Alexander-Sadiku

Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

Chapter 3
Methods of Analysis

1
Methods of Analysis
• Mesh (Loop) Analysis.

• Branch Current Analysis

• Nodal Analysis

• Delta-Wye(Pi-Ti) Conversion
Constant-Current Sources

If the current source is the only source in the circuit, then the polarity
of voltage across the source will be as shown in Figure.
Source Conversions
• Voltage sources always have
some series resistance,
although in some cases this
resistance is so small in
comparison with other circuit
resistance that it may
effectively be ignored when
determining the operation of
the circuit.

• Similarly, a constant-current
source will always have some
shunt (or parallel) resistance.
• These results may be easily verified by connecting an
external resistance, RL, across each source.

• The sources can be equivalent only if the voltage across RL is

the same for both sources.

• Similarly, the sources are equivalent only if the current

through RL is the same when connected to either source
Current Sources in Parallel and Series
• Current sources in parallel may be simplified into a single
current source.
• The magnitude and direction of this resultant source is
determined by adding the currents in one direction and
then subtracting the currents in the opposite direction
The steps used in solving a circuit using mesh analysis

1. Arbitrarily assign a clockwise current to

each interior closed loop in the network.

2. Using the assigned loop currents, indicate

the voltage polarities across all resistors in
the circuit.

For a resistor which is common to two loops,

the polarities of the voltage drop due to
each loop current should be indicated on the
appropriate side of the component.

3. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law, write the

loop equations for each loop in the network.

4. Solve the resultant simultaneous linear

equations.

5. Branch currents are determined by

algebraically combining the loop currents
which are common to the branch
Generalized form
 Motivation (1)
If you are given the following circuit, how can we determine
(1) the voltage across each resistor, (2) current through each
resistor. (3) power generated by each current source, etc.

What are the things which we need to know in order to

determine the answers? 18
 Motivation (2)
Things we need to know in solving any resistive
circuit with current and voltage sources only:

• Kirchhoff ’s Current Laws (KCL)

• Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Laws (KVL)
• Ohm’s Law

How should we apply these laws to determine

the answers?
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 Mesh Analysis (1)

1. Mesh analysis provides another general procedure for

analyzing circuits using mesh currents as the circuit variables.

2. Nodal analysis applies KCL to find unknown voltages in a

given circuit, while mesh analysis applies KVL to find
unknown currents.

3. A mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops

within it.

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 Mesh Analysis (2)

Steps to determine the mesh currents:

1. Assign mesh currents i1, i2, …, in to the n meshes.

2. Apply KCL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to

express the voltages in terms of the mesh currents.

3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh

currents.

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 Mesh Analysis (3)

Example – circuit with independent voltage sources

Note:
i1 and i2 are mesh current (imaginative, not measurable directly)
I1, I2 and I3 are branch current (real, measurable directly)
I1 = i1; I2 = i2; I3 = i1 - i2

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Mesh Analysis with Current Source (1)

Circuit with current source

A super-mesh results when two meshes have a (dependent or independent) current

source in common as shown in (a). We create a super-mesh by excluding the current
source and any elements connected in series with it as shown in (b).

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Mesh Analysis with Current Source (2)

The properties of a super-mesh:

1. The current source in the super-mesh is not completely

ignored; it provides the constraint equation necessary to
solve for the mesh currents.

2. A super-mesh has no current of its own.

3. A super-mesh requires the application of both KVL and

KCL.

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Current and Voltage source together
Find the branch currents I1, I2, and I3, using mesh
analysis.
Use mesh analysis to find the current I0 in the circuit of
Fig
Mesh Analysis containing current source !

A supermesh results when two meshes have a

(dependent or independent) current source in
common
Note the following properties of a supermesh:

1. The current source in the supermesh provides the

constraint equation necessary to solve for the mesh
currents.

2. A supermesh has no current of its own.

3. A supermesh requires the application of both KVL

and KCL.
 Nodal Analysis (2)
Steps to determine the node voltages:

1. Select a node as the reference node.

2. Assign voltages v1,v2,…,vn-1 to the remaining n-1 nodes.
The voltages are referenced with respect to the
reference node.
3. Apply KCL to each of the n-1 non-reference nodes. Use
Ohm’s law to express the branch currents in terms of node
voltages.
4. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the
unknown node voltages.
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 Nodal Analysis (3)
Example 2 – circuit independent current source only

Apply KCl at
node 1 and 2 v1 v2

*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook, answer v1 = -2V, v2 = -14V 42

 Nodal Analysis (4)
Example 3 – current with dependant current source

*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook,

answer v1= 4.8V, v2 = 2.4V, v3 = -2.4V 43
Nodal Analysis with Voltage Source (1)

Example 4 –circuit with independent voltage source

How to handle the 2V voltage source? 44

Nodal Analysis with Voltage Source (2)

A super-node is formed by enclosing a (dependent or independent)

voltage source connected between two non-reference nodes and
any elements connected in parallel with it.

