RESEARCH METHODS

RESEARCH
Research is at times mistaken for gathering information, documenting facts, and
rummaging for information (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001). Research is the process of collecting,
analyzing, and interpreting data in order to understand a phenomenon (Leedy & Ormrod). The
research process is systematic in that defining the objective, managing the data, and
communicating the findings occur within established frameworks and in accordance with
existing guidelines. The frameworks and guidelines provide researchers with an indication of
what to include in the research, how to perform the research, and what types of inferences are
probable based on the data collected.
Research originates with at least one question about one phenomenon of interest. For
example, what competencies might inhibit or enhance the accession of women into senior
leadership positions (Williams, 2005)? Or, what leadership factors might influence the
retention choices of registered nurses? Research questions, such as the two preceding
questions, help researchers to focus thoughts, manage efforts, and choose the appropriate
approach, or perspective from which to make sense of each phenomenon of interest.

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of
scientific procedures.
The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been
discovered as yet.
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it
1. (studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research
studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables
5. (such studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies).

BASIC RESEARCH ISSUES AND CONCEPTS

 The decision about the purpose of the study (exploratory, descriptive, hypothesis
testing),
 Where the research will conducted (i. e, study setting),
 The type of research that should be (kind of investigation),
  The extent to which researchers manipulated and control research (researcher
interference level),
 The temporal aspects research (time horizon),

 And the rate at which data will be analyzed (if the unit of analysis), is an integral part
of the research design.
ORIENTATION TO RESEARCH PROCESS
“Research-oriented process is a concept of process that revolves around inquisitive,
problem-oriented and critical thinking, autonomous and creative working and practical
application in academic research.
The concept of research-oriented learning encompasses the unity of research and
teaching: education through science. Research-oriented learning needs guidance.
There is no one best way to do research. The strategy that works best for the problem
you are studying won't necessarily work for someone else's problem. Instead of prescribing a
set of specific methods for research.

The three common approaches to conducting research are quantitative, qualitative, and
mixed methods. The researcher anticipates the type of data needed to respond to the research
question. For instance, is numerical, textural, or both numerical and textural data needed?
Based on this assessment, the researcher selects one of the three aforementioned approaches to
conduct research. Researchers typically select the quantitative approach to respond to research
questions requiring numerical data, the qualitative approach for research questions requiring
textural data, and the mixed methods approach for research questions requiring both numerical
and textural data.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH APPROACH

Quantitative research emerged around 1250 A.D. and was driven by investigators with
the need to quantify data. Since then quantitative research has dominated the western cultural
as the research method to create meaning and new knowledge. What constitutes a quantitative
research method involves a numeric or statistical approach to research design. Leedy and
Ormrod (2001) alleged that quantitative research is specific in its surveying and
experimentation, as it builds upon existing theories. The methodology of a quantitative
research maintains the assumption of an empiricist paradigm (Creswell, 2003). The research
itself is independent of the researcher. As a result, data is used to objectively measure reality.
Quantitative research creates meaning through objectivity uncovered in the collected data.
Quantitative research can be used in response to relational questions of variables within
the research. “Quantitative researchers seek explanations and predictions that will generate to
other persons and places. The intent is to establish, confirm, or validate relationships and to
develop generalizations that contribute to theory” (Leedy and Ormrod, 2001, p. 102).
Quantitative research begins with a problem statement and involves the formation of a
hypothesis, a literature review, and a quantitative data analysis. Creswell (2003) states,
quantitative research “employ strategies of inquiry such as experimental and surveys, and
collect data on predetermined instruments that yield statistical data”. The findings from
quantitative research can be predictive, explanatory, and confirming. The next section focuses
on quantitative research methodology.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research methodology is defined by Leedy & Ormrod (2001) as “the general approach
the researcher takes in carrying out the research project” (p. 14). Quantitative research involves
the collection of data so that information can be quantified and subjected to statistical treatment
in order to support or refute “alternate knowledge claims” (Creswell, 2003, p. 153). Creswell,
(2002) asserts that quantitative research originated in the physical sciences, particularly in
chemistry and physics. The researcher uses mathematical models as the methodology of data
analysis. Three historical trends pertaining to quantitative research include research design,
test and measurement procedures, and statistical analysis. Quantitative research also involves
data collection that is typically numeric and the researcher tends to use mathematical models
as the methodology of data analysis. Additionally, the researcher uses the inquiry methods to
ensure alignment with statistical data collection methodology.
There are three broad classifications of quantitative research: descriptive experimental
and causal comparative (Leedy and Ormrod, 2001). The descriptive research approach is a
basic research method that examines the situation, as it exists in its current state. Descriptive
research involves identification of attributes of a particular phenomenon based on an
observational basis, or the exploration of correlation between two or more phenomena.
During the experimental research, the researcher investigates the treatment of an intervention
into the study group and then measures the outcomes of the treatment. There are three types of
exploratory approaches: pre-experimental, true experimental, and quasi-experimental (Leedy
& Ormrod). The pre-experimental design involves an independent variable that does not vary
or a control group that is not randomly selected. Campbell and Stanley (1963) endorsed the
true experimental design, which provides a higher degree of control in the experiment and
produces a higher degree of validity. The true experimental designs result in a systemic
approach to quantitative data collection involving mathematical models in the analyses. Where
as, the quasi-experimental design involves nonrandom selection of study participants.
Therefore, control is limited and true experimentation is not possible. Since the variable cannot
be controlled, validity may be sacrificed.
In the causal comparative research, the researcher examines how the independent
variables re affected by the dependent variables and involves cause and effect relationships
between the variables. The factorial design focuses on two or more categories with the
independent variables as compared to the dependent variable (Vogt, 1999). The causal
comparative research design provides the researcher the opportunity to examine the interaction
between independent variables and their influence on dependent variables.

