UNIT I: Studying Culture, Society, and Politics

CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Culture, Society, and Politics

Identity, Culture, and Society

Identity - is the distinctive characteristic that defines an individual or is shared by those

belonging to a particular group. People may have multiple identities depending on the
groups to which they belong.

Identity can also change over the course of a person’s lifetime. It is continuously
shaped and reshaped through the passage of time as well as the overall context of
one’s life cycle, including his or her activities within the society and interaction with other
people.

Identities are important because they shape both individual and group behavior
as well as people’s view about other people and society. Learning about one’s self,
culture, and society entails knowledge about various identities and how they shape
peoples’ view and behavior. Reflecting on this enables a person to appreciate what
makes him or her similar to and different from other people. It also helps a person to
understand that identities are relational and contextual, thereby avoiding the common
pitfall of having misguided notions or prejudices of other people that are solely based on
one’s subjective views.

Culture - which is loosely defined as society’s way of life, provides the basis for
forging identities. It allows people to understand themselves in relation to others and
provides them a lens through which they base what is considered the “right way” of
doing things. There are material and nonmaterial aspects associated with culture.

Elements of Culture

Material Culture – A physical objects that society produces, things people create and
use.

Nonmaterial – Consists of elements termed norms values, beliefs, and language

shared by the members of a society.

Aside from what is generally regarded as Filipino culture, there are other
subcultures that exist in the Philippines, depending on geographical origin, religion and
class, among others. All societies have some form of subcultures.
 The term “society” refers to a group of people living in a community. According
to MacIver and Page, “it is a web of social relationships, which is always changing.”

Social, Cultural, and Political Change

The concept of identity is related to social, cultural, and political change.

People’s individual and collective identities have oftentimes transformed social order
and paved the way for lasting change. For instance, when Filipino first held elections in
the 1900’s, only Filipino males could vote and participate in politics. However, when
Filipino women became more educated either in the Philippines or abroad, they were
enlightened about their rights, particularly suffrage or the right to vote. The framers of
the 1935 Constitution allowed women to vote by virtue of a law that was passed by the
National Assembly. The outcome forever changed the way women are regarded in
society.

Rapidly-advancing technology also profound implications for sociocultural and

political change. Because people know more about what is happening elsewhere in the
world. Now, people across the world are becoming more similar in tastes than they were
fifty years ago.

The phenomenon of international migration has also change Filipino identities

and beliefs. Filipinos have grown accustomed to families with members whose identities
are not entirely Filipino. Filipino emigrants have also assimilated with other cultures
abroad. Some aspects of their beliefs and values may have also changed. They are
regarded as modern-day heroes by both the government and their families for
sacrificing to leave their families and country to earn a better living abroad.

There is an increasing number of transnational families, with members living in

different parts of the world. Members of the family, most especially children, no longer
identify with a household whose members live in the same house. They interact with
each other through the Internet and other social media platforms. International migration
is creating social, cultural, and political changes both here and abroad.

Anthropology, Sociology, and Political Science

Social Science – the disciplines under which identity, culture, society, and politics are
studied. Comprised of a wide array of academic disciplines that study the overall
functions of society as well as the interactions among its individual members and
institutions.

Prominent Academic Disciplines in the Social Sciences:

Anthropology – is the systematic study of the biological, cultural, and social aspects of
man. It is derived from the two Greek words, Anthropos means “man” and logos means
“study.”

Anthropologies have diverse fields including:

Social Anthropology – studies how social patterns and practices and cultural
variations developed across different societies.

Cultural Anthropology – studies cultural variations across different societies and

examines the need to understand each culture in its own context.

Linguistic Anthropology – studies language and discourse and how they reflect and
shaped different aspects of human society and culture.

Biological or Physical Anthropology – studies the origins of humans as well as the

interplay between social factors and the processes of human evolution, adaptation, and
variation over time.

Meanwhile,

Archaeology – deals with prehistoric societies by studying their tools and environment.

Sociology – defined by Anthony Giddens as “ the study of human social life, groups,
and society.” An academic discipline that attempts to provide deeper assessment of
individual and group behavior, as well as social phenomena, by examining the interplay
between economic, political, and social factors.

