Grimes for his help, knowledge and time spent with me in the
CAM Workshop.
I thank my parents for their love and support throughout my entire, never-
ending education. It would not be possible without you.
In addition, a thank you to all the friends from MSc AAC, especially Michał
Piasecki, Marilena Skavara, and Sahar Fikouhi. I’ve learned a lot from you and
could always count on your help.
Finally, I would like to thank my boyfriend Aleksy for his patience and love.
Chapter 1: Acknowledgements
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Introduction
Construction Design International and Arup. The building structure was based
on the Weaire–Phelan three-dimensional computational foam model, which
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uses two primary cells of equal volume and minimal surface to volume ratio.
Although this model was used as a base for the Water Cube structure, during
the design development the structure evolved into more structurally efficient
configuration, which in turn resulted in a greater amount of different building
elements increasing the complexity and cost of production.
Figure 1: (a) The Weaire-Phelan structure (Drenckhan & Weaire, 2004) and (b) (c) Water Cube
Beijing (Ingenia, 2007).
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Figure 2: Greater London Authority by Foster and Partners (a) (Constructing Excellence, 2003)
(b) (Oberholzer, 2006).
While the relation between fabrication parameters and designed objects has
been previously explored, their interdependence was typically limited to
integrating manufacturing constraints into the development of a form, as is
the case in the pre- and co-rationalised design approaches described above.
Considering the use of a particular digital fabrication method, this research
intends to look into the design-fabrication relation from a different angle and
to attempt to answer the question of how the manufacturing parameters can
be integrated in the design process to facilitate the design-to-production
communication. The design rationalisation parameters are meant to become
a driving force of a design within a generative procedure with embedded
fabrication logic. A generative design approach can potentially tie together
the two often distinct processes of form exploration and final form
machining. This thesis argues that the above is achievable through the
application of a simulation-based algorithm procedure derived from the
inherent logic of a fabrication machine's functionality.
For the purpose of this research, from the currently available digital
Chapter 2: Introduction
fabrication techniques, CNC milling was chosen for setting the framework for
the constraint-based simulation design procedure. Computer Numerically
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Controlled milling machines are the most accessible and widely used in
architectural and construction industries since they are capable to produce
complex highly differentiated building elements in a relatively simple and
cost effective process. Their basic principle is based on a numerically
controlled drilling process and, depending on the number of axis in a machine,
also turning of either the machine’s head or/and the milled material. CNC
machines are automatically controlled by programmed commands of
Numerical Control programming language, also called G-Code thanks to the
functions syntax. The NC program, apart from the general purpose machine’s
operation control functions, consists of additional commands related to the
overall machine’s actions - the so-called M-codes, which may differ in
structure for particular machine model and producer. Although the majority
of NC programs are created by CAM software, they can be also developed by
the programmers directly. Because the tool path planning difficulty increases
exponentially with the increased number of supported axis, the manual
programming is limited to three axis machines, which are the most commonly
used. They operate in three dimensions using X, Y, Z axis only, enabling
sculpting landscaped surfaces with depth variation in Z axis, but only the
higher dimensional machines are capable of cutting more complex geometry.
The research here described is divided into two separate, but equally
important phases, both of which are created with the use of and for
programming language Processing 1.0.1. At first, a vast exploration was
made on finding a way of converting any given geometry from the Application
Programming Interface into milling machine preparatory code, which would
then be exported from the programming environment directly to the machine
controllers. At this stage a custom-made library for Processing was
Chapter 2: Introduction
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planning and optimisation were taken into account and were applied by the
means of genetic algorithm. Subsequently, a generative simulation-based
design procedure was created with the procedural logic incorporated from
five axes CNC milling machine and, in particular, the one with three
transitional axis and two rotary ones attached to a tilting rotary table. The
principles implemented in the first stage of the research were further
developed in the second one and thereafter applied to a particular design
problem.
Figure 3: (a) 3-axis CNC milling machine (b) 5-axis vertical milling machine (Mahanoy, 2008).
Chapter 2: Introduction
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Background
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Figure 4: The programmed wall project by DFab Laboratory (Gramazio & Kohler, 2006).
In this project parametric tools were utilised for generating two by three
meters sized parametrically controlled wall designs composed of standard
Chapter 3: Background
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by the robot that is capable of reaching every point in a 3x3x8 meters space.
