Q1. What are the various entry methods for International Business?

Export
Exporting is the most traditional way of entering into International Business. Export can be
done in two ways:

1. Direct Export – Products are sold directly to buyers in target markets either through local
sales representatives or distributors. Sales representatives promote their company’s
products and do not take title to the merchandise. Distributors take ownership of the goods
(and the accompanying risk) and usually on-sell through wholesalers and retailers to end-
users.

Advantages of Direct Exports:

o Give a higher return on your investment than selling through an agent or distributor
o Allows the exporting company to set lower prices and be more competitive
o Gives the company a close contact with its customers

Disadvantages of Direct Exports:

o The company may not have the services of a foreign intermediary, so it may need more
time to become familiar with the market
o The customers or clients may take longer to get to know the company and its products,
and such familiarity is often important when doing business internationally

2. Indirect Export - Products are sold through intermediaries such as agents and trading
companies. Agents may represent one or more indirect exporters in return for commission
on sales.

Foreign direct Investment

FDI are investments made to acquire a lasting interest by a resident entity in one economy in an
enterprise resident in another economy. FDI has come to play a major role in the
internationalization of business. This has happened due to changes in technologies, improved
trade and investment policies of governments, regulatory environment in terms of liberalization
and easing of restrictions on foreign investments and acquisitions, and deregulation and
privatization of many industries.
Advantages:
o It can provide a firm with new markets and marketing channels, cheaper production
facilities, access to new technologies, capital process, products, organizational technologies
and management skills.
o FDI can provide a strong impetus to economic development of the host country. This is all
the more true when large MNCs enter developing nations through FDI.
o FDI allows companies to avoid foreign government pressure for local production.
o It allows making the move from domestic export sales to a locally based national sales office.
o Capability to increase total production capacity.

Depending on the industry sector and type of business, a foreign direct investment may be an
attractive and viable option. With rapid globalization of many industries and vertical integration
rapidly taking place on a global level, at a minimum a firm needs to keep abreast of global trends
in their industry. From a competitive standpoint, it is important to be aware of whether a
company’s competitors are expanding into a foreign market and how they are doing that. Often,
it becomes imperative to follow the expansion of key clients overseas if an active business
relationship is to be maintained.

New market access is also another major reason to invest in a foreign country. At some stage,
export of product or service reaches a critical mass of amount and cost where foreign production
or location begins to be more cost effective. Any decision on investing is thus a combination of a
number of key factors including:
o Assessment of internal resources
o Competitiveness
o Market Analysis
o Market expectations

Licensing
Licensing is a legal agreement between the owner of intellectual property such as a copyright,
patent or trademark and someone who wants to use that IP. The licensee pays “rent” to the
licensor for the use of an idea/product/process that is otherwise protected by IP law. Like a lease
on a building, the license is for a specific period of time. The licensee uses that
idea/product/process to sell products or services and earns money.
Advantages:
o Licensing appeals to prospective global players because it does not require large capital
investment not detailed involvement with foreign customers. By generating royalty income,
licensing provides an opportunity to exploit research and development already conducted.
After initial costs, the licensor can reap benefits until the end of license contract period.
o It reduces the risk of expropriation because the licensee is a local company that can provide
leverage against government action.
o Helps avoid host country regulations that are more prevalent in equity ventures.
o Provides a way of testing foreign markets without significant resources.
o Can be used as a preemption major in new market before the entry of competition.

Limitations:
o Limited form of market entry which does not guarantee a basis for expansion.
o Licensor may create more competition in exchange of royalty.

Franchising
Franchising involves granting of rights by a parent company to another (franchisee) to do
business in a prescribed manner. This right can take the form of selling the franchiser’s
products, using its name, production and marketing techniques or using its general business
approach.

It allows provides a network of interdependent business relationships that allows a number of

people to share:
o Brand identification
o Successful method of doing business
o Proven marketing and distribution system

Franchise agreement typically requires the payment of a fee upfront and then a percentage on
sales. In return, the franchiser provides assistance and at times may require the purchase of
goods or supplies to ensure the same quality of goods or services worldwide.
Franchising is adaptable to international arena and requires minor modification for the local
market. It can be beneficial to both groups. Franchiser has a new stream of income and the
franchisee gets time proven concept/product which can be quickly bought to the market.

Major Forms of Franchising:

- manufacturer-retailer system (e.g. car dealership)
- manufacturer-wholesaler system (e.g. soft-drink companies)
- service firm – retailer system (fast-food, hotel) e,g, McDonald’s, Burger King

Joint Ventures
A joint venture is an agreement involving two or more organizations that arrange to produce a
product or service through a collectively owned enterprise. It has been one of the most popular
way of entering a new market.

Typically, it is a 50-50 joint venture in which each of the party holds 50% ownership stake and
contributes a team of managers to share operating control. At times, this stake can be a majority
one so as to ensure tighter control.

Advantages:
o Domestic company brings in the knowledge of the domestic market.
o The risk is divided between joint-venture partners.
o Normally, foreign partner has an option to sell its stake in the venture to another entity.

Limitations:
o Limited control over business approach for foreign entity.
o Profits have to be shared.
e.g. Danone-Brittania, Hero Honda, Maruti Suzuki

Wholly Owned Subsidiaries

In a wholly owned subsidiary, the company owns 100% of the equity. Establishing a wholly
owned subsidiary in a foreign market can be done in 2 ways:
1. Set up of new operation
2. Acquisition of established firm.
WOS allows a foreign firm complete control and freedom to execute its business strategy in the
foreign country. This freedom is accompanied by a greater risk due to lack of knowledge of the
market. Acquisition of an established company can reduce this risk to an extent.