Sociologist – examine and present new insight and perspectives on the different
elements and aspects of society such as culture, gender, race and ethnicity, social
movements, class and other forms of social stratification, crime, and other organizations
and institutions.

Political Science – is the systematic study of politics, which Andrew Heywood

describes as “ the activity through which people make, preserve, and amend the
general rules under which they live.” Focuses on the fundamental values of equality,
freedom, and justice and its processes are linked to the dynamics of conflicts,
resolution, and cooperation.

Political Scientist – helps us understand the nature and characteristic of authority and
power distribution and how it shapes the way society is organized.

Political Science is further divided into various areas of interest:

Public Administration – examines how the government functions and how decisions
and policies are made.

Political Economy – which evaluates the interplay between economics, policies, and
law its implications to the various institutions within society.

Comparative Politics – which compares domestic politics and governance systems

across different sovereign states.

Discussed by Mrs. Nilo

CHAPTER 2: Understanding Culture and Society

Society and Culture

Society – is a group of individuals sharing a common culture, geographical location,

and government.

A society is characterized by the presence of the following elements:

a. Social solidarity
b. Shared identity and culture
c. Common language
d. Large population
e. Definite geographical area
f. Political, economic, and social organization

5 major types of Society

Hunting and Gathering – communities date as far back as several million years ago
and were considered the first societies.
Horticultural and Pastoral Societies – Horticultural societies relied on the cultivation
of plants as their primary source of food, while pastoral societies depended on the
domestication of animals.

Agricultural Societies – food production became more efficient due to the new
methods of farming, the invention of more advanced tools, and the establishment of
permanent settlements.

Industrial Societies – technological advancements resulted in the invention of

machines that improved production.

Post-industrialist Society – where knowledge is a commodity and technological

innovation is key to long-lasting growth and development.

Culture – is one of the important bases that define and influence a society.

“that complex whole which encompasses beliefs, practices, values, attitudes, laws,
norms, artifacts, symbols, knowledge, and everything that a person learns and shares
as a member of society.”

-E.B. Taylor’s Concept

Categories of Culture:

Material Culture – composed of the physical or tangible objects produced, shared, and
utilized within society such as tools or implements, paintings and other works of arts,
architectural styles, weaponry, and toys.

Nonmaterial Culture – consists of the intangible properties and elements of society

that influence the patterns of action and behavior of its member.

4 Vital Cultural Components:

Symbols – refer to things that convey meaning or represent and idea.

Language – a set of symbols that enables member of society to communicate verbally

and nonverbally.

Values – are shared ideas, norms, and principles that provide members of society the
standards that pertain to what is right or wrong, good or bad, desirable or undesirable.

Norms – are shared rules of conduct that determine specific behavior among society
members.
Various Categories of Norms:

Folkways – are norms that may be violated serious consequences.

Mores – are norms with moral connotations.

Laws – are norms that are legally enacted and enforced.

The process of culture and Identity formation within society is facilitated through
socialization and enculturation.

Socialization – refers to the life long process of forging identity through social
interaction.

Enculturation – refers to the process by which individual learns or acquires the

important aspects of his or her society’s culture.

It is important to understand that culture is dynamic. There are elements of

culture that have remained through the ages but there are also some aspects that have
adapted to the realities of the present context.

Context – refers to particular circumstances of a certain culture and is defined by

location, weather, time period, and other factors.

Contextual and Relational approach – enables us to understand the existence of a

multiple societies that have their own unique cultures.

Society and Culture According to the Three Disciples

Anthropology considers culture as the central focus of its discipline. In their

studies of various cultures, anthropologists have adopted two major views with regard
how cultures should be considered in comparison to others.

The relativistic approach considers cultures as equal. This view holds that there
are no “superior” and “inferior” cultures, and each is unique in its own way.

The ethnocentric approach is the belief that one’s native culture is superior to
other cultures. Ethnocentric societies tend to have a negative view of other countries
and people.

Ethnocentrism diminishes or invalidates “other” ways of life and creates a

distorted view of one’s own.
 Conversely, there are some societies that have the tendency to consider their
culture as inferior to others. This is called xenocentrism.

At present, majority of modern societies place emphasis on cultural relativism,

which recognizes and accepts the cultural differences between societies.