METHODS TO CONDUCT QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Several research methods exist to conduct quantitative research. In descriptive research
method, correlational, developmental design, observational studies, and survey research are
used. These research methods may also be used in various degrees with experimental and
causal comparative research.
In the correlational research method, the research examines the differences between the
two characteristics of the study group. Leedy and Ormrod (2001) felt that it is crucial to observe
the extent to which a researcher discovers statistical correlation between two characteristics
depending on some degree of how well those characteristics have been calculated. Hence,
validity and reliability are important components that affect correlation coefficients. Bold
(2001) noted that the purpose of a correlational study is to establish whether two or more
variables are related. Creswell (2002) defined correlation as a statistical test to establish
patterns for two variables. The statistical analysis of the research question can be conducted
through a progression or sequence of analyses using a standard test for correlation that
produces a result called “r.” The r coefficient is reported with a decimal numeral in a process
known as the Pearson Correlation Coefficient (Cooper and Schindler, 2001).
During the development design, the researcher explores how characteristics may
change over time within a study group. Two types of development designs include cross-
sectional and longitudinal. In the cross-sectional study, the researcher compares two different
groups within the same parameters. Whereas, the longitudinal study is commonly used in child
development research to better understand a phenomena of particular age groups or to study a
group over a specific period of time (Leedy and Ormrod, 2001).
In the observational study method, the researcher observes a particular aspect of human
behavior with as much objectivity as possible and records the data. This research method may
provide an alternative to various qualitative research methods. In the survey research method,
the researcher tends to capture phenomena at the moment. This method is used for sampling
data from respondents that are representative of a population and uses a closed ended
instrument or open-ended items. A survey research is one of the ways to gather data in the
social sciences.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH APPROACH