Q2. Influence of PEST Factors on International Business

Any business is affected by its external environment. The major macroeconomic factors in the
external environment that affect the business are political, environmental, social and
technological.
A. Political Environment
The political environment of a country greatly influences the business operating in those
countries or business trading with those countries. The success and growth of international
business depends on the stable, collaborative, conducive and secure political system in the
country.
The following factors affect the political environment in a country.
1. Tax Policy: The tax policy of a country affects the profitability of the business there. The
Corporate Taxation laws affect the profitability directly. The direct taxation laws also
affect the business because it influences consumer spending. The structure of indirect
taxation in a country like its excise duty structure, customs and sales tax greatly affects
the input costs of a business.
For e.g. Countries like UAE have very low direct taxation levels inducing great spending and
hence trading and marketing based business are successful. But due to very high indirect
taxation levels the manufacturing business is not very successful.
2. Government support: One of the most important political factor is the Government
support to international businesses. Business can be successful only if the local
government provides support in terms o infrastructure, license clearing if required,
transparent policy and quick dispute resolution mechanism. Also the nature of the
political system i.e. democracy, communism etc. in the country influences the
Government support.
For e.g. the RBI has provided single window clearance for FDI and hence has greatly increased
the FDI levels in our country.
3. Labor Laws: the labor laws in a country affect the viability of a business in that country.
The pension laws also play a critical role especially in cross border acquisitions. Many
businesses had to be withdrawn or closed because of the labor unrest in the country.
For e.g.: Withdrawal of Premier Automobiles due to union strikes in our country.
The problems faced by doctors and nurses in UK due to the restrictive laws in that country.
4. Environmental policy: The countries environmental policy (under the Kyoto Protocol or
otherwise) affects many business like chemicals, refineries and heavy engineering.
5. Tariffs and duty structure: The level of duties and tariffs that are imposed by the
country influence its imports and exports greatly. Some countries follow a protectionist
policy to the domestic industry by raising import barriers For e.g. India in the pre
liberalization era, Russia.
6. Political stability and political milieu: Political stability greatly affects the longevity of
the businesses in a country. Political risk assessment should be done to determine the
country risk on the basis of following parameters :
a. Confiscation: the nationalization of businesses without compensation. For e.g. India
during the nationalist wave during Indira Gandhi’s tenure.
b. Nationalization: Resource nationalization is a major risk for businesses involving
local resources like oil, minerals etc. For e.g. the resource nationalization in
Columbia.
c. Instability risk: The possibility of military takeovers or huge government changes.
For e.g. the coups in Thailand or in Fiji has affected the profits of businesses there by
as much as 60% due to work stoppage and property destruction.
d. Domestication: The global company relinquishing control in favor of domestic
investors. For e.g. Barclays bank in South Africa
B. Economic factors
The economic factors in a country greatly influence the business in that country. The following
factors are important in the macroeconomic environment.
1. Economic system: the economic system in a country i.e. capitalism/ communism/ mixed
economy (India) is important for deciding the nature of the businesses. The nature of the
system decides the allocation of resources. Due to globalization there is a gradual shift
toward market forces to allocate resources even in the communist countries like China.
2. Interest rates: The interest rates in the country affect the cost of capital (if raised locally)
and the operational costs. Interest rates also determine the confidence of the
Government in the economy and consumer spending.
3. Exchange rates: The exchange rates affect international trade and capital inflows in the
country.
4. Income levels and spending pattern : Though it is more of a demographic parameter has
is very important bearing on the sell side of all international businesses. For e.g. In a
 country like India, with rising aspirer population there is a market opportunity for
products like IPod (considered luxury items till now)
C. Social factors
Businesses are driven by people both as human capital and as consumers. It is necessary for an
international businessman to understand the social and cultural aspects of the country they
operate in. The following are the important social factors.
1. Age distribution: the age distribution of the population is important to consider the
consumption patterns in the markets. Age distribution also determines the mindset of
the market and helps segmentation of the market accordingly. It also has a bearing on
the employee quality. A young population also determines a workforce.
2. Family system: the family system has a bearing on the decision makers in consumption.
For e.g. in Islamic countries women have a less say in making consumption decisions. In
emerging economies like India children are gaining important role in consumption. This
helps in positioning of products.
3. Cultural aspects: The cultural aspects influence the way the business is conducted in
countries. In Japan there is a different way in which contracts are signed and executed.
In Russia being a communist oriented mindset the business is conducted in a closed
manner. Italians have a seemingly lazy way of doing business and hence it is very
difficult to conduct business in the pacy US way.
4. Career attitudes: the career attitude of the workforce is important social aspect.
D. Technological Factors
Technology has a very important role to play in determining the success of international
businesses because technology has made international business possible. The following are the
technological factors that influence the business.
1. R&D: the support that the Government gives to R&D encourages setting up R&D business
levels. Also the ease of a qualified local workforce influence business. For e.g. the
semiconductor industry in Taiwan
2. Technology transfer: The ease of technology transfer influences the business climate. The
environment where the technology transfer is not viable gradually loses out on business
from emerging countries that seek technology transfers. For e.g. in the early 40s countries
like Czechoslovakia (the Czech Republic) was a very technologically advanced country but
had very low business interest due to the less chances of technology transfers. For e.g. GE
withdrew operations from a JV as there as they could not access local expertise)
Q3. Trade Theories

1. Classical Country-Based Theories

1.1. Mercantilism (pre-16th century)
 This theory takes an “us-versus-them” view of trade; other country’s gain is our country’s
loss.
 Neo-mercantilism views persist today.
 A nation’s wealth depends on accumulated treasure.
 Theory says you should have a trade surplus.
Maximize exports through subsidies.
Minimize imports through tariffs and quotas.
 Flaw: “Zero-sum game”.
Mercantilism- Zero-Sum Game
 In 1752, David Hume pointed out that:
Increased exports lead to inflation and higher prices
Increased imports lead to lower prices
Result: Country A sells less because of high prices and Country B sells
more because of lower prices
In the long run, no one can keep a trade surplus
 1.2. Free Trade supporting theories
This theory shows that specialization of production and free flow of goods grow all trading
partners’ economies
1.2.1. Absolute Advantage (Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, 1776)
 Mercantilism weakens a country in the long run and enriches only a few segments; it
robs individuals of the ability to trade freely.
 Adam Smith claimed market forces, not government controls, should
determine the direction, volume and composition of international trade.
 Under free (unregulated) trade each nation should specialize in producing those goods it
could produce most efficiently.
 This theory states that a country is capable of producing more of a good with the same
input than another country. Hence, a country should specialize in and export products
for which it has absolute advantage; import others.
 A country has absolute advantage - either natural or acquired when it is more
productive than another country in producing a particular product.
 Trade between countries is, therefore, beneficial.
Assume that there are just two countries in the world, the India and Japan.  Pretend also that
they produce only two goods, shoes and shirts.  The resources of both countries can be used to
produce either shoes or shirts.  Both countries make both products, spending half of their
working hours on each.  But India makes more shoes than shirts, and Japan makes more shirts
than shoes. 
TABLE A
Shoes Shirts
India 100 75
Japan 80 100
Total 180 175
What will happen when each country specializes and spends all its working hours making one
product?  It will make twice as much of that product and none of the other, as shown in Table B.
TABLE B
Shoes Shirts
India 200 0
Japan 0 200
Total 200 200
The world now has both more shoes and more shirts.  India can trade 100 units of shoes for 100
units of shirts, and both countries will benefit.
In this example, India could make more shoes than Japan with the same resources.  It has an
absolute advantage at shoemaking.  Japan, on the other hand, had an absolute advantage at
shirt making.
Assumptions:
 Perfect competition and no transportation costs in a world of two countries and two
products
 One unit of input (combination of land, labor, and capital)
 Each nation has two input units it can use to produce either rice or automobiles
 Each country uses one unit of input to produce each product

1.2.2. Comparative Advantage (David Ricardo, Principals of Political

Economy, 1817) – Also known as Opportunity Cost Theory
 David Ricardo, in his theory of comparative costs, suggested that countries will specialize
and trade in goods and services in which they have a comparative advantage.
 A country has a comparative advantage in the production of a good or service that it
produces at a lower opportunity cost than its trading partners.
 The theory of comparative costs argues that, put simply, it is better for a country that is
inefficient at producing a good to specialize in the production of that good it is least
inefficient at, compared with producing other goods.
Now suppose one country has an absolute advantage in both products.  Table C shows what
production might be like if India had an absolute advantage at making both shoes and shirts.
TABLE C
Shoes Shirts
India 100 80
China 80 75
Total 180 155

In this case, the India can produce more of each good with the same set of resources than China
can. The India could produce either 200 units of shoes or 160 units of shirts. China could
produce either 160 units of shoes or 150 units of shirts. If the India produces only shoes, it gives
up 80 units of shirts to gain 100 units of shoes. If China produces only shoes, it gives up 75 units
of shirts to gain 80 units of shoes. For India, the opportunity cost of producing shirts is higher
and the opportunity cost of producing shoes is lower; vice-versa for China. Hence, India has a
comparative advantage in shoemaking and China has a comparative advantage in shirt
making. 
Table D shows what happens when each country specializes in the product in which it has a
comparative advantage.
TABLE D
Shoes Shirts
India 200 0
China 0 150
Total 200 150

By specializing in this way, the India and China have increased the production of shoes by
twenty units over what they produced before, from 180 to 200. But the world has lost five units
of shirts, going from 155 to 150. 
Production in the India could be adjusted to make up the difference. For example, if the India
gave up 10 units of shoes, it could produce 8 units of shirts.  Table E shows the results of such a
tradeoff.
TABLE E
Shoes Shirts
India 190 8
China 0 150
Total 190 158

In this way, the total production of both goods could be increased.