Sociology relates culture with overall context of social order. There are different
sociological perspectives that explain this order.

Structural functionalism operates on the assumptions that society is stable and

orderly system.

Conflict theory assumes that there is constant power struggle among the
various social groups and institutions within society.

Symbolic Interactionism views individual and group behavior and social

interactions as defining features of society.

Political Science also examines culture as a vital aspect of society. Political

science also looks into the decline of cultural domination by western countries and the
subsequent rise of multiculturalism, and ideology that acknowledges and promotes
cultural diversity within society.

Instead of cultural relativism, some have advanced the concept of cultural

sensitivity. Cultural sensitivity advances awareness and acceptance of cultural
differences but encourages a critical stance in dealing with issue regarding diversity.

Reported by John Arnold Caray

UNIT II: The Individual and Society

CHAPTER 3: Becoming a Member of Society

John Locke, a British Enlightenment philosopher said that the human mind at
birth is nothing but a blank slate, or tabula rasa.

Socialization refers to the lifelong process of social interaction through which

people acquire their identities and necessary survival skills in society. It prepares new
member of society and trains them to think, feel, and act in appropriate ways.
Socialization is considered the central process of social life.
 Socialization is also important in politics, and a citizen develops and acquires
political ideas, values, attitudes, beliefs, and opinions through political socialization, a
process which enables the development of citizens to function effectively within a
particular political system.

Internalization refers to the process of accepting the social norms, attitudes,

roles, and values transmitted by people and social groups within society as one’s own.

Three Significant Aspects of Socialization:

Social Context – refers to the particular circumstances of a society and consists of its
culture, language, and the social structures that define social class, ethnicity, and
gender.

Content and Process – Content refers to ideas, beliefs, behavior, and other
information that are passed on by the members of society to the individual; the process
refers to the methods of interaction that enables the content to be given to the person
undergoing socialization.

Result – refer to the outcomes of socialization, and are evident when individuals begin
to practice the behaviors, attitudes, and values that society considers necessary for
them to function effectively as its member.

A significant result of socialization is self-identity, which refers to the

establishment of a unique sense of identity and an awareness of how it relates to their
society and the world.

Anthropologist view socialization in terms of becoming familiars with one’s own

culture, and use the term enculturation to describe the process of being socialized into
a specific culture.

“in all its uniqueness and particulary”

-American Anthropologist, Margaret Mead

“both a conscious and unconscious conditioning process whereby a person, as a child

and an adult, achieves competence in his or her culture, internalizes it and becomes
thoroughly enculturated. ”

-E. Adamson Hoebel

 “individual unconsciously internalizes his or her culture”

-Melville Herskovits

Socialization and enculturation go hand-in-hand in instilling in the individual the

accepted values, norms, and standards of behavior in society through social rules on
behavior and laws.

Agents of Socialization and Enculturation

These groups are called participants or agents of socialization and

enculturation, and consist of persons, groups, and institutions that teach people
essential knowledge to participate successfully in society.

The Family

Primary agent of socialization of an individual upon birth, throughout infancy, and

up to childhood.

Schools

Schools have a critical and active role in socialization, as their various academic
and social activities mold students’ beliefs, values and attitudes.

Peer Groups

Peer Groups also reinforced acceptable behaviors introduced by the family and
school, allow a certain degree of independence from family and certain figures of
authority, and are also a means for socialization and involvement in social and political
issues.

Mass Media

It is a powerful agent of socialization which is widely used by many institutions

and organizations involved in the use of print and electronic communication.

Pluralist Model – portrays media as an ideological marketplace that enhances debate

and electoral choice.

Market Model – suggests that media reflects the views of the general public, and that
media presents what they think the people want.

Dominant-ideology and elite-values Models – put emphasis on the influence of bias

in the activities of media institutions.
Dominant-ideology Model – traces this bias to links between media and the political
and social elite.

Elite-values Model – recognizes media bias as a product of the personal views of

media professionals such as journalists, broadcasters, and editors.

Religion and State

Both religion and state are considered as the ultimate source of authority, making
the church and government important agents of socialization.

Major Social and Historical Events

The changes and developments brought about by historical events often cause
transformations in the values, attitudes, and views that define societies, leading to
further changes in the behavior and traditions of societies.