The design information was used to create the so-called informed
architecture, which is a result of directly linking design information with real
architectural artefacts. Creating such unique architectural elements has
become possible via creation of custom software and hardware tools for each
particular exercise. Firstly a design method in MAYA software scripting
environment was developed and secondly a post-processing script was
created for translation of the output CAD models into robot specific
procedural language. Also, a custom-made brick gripper robot’s extension
was built, which at further stages of the project was enhanced with a precise
adhesive automated adhesive depositing onto each brick. This method was
successfully adopted in a commercial architectural application for
constructing a Winery facade in Fläsch with total surface area of 400 sq
meters.
Figure 5: Facade Gantenbein Winery, Fläsch, (Switzerland (Gramazio & Kohler, 2006).
Except the already mentioned additive digital fabrication principles, two other
main types exist: subtractive and formative classified in respect of material
formation rules. The machines used typically for each of the distinct
Chapter 3: Background
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The selfsame robot used for constructing “The programmed wall” project’s
prototypes was also used in another study design instance conducted in
DFab Laboratory in ETH Zurich. Here in “The perforated wall”, in turn, the
subtractive method was implemented for creating full–scale perforated wall
components also developed with the aid of parametric software (Gramazio &
Kohler, 2008). Individual holes were defined by X and Y coordinates, radius
and two angles – one related to the wall’s mass material and another with
pivot point in the centre of each perforation. This approach, although limiting
the design expressions to manipulation of a single element, provided with a
wide variety of output forms. Yet the designs were purely based on visual
qualities and - at this stage of the project - no higher purpose of wall panels
such as shading or visual connectedness, was considered. The following
research led to load bearing properties testing of a fabricated concrete
perforated wall. Still, this property was not taken into account during the
process of generating perforation patterns and was only tested thereafter.
Chapter 3: Background
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Figure 6: The perforated wall 1 & 2 by DFab Laboratory (Gramazio & Kohler, 2006).
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Figure 7: Styrofoam moulds milled by multi-axis milling machine for construction of Zollhof
Towers (Afify & Elghaffar, 2007).
Chapter 3: Background
Figure 8: The implication on Instant House generative procedure (Botha & Sass, 2006).
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The projects of Instant House and Zollhof Towers present two ideological
extremes of the applications of digital fabrication in architecture – by either
taking advantage of it in order to facilitate customisation of low cost
buildings or by using it for materialisation of complex irrational forms – they
both require tailored program’s development. The bespoke programming
tools assist in facilitating the essential communication between computed
aided designs and materialisation facilities.
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makes it possible to analyse and export data based on any given geometry
(Carter et al., 2008). This feature available in more advanced graphic cards as
a two dimensional array can be easily accessed from graphics Application
programming interface (API). Therefore the depth buffer function was
selected to be further exploited for the development of the programming
environment described in following chapter of this thesis.
For the fabrication process to be efficient the generated tool trajectory often
requires subsequent optimisation to reduce redundant movements and the
thereby the cutting time. Shorter production process influences concurrently
the overall cost of the object and allow fabrication of greater number of
elements in the same time.
since the solution search time increases exponentially with the number of
nodes in the system. A great deal of publications and researches were
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Phase1 - Methodology
The initial phase of this study constitutes the study of the correlation
between a virtual model and a fabrication procedure of physical objects -
from two dimensional images to three dimensional object analysis. This
research phase has led to the development of a bespoke tool for exporting
procedural code from Processing programming environment in order to
directly execute the fabrication process of the designed objects on a CNC
milling machine. At the outset the G-Code language syntax and principles will
be introduced.
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Figure 10: Raster image and its 3d representation created by colour brightness analysis.
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The cut depth depends on material dimensions, as the brightness values are
brought into a range of material thickness value:
software.
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Figure 11: 3d raster image representation –Progress of a CNC milling fabrication process.
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Given
3d geometry
Orthographic projection
An array z-buffer[x,y]
begin
for each pixel (x,y) do {
calculate real values of z-buffer at (x,y)
calculate maximum value of z-buffer
if z-buffer[x,y] > max_buff then {
Object[x,y,z] = Vector (x,y,z_buffer[x,y])
}
}
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The differences between 2,5- and 3-axis milling machines lead to a distinct
treatment of tool path planning in both cases. The 2,5-axis machine is
capable of processing paths with simultaneous changes in only two from
three available axes, whereas 3-axis machines are able to coordinate all the
three axis at the same time. This characteristics results in different
smoothness levels achievable by both types of machines. In the first case
only the paths programmed in layers can be fabricated, the more complex
trajectories are applicable to 3- and above milling machines only. This
constraint is partially overcome by dividing the milling process into two
phases: rough material subtraction and final finishing. The initial cut is
executed with fixed Z axis, the detailed cut with fixed either X or Y axis.