Qualitative research is a holistic approach that involves discovery. Qualitative
research is also described as an unfolding model that occurs in a natural setting that enables
the researcher to develop a level of detail from high involvement in the actual experiences
(Creswell, 1994). One identifier of a qualitative research is the social phenomenon being
investigated from the participant‟s viewpoint. There are different types of research designs that
use qualitative research techniques to frame the research approach. As a result, the different
techniques have a dramatic effect on the research strategies explored.
What constitutes qualitative research involves purposeful use for describing,
explaining, and interpreting collected data. Leedy and Ormrod (2001) alleged that qualitative
research is less structured in description because it formulates and builds new theories.
Qualitative research can also be described as an effective model that occurs in a natural setting
that enables the researcher to develop a level of detail from being highly involved in the actual
experiences (Creswell, 2003).
Qualitative research is conducted within a poststructuralist paradigm. There are
five areas of qualitative research: case study, ethnography study, phenomenological study,
grounded theory study, and content analysis. These five areas are representative of research
that is built upon inductive reasoning and associated methodologies.
Qualitative research builds its premises on inductive, rather than deductive
reasoning. It is from the observational elements that pose questions that the researcher attempts
to explain. The strong correlation between the observer and the data is a marked difference
from quantitative research, where the researcher is strictly outside of the phenomena being
investigated. There is no beginning point of truth or any established assumptions from which
the researcher can begin (Leedy and Ormrod, 2001). This empirical research is data collected
from the senses and is used to explain phenomena relevant to social behaviors in new and
emerging theories. In addition to the distinct differences between quantitative and qualitative
research designs, notable differences have also been identified in each respective research
methodology. The following sections will briefly describe the qualitative research
methodology.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

There are several different methods for conducting a qualitative research; however,
Leedy and Ormrod (2001) recommend the following five: Case studies, grounded theory,
ethnography, content analysis, and phenomenological. Creswell (2003) describes how these
methods meet different needs. For instance, case studies and the grounded theory research
explore processes, activities, and events while ethnographic research analyses broad cultural-
sharing behaviors of individuals or groups. Case studies as well as phenomenology can be used
to study individuals.

Case Study
Creswell (2003) define case study as “researcher explores in depth a program, an event,
an activity, a process, or one or more individuals” . Leedy and Ormrod (2001) further require
a case study to have a defined time frame. The case study can be either a single case or a case
bounded by time and place (Creswell, 1998). Leedy and Ormrod (2001) provide several
examples from different disciplines such as a medical research studying a rare illness (event)
or political science research on a presidential campaign (activity). Leedy and Ormrod (2001)
state, case studies attempt to learn “more about a little known or poorly understood situation”
. Creswell (1998) suggests the structure of a case study should be the problem, the context, the
issues, and the lessons learned. The data collection for a case study is extensive and draws from
multiple sources such as direct or participant observations, interviews, archival records or
documents, physical artifacts, and audiovisual materials. The researcher must spend time on-
site interacting with the people studied. The report would include lessons learned or patterns
found that connect with theories.

Ethnography Study
The ethnography differs from a case study. The case study studies a person, program,
or event while ethnography studies an entire group that shares a common culture (Leedy &
Ormrod, 2001). Creswell (2003) defines “ethnographies, in which the researcher studies an
intact cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged period of time by collecting,
primarily, observational data” (p. 14). The focus is on everyday behaviors to identify norms,
beliefs, social structures, and other factors. Ethnography studies usually try to understand the
changes in the group‟s culture over time. As a result, findings may be limited to generalization
in other topics or theories.
In the ethnography methodology, the researcher must become immersed in the daily
lives of the participants in order to observe their behavior then interpret the culture or social
group and systems (Creswell, 1998). The initial step in the ethnography process is to gain
access to a site. Second, the researcher must establish rapport with the participants and build
trust. Third, the researcher starts using the big net approach by intermingling with everyone in
order to identify the key informants in the culture (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001). The data is
collected from participant observations and from interviewing several key informants. If the
interviews are lengthy, the researcher gathers documentation by using audiotapes or videotapes
media. The aspects included in ethnography are: the justification for the study, the description
of the group and method of study, the evidence to support the researcher‟s claims, and the
findings to the research question. The report must provide evidence of the group‟s shared
culture that developed over time.

Grounded Theory Study

Creswell (2003) defines grounded theory research as the “researcher attempts to derive
a general, abstract theory of a process, action, or interaction grounded in the views of
participants in a study” . Leedy and Ormrod (2001) further clarifies that grounded theory
research begins with data that develops into a theory. The term grounded provides the context
of this method while the research requires that the theory must emerge from the data collected
in the field rather than taken from the research literature (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001). Grounded
theory has also been used primarily in the sociology discipline because this method examines
people‟s actions and interactions.
Grounded theory research is the process of collecting data, analyzing the data, and
repeating the process, which is the format called constant comparative method. The data can
be obtained from several sources such as interviewing participants or witnesses, reviewing
historical videotapes or records, observations while on-site. Creswell (1998) concurs with
Leedy and Ormrod‟s (2001) standard format on how to analyze data in a grounded theory
research that includes open coding, axial coding, selective coding, and developing a theory.
Finally, a grounded theory report incorporates five aspects: describing the research question,
literature review, describing the methodology, data analysis explaining the theory, and
discussing the implications (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001).