Conformity, Deviance, and Social Control

Conformity refers to the process of altering one’s thoughts and actions to adapt
to the accepted behavior within his or her groups or society.

Compliance refers to the outward conformity to the social pressure but privately
disagreeing with it.

Identification refers to the individual adopting a certain behavior because it

enables him or her to have a satisfying relationship with the member of his or her group.

Internalization or acceptance involves both public compliance and internal

acceptance of the norms and standards imposed by the groups.

Deviance is defined as a behavior that elicits a strong negative reaction from

group members and involves actions that violate commonly held social norms.

Structural Strain Theory – argues that the tensions and strains between socially-
approved goals and an individual’s ability to meet them will lead to deviance.

Subcultural View – points to the emergence of deviant behavior within certain groups
in society or subcultures.

Labeling Theory – believes that there is actually no deviance in society; deviance only
emerges when society begins labelling certain action as deviant or undesirable.
Conflict Perspective - analyzes deviance in the framework of competing interest
between social groups and the maintenance of power among the elites.

Broken Window Theory – suggests a direct relationship between social disorder and
deviance, and the maintaining even an appearance of order is sufficient to discourage
deviance.

Social Control is defined as any systematic means and practices used to

maintain norms, rules, and laws; regulate conflict; and discourage deviant behavior.

Sanctions are the most common means of social control, and are often
employed to address conflicts and violations of social norms.

Formal Sanctions –are those provided for by laws and other regulations in society

Informal Sanctions – are most commonly imposed by smaller societies, communities,

groups.

Human Dignity and Human Rights

Human Dignity refers to the idea that a person has the innate right to be valued,
respected, and treated well.

Human Rights are legal, social, and ethnical principles that consider the human
person as deserving of liberties and protections by virtue of his or her human dignity.

Human Rights Characteristics :

 Universal because they belong to all human beings.

 Fundamental since they cannot be taken away from any human.
 Indivisible as various rights are interrelated and given equal importance.
 Absolute since they cannot be qualified and are considered basic necessities for
living a genuine life.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

1. All human beings are born free and equal. Each individual is gifted with reason and
conscience.

2. There shall be no discrimination in the recognition of rights. Whatever your

race,color,sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, birth, or status, you are
entitled to the same rights as other people.

3. We all have the right to life and to live freely and safely.

4. There shall be no slavery. We cannot make another person our slave.

5. No one has any right to torture or hurt another person, or subject them to inhuman or
degrading treatment.

6. Everyone has the right to equal and fair treatment under the law.

7. All are entitled to equal protection of their rights under the law.

8. We have the right to seek protection and remedy from the courts in case our rights
are violated.

9. We cannot be placed under arrest or imprisoned without good reason.

10. We are all entitled to a fair and public trial by an impartial court.

11. A person accused of a crime is presumed to be innocent until proven guilty by the
court. The accused also has the right to defend himself or herself and prove his or her
innocence.

12. We have the right to privacy. Nobody has the right to come into our homes, open
our letters, or interfere with our daily activities. We also have the right to defend our
name and reputation.

13. We have the right to travel to any place in our country and even travel to other
countries.

14. We have the right to seek protection in other countries if we are being persecuted in
our own country.

15. Everyone has a right to a nationality and one cannot be deprived of his or her
nationality.

16. All consenting adults have the right to be married and start a family. Men and
women have the same rights when they are married and when they are separated.

17. Everyone has the right to own property. A person's property cannot be taken away
from him without reason.

18. Each person has freedom of thought, belief, and religion. One also has the right to
freely practice his or her beliefs and religion, or change them if they wish.
19. Everyone has the right to have an opinion and to freely express their thoughts and
ideas.

20. We have the right to gather together and associate with other people freely.

21. We have the right to participate in government, have access to public services, and
vote in the elections.

22. Everyone has the right to affordable housing, medicine, education, and childcare.

23. We have the right to be employed and to choose our profession. We also have the
right to be paid justly for our work, to be given protection in our workplace, and to join a
trade union.

24. Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, and to be given reasonable hours of
work.

25. Everyone as the right to live a good life and have adequate food, clothing and
shelter. The elderly, unemployed, disabled, and children have the right to be cared for.

