Ethics in Research

Ethics generally is considered to deal with beliefs about what is right or wrong, proper or
improper, good or bad. According to a dictionary definition (Webster‘s 1968), to be ethical is to
conform to accepted professional practice.

Ethical considerations in conducting research

1. Objectivity and integrity
2. Respect of the research subjects‘right to privacy and dignity and protection of subjects from
personal harm
3. Presentation of research findings
4. Misuse of research role
5. Acknowledgement of research collaboration and assistance
6. Distortions of findings by sponsor

Unethical practices in conducting research

1. Deceiving a respondent about the true purpose of a study
2. Asking a respondent questions that cause him or her extreme embarrassment; guilt emotional
turmoil by remaining him or her of an unpleasant experience
3. Invading the privacy of a respondent
4. Studying the respondents or research subjects without their knowledge
5. When analyzing the data—revealing only part of the facts, presenting facts out of context,
falsifying findings or offering misleading presentation such as lying with statistics

Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Definition of Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Quantitative research is a type of educational research in which the researcher decides what to
study; asks specific, narrow questions; collects quantifiable data from participants; analyzes these
numbers using statistics; and conducts the inquiry in an unbiased, objective manner.

Qualitative research is a type of educational research in which the researcher relies on the views
of participants; asks broad, general questions; collects data consisting largely words (text) from
participants; describes and analyzes these words for themes; and conducts the inquiry in a
subjective, biased manner.
Qualitative Quantitative
Objective In-depth understanding of Quantification of data
underlying reasons and Measurement of
motivations incidence, etc.
Data Analysis Non-statistical Statistical
Contextual
Thematic
Outcomes Not conclusive nor Broad based insights
generalizable Population based
understanding
 Differences between Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Quantitative Methodologies
 Preference for precise hypothesis stated at the outset
 Preference for precise definitions stated at the outset
 Preference for definitions in context or as study progresses
 Data reduced to numerical scores Preference for narrative description
 Much attention to assessing and improving reliability of scores obtained from instruments
 Preference for random techniques for obtaining meaningful samples.
 Preference for precisely describing procedures.
 Preference for design or statistical control of extraneous variables.
 Preference for specific design control for procedural bias.
 Preference for statistical summary of results.
 Preference for breaking down complex phenomena into specific parts for analysis.
 Willingness to manipulate aspects, situations, or conditions in studying complex
phenomena.

Qualitative Methodologies
 Preference for hypotheses that emerge as the study develops
 Preference for definitions in context or as study progresses
 Preference for narrative description
 Preference for assuming that reliability of inferences is adequate
 Assessment of validity through crosschecking sources of information (triangulation)
 Preference for expert information (purposive) samples.
 Preference for narrative/literary descriptions of procedures.
 Preference for logical analysis in controlling or accounting for extraneous variables.
 Primary reliance on researcher to deal with procedural bias.
 Preference for narrative summary of results.
 Preference for holistic description of complex phenomena.
 Unwillingness to tamper with naturally occurring phenomena.

Differing Philosophical Assumptions of Quantitative and Qualitative Researchers

Assumptions of Quantitative Researchers

 There exists a reality ―out there, independent of us, waiting to be known. The task of
science is to discover the nature of reality and how it works.
 Research investigations can potentially result in accurate statements about the way the
world really is.
 It is possible for the researcher to remove him- or herself—to stand apart—from that which
is being researched

Assumptions of Qualitative Researchers

 The individuals involved in the research situations construct reality; thus, realities exist in
the form of multiple mental constructions.
 Research investigations produce alternative visions of what the world is like.
 It is impossible for the researcher to stand apart from the individuals he or she is studying.
 The Kinds of Research across Fields

Note: Please visit the sites below if researches in arts, humanities, sports, science, business,
agriculture and fisheries, information and communication technology, and social inquiry are not
available in the library.
1. http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/rqrs21/current
2. http://www.tandfonline.com/action/doSearch?quickLinkJournal=&jo
urnalText=&AllField=qualitative+research+in+arts&publication=43368657 (Sports)
3.http://www.tandfonline.com/action/doSearch?AllField=qualitative+research+in+business
(Business)
4. http://www.tandfonline.com/action/doSearch?AllField=qualitative+r
esearch+in+agricultural+and+fisheries (agriculture and fisheries)
5. http://www.tandfonline.com/action/doSearch?AllField=qualitative+r
esearch+in+information+and+communication+technology (ICT)
6. http://www.tandfonline.com/action/doSearch?AllField=qualitative+r
esearch+in+social+inquiry+ (Social Inquiry)