*Note: We analyze a circuit with super-nodes using the same three

steps mentioned above except that the super-nodes are treated
differently.

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Nodal Analysis with Voltage Source (3)

Basic steps:

1. Take off all voltage sources in super-nodes and apply

KCL to super-nodes.

2. Put voltage sources back to the nodes and apply KVL

to relative loops.

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 The steps - Nodal analysis are as follows:
1. Arbitrarily assign a reference node within the
circuit and indicate this node as ground.
2. Convert each voltage source in the network to
its equivalent current source.
3. Arbitrarily assign voltages (V1, V2, . . . , Vn) to
the remaining nodes in the circuit.
4. Arbitrarily assign a current direction to each
branch in which there is no current source.
Using the assigned current directions, indicate
the corresponding polarities of the voltage
drops on all resistors.
5. With the exception of the reference node
(ground), apply Kirchhoff’s current law at each
of the nodes.
6. Rewrite each of the arbitrarily assigned
currents in terms of the potential difference
across a known resistance.
7. Solve the resulting simultaneous linear
equations for the voltages (V1, V2, . . . , Vn).
Calculate the node voltages in the circuit shown in Fig.

,
Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources

CASE 1
If a voltage source is connected between the
reference node and a nonreference node, we
simply set the voltage at the nonreference node
equal to the voltage of the voltage source.

CASE 2
If the voltage source (dependent or independent) is connected between two
nonreference nodes, the two nonreference nodes form a generalized node or supernode; we apply both
KCL and KVL to determine the node voltages.

A supernode is formed by enclosing a (dependent or independent) voltage source connected

between two nonreference nodes and any elements connected in parallel with it.

,
Note the following properties of a supernode:
1. The voltage source inside the supernode provides a constraint equation
needed to solve for the node voltages.

2. A supernode has no voltage of its own.

3. A supernode requires the application of both KCL and KVL.

For the circuit shown in Fig., find the node voltages
 Nodal Analysis (1)
It provides a general procedure for analyzing circuits using node voltages
as the circuit variables.

Example 1

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 3.3 Nodal Analysis with Voltage
Source (4)
Example 5 – circuit with independent voltage source
Super-node => 2-i1-i2-7 = 0

Apply KVL => v1+2-v2 = 0

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Nodal Analysis with Voltage Source (5)
Example 6 – circuit with two independent voltage sources

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 Nodal and Mesh Analysis
with Inspection (1)
The properties of a super-mesh:

1. The current source in the super-mesh is not completely

ignored; it provides the constraint equation necessary to solve
for the mesh currents.

2. A super-mesh has no current of its own.

3. A super-mesh requires the application of both KVL and KCL.

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 Nodal versus Mesh Analysis (1)
To select the method that results in the smaller number of equations.
For example:

1. Choose nodal analysis for circuit with fewer nodes than meshes.
*Choose mesh analysis for circuit with fewer meshes than nodes.
*Networks that contain many series connected elements, voltage
sources, or supermeshes are more suitable for mesh analysis.
*Networks with parallel-connected elements, current sources, or
supernodes are more suitable for nodal analysis.
2. If node voltages are required, it may be expedient to apply nodal
analysis. If branch or mesh currents are required, it may be better to
use mesh analysis.
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 Delta-Wye (Pi-Tee) Conversion

• Series, parallel, and series-parallel

combinations.
• Networks which cannot be placed into any of
the above categories.
• There is an easier approach ! !
• This circuit could be analyzed using mesh
analysis !
• If we were to use nodal analysis, the solution
would require determining three node
voltages,
• Both techniques are very time-consuming and
prone to error.
• Occasionally it is easier to examine a circuit
after it has been converted to some equivalent
form.
Notice that any resistor connected to a point of the “Y” is obtained by finding the product of
the resistors connected to the same point in the “ Δ” and then dividing by the sum of all the
“Δ” resistances.
Example: Calculate the node voltages in the circuit shown