However, complex circular and curved movements in three dimensions are
still inoperable, the manufactured models present adequate level of
accuracy.
Figure 12: Two phases of 2,5-axis milling machine: (1) roughing, (2) finishing
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From the two specified tools the first one – usually of a bigger diameter - is
used for the first phase of milling, when the material is extracted from the
workpiece leaving two tool diameters of offset from the actual model
surface. The second tool is used for the smoothing cycle, which usually
requires a smaller diameter for higher quality surface finish. If the second tool
is not specified, both milling phases are executed with the same tool. The
Chapter 4: Phase 1 – Initial Analysis
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Figure 13: Fabrication study model #2, (a-b) roughing cycle, (c) finishing cycle
Material characteristics are not taken into account automatically in the tool
path generation algorithm, since the spindle speed, maximum allowed cut
depth and feed rate parameters are closely related to specific material
features and machine capabilities. The specification of these parameters and
the offset height above material in z axis are left for manual adjustment
before the file is exported.
Chapter 4: Phase 1 – Initial Analysis
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Figure 14: Fabrication study model #1, (b) collision between machine's head and material .
Both P3D and OpenGL renderers available in Processing are supported by the
library. Relevant code sections demonstrating depth buffer handling in both
cases are presented in Appendix 3. It is worth mentioning that the depth
buffer readings forbid use of colour transparency and text fields in the scene,
as it may cause faulty readings of z-buffer. It is also required to use
orthographic projection to prevent processing of perspective distorted
geometry – otherwise the ortho function will be applied automatically by the
library without the possibility of control over projection shifting, as it occurs
in P3D renderer for example.
The tool path produced by the above described procedure exhibits some level
Chapter 4: Phase 1 – Initial Analysis
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Figure 15: (1) layer by layer material subtraction and (2) smoothing trajectory aligned to
model surface created by a basic sorting algorithm.
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closest vertex. Still the important requirement was to cut the higher Z values
in the first place. At first sight the output path exhibited a potential of a
shorter path being computed, as the machine was not extracting material
layer by layer - as it was happening in the previous optimisation procedure -
but this time was milling in some kind of clusters. Yet, the time
measurements did not confirm that first impression. A more advanced
algorithmic approach would therefore be imperative in order to generate
highly optimised accurate NC programmes.
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Phase1 - Results
The fabricated models served also as case study for the path
optimisation testing. Two NURBS surfaces were milled with different levels
of path optimisation. The first model was created with the basic algorithm
only, the second one with the addition of path optimisation cycle, calculated
over 4000 generations on a population of 20 individuals. The fitness function
improved by a factor of 12,5%, which resulted in only 1,5% of time gain, for
the first milling phase taken solely. Counting both cycles together the profit
in time is meagre for the genetic algorithm implementation with layer by
layer path planning.
Chapter 4: Phase 1 – Initial Analysis
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Figure 17: Tool paths and model surface in (1) roughing cycle and (2) smoothing cycle
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Phase 2 – Methodology
Figure 18: 5-axis vertical CNC milling machine parameters and elements
Chapter 5: Phase 2 – Design application
Evolving the three dimensional model handling precept, the algorithm was
further developed to incorporate two more rotary axes in the geometry
analysis procedure. At this stage of the research the analysis of any given
form became unnecessary. Here the importance was transferred to form
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exploration mainly, thus sustaining the identical principles for dealing with
geometry. Herein the depth buffer values are no longer stored only as
physical model vertexes, of which the negative form is to be milled, but the
actual readings determine which parts of a virtual black of material are
available for milling subtraction. However, these values are still used for
further physical model creation, but at the first stage of described procedure,
which is the form finding process, these readings are used primarily for
subtractive digital object generation. The design environment is set as a
virtual fabrication machine driven by a genetic algorithm based procedure.
The genetic algorithm is responsible for controlling the stage of form
designing, in which the fabrication optimisation parameters are taken into
account concurrently.
values are stored together with angles related to each particular projection.