For India, the opportunity cost of choosing to produce 80 units of shirts was the 100 units of
shoes that could have been produced with the same resources.  In the like manner, China's
opportunity cost of producing 80 units of shoes was 75 units of shirts. 
In the terms of trade each reduce each country's opportunity cost of acquiring the good traded
for, trade will take place.  In this example, China will not accept fewer than 80 units of shoes for
75 units of shirts and the India will not pay more than 100 units of shoes for 80 units of shirts.  
Both countries must benefit for trade to occur.
The real world is much more complex than this two-country, two-product mode. Trade involves
many different countries and products. And it is not always clear where a country's comparative
advantage lies.
Summary
 Country should specialize in the production of those goods in which it is relatively more
productive, even if it has absolute advantage in all goods it produces.
 This extends free trade argument.
 Efficiency of resource utilization leads to more productivity.
 1.3. Free Trade refined
1.3.1. Factor-proportions (Heckscher-Ohlin, 1919)
 Eli Heckscher and Bertil Ohlin developed the theory of relative factor endowments,
now often referred to as the Heckscher-Ohlin theory. The theory states that the pattern
of international trade depends on differences in factor endowments not on differences in
productivity.
 Relative endowments of the factors of production (land, labour, and capital) determine a
country's comparative advantage.
 Countries have comparative advantage in those goods for which the required factors of
production are relatively abundant. This is because the prices of goods are ultimately
determined by the prices of their inputs.
 Goods that require inputs that are locally abundant will be cheaper to produce than
those goods that require inputs that are locally scarce.

For example, a country where capital and land are abundant but labour is scarce will have
comparative advantage in goods that require lots of capital and land, but little labour - grains,
for example.

Since capital and land are abundant, their prices will be low. Those low prices will ensure that
the price of the grain that they are used to produce will also be low - and thus attractive for both
local consumption and export.

Labor intensive goods on the other hand will be very expensive to produce since labor is scarce
and its price is high. Therefore, the country is better off importing those goods.
Summary
 Factor endowments vary among countries
 Products differ according to the types of factors that they need as inputs
 A country has a comparative advantage in producing products that intensively use
factors of production (resources) it has in abundance

Assumptions
 A given technology was universally available.
 Relative factor endowments are different in each country
 Tastes and preferences are identical in both countries
  A given product was either labor- or capital-intensive
 The theory ignored transportation costs.

1.3.2. Product Life Cycle (Ray Vernon, 1966)

 As products mature, both location of sales and optimal production changes
 Affects the direction and flow of imports and exports
 Globalization and integration of the economy makes this theory less valid

Classic Theory Limitations:

All the classical theories are based on the following assumptions that no longer hold true –
 Simple world (two countries, two products)
 No transportation costs
 No price differences in resources
 Resources immobile across countries
 Constant returns to scale
 Each country has a fixed stock of resources & no efficiency gains in resource use from
trade
 Full employment

2. Modern Trade Theory

In industries with high fixed costs:

 Specialization increases output, and the ability to enhance economies of scale increases
 Learning effects are high.
 These are cost savings that come from “learning by doing”

New Trade Theory-Applications

 Typically, requires industries with high, fixed costs
o World demand will support few competitors
o Competitors may emerge because of “ First-mover advantage”
 Economies of scale may preclude new entrants
o Role of the government becomes significant
 Some argue that it generates government intervention and strategic trade policy
Theory of National Competitive Advantage
 The theory attempts to analyze the reasons for a nation’s success in a particular industry
 Porter studied 100 industries in 10 nations
- Postulated determinants of competitive advantage of a nation were based on four
major attributes
 Factor endowments
 Demand conditions
 Related and supporting industries
 Firm strategy, structure and rivalry

Factor endowments: A nation’s position in factors of production such as skilled labor or

infrastructure necessary to compete in a given industry
 Basic factor endowments
 Advanced factor endowments
Basic Factor Endowments
 Basic factors: Factors present in a country
- Natural resources
- Climate
- Geographic location
- Demographics
 While basic factors can provide an initial advantage they must be supported by
advanced factors to maintain success
Advanced Factor Endowments
  Advanced factors: The result of investment by people, companies, and
government are more likely to lead to competitive advantage
 If a country has no basic factors, it must invest in advanced factors
- Communications
- Skilled labor
- Research
- Technology
- Education
Porter’s Theory-Predictions
 Porter’s theory should predict the pattern of international trade that we observe in the
real world.
 Countries should be exporting products from those industries where all four components
of the diamond are favorable, while importing in those areas where the components are
not favorable
3. Other Theories:
3.1. The productivity theory by H. Myind
 It is criticized that the comparative cost theories are not applicable to developing
countries. Hence, H. Myint proposed productivity theory and the vent for surplus theory.
 The productivity theory points toward indirect and direct benefits. This theory
emphasizes that the process of specialization involves adapting and reshaping the
production structure of a trading country to meet the export demands.
 Countries increase productivity in order to utilize the gains of exports. This theory
encourages the developing countries to go for cash crops, increase productivity by
enhancing the efficiency of human resources, adapting latest technology etc.
Limitations:
 Labor productivity did not increase after certain level
 Increase in working hours
 Increase in proportion of gainfully employed labour in proportion to disguised
unemployed labour

3.2.The vent for surplus theory

 International trade absorbs the output of unemployed factors.
  If the countries produce more than the domestic requirements, they have to export the
surplus to other countries. Otherwise, a part of the productive labour of the country must
cease and the value of its annual Produce diminishes.
 In the absence of foreign trade, they would be surplus productive capacity in the country.
This surplus productive capacity is taken by another country and in turn gives the benefit
under international trade.
Appropriateness of this Theory for Developing Countries:
 According to this theory, the factors of production of developing countries are fully
utilized.
 The unemployed labour of the developing countries is profitably employed when the vent
for surplus is exported.

3.3.Mills’ theory of reciprocal demand

 Comparative cost advantage theories do not explain the ratios at which commodities are
exchanged for one another. J.S. Mill introduced the concept of ‘reciprocal demand’ to
explain the determinations of the equilibrium terms of trade.
 Reciprocal demand indicates a country’s demand for one commodity in terms of the
other commodity; it is prepared to give up in exchange. It determines the terms of trade
and relative share of each country.
Equilibrium:
Quality of a product exported by country A = Quality of another product exported by country B
Assumptions:
 Existence of two countries
 Trade in only two goods – both the goods are produced under the law of constant returns
 Absence of transportation Costs.
 Existence of perfect competition
 Existence of full employment