26. We have a right to education. Basic education should be free, and higher education
should be affordable and easily available for all. Education should lead to the full
development of the individual. Parents have the right to decide on their children's
education.

27. Everyone has the right to be part of their community and culture, to enjoy the arts,
and share in the benefits of scientific advancement. A person also has the right to
ownership of his or her own artistic or intellectual creation.

28. All persons have the right to live in a society that upholds human rights and
freedoms.

29. Everyone has the duty to uphold not only their own rights but also the rights of
others, and to responsibly exercise their rights and freedoms.

30. No individual, group, or government can take away your human rights.

Reported by Louie Mae Santos and Sarah Khaye Sumaquial

CHAPTER 4: How a Society is Organized

Groups within Society

A social group is a collection of individuals who have relations with one

another that make them interdependent to some significant degree.

Interdependence is a necessary condition that exist within social groups

because it is what enables its members to pursue shared goals or promote common
values and principles.

An aggregate, a mere collection of people within a particular place and time.

Primary and Secondary Group

A primary group is a small, intimate, and less specialized group whose member
engage in face to face and emotion-based interactions over and extended period of
time.

Secondary groups, in contrast, are larger, less intimate, and more specialized
groups where members engage in an impersonal and objective oriented relationship for
a limited time.

In-groups and Out-groups

Another relevant approach in understanding the characteristics of social groups

is the self-categorization theory. It proposes that people’s appreciation of their group
membership is influenced by their perception towards people who are not members of
their groups.

An in-group is a group to which one belongs and with which ones feels a sense
of identity.

An out-group is group to which one does not belong and to wgich he or she feel
a sense of competitiveness or hostility.

Reference Group

A reference group is group to which and individual compares himself or herself.

It has a strong influence on an individual’s beliefs, values, behavior, and attitudes.

Networks

A network refers to the structure of relationships between social actors or groups.

These are interconnections, ties, and linkages between people, their groups, and the
larger social institutions to which they all belong. Modern societies feature more
expansive, diverse, and overlapping social networks than primitive ones.

Discussed by Mrs. Nilo

UNIT III: Cultural, Social, and Political Development

CHAPTER 5: Looking Back at Human Biocultural and Social

Evolution

Growth and Development of Societies

Social Scientist, particularly political scientist and sociologist, inquire about

society and its various institutions and how this affect human relationships and
interaction.

Social Evolution went hand-in-hand with the processes of socialization and

enculturation. Anthropologist cite three types of societal evolution: biological, cultural,
and technological. These types of evolution are seen to be interrelated.

Biological Evolution refers to the process whereby organisms undergo various

genetic and physical changes that pave the way for biological diversity.

“the various types of plants, animals, and other living things on earth have their origins
in other pre-existing types and distinguishable differences are due to modifications in
successive generations.”

-Francisco Jose Ayala, a noted Spanish-American biologist

Technological Evolution, as they learned to create various tools and equipment

for their daily tasks such as planting crops, domesticating animals, and trade. As people
learned to live together as a society, shared beliefs, ideas, values, attitudes, practices,
knowledge, and material possessions were accumulated over time and forget a sense
of culture among the member of society.
 Anthropologist introduced the concept of biological evolution sometimes in the
1970s. They refer to biological evolution as “ the mutual interactive evolution of human
biology and culture .”

Cultural Development is interconnected with people’s capacity for language,

tool-making, and technological innovation. In particular, anthropologist put emphasis on
the role of effective participation in social networks in cultural development.

The Evolution of Social and Political Institutions

Social Scientists asserts that human beings are social beings. People are
naturally inclined to live together and learn from continuous interaction with one another.

The Anthropologist Lewis Henry Morgan came up with an evolutionary scheme

that divided history into three stages of development.

Savage Stage – is the lowest stage of development which is exemplified by the

nomadic and hunter-gatherer lifestyle.

Barbaric Stage – is middle stage of development where people began learning

agricultural techniques and the domestication of animals.

Civilized Stage – is the highest stage of development where people learned writing.

The evolution of human beings has given rise to the development of social
organizations from hunting-gathering groups to agricultural communities and industrial
societies. The developments and changes in social organization progressed over
several thousand years, and were influenced by innovations and changes to the human
condition.

