MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS (syllabus)

• Permeability,
• Field intensity,
• Magnetic field induction,
• Magnetization and Magnetic susceptibility,
• Origin of magnetic moment,
• Bohr magneton,
• Classification of magnetic materials (Dia,
Para and Ferro),
• Domain theory of ferromagnetism-
Necessity, formation
• Hysteresis curve,
• Soft and Hard magnetic materials,
• Ferrites and their applications.
 Objectives
 Why this topic in Engineering?
 What is magnetic field?
 Basic definitions in magnetism:
a) Magnetic dipole
b) Magnetic Induction and flux density
c) Magnetization
d) Lorentz Force
e) Magnetic field intensity or strength (H)
f) Intensity of magnetization (I)
g) Magnetic Susceptibility and Magnetic Permeability
h) Biot-Savart law
Origin of magnetic field in an Atom and a material?
 OBJECTIVES-WIT&WIL

 Need to study nature of magnetic properties of materials.

• What is a Magnetic Field?
A region around a magnetic material or a moving electric charge within which the
force of magnetism acts (i.e. the agency for any interaction with other magnets).
• Magnetic material: when a material is magnetized by the application of
external magnetic filed called a magnetic material.
• What is Magnetic Flux or flux density?
Magnetic flux is a measurement of the total magnetic field which passes through
a given area.
(Or) The total number of lines of magnetic force passing through unit surface
area perpendicularly is called magnetic flux through that surface. Its unit is
Weber/m2 or Tesla.
Magnetic field is basically described by two vector quantities:
1. Magnetic field strength or Intensity (H), it is measured in amperes per meter
(A/m).
2. Magnetic induction or flux density (B). It is measured in Newton-meters per
ampere (Nm/A), also called teslas (T).
both of these B and H (bars) are called magnetic fields.
B α H => B = μ0 H

(1) Magnetic field Intensity (H):

It is defined as the degree to which a magnetic field can magnetize a material. It is
expressed by means of a vector → called magnetic intensity or magnetizing force.
𝐻𝐻
(Or)
it is also defined as the force experienced by a unit north pole placed at a point in
the field.

Note: H does not depend on the medium of the material. Its direction is along that of
B.
(2) Magnetic field induction (B):
“The magnetic induction ‘B’ is defined as the total number of lines of force per unit area due to both the magnetizing
field and to the induced magnetism in the substance”
Unit of B is web/𝑚𝑚2 or Tesla.
 Dipole and Magnetic dipole:
a pair of equal and opposite electric charges or magnetic poles separated by a small distance called magnetic dipole
 Magnetic dipole moment (M):
It may be defined as the maximum amount of torque caused by magnetic force on a dipole that arises per unit value of
surrounding magnetic field in vacuum. the specific unit for dipole moment is ampere-square meter.
Note points:
• Magnetic dipole moment is a measure of the magnetic strength of a magnet or
current-carrying coil.
• When a magnetic dipole is considered as a current loop, the magnitude of the
dipole moment is proportional to the current multiplied by the size of the enclosed
area.
• if m is pole strength and 2L be the distance between poles then magnetic moment
Is defined as the product of pole strength and distance between them.

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (𝑀𝑀) = 𝑚𝑚 × 2𝑙𝑙

(3) Intensity of magnetization or Magnetization (I):
“The magnetic moment per unit volume of the substance is called Intensity of
magnetization”.
𝑀𝑀
𝐼𝐼 = where M= total magnetic moment/unit volume v
𝑉𝑉
It is also defined as pole strength per unit area. i.e I= m/A
(4) Magnetic Permeability (μ) :
In electromagnetism, permeability is the measure of the ability of a material to support
the formation of a magnetic field within itself.
The magnetic field induction (B) is directly proportional to field strength (H) so that,
BαH
⇒B = μ H where , μ is proportionality constant and 𝜇𝜇0 is called permeability of the free
space. It has a value of 4𝜋𝜋 × 10−7 Henry/meter.
⇒μ = B/H , hence permeability is also defined as the ratio of magnetic field induction to the
applied field strength .
(5) Magnetic Susceptibility (χ):
 Magnetic Susceptibility is defined as the ratio of intensity of magnetization ‘I’ to the applied
magnetic field intensity ‘H’. Thus
χ = I/H ----(4)