Q4. Ten reasons why FDI happens

1. Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) as defined in the BOP Manual, are investments made to
acquire a lasting interest by a resident entity in one economy in an enterprise resident in
another economy. The purpose of the investor is to have a significant influence, an effective
 voice in the management of the enterprise. The definition of the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD) which considers as direct investment enterprise an
incorporated or unincorporated enterprise in which a direct investor who is resident in
another economy owns ten percent or more of the ordinary shares or voting power (for
incorporated enterprise) or the equivalent (for an unincorporated enterprise).
2. It provides a firm with new markets and marketing channels, cheaper production facilities,
access to new technology, products, skills and financing. For a host country or the foreign
firm which receives the investment, it can provide a source of new technologies, capital,
processes, products, organizational technologies and management skills, and as such can
provide a strong impetus to economic development.
3. FDI inflows are considered as channels of entrepreneurship, technology, management skills,
and of resources that are scarce in developing countries. Hence, they could help their host
countries in their industrialization.
4. For small and medium sized companies, FDI represents an opportunity to become more
actively involved in international business activities. In the past 15 years, the classic
definition of FDI as noted above has changed considerably, over 2/3 of direct foreign
investment is still made in the form of fixtures, machinery, equipment and buildings.
5. FDI is viewed as a basis for going “global”. FDI allows companies to accomplish following
tasks:
 Avoiding foreign government pressure for local production
 Circumventing trade barriers, hidden and otherwise
 Making the move from domestic export sales to a locally-based national sales office
 Capability to increase total production capacity.
 Opportunities for co-production, joint ventures with local partners, joint marketing
arrangements, licensing, etc
6. Foreign direct investment is viewed as a way of increasing the efficiency with which the
world's scarce resources are used. A recent and specific example is the perceived role of FDI
in efforts to stimulate economic growth in many of the world's poorest countries. Partly this
is because of the expected continued decline in the role of development assistance (on which
these countries have traditionally relied heavily), and the resulting search for alternative
sources of foreign capital.
7. FDI enables the firm owns assets to be profitably exploited on a comparatively large scale,
including intellectual property (such as technology and brand names), organizational and
managerial skills, and marketing networks. And it is more profitable for the production
 utilizing these assets to take place in different countries than to produce in and export from
the home country exclusively.
8. FDI may result in a greater diffusion of know-how than other ways of serving the market.
While imports of high-technology products, as well as the purchase or licensing of foreign
technology, are important channels for the international diffusion of technology, FDI
provides more scope for spillovers. For example, the technology and productivity of local
firms may improve as foreign firms enter the market and demonstrate new technologies, and
new modes of organization and distribution, provide technical assistance to their local
suppliers and customers, and train workers and managers who may later be employed by
local firms.
9. FDI increases employment in host country. Inflows of FDI also increase the amount of
capital in the host country. Even with skill levels and technology constant, this will either
raise labor productivity and wages, allow more people to be employed at the same level of
wages, or result in some combination of the two.
10. Proponents of foreign investment point out that the exchange of investment flows benefits
both the home country (the country from which the investment originates) and the host
country (the destination of the investment). Opponents of FDI note that multinational
conglomerates are able to wield great power over smaller and weaker economies and can
drive out much local competition. The truth might lie somewhere in between but they surely
become reasons for companies to invest in foreign markets.

Q5. WTO Rounds wrt India

The WTO came into being on January 1, 1995, and is the successor to the General Agreement on
Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which was created in 1948. India was one of the 76 countries that
signed the accession to the WTO and is one of the founder members of the WTO.

Trade implications of signing the WTO for India:

The implications of signing the WTO agreement for Indian trade have been mixed. India has
benefited in the areas of garment exports, agricultural products exports and in market access to
foreign markets in automobiles and electronics. India has a disadvantage mainly in areas of
TRIPs, drug prices, patents in agriculture, TIS ( trade in services ) and TRIMS especially in
biomedical areas, AoA export subsidies etc.
Benefits:
1. Garment exports: The Multi Fiber Arrangement (MFA) that required Indian garment
exporters to have quotas for exporting to developed countries was phased out in 2005. The
readymade garment exports from India has reached Rs 800 crores in 2007 and expected to
reach Rs 1000 crores in 2008. This is thrice the exports in 2004-05.
2. Market access: as a signatory to the WTO India automatically gets the MFN ( most favored
nation ) status. This gives India access to markets in Europe and US in sectors like
automobiles and engineering. India also benefits from the clauses related to trade without
discrimination and benefit from capital good exports.
3. Anti Dumping measures: India suffered from persistent dumping by Romanian and
Russian steel majors in the areas of steel casings, pipes affecting Indian domestic industry
greatly. Also India suffered from dumping by Chinese steel industry. The anti dumping
provisions and countervailing duties lend security to India’s domestic industries.
4. The Agreement on Agriculture : the AoA stipulates that the developed countries will reduce
tariffs on agriculture imports (up to 35%) thus helping India’s agriculture exports. It also
promises reduction of domestic subsidies in the developed countries helping exports from
India.
5. Competitive advantage: India has competitive advantage in the areas of merchandise trade.
India can utilize its competitive advantage in processing, beverages, gems and jeweler
compared to the traditional centers in Europe like Amsterdam or Manchester etc increasing
its trade with both the Euro region and the US.

Disadvantages:
1. TRIPS: the Indian Patent Act is not compatible with the TRIPS agreement under the WTO.
The Indian Patent Act allows only process patents in areas of foods, chemicals and
medicines. Under the TRIPS the IPA will have to modify to allow product patents also. Also
products developed outside India can claim international patents applicable to India. This
will hurt our agriculture foods. E.g. the Alphanso mango and the Basmati strand
controversy.
2. Drug prices: the granting of the product patents in India will hurt the Indian generic drugs
industry and benefit the foreign pharma companies that own the formulation patents. This
will lead to increase in drug prices in India. (This resulted in regulatory intervention in the
recent budget in life saving drugs) e.g. the Pfizer controversy
3. Genetics: Indian seed and genetic research organizations are Government funded and will
not be able to compete with the MNCs like Montessanto etc that have economies of scale.
 This will increase seed prices for Indian farmers and also lend our genetic resources to the
MNCs
4. Services: the opening up of the banking sector in 2009 will affect Indian banks due to the
foreign banks with huge balance sheets.
5. TRIMS: the Trade Related Investment Measures resulted in problems in trade in investment
issues like transit charges, formalities etc. together called as Singapore issues. Indian
companies would have to lose in the differential charges that are applied. These issues were
dropped in the Chachun ministerial conferences.
6. Anti dumping: the anti dumping rules were imposed on Indian linen in EU. Similarly Indian
textiles faced anti dumping regulations in US. There is no mechanism to resolve anti
dumping duties issues.
India’s stand in the Doha round and the following ministerial conferences:
1. Doha round: The Doha Development Round commenced at Doha, Qatar in November
2001 and is still continuing. Its objective is to lower trade barriers around the world,
permitting free trade between countries of varying prosperity. As of 2008, talks have stalled
over a divide between the developed nations led by the European Union, the United States
and Japan and the major developing countries (represented by the G20 developing nations),
led and represented mainly by India, Brazil, China and South Africa.
Issues: Singapore issues: the issues related to the trade facilitation and differential charges in
investment vehicles affected Indian investment and venture companies. This affected the Indian
services.
Agricultural subsidies: the EU, US and Japan support domestic agriculture by subsides. This
was opposed by countries like India and Brazil.
2. Cancun conference 2003 :
The objective of this conference was to forge the agreement discussed in Doha.
Issues: market access to foreign markets. This agreement on market access for the developing
countries in capital and industrial goods increased strength of G20 countries.
India benefited greatly in the capital goods export.
The Singapore issues were resolved that resulted in removing the undue advantage for countries
like US and Japan in investment arena. This also benefited the Indian financial sector
internationally.
3. Geneva 2004: In Geneva conference the developed nations reduced subsidiaries on
manufactured goods. This resulted in Indian small manufacturers like steel forging, casting
to export largely and benefit from the construction boom in US.
4. Paris 2005: France reduced subsidies on farm products. However US and Japan did not
relent.
Hong Kong 2006 and Potsdam 2007 talks failed in resolving the farm subsidies. So the recent
rounds are in a stalemate situation from India’s point of view.