The angular configuration of the model is here controlled by a genotype,
which is composed of two strings of values - referring to angle A and B. The
initial arrangement of angles comprises a set of random figures. These values
are to be further adjusted in order to fulfil the design’s form and
manufacturing objectives. Appropriate angles’ configuration and gradual
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Form finding process is divided into three separate stages. The first one
constitutes the virtual material initial subtraction. This process leads to the
overall object’s form determination. Secondly the smoothing cycle is
executed, to be then followed by the final model perforation phase. First two
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Lamp’s shape is based on a bezier curve which runs throughout the entire
height of the initial material block from and to middle points of the workpiece
side planes. Two control points’ positions are encoded in the genotype and
are the main subject of adjustment in the form finding process. Output
volume is created as a result of potential designs’ testing whether the given
curved shape, with specified offset in X and Y direction from the central cord,
created by the chosen control points’ locations, fits within the workpiece
size. This criterion constitutes the first form’s optimisation fitness function.
Another fitness objective mentioned above is the object’s stability. A centre
of mass is calculated and used as a second form’s evaluation criterion.
Shapes which centre of mass projects outside the base outline are discarded
being instable. Because of some machine’s constraints the internal well in
the object can only be created within a constrained outreach - limited to the
maximum tool length. This parameter is also crucial for the fabrication of all
the other parts of the model. Only the vertices reachable by tip of the drill
and not lying deeper than the tool’s length are processed in order to ensure
prevention of collisions during the fabrication process. In every analysed view
the maximum and minimum z buffer values are calculated:
Chapter 5: Phase 2 – Design application
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Only vertexes which Z value is included in tool length range are added to tool
path array:
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This stage of design results in a creation of form that fulfils the stated initial
requirements. The generated model is stored as a set of sorted tool path
vertices and workpiece rotational angles as the material removal fabrication
cycle is completed. Following procedure’s stage is based on the output form
from the first phase and its purpose is to treats and smooth out the given
rough model’s surface. Smoothing cycle is required for the form to become
even, so that the tool scratches can be minimised. So far in this design
procedure the 5-axis machine’s advantages were not put in use to the
Chapter 5: Phase 2 – Design application
maximum, because - although both angles were being adjusted in the same
time - the X, Y and Z axis played the most important role in model creation
and fabrication process. Smoothing cycle procedure is programmed with the
aim of linear axis movement minimisation in favour of the rotational axis
broader employment. Now only vertices positioned on the X axis can be
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The last stage of the design process is the deployment of perforations on the
object’s surface. The fitness function calculates the number of drills in
different angles compared to the model’s surface normal vectors. The need
of such a design element was included in the initial requirement of providing
high level of light diffusion. This parameter is measured by the aggregated
value of difference between drilled perforations’ axis and model’s normal
vectors measured in the drill access point on the surface. Another factor
which influences the light diffusion is the perforations’ distribution. It is
aimed to achieve maximum even distribution of holes on all sides of the
model. Random angles’ configuration from the first generation evolves
gradually into more evenly sequenced angles, which results in both better
primary model processing and fabrication and in the same time in more
uniform distribution of perforations. All the perforations are of the same
diameter, as only one tool is used for fabrication of this design phase, which
was purely a design decision.
The creation and implementation of this type of a bespoke design tool in real
life applications requires precise knowledge of preferred fabrication method
Chapter 5: Phase 2 – Design application
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is the structural system only, the production process of it might still need
adjustments and fabrication post-rationalisation. The described procedure
overcomes this problem, because only fully fabricatable objects can be
created, on the other hand it restricts the potential design possibilities.
Expanding Whitehead’s classification of design approaches, another
subcategory of so-called fab-rationalisation is introduced based on
presented approach to design process.
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Phase2 - Results
5.3.1 Output
On the current stage of the research the final procedure’s output was
tested in CNC Simulation software - particularly Predator Virtual CNC 2008
software was used. This decision was caused by limited access to the 5-axis
machine. The software proved to be crucial for the output file testing.
However, it is intended to build trial model on the purposed machine at an
early date. Broad machining options and parameters adjustability available in
Predator Virtual CNC software were corresponding with the predefined
machine’s options, and thus enabled the feasibility study model to be tested
only virtually at this stage. The physical prototypes of the previous research
phase fabricated on a 3-axis milling machine were also beforehand tested in
the CNC simulation software. It was required to test the default parameters
of layer thicknesses, tool diameters and generated tool path. Tool – model
collisions and surface smoothness outcome was also a test parameter. It
was proved that corresponding output was produced by both physical and
virtual models. Therefore it is assumed that the research second stage
design procedure’s end-product tested in simulation software will exhibit
similar correspondence with physically manufactured prototypes.
Chapter 5: Phase 2 – Design application
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Figure 21: Tool path trajectory of an output code for 5-axis milling machine.
closest vertex results in complex often scattered paths that do not follow
axial directions.