 Note: Since ‘H’ and ‘I’ have same unit so χ is a dimensionless constant and it is a pure number.
 Introduction points to understand magnetism and magnetic properties of materials:
1. We know that, current through a circular coil produces magnetic filed (magnetic moment) along
the axis of the coil.
2. Matter is made up of atoms. Each atom has a positively charged nucleus at its center. Electrons
revolve round the nucleus in various circular orbitals.
3. Hence orbital motion of electrons constitute an electric current in the orbit and hence a magnetic
dipole.
4. In an atom, electrons revolve round the nucleus then orbital magnetic dipole moment arises.
Similarly electron also spins itself so that spin magnetic dipole moment arises. Due to nuclear spin
also nuclear spin magnetic dipole moment arises. Finally the total magnetic moment is due to the
vector summation of all these orbital, spin and nuclear spin magnetic moments.
5. Hence the magnetic effects in magnetic materials are due to atomic magnetic dipoles in these
materials
6. In an un-magnetized substance the dipoles are oriented in random directions and hence net
magnetic moment is Zero.
 When a magnetisable substance is placed in the external magnetic field, all the dipoles
align parallel to the field direction and then resultant magnetic moment is not equal to
zero
 i.e. the substance is magnetized so that it can produces its own magnetic field lines of
forces due to arrangement of parallel atomic dipoles.

Hence, the magnetized substance have two lines of forces,

(i) Due to magnetizing field ( applied magnetic field strength H)
(ii) Due to induced magnetism called magnetization of the substance itself.
So that the resultant field inside the material is referred as magnetic induction (B).
 Origin of Magnetic moments in a material
• Atomic model:
NOTE: I have given notes in the class room for this topic
NOTE: I have given notes in the class room for this classification of magnetic materials follow that table
 Ferromagnetism Antiferromagnetism Ferrimagnetism

Spin alignments are parallel Spin alignments are Spin alignments are
to each other antiparallel to each other in antiparallel but of different

↑↑↑↑↑↑ neighboring ions, with same magnitude

↑↓↑↓↑↓↑↓
magnitude

↑↓↑↓↑↓↑↓
Susceptibility is large and Susceptibility is small and Susceptibility is large and
+ve +ve +ve
Above curie temperature, Above Neel temperature, Above Neel temperature,
ferromagnet changes to antiferromagnet changes to ferromagnet changes to
paramagnetic substance paramagnetic substance paramagnetic substance
Magnetism due to similar Due to antiparallel spins, Unequal magnetic dipole
spin alignment magnetic effects are zero, moments of adjacent atoms
but posses magnetism due results a net magnetization.
to temperature dependent
disruption of magnetic
moment alignment
Fe Co and Ni are examples FeO, MnO, Cr2O3 are Ferrous Ferrite, Nickel ferrite
examples MOFe2O3 : M=divalention
 CURIE TEMPERATURE
The Curie temperature (Tc), or Curie point, is the temperature at which certain materials lose
their permanent magnetic properties, to be replaced by induced magnetism.
The Curie temperature is named after Pierre Curie, who showed that magnetism was lost at a
critical temperature
 DOMAIN THEORY OF FERROMAGNETISM
1. In ferromagnetic substances, the atoms due to certain mutual interaction form innumerable
small effective regions called “Domains”. Weiss introduced this domain theory.
2. Each domain has 1017 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 1021 atoms whose magnetic axes are aligned in the same direction
even in the absence of external field (spontaneous magnetization).
3. with in each domain, spontaneous magnetization is due to some kind of interaction between
the atoms which produces the tendency for parallel alignment of the atomic dipoles.
4. When a ferromagnetic substance is placed in an external magnetic field, the magnetism of the
substance increases in two different ways. (a) by the displacement of the boundaries of the
domains (b) by the rotation of domains ( this phenomenon is called “Barkhavsen effect”).
5. When the external field is weak, the substance is magnetized mostly by the boundary
displacement. If the external field is strong, magnetization takes place by the rotation of
domains.
  Origin of Domains:
1. The total internal energy of a ferromagnetic solid ( also the domain structure in a ferromagnetic material) is made
up from the following contributions, (i) The Exchange energy (ii) The Anisotropy energy (iii) Domain wall energy
(iv) Magnetostriction energy. These energies are described below,
 Exchange energy or Magnetic field energy:
The interaction energy which makes the adjacent dipoles align themselves is the exchange energy. This energy is minimum
when the spins are parallel.
 Anisotropy energy:
Experimentally it was found that, much higher fields are required to produce saturated magnetization along a certain
directions than the some other directions in ferromagnetic crystals. They are called “Hard” and “Easy” directions of
magnetizations in crystal. ( as an example, for BCC Iron easy direction is [100] medium is [110] hard is [111].
So that , “The excess energy required to saturately magnetize the specimen in a direction over that of easy direction of
magnetization is called “ Anisotropy energy” in that direction of magnetization”.
 Domain wall energy or Bloch wall energy:
According to Bloch, the spin direction in going from one domain to its neighboring domain, does not changes abruptly
(suddenly) but changes gradually over many atomic planes as shown in figure. When the change takes place gradually, the
exchange energy will be low. This is called Bloch wall energy.
 Magnetostrictive energy:
The change in dimensions (either contract or expand) of a material on magnetization is called magnetostriction. The work
done by the magnetic field to produce magnetostriction is stored as energy in the material called energy of
magnetostriction.
NOTE: Hysteresis curve explanation on the basis of domain theory is vvimp topic. do follow PK Palanisamy
text book for this topic or Solid state physics by Kittel book
 Soft Magnets Hard Magnets