Q6. Discuss NAFTA/ EU/ ASEAN/ SAARC/ MERCUSOR

Mercosur
Mercosur is a regional trade agreement among Argentina, Brazil ,Paraguay & Uruguay founded
in 1991 by the Treaty of Asunción, which was later amended and updated by the 1994 Treaty of
Ouro Preto. Its purpose is to promote free trade and the fluid movement of goods, people, and
currency. Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru currently have associate member status.
Venezuela signed a membership agreement on 17 June 2006, but before becoming a full
member its entry has to be ratified by the Paraguayan and the Brazilian parliaments.
The bloc comprises a population of more than 263 million people, and the combined Gross
Domestic Product of the full-member nations is in excess of US$2.78 trillion a year (Purchasing
power parity, PPP) according to International Monetary Fund (IMF) numbers, making
Mercosur the fifth largest economy in the World.
Objectives of MERCOSUR
 Free transit of production goods, services and factors between the member states with inter
alia, the elimination of customs rights and lifting of nontariff restrictions on the transit of
goods or any other measures with similar effects;
 Fixing of a common external tariff (TEC) and adopting of a common trade policy with regard
to nonmember states or groups of states, and the coordination of positions in regional and
international commercial and economic meetings;
 Coordination of macroeconomic and sectorial policies of member states relating to foreign
trade, agriculture, industry, taxes, monetary system, exchange and capital, services, customs,
transport and communications, and any others they may agree on, in order to ensure free
competition between member states; and
 The commitment by the member states to make the necessary adjustments to their laws in
pertinent areas to allow for the strengthening of the integration process. The Asuncion
Treaty is based on the doctrine of the reciprocal rights and obligations of the member states.
MERCOSUR initially targeted free-trade zones, then customs unification and, finally, a common
market, where in addition to customs unification the free movement of manpower and capital
across the member nations' international frontiers is possible, and depends on equal rights and
duties being granted to all signatory countries. During the transition period, as a result of the
chronological differences in actual implementation of trade liberalization by the member states,
the rights and obligations of each party will initially be equivalent but not necessarily equal. In
addition to the reciprocity doctrine, the Asuncion Treaty also contains provisions regarding the
most-favored nation concept, according to which the member nations undertake to
automatically extend--after actual formation of the common market--to the other Treaty
signatories any advantage, favor, entitlement, immunity or privilege granted to a product
originating from or intended for countries that are not party to ALADI.
SAARC

The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is an economic and political
organization of eight countries in Southern Asia. It was established on December 8, 1985 by
India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Maldives and Bhutan. In April 2007, at the
Association's 14th summit, Afghanistan became its eighth member.Sheelkant Sharma is the
current secretary & Mahinda Rajapaksa is the current chairman of SAARC which is
headquartered at Kathmandu.

Objectives of SAARC:
 to promote the welfare of the peoples of South Asia and to improve their quality of life;
 to accelerate economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region
and to provide all individuals the opportunity to live in dignity and to realize their full
potential;
 to promote and strengthen collective self-reliance among the countries of South Asia;
 to contribute to mutual trust, understanding and appreciation of one another's
problems;
 to promote active collaboration and mutual assistance in the economic, social, cultural,
technical and scientific fields;
 to strengthen cooperation with other developing countries;
 to strengthen cooperation among themselves in international forums on matters of
common interest; and
 to cooperate with international and regional organizations with similar aims and
purposes.
Free Trade Agreement
Over the years, the SAARC members have expressed their unwillingness on signing a free trade
agreement. Though India has several trade pacts with Maldives, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka,
similar trade agreements with Pakistan and Bangladesh have been stalled due to political and
economic concerns on both sides. India has been constructing a barrier across its borders with
Bangladesh and Pakistan. In 1993, SAARC countries signed an agreement to gradually lower
tariffs within the region, in Dhaka. Eleven years later, at the 12th SAARC Summit at Islamabad,
SAARC countries devised the South Asia Free Trade Agreement which created a framework for
the establishment of a free trade area covering 1.4 billion people. This agreement went into force
on January 1, 2006. Under this agreement, SAARC members will bring their duties down to 20
per cent by 2007.
The last summit (15th) was held in Colombo where four major agreements - the SAARC
development fund, the establishment of a SAARC standard organization, the SAARC convention
on mutual legal assistance in criminal matters, and the protocol on Afghanistan's admission to
the South Asia Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA) were adopted with emphasis on region-wide
food security.
NAFTA

The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is a trilateral trade bloc in North America
created by the governments of the United States, Canada, and Mexico. In terms of combined
purchasing power parity GDP of its members, as of 2007 the trade bloc is the largest in the
world and second largest by nominal GDP comparison. It also is one of the most powerful, wide-
reaching treaties in the world.

The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) has two supplements, the North American
Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC) and the North American Agreement on
Labor Cooperation (NAALC).
Implementation of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) began on January 1,
1994. This agreement will remove most barriers to trade and investment among the United
States, Canada, and Mexico.
Under the NAFTA, all non-tariff barriers to agricultural trade between the United States and
Mexico were eliminated. In addition, many tariffs were eliminated immediately, with others
being phased out over periods of 5 to 15 years.  This allowed for an orderly adjustment to free
trade with Mexico, with full implementation beginning January 1, 2008. 
The agricultural provisions of the U.S.-Canada Free Trade Agreement, in effect since 1989, were
incorporated into the NAFTA. Under these provisions, all tariffs affecting agricultural trade
between the United States and Canada, with a few exceptions for items covered by tariff-rate
quotas, were removed by January 1, 1998.
Mexico and Canada reached a separate bilateral NAFTA agreement on market access for
agricultural products. The Mexican-Canadian agreement eliminated most tariffs either
immediately or over 5, 10, or 15 years.
U.S. trade with Mexico and Canada has grown more rapidly than total U.S. trade since 1994. The
automotive, textile, and apparel industries have experienced the most significant changes in
trade flows, which may also have affected employment levels in these industries. The five major
U.S. industries that have high volumes of trade with Mexico and Canada are automotive
industry, chemicals and allied products, computer equipment, textiles and apparel, and
microelectronics.
The effects of NAFTA, both positive and negative, have been quantified by several economists.
Some argue that NAFTA has been positive for Mexico, which has seen its poverty rates fall and
real income rise (in the form of lower prices, especially food), even after accounting for the
1994–1995 economic crisis. Others argue that NAFTA has been beneficial to business owners
and elites in all three countries, but has had negative impacts on farmers in Mexico who saw
food prices fall based on cheap imports from U.S. agribusiness, and negative impacts on U.S.
workers in manufacturing and assembly industries who lost jobs. Critics also argue that NAFTA
has contributed to the rising levels of inequality in both the U.S. and Mexico.