The earliest societies were comprised of the hunters-gatherers, and were referred
to as band-level societies or simply “bands.” They were basically small and nomadic
family groups and were plainly organized.

The emergence of more complex social organizations came about only with
advent of agriculture and the organization of sedentary communities.

These changes brought about the establishment of the tribe. This was a more
formal social organization made up of several bands and groups that were connected
through a clan structure or kinship. Additionally, the leader of the tribe or headman was
a more formal and established leader. He had significant influence among the members
of the tribe and was recognized as a person of great importance.
 The chiefdom, which consisted of tribes united under one leader or chief, Within
chiefdoms, the more complicated interactions among member tribes as well as the large
populations and territories further transformed leadership roles and gave the chief more
complex responsibilities.

The Industrial Revolution

This event introduced significant social, cultural, and political changes in the
lives of the people of Europe. Among the effects of the Industrial Revolution were
increased migration, the growth of urban populations, changes in lifestyle, increased
production, technological advancements, and the rise of the middle class.

As a result, agricultural societies were transformed into industrial societies.

Adam Smith, argued that the role of the state is to facilitate the growth of the
economy and maintaining an unregulated, “free market.”

LAISSEZ-FAIRE (“let be”) is the principle of nonintervention of government in economic

affairs. It is the heart of the doctrine that the economy works best when left alone by
government.

Theories on Society and State

The discussion on the evolution of societies has given rise to various ideas
regarding the origin and nature of society and the state.

Society as Natural Institution

The ancient Greeks believed that society and its various institutions are a natural
products of man’s interaction. The Greek philosopher Aristotle believed that human
beings are by nature social and political animals, and the human interactions fulfill
certain basic needs.

Society as a Product of a Social Contract

Another view regarding the nature and origin of the society and state looks at
these institutions as a product of social contract – an agreement made by the
members of society that defines and influences their interactions, particularly with those
in those in authority.

Modernization Theories

The historical-materialist perspective developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich

Engels, asserts that societies evolve in stages in relation to the development of the
means of production and its ownership.

The sociologist Max Weber, writing in the early 20th century, observed the
process of rationalization and bureaucratization that happened in modern industrial
societies. Based on these perspectives, more specialized functions have to be
performed by social institutions as societies expand economically.

The term bureaucracy is a fusion of two words, the French bureau meaning “office” and
the Greek word kratos meaning “hierarchy.” Literally, bureaucracy means “ruled by
officials.”

Mechanical Solidarity, or a sense of bonding within the community based on

similar beliefs, values, and activities as well as kinship ties between its members.

More developed societies, however, are characterized by and organic solidarity

where division of labor is more specialized.

-Reported by Jayjay Binalagay

CHAPTER 6: Social Institutions

What are Social Institutions?

Social Institutions – refers to organized sets of elements such as beliefs, rules,

practices, and relationships that exist to attain social order.

Elements of Social Institutions

Institutional Approach
Tells us that social institutions are ordered sets of rules, norms, beliefs, or values
that organize human behavior.
Relational Approach
Focuses on social relations rather than rules, norms, beliefs, or values.

Social Institutions

The family, economy, education, health, religion, and other non-state institutions
are the primary examples of social institutions. They differ from political institutions
under the state.

The Family, Marriage, and Kinship

The family is considered a vital social institution. Aristotle considered the family
as having arisen from a man’s desire to leave something of him behind.

In the Philippines, the family is considered as the foundation of the nation, as

stated in the 1987 Constitution. It is a vital institution for the continued survival of
humanity because it nurtures off-springs from childhood into adulthood.

The family is a group of people who are related by birth, marriage, and a shared
residence.

Several Kinds of Families

Nuclear families - Composed of parents and children.

Extended families - Composed of the nuclear family and other relatives such as
grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousin.

Reconstituted families - Are composed of the spouses and their children from a
previous marriage.

Kinship

Which is a social structure defined by relations among individuals linked by blood

or marriage ties.

Kinds of Kinship

Matrilineal - Means that one’s descent is based on female line.

Patrilineal - On the contrary, means that one’s descent is based on male line.

Bilineal - Refers to the descent system based on both male and female lines.
Marriages can either be Monogamous or Polygamous

Monogamous - For most Christian societies, for example marriage is monogamous

means that a spouse cannot have more than one spouse.