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Discussion
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The main focus of this thesis was to investigate the dependences and
possible influences of the two closely related elements of design process –
the form creation and fabrication stages – analysed in the light of digital
advances in both fields, namely the computer-aided design tools and digital
manufacturing. The assumption that the two still disconnected processes
could be linked together in a comprehensive design bespoke environment
was researched on the basis of two complementary studies. The first one
was designed to create a link between a designer-friendly parametric
language such as Processing and rapid prototyping techniques by creating a
user-oriented application for connecting the two. The interdependence of
both processes was the main subject of this study, therefore an
enhancement of a general purpose programming environment partially fulfils
the main objectives already and enables multiple users to take advantage of
it. The library however supports only 2,5 – axis machines, therefore the
attainable incorporation in architectural forms manufacturing is restrained to
panel-type elements or convex moulds. It can be also successfully utilised
for various non-architectural purposes and mere form exploration. On the
other side the G-Code export function, even though being very useful
presumably, does not influence the design process at any degree. The
assumption set out in the beginning of this research was the study of how
the digital fabrication characteristics can alter and enhance the design
process from the outset. Now then the library development stage did not
provide any valid answer to that problem, although its outcome provided an
indispensible starting point for creating the suitable scenario.
Diving into the subject it became clear that the mentioned programming
skills of architects should play the most important role in tying the entire
Chapter 6: Discussion
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The development of Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) also called the Visual
Processing Unit - which is a specialised graphics processor detached from
standard Computer Processing Unit - introduced major advances in computer
technology over the past decade (Boggan & Pressel, 2007). GPU became
responsible for performing complex three dimensional graphics rendering and
image rasterisation operations and thus discharged CPU from liability of
executing some highly demanding tasks. Lately programmable hardware
became widely exploited in manufacturing related disciplines, for instance
Roth et al. deployed an adaptive depth buffer method for multi-axial milling
machines as a solution to the CAD/CAM conversion problem and gained
substantial computation speed on calculating cutting forces (2003). In
evolutionary algorithms the most processor effort is dedicated to calculating
individual’s fitness function. Harding and Banzhaf present a solution for
significant increase in computational efficiency for calculating genetic
algorithm fitness function using Graphics Processing Unit (2007). By passing
on the major calculations from CPU to GPU it is possible to reduce the time
required for executing a single operation by hundreds of times.
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aptly fulfil the stated goals of this thesis, as it would evaluate the form
generation procedures rather than the output of them.
Chapter 6: Discussion
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Conclusion
From the analytical study a more design oriented attitude was adopted in the
second phase of the research. Created design tool accomplished the primary
research objective of joining all the design stages in one comprehensive
application. Stages from form generation through optimisation to fabrication
output file preparation were executed within single bespoke program. The
Chapter 7: Conclusion and further work
aim was not only to join the processes together but redefine their
interdependence on the design stage. Owing to implementation of real-time
simulation of fabrication state at any stage which is a counterpart of visual
object generation the interdependence was enhanced. Only forms that meet
manufacturing constraints full are manageable, therefore no post-
rationalisation procedures are required for the object to be materialised.
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Further work
Further development strategies exist for this research and include first of all
improvements of the generative procedure for form finding in the application.
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Digital fabrication inspired design. UCL
Influence of fabrication parameters on a design process. MSc AAC
Reference:
Boggan, S. & Pressel, D.M., 2007. GPUs: An Emerging Platform for General-
Purpose Computation. [Online] Available at:
http://www.arl.army.mil/arlreports/2007/ARL-SR-154.pdf [Accessed 27
August 2009].
Bonwetsch, T., Gramazio, F. & Kohler, M., 2006. The informed Wall: applying
additive digital fabrication techniques on architecture. In Synthetic
Landscapes, Proceedings of the 25th Annual Conference of the Association
for Computer-Aided Design in Architecture. Louisville, 2006.
Botha, M. & Sass, L.D., 2006. The instant House, Design and digital
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Carter, J.A., Tucker, T.M. & Kurfess, T.R., 2008. 3-Axis CNC Path Planning
Using Depth Buffer and Fragment Shader. [Online] CAD Solutions Available
at: http://www.cadanda.com/CAD_5_5__612-621.pdf [Accessed 27 August
2009].
Dorigo, M. & Gambardella, L.M., 1997. Ant colonies for the traveling
salesman problem. Bio Systems, (43), pp.73-81.