1. They possess low BH product 1. They possess high value of

2. Low retentivity BH product.
3. Low coercivity 2. High retentivity.
4. Hysteresis loop is narrow 3. High coercivity.
5. pure or ingot iron, cast iron, 4. Hysteresis loop is more
carbon steel, manganese & rectangular in shape
nickel steel, etc 5. Tungsten steel, cobalt steel,
6. used in making electromagnets chromium steel, etc
6. used in making permanent
magnets
 Structure of Ferrites
• The general chemical formula of a ferrite molecule is M2+Fe23+O42-, where
M2+ represents a divalent metal ion such as Zn2+, Fe2+, Mg2+, ..etc.,
• Ferrites crystallize in the form of a cubic structure.
• Each corner of a ferrite unit cell consists of a ferrite molecule.
• Therefore, in a ferrite unit cell there are eight molecules.
• Therefore in a ferrite unit cell, there are eight divalent metal ions, 16 ferric
ions and 32 Oxygen ions.
• If only the oxygen ions in ferrite crystal are considered, it is found that
they constitute a close packed face centered cubic structure with tetrahedral
(A-site) and octahedral ( B-Site) void spaces.
• In these arrangement, it is found that for every four O2− ions there are 2
octahedral sites (surrounded by 6 O2− ions) and one tetrahedral site
(surrounded by4 O2− ions).
• Divalent and trivalent metal ions occupy these void spaces. The
arrangement of cations in these void spaces shows the magnetic properties.
• Generally there are two types of structures present in ferrites,
(i) spinel structure (ii) inverse spinel structure.
Regular spinel structure
1. in this structure, each unit cell contains large oxygen
atoms forming a F.C.C lattice.
2. Each divalent metal ion occupies a tetrahedral site ( A-site)
3. Each trivalent ferric ion occupies an octahedral site (B-
site).
Explanation:
• A unit cell contains 8- molecules, so
8( 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 2+ 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹23+ 𝑂𝑂42− ). Hence 32 oxygen atoms forming a
closely packed FCC.
• 32- Octahedral sites (B-sites) surrounded by 6-oxygens and
64-tetrahedral sites (A-sites) surrounded by 4-oxygens.
Fig. Regular spinel structure
Hence, the sites A and B combined to form a regular
spinel ferrite structures as shown in Fig.
The schematic representation of zinc ferrite molecule as
shown in Fig.

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Inverse spinel structure:
1. In some cases, the B-sites are occupied
by both trivalent and divalent ferric ions
and A-sites are occupied by
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 3+ cations such structure is called
inverse spinel structure. As shown in
Fig.
2. Trivalent metal ions occupy all
tetrahedral sites (A-sites)
3. Half of octahedral sites (B-site) and the •The schematic representation of a ferrous ferrite molecule is shown in Fig.

rest of octahedral sites (B-site) are

occupied by divalent metal ions.
4. Example: 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 2+ [𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹23+ ]𝑂𝑂42− called
ferrous ferrite or Fe3O4.

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Applications of Ferrites:

 Ferrite is used in radio receivers to increase the sensitivity and selectivity of the receiver.
 Ferrites are used as cores in audio and TV transformers.
 Ferrites are used in digital computers and data processing circuits.
 Ferrites are used to produce low frequency ultra sonic waves by magnetostriction principle.
 Ferrites are widely used in non-reciprocal microwave devices. Examples for non-
reciprocal microwave devices are Gyrator, Isolator and Circulator.
 Ferrites are also used in power limiting and harmonic gyration devices.
 Ferrites can also be used in the design of ferromagnetic amplifiers of microwave signals.
 Ferrite core can be used as a bitable element.
 The rectangular shape ferrite cores can be used as a magnetic shift register.
 Hard ferrites are used to make permanent magnets.
 The permanent magnets (hard ferrites) are used in instruments like galvanometers,
ammeter, voltmeter, flex meters, speedometers, wattmeter, compasses and recorders.