Polygamous - Among Muslim Societies, in contrast, this means that a person can have
more than one spouse.

Type of Polygamy

a) Polygyny - A husband could take many wives.

b) Polyandry - Where wife can marry many husbands.

The Economy

An institution that addresses questions regarding limited resources of society.

According to Liberal Economist

The answer to the important questions regarding the resources of the society
should be determined by the market.

According to Adam Smith

The market is a self- regulating mechanism.

Socialist

Believe that bourgeoisie or the social class that largely controls the means of
production would have an overwhelming control over the free- market economy.

Only bourgeoisie benefits from the free market system.

Bourgeoisie is made up of those who are involved in the financial sector.

Market Failure

Refer to the cases when the market becomes inefficient due to imperfect
information, imperfect mobility, and the like.
Educational and Health Institutions

Two institutions that uphold basic human rights are the educational and health
institutions.

An educational institution ensures that individuals are functionally literate, while

health institutions ensure that individuals have access to health services to promote
universal public health.

Educational and health services could be provided by either the state or by

private entities.

In an ideal situation, basic education and health services are provided for free by
the state.

Religion

Religion is an institution that involves a set of beliefs and practices of particular

social groups.

The beliefs of religious group affect the behavior of their members. It is important
therefore to know how to the beliefs of a religion affects the actions of its members.

Religion may be organized into a group that has a universal membership called a
church or it could also be organized into an exclusive group called a sect .the church of
a particular religion may be supported by the larger society and it also supports the
beliefs of a larger society, while a sect usually challenges the norms of the larger
security.

Religion can be further classified into Monotheistic or Polytheistic religions:

 Monotheistic refers to religions that believe in only one god, while polytheistic
religions believe in many goals.

 Christianity, Judaism, and Islam are examples of monotheistic religions,

while Hinduism is a polytheistic religion.

 Animism meanwhile is not considered a religion but rather a belief system that
holds that both animate and inanimate things have a spiritual to human beings
and transcendental beings.
  As a result, animists venerate objects such as rocks, lakes, plants, and other
natural elements.

 Shintoism and Jainism are examples of belief system that contain of

animism.

According to Marx

 Religions reinforces social control and is the opiate of the masses its role to
justify the sufferings experienced by the proletariats or members of the lower
social classes, particularly the wages-earners it is part of society
superstructures and a products of society s economic realities.

 Marx further argued that Religion is used by the capitalism to further oppress
the proletariat and a tool to dominate the less powerful. As such, he
considered the abolition of religion as part of the socialist revolution that
would pave the way for communication. Into more developed economy.
Frugality and hard work could contribute to the Accumulation of capital which
is important industrialization. Weber s thesis shows how beliefs affect human
behavior and how human behavior could affect society.

 August Comte proposed that the dominance of religion is part of the

theological phase the development of society.

 The phase is characterized by mysticism. If then transitions to the

metaphysical phase when man already possesses abstract ideas. He
believed that society will ultimately arrive at the scientific phase where by
science and rationality will dominate will dominate.

 Therefore, the scientific phase will mean the end of mysticism and the start of
the Secularization process.

 The secularization theory predicts the decrease in the influence of religion

and organized churches in social affairs.

 In many societies. Where religions as considerable influence including Brunei

and Iran states with governments that are under the power of religions
leaders are called theocracies.

 Others indicators of the secularization of society are the decreasing church

attendance and the replacement of replacement of the theological bases of
public policies with more secular policies like human rights. These could be
 observed in Europe and the rest of west. However, it is argued that the
secularization theory is also limited given the influence of the Christians
churches in the United States, and the continued influence of Islam in Asia
and Africa.

 Liberations theology for examples has been the basic for the Catholic
Church to oppose dictators during the turbulent postwar period in South
America. It also became the mission of the Catholic Church to be involved in
addressing issues, most particularly poverty, in the social sphere.

 On the contrary, there are also many extremist groups that pervert the
doctrines of certain religions like the Buddhist Extremists in Myanmar
and the Islamist extremists like the Islamic state of Iraq and Syria or ISIS.

-Reported by Gwyneth Bautista and Joan Gratuito