EU

The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of 27 member states, located
primarily in Europe. The EU generates an estimated 30% share of the world's nominal gross
domestic product (US$16.8 trillion in 2007). Thus EU presents an enormous export and
investor market that is both mature and sophisticated.
The EU has developed a single market through a standardised system of laws which apply in all
member states, guaranteeing the freedom of movement of people, goods, services and capital. It
maintains a common trade policy. Fifteen member states have adopted a common currency, the
euro.
Objectives of the EU: Its principal goal is to promote and expand cooperation among
members’ states in economics, trade, social issues, foreign policies, security, defense, and
judicial matters. Another major goal of the EU is to implement the Economic and Monetary
Union, which introduced a single currency, the Euro for the EU members.
The single market refers to the creation of a fully integrated market within the EU, which allows
for free movement of goods, services and factors of production. The EU, in conjunction with
Member States, has a number of policies designed to assist the functioning of the market. Some
of the policies are given below:
Competition Policy: The main competition lied in energy and transport sector. The union
designed this strategy to prevent price fixing, collusion (secret agreement), and abuse of
monopoly.
Free movement of goods: A custom union covering all trade in goods was established and a
common customs tariff was adopted with respect to countries outside the union.
Services: Any member nation has a right to provide services in other Member States.
Free movement of persons: Any citizen of EU member state can live work in any other EU
member state
Capital: There are no restrictions on the movement of capital and on payments with the EU and
between member states and third countries.
Trade between the European Union and India
India was one of the first Asian nations to accord recognition to the European Community in
1962. The EU is India’s largest trading partner and biggest source of FDI. It is a major
contributor of developmental aid and an important source of technology. Over the years, EU –
India trade has grown from 4.4 bn to 28.4 bn US$.
Top items of trade between India and EU
India’s exports to EU % India’s Imports from EU %
Textile and clothing 35 Gemstones and jewellery 31
Leather and leather products 25 Power generating equipment 28
Gemstones and jewelery 12 Chemical products 15
Agriculture products 10 Office machinery 10
Chemical products 9 Transport equipment 6
 India is EU’s 17 largest supplier and 20 largest destination for exports.
th th

 Tariff and non-tariffs have been reduced, but compared to International standards they are
still high.
 Under the Bilateral trade between India and EU, it accounts for 26% of India’s exports and
25% of its imports.
 The European Union (EU) and India agreed on September 29,2008 at the EU-India summit
in Marseille, France's largest commercial port, to expand their cooperation in the fields of
nuclear energy and environmental protection and deepen their strategic partnership.
 Trade between India and the 27-nation EU has more than doubled from 25.6 billion euros
($36.7 billion) in 2000 to 55.6 billion euros last year, with further expansion to be seen.

ASEAN
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations or ASEAN was established on 8 August 1967 in
Bangkok by the five original Member Countries, namely, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines,
Singapore, and Thailand. Brunei Darussalam joined on 8 January 1984, Vietnam on 28 July
1995, Laos and Myanmar on 23 July 1997, and Cambodia on 30 April 1999.
OBJECTIVES
The ASEAN Declaration states that the aims and purposes of the Association are:
(i) To accelerate the economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the
region through joint endeavors.
(ii) To promote regional peace and stability through abiding respect for justice and the rule
of law in the relationship among countries in the region and adherence to the principles
of the United Nations Charter.
(iii) To maintain close cooperation with the existing international and regional organizations
with similar aims.
WORKING OF ASEAN
The member countries of ASEAN have Preferential Trading Arrangements (PTA), which reduces
tariffs on products traded among member countries. In 1992, ASEAN developed a Common
Effective Preferential Tariffs (CEPT) plan to reduce tariffs systematically for manufactured and
processed products.
The members have also established a series of co-operative efforts to encourage joint
participation in industrial, agricultural and technical development projects and to increase
foreign investments in their economies. These efforts include an ASEAN finance corporation,
the ASEAN Industrial Joint Ventures Programme (AJIV) etc. ASEAN nations have introduced
some programmes for greater diversification in their economies.
India and ASEAN
India is interested in maintaining close economic relations with the members of ASEAN, as
these countries are closer to India. The ASEAN countries are offering co-operation to India in
the field of trade, investment, science and technology and training of personnel. Also, India’s
trade with ASEAN countries is satisfactory in recent years.

Q7. Effect of Current Economic Meltdown on International Business

1. Slower global growth: Global growth stood at 5 percent in 2007, but the IMF expects world
growth to slow to 3 percent in 2009 - 0.9 percentage points lower than forecasted in July
2008.
2. Economic contraction in some countries: In G7 countries except for the United States and
Canada, GDP growth was slower in Q2 of 2008 compared to Q1. Three major European
economies (Italy, France and Germany) experienced negative GDP growth in Q2, and
forecasts are for a continued decline in Q3. The IMF forecasts around 0 percent growth for
advanced economies in 2009.
3. Depth of slowdown: It is observed that economic slowdowns, preceded by financial stress
tend to be more severe. Although employment has contracted in several countries in recent
months, it has not been as severe as that during 1990-91.
4. Financing challenges for governments: State and local governments may be faced with
financial crisis. Even administrative costs may be difficult to come by. The governments
would be hard pressed for funds for guarantees and development work. For e.g. In the case
of Iceland the banking sector has assets of around 300% of GDP, something no government
could ever guarantee, at least not on a short-term basis.
5. Rising unemployment: According to IMF, unemployment in the advanced economies will
rise from 5.7 percent in 2008 to 6.5 percent in 2009.
6. Large employment losses in sectors: Some sectors like construction, real estate services will
experience disproportionate employment declines. In addition there will be significant job
losses in the financial sector.
7. Reduced world trade volume: According to the IMF, the world trade will grow only at the
rate of 1.9% as against the earlier estimate of 4.1% for 2009. A drop in exports, as well as
capital inflow, may trigger a falloff in investments.
8. Rising income insecurity and disproportionate impact on low-income groups: As stock
markets around the world have eroded trillions of dollars in wealth and rolled back some of
the investment gains of the past 5 years, the investment and retirement savings of many
individuals have lost significant value. There is a risk that low-income countries and lower-
income groups within countries will bear the brunt of challenges, as “the most poor are the
most defenseless,” says World Bank President Robert Zoellick.
9. Return to Tariff and Non-Tariff Barriers: Developed economies in order to ward off
unemployment and financial crisis may erect barriers to free trade. This might start a local
business environment. For e.g. President-elect Barrack Obama has already announced his
intention to reduce outsourcing from US by 30%.
10. Surplus Production Capacities: In line with demand destruction, many branded products
may face surplus capacities. For e.g. Car, Steel & Aircrafts manufacturers are already staring
at excess capacity.
11. Increase in Government Controls: In order to bail out sinking Corporates the governments,
would buy out or control the operations of large companies. For e.g. AIG and Citibank
12. Impact on India:
a. BPO Operations: India is likely to face a severe crunch on the IT and ITes services,
rendered by Indian BPO Companies.
b. Increase in Trade Deficit: Already in the last quarter, India’s trade deficit has grown
where exports are not meeting the set targets while imports continue to grow.
c. Falling Currency: as the demand for dollars increases the Indian rupee is likely to
weaken. The rupee has already depreciated to Rs. 50 a dollar.
d. Pressure on Services Sector: As the demand for services is destroyed, these sunshine
industries such as BPOs, Airlines, and Telecommunication etc. will face salary and
employment cutbacks.

Q8. Organizational Structures in International Business

Douglas Wind and Pelmutter advocated four approaches of international business. They are:

1. Echnocentric Approach
The domestic companies normally formulate their strategies, their product design and their
operations towards the national markets, customers and competitors. But, the excessive
production more than the demand for the product, either due to competition or due to
changes in customer preferences push the company to export the excessive production to
foreign countries. The domestic company continues the exports to the foreign countries and
views the foreign markets as an extension to the domestic markets just like a new region.
The executives at the head office of the company make the decisions relating to exports and,
the marketing personnel of the domestic company monitor the export operations with the
help of an export department. The company exports the same product designed for domestic
markets to foreign countries under this approach. Thus, maintenance of domestic approach
towards international business is called ethnocentric approach.
2. Polycentric Approach
The domestic companies, which are exporting to foreign countries using the ethnocentric
approach, find at the latter stage that the foreign markets need an altogether different
approach. Then, the company establishes a foreign subsidiary company and decentralists all
the operations and delegate decision making and policy-making authority to its executives.
In fact, the company appoints executives and personnel including a chief executive who
reports directly to the Managing Director of the company. Company appoints the key
personnel from the home country and the people of the host country fill all other vacancies.