Drenckhan, W. & Weaire, D., 2004. Some confluences of art and science in the
physics of foams. [Online] Symmetry: Art and Science, Tihany Congress
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dScience.pdf [Accessed 3 September 2009].
Fischer, T., 2007. Rationalising bubble trusses for batch production. [Online]
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ersion=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=80aefa41caccd3cfb92 [Accessed
29 August 1009].
Gramazio, F. & Kohler, M., 2006. The Perforated Wall, ETH Zurich, 2006.
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2009].
Gramazio, F. & Kohler, M., 2006. The Programmed Wall, ETH Zurich, 2006.
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Hasan, M., Gavrilova, M.L. & Ro, J.G., 2007. A Geometric Approach to
Clearance Based Path Optimisation. In ICCSA 2007, LNCS 4705. Berlin
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Johnson, D.S. & McGeoch, L.A., 1990. The Traveling Salesman Problem: A
Case Study in Local Optimization. In Goos G, H.J., ed. ICALP ’90: proceedings
of the 17th international colloquium on automata, languages and
programming. London, 1990. Springer-Verlag.
Joy, K.I., 2008. On-Line Computer Graphics Notes: The depth-buffer visible
surface algorithm. [Online] Visualization and Graphics Research Group,
Department of Computer Science University of California, Davis Available at:
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Montemanni, R., Barta, J., Mastrolilli, M. & Gambard, L.M., 2007. Heuristic
algorithms for the robust traveling salesman problem with interval data.
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Roth, D., Ismail, F. & Bedi, S., 2003. Mechanistic modelling of the milling
process using an adaptive depth buffer. [Online]
(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TYR-
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=c&_searchStrId=997857252&_rerunOrigin=google&_acct=C000050221&_v
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F%2Fjava-traveling-salesman.googlecode.com%2Ffiles%2Ftsp-
documentation.pdf&ei=kX6oSpfBONefjAeGsejYBw&rct=j&q=travelling+sales
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bB [Accessed 3 September 2009].
:Chapter 8: References
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Appendix 1
G0 rapid positioning
G1 linear interpolation
G2 circular/helical interpolation (clockwise)
G3 circular/helical interpolation (c-clockwise)
G4 dwell
G10 coordinate system origin setting
G17 xy plane selection
G18 xz plane selection
G19 yz plane selection
G20 inch system selection
G21 millimetre system selection
G40 cancel cutter diameter compensation
G41 start cutter diameter compensation left
G42 start cutter diameter compensation right
G43 tool length offset (plus)
G49 cancel tool length offset
G53 motion in machine coordinate system
G54 use preset work coordinate system 1
G55 use preset work coordinate system 2
G56 use preset work coordinate system 3
G57 use preset work coordinate system 4
G58 use preset work coordinate system 5
Chapter 9: Appendices
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M8 flood coolant on
M9 mist and flood coolant off
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Appendix 2
N10 T2 M6 -
N20 G54 G90 S1500 M3
N30 G00 X10 Y10 Z10
N40 G01 Z-4
N50 X90
N60 X40 Y40
N70 X90 Y70
N80 X10
N90 G00 Z10
N80 G00 X10 Y0
Chapter 9: Appendices
N90 M30
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Appendix 3
P3D renderer:
depth_buffer = ((PGraphics3D)g).zbuffer;
depth_buffer1 = new float [depth_buffer.length];
float cameraZ = ((height/2.0) /tan(PI*60.0/360.0));
float near=-10
float far=10
OpenGL renderer:
}
}
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Chapter 9: Appendices
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Appendix 4
import PGCode3D.*;
G_code_export gc;
void setup()
{
size(100, 100, P3D); // both P3D and OpenGL are supported
gc = new G_code_export (this,6,3,”cnc_code_nowe”,200);
//T01 – 6mm, T02 – 3mm, material thickness – 20 cm
background(255);
stroke(255);
fill(0);
}
void draw()
{
ortho();
pushMatrix();
rotateY(PI/6);
rotateX(PI/6);
translate(width/2, height/2,-height/2);
box(30);
popMatrix();
Chapter 9: Appendices
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if(keyPressed){
gc.change_settings(5,3000,150,3);
// 5-offset above material, 3000 – spindle speed, 150 – feed rate, 3 – layer
thickness
gc.optimise_path(1000); //optimise throughout 1000 generation
gc.export(); //will println “generated” when the view analysis is completed
and “file written” for the complete export
exit();
}
}
Chapter 9: Appendices
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Appendix 5
Chapter 9: Appendices
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Appendix 6
Chapter 9: Appendices
71