The Value of Qualitative Research— Its Kinds, Characteristics, Uses, Strengths, and
Weaknesses and the Importance of Qualitative Research Across Fields of Inquiry

Major Characteristics of Qualitative Research

1. Naturalistic inquiry - Studying real-world situations as they unfold naturally; non-

manipulative unobtrusive, and non-controlling; openness to whatever emerges—lack of
predetermined constraints on outcomes.
2. Inductive analysis - Immersion in the details and specifics of the data to discover
important categories, dimensions, and interrelationships; begin by exploring genuinely
open questions rather than testing theoretically derived (deductive) hypotheses.
3. Holistic perspective - The whole phenomenon under study is understood as a complex
system that is more than the sum of its parts; focus is on complex interdependencies not
meaningfully reduced to a few discrete variables and linear, cause-effect relationships.
4. Qualitative data - Detailed, thick description; inquiry in depth; direct quotations capturing
people‘s personal perspectives and experiences.
5. Personal contact and insight - The researcher has direct contact with and gets close to
the people, situation, and phenomenon under study; researcher‘s personal experiences
and insights are important part of the inquiry and critical to understanding the
phenomenon.
6. Dynamic systems - Attention to process; assumes change is constant and ongoing
whether the focus is on an individual or an entire culture.
7. Unique case orientation - Assumes each case is special and unique; the first level of
inquiry is being true to, respecting, and capturing the details of the individual cases being
studied; cross case analysis follows from and depends on the quality of individual case
studies.
8. Context sensitivity - Places findings in a social, historical, and temporal context; dubious
of the possibility or meaningfulness of generalization across time and space.
9. Emphatic neutrality - Complete objectivity is impossible; pure subjectivity undermines
credibility; the researcher‘s passion is understanding the world in all its complexity – not
proving something, not advocating, not advancing personal agenda, but understanding;
 the researcher includes personal experience and empathic insight as part of the relevant
data, while taking a neutral non-judgmental stance toward whatever content may emerge.
10. Design flexibility - Open to adapting inquiry as understanding deepens and/or situations
change; avoids getting locked into rigid designs that eliminate responsiveness; pursues
new paths of discovery as they emerge.

Types of Qualitative Research

Phenomenology
It is an approach to philosophy and not specifically a method of inquiry; this has often been
misunderstood. It is first and foremost philosophy, the approach employed to pursue a particular
study should emerge from the philosophical implications inherent in the question.

Ethnography
It is the direct description of a group, culture or community. Nevertheless, the meaning of the word
ethnography can be ambiguous; it is an overall term for a number of approaches. Sometimes
researchers use it as synonymous with qualitative research in general, while at other times it‘s
meaning is more specific.

Grounded theory
It is a development of theory directly based and grounded in the data collected by the researcher.
It is a research methodology for discovering theory in a substantive area.

Case study
It is used for a research approach with specific boundaries and can be both qualitative and
quantitative. In addition, it is an entity studied as a single unit, and it has clear confines and a
specific focus and is bound to context.

Strengths of Qualitative Research

1. Issues can be examined in detail and in depth.

2. Interviews are not restricted to specific questions and can be guided/redirected by the
researcher in real time.
3. The research framework and direction can be quickly revised as new information emerges.
4. The obtained data based on human experience is powerful and sometimes more compelling
than quantitative data.
5. Subtleties and complexities about the research subjects and/or topic are discovered that are
often missed by more positivistic inquiries.
6. Data usually are collected from a few cases or individuals so findings cannot be generalized to
a larger population. Findings can however be transferable to another setting.

Limitations of Qualitative Research

1. Research quality is heavily dependent on the individual skills of the researcher and more easily
influenced by the researcher's personal biases and idiosyncrasies.
2. Rigor is more difficult to maintain, assess, and demonstrate.
3. The volume of data makes analysis and interpretation time consuming.
4. It is sometimes not as well understood and accepted as quantitative research within the
scientific community
5. The researcher's presence during data gathering, which is often unavoidable in qualitative
research, can affect the subjects' responses.
6. Issues of anonymity and confidentiality can bring/result to problems when presenting findings
7. Findings can be more difficult and time consuming to characterize in a visual way.