3. Regiocentric Approach
The company after operating successfully in a foreign country thinks of exporting to the
neighboring countries of the host country. At this stage, the foreign subsidiary considers the
regions environment (for example, Asian environment like laws, culture, policies etc.) for
formulating policies and strategies. However, it markets more or less the same product designed
under polycentric approach in other countries of the region, but with different market strategies.
4. Geocentric approach
Under this approach, the entire world is just like a single country for the company. They
select the employees from the entire globe and operate with a number of subsidiaries. The
headquarters coordinate the activities of the subsidiaries. Each subsidiary functions like an
independent and autonomous company in formulating policies, strategies, product design,
human resource policies, operations etc.

Q9. Discuss Swaps, Options, Futures

Swaps
a) A swap is a derivative in which two counterparties agree to exchange one stream of cash
flows against another stream. These streams are called the legs of the swap.
b) The cash flows are calculated over a notional principal amount, which is usually not
exchanged between counterparties. Consequently, swaps can be used to create unfunded
exposures to an underlying asset, since counterparties can earn the profit or loss from
movements in price without having to post the notional amount in cash or collateral.
c) Swaps can be used to hedge certain risks such as interest rate risk, or to speculate on
changes in the underlying prices.
d) Most swaps are traded over-the-counter (OTC), "tailor-made" for the counterparties. Some
types of swaps are also exchanged on futures markets such as the Chicago Mercantile
Exchange Holdings Inc., the largest U.S. futures market, the Chicago Board Options
Exchange and Frankfurt-based Eurex AG.
e) The five generic types of swaps, in order of their quantitative importance, are: interest rate
swaps, currency swaps, credit swaps, commodity swaps and equity swaps.
Futures
a) A futures contract is a standardized contract, traded on a futures exchange, to buy or sell a
standardized quantity of a specified commodity of standardized quality at a certain date in
the future, at a price determined by the instantaneous equilibrium between the forces of
supply and demand among competing buy and sell orders on the exchange at the time of the
purchase or sale of the contract.
b) The future date is called the delivery date or final settlement date. The official price of
the futures contract at the end of a day's trading session on the exchange is called the
settlement price for that day of business on the exchange.
c) A futures contract gives the holder the obligation to make or take delivery under the terms
of the contract,
d) Both parties of a "futures contract" must fulfill the contract on the settlement date. The
seller delivers the underlying asset to the buyer, or, if it is a cash-settled futures contract,
then cash is transferred from the futures trader who sustained a loss to the one who made a
profit. To exit the commitment prior to the settlement date, the holder of a futures position
has to offset his/her position by either selling a long position or buying back (covering) a
short position, effectively closing out the futures position and its contract obligations.
e) Futures contracts, or simply futures, are exchange traded derivatives. The exchange's
clearinghouse acts as counterparty on all contracts, sets margin requirements, and crucially
also provides a mechanism for settlement.
Options
a) An option is a contract written by a seller that conveys to the buyer the right — but not the
obligation — to buy (in the case of a call option) or to sell (in the case of a put option) a
particular asset, such as a piece of property, or shares of stock or some other underlying
security, such as, among others, a futures contract. In return for granting the option, the
seller collects a payment (the premium) from the buyer.
b) For example, buying a call option provides the right to buy a specified quantity of a security
at a set strike price at some time on or before expiration, while buying a put option provides
the right to sell. Upon the option holder's choice to exercise the option, the party who sold,
or wrote, the option must fulfill the terms of the contract.
c) The theoretical value of an option can be evaluated according to several models. These
models, which are developed by quantitative analysts, attempt to predict how the value of
the option will change in response to changing conditions. Hence, the risks associated with
granting, owning, or trading options may be quantified and managed with a greater degree
of precision, perhaps, than with some other investments.
d) Exchange-traded options form an important class of options which have standardized
contract features and trade on public exchanges, facilitating trading among independent
parties. Over-the-counter options are traded between private parties, often well-capitalized
institutions that have negotiated separate trading and clearing arrangements with each
other.
e) Another important class of options, particularly in the U.S., are employee stock options,
which are awarded by a company to their employees as a form of incentive compensation
f) Other types of options exist in many financial contracts, for example real estate options are
often used to assemble large parcels of land, and prepayment options are usually included in
mortgage loans.

INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

 International human resource management (HRM) involves ascertaining the corporate

strategy of the company and assessing the corresponding human resource needs;
determining the recruitment, staffing and organizational strategy; recruiting, inducting,
training and developing and motivating the personnel; putting in place the performance
appraisal and compensation plans and industrial relations strategy and the effective
management of all these.
 “The strategic role of HRM is complex enough in a purely domestic firm, but it is more
complex in an international business, where staffing, management development,
performance evaluation, and compensation activities are complicated by profound
differences between countries in labour markets, culture, legal systems, economic
systems, and the like.”
 It is not enough that the people recruited fit the skill requirement, but it is equally
important that they fit in to the organizational culture and the demand of the diverse
environments in which the organization functions.

FACTORS AFFECTING INTERNATIONAL HRM

The following are some of the important factors, which make international HRM complex and
challenging:

DIFFERENCES IN LABOUR MARKET CHARACTERISTICS

  The skill levels, the demand and supply conditions and the behaviour characteristics of
labour vary widely between countries. While some countries experience human resource
shortage in certain sectors, many countries have abundance.
 In the past, developing countries were regarded, generally, as pools of unskilled labour.
Today, however, many developing countries have abundance of skilled and scientific
manpower as well as unskilled and semiskilled labour.
 This changing trend is incasing significant shift of location of business activities. Hard
disk drive manufacturers are reported to be shifting their production base from Singapore
to cheaper locations like Malaysia, Thailand and China.
 While in the past unskilled and semiskilled labour intensive activities tended to be
located in the developing countries, today sophisticated activities also find favour with
developing countries.
 The changing quality attributes of human resources in the developing countries and wage
differentials are causing a location shift in business activities, resulting in new trends in
the global supply chain management.
 India is reported to be emerging as a global R&D hub. India and several other developing
countries are large sources of IT personnel.
 In short, the labour changing labour market characteristics have been causing global
restructuring of business processes and industries. And this causes a great challenge for
strategic HRM.

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES

 Cultural differences cause a great challenge to HRM.

 The behavioural attitude of workers, the social environment, values, beliefs, outlooks
etc., are important factors, which affect industrial relations, loyalty, productivity etc.
 There are also significant differences in aspects related to labour mobility. Cultural
factors are very relevant in inter personal behaviour also.
  In some countries it is common to address the boss Mr. so and so but in countries like
India addressing the boss by name would not be welcome.
 In countries like India people attach great value to designations and hierarchical levels.
This makes delivering and organisational restructuring difficult.

DIFFERENCES IN REGULATORY ENVIRONMENT

 A firm operating in different countries is confronted with different environments with

respect to government policies and regulations regarding labour.
 The attitude of employers and employees towards employment of people show great
variations is different nations. In some countries hire and fire is the common thing
whereas in a number of countries the ideal norm has been lifetime employment.
 In countries like India workers generally felt that while they, have the right to change
organisations, as they preferred, they had a right to lifetime employment in the
organisation they were employed with.
 In such situations it is very difficult to get rid of inefficient or surplus manpower. The
situation, however, is changing in many countries, including India.

DIFFERENCE IN CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT

 Besides the tenancy of employment, there are several conditions of employment the
differences of which cause significant challenge to international HRM.
 The system of rewards, promotion, incentives and motivation, system of labour welfare
and social security etc., vary significantly between countries.

CASE STUDY: ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE AT UNILEVER

Unilever is a very old multinational with worldwide operations in the detergent and food
industries. For decades, Unilever managed its worldwide detergents activities in an arm's-length
manner. A subsidiary was set up in each major national market and allowed to operate largely
autonomously, with each subsidiary carrying out the full range of value creation activities, including
manufacturing, marketing, and R&D. The company had 17 autonomous national operations in
Europe alone by the mid-1980s.
In the 1990s, Unilever began to transform its worldwide detergents activities from a loose
confederation into a tightly managed business with a global strategy. The shift was prompted by
Unilever's realization that its traditional way of doing business was no longer effective in an arena
where it had become essential to realize substantial cost economies, to innovate, and to respond
quickly to changing market trends.
The point was driven home in the 1980s when the company's archrival, Procter & Gamble,
repeatedly stole the lead in bringing new products to market. Within Unilever, "persuading" the 17
European operations to adopt new products could take four to five years. In addition, Unilever was
handicapped by a high-cost structure from the duplication of manufacturing facilities from country
to country and by the company's inability to enjoy the same kind of scale economies as P&G.
Unilever's high costs ruled out its use of competitive pricing.
To change this situation, Unilever established product divisions to coordinate regional
operations. The 17 European companies now report directly to Lever Europe. Implicit in
this new approach is a bargain: The 17 companies are relinquishing autonomy in their traditional
markets in exchange for opportunities to help develop and execute a unified pan-European strategy.
As a consequence of these changes, manufacturing is now being rationalized, with detergent
production for the European market concentrated in a few key locations. The number of
European plants manufacturing soap has been cut from 10 to 2, and some new products will be
manufactured at only one site. Product sizing and packaging are being harmonized to cut purchasing
costs and to pave the way for unified pan-European" advertising. By taking these steps, Unilever
estimates it may save as much as $400 million a year in its European operations.
Lever Europe is attempting to speed its development of new products and to synchronize the launch
of new products throughout Europe. Its efforts seem to be paying off: A dishwasher detergent
introduced in Germany in the early 1990s was available across Europe a year later—a distinct
improvement.
But history still imposes constraints. Procter & Gamble's leading laundry detergent carries the same
brand name across Europe, but Unilever sells its product under a variety of names. The company has
no plans to change this. Having spent 100 years building these brand names, it believes it would
be foolish to scrap them in the interest of pan-European standardization. http://www.unilever.com

G20
WHAT IS THE G-20

The Group of Twenty (G-20) Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors was established in
1999 to bring together systemically important industrialized and developing economies to
discuss key issues in the global economy. The inaugural meeting of the G-20 took place in
Berlin, on December 15 & 16, 1999, hosted by German and Canadian finance ministers.

MANDATE

The G-20 is an informal forum that promotes open and constructive discussion between
industrial and emerging-market countries on key issues related to global economic stability. By
contributing to the strengthening of the international financial architecture and providing
opportunities for dialogue on national policies, international co-operation, and international
financial institutions, the G-20 helps to support growth and development across the globe.

ORIGINS
  The G-20 was created as a response both to the financial crises of the late 1990s and to a
growing recognition that key emerging-market countries were not adequately included in
the core of global economic discussion and governance.

 The proposals made by the G-22 and the G-33 to reduce the world economy's
susceptibility to crises showed the potential benefits of a regular international
consultative forum embracing the emerging-market countries.

 Such a regular dialogue with a constant set of partners was institutionalized by the
creation of the G-20 in 1999.

MEMBERSHIP

The G-20 is made up of the finance ministers and central bank governors of 19 countries:

 Argentina

 Australia

 Brazil

 Canada

 China

 France

 Germany

 India

 Indonesia
 Italy

 Japan

 Mexico

 Russia

 Saudi Arabia

 South Africa

 South Korea

 Turkey

 United Kingdom

 United States of America

 The European Union, who is represented by the rotating Council presidency and the
European Central Bank, is the 20th member of the G-20.

 To ensure global economic for a and institutions work together, the Managing Director of
the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the President of the World Bank, plus the
chairs of the International Monetary and Financial Committee and Development
Committee of the IMF and World Bank, also participate in G-20 meetings on an ex-
officio basis.

 The G-20 thus brings together important industrial and emerging-market countries from
all regions of the world. Together, member countries represent around 90 per cent of
global gross national product, 80 per cent of world trade (including EU intra-trade) as
well as two-thirds of the world's population.

 The G-20's economic weight and broad membership gives it a high degree of legitimacy
and influence over the management of the global economy and financial system.
ACHIEVEMENTS
 The G-20 has progressed a range of issues since 1999, including agreement about policies
for growth, reducing abuse of the financial system, dealing with financial crises and
combating terrorist financing.

 The G-20 also aims to foster the adoption of internationally recognized standards through
the example set by its members in areas such as the transparency of fiscal policy and
combating money laundering and the financing of terrorism.

 In 2004, G-20 countries committed to new higher standards of transparency and

exchange of information on tax matters. This aims to combat abuses of the financial
system and illicit activities including tax evasion.  The G-20 also plays a signficant role
in matters concerned with the reform of the international financial architecture. 

 The G-20 has also aimed to develop a common view among members on issues related to
further development of the global economic and financial system and held an
extraordinary meeting in the margins of the 2008 IMF and World Bank annual meetings
in recognition of the current economic situation.

MEETINGS AND ACTIVITIES

 It is normal practice for the G-20 finance ministers and central bank governors to meet
once a year.

 The ministers' and governors' meeting is usually preceded by two deputies' meetings and
extensive technical work.

 This technical work takes the form of workshops, reports and case studies on specific
subjects, that aim to provide ministers and governors with contemporary analysis and
insights, to better inform their consideration of policy challenges and options.

INTERACTION WITH OTHER INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

  The G-20 cooperates closely with various other major international organizations and for
a, as the potential to develop common positions on complex issues among G-20 members
can add political momentum to decision-making in other bodies.

 The participation of the President of the World Bank, the Managing Director of the IMF
and the chairs of the International Monetary and Financial Committee and the
Development Committee in the G-20 meetings ensures that the G-20 process is well
integrated with the activities of the Bretton Woods Institutions.

 The G-20 also works with, and encourages, other international groups and organizations,
such as the Financial Stability Forum, in progressing international and domestic
economic policy reforms. In addition, experts from private-sector institutions and non-
government organisations are invited to G-20 meetings on an ad hoc basis in order to
exploit synergies in analyzing selected topics and avoid overlap.

EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION

 The country currently chairing the G-20 posts details of the group's meetings and work
program on a dedicated website.

 Although participation in the meetings is reserved for members, the public is informed
about what was discussed and agreed immediately after the meeting of ministers and
governors has ended.

 After each meeting of ministers and governors, the G-20 publishes a communiqué which
records the agreements reached and measures outlined. Material on the forward work
program is also made public.