Phenomenological Study
The purpose of this study is “to understand an experience from the participants‟ point
of view” (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001). The focus is on the participant‟s perceptions of the event
or situation and the study tries to answer the question of the experience. Creswell (1998) points
out that the essence of this study is the search for “the central underlying meaning of the
experience and emphasize the intentionality of consciousness where experiences contain both
the outward appearance and inward consciousness based on the memory, image, and meaning”
. The difficulty of this study is that the researcher usually has some connection, experience, or
stake in the situation so bracketing (setting aside all prejudgments) is required. The method for
a phenomenological study is similar to that of grounded theory because interviews are
conducted.
The method of collecting data is through lengthy (1-2 hours) interviews in order
to understand and interpret a participant‟s perception on the meaning of an event. Creswell
(1998) suggests the procedural format is writing the research questions that explore the
meaning of the experience, conducting the interviews, analyzing the data to find the clusters
of meanings, and ending with a report that furthers the readers understanding of the essential
structure of the experience. The study collects data that leads to identifying common themes
in people‟s perceptions of their experiences.
Content Analysis Study
Leedy and Ormrod (2001) define this method as “a detailed and systematic examination
of the contents of a particular body of materials for the purpose of identifying patterns, themes,
or biases” . Content analysis review forms of human communication including books,
newspapers, and films as well as other forms in order to identify patterns, themes, or biases.
The method is designed to identify specific characteristics from the content in the human
communications. The researcher is exploring verbal, visual, behavioral patterns, themes, or
biases.
The procedural process for the content analysis study is designed to achieve the highest
objective analysis possible and involves identifying the body of material to be studied and
defining the characteristics or qualities to be examined (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001). The
collection of data is a two-step process. First, the researcher must analyze the materials and put
them in a frequency table as each characteristic or quality is mentioned. Second, the researcher
must conduct a statistical analysis so that the results are reported in a quantitative format. The
research report has five sections: the description of the materials studied, the characteristics
and qualities studied, a description of the methodology, the statistical analysis showing the
frequency table, and. drawing conclusions about the patterns, themes, or biases found in the
human communications and data collection.

MIXED METHODS APPROACH

Tashakkori and Teddlie (2003) discussed the mixed methods approach to research,
which emerged in the mid-to-late 1900s (Tashakkori & Teddlie). Johnson and Onwuegbuzie
(2004) hoped that the mixed methods approach to research provided researchers with an
alternative to believing that the quantitative and qualitative research approaches are
incompatible and, in turn, their associated methods “cannot and should not be mixed” . With
the mixed methods approach to research, researchers incorporate methods of collecting or
analyzing data from the quantitative and qualitative research approaches in a single research
study (Creswell, 2003; Johnson & Onwuegbuzie; Tashakkori & Teddlie). That is, researchers
collect or analyze not only numerical data, which is customary for quantitative research, but
also narrative data, which is the norm for qualitative research in order to address the research
question(s) defined for a particular research study. As an example, in order to collect a mixture
of data, researchers might distribute a survey that contains closed-ended questions to collect
the numerical, or quantitative, data and conduct an interview using open-ended questions to
collect the narrative, or qualitative, data.
The mixed methods approach to research is an extension of rather than a replacement
for the quantitative and qualitative approaches to research, as the latter two research approaches
will continue to be useful and important (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). The goal for
researchers using the mixed methods approach to research is to draw from the strengths and
minimize the weaknesses of the quantitative and qualitative research approaches (Johnson &
Onwuegbuzie). Of course, the strengths and weaknesses associated with the various research
approaches are not absolute but rather relative to the context and the manner in which
researchers aspire to address the phenomenon under study. For example, if the researcher
purports to provide in-depth insight into a phenomenon, the researcher might view selecting a
small but informative sample, which is typical of qualitative research. The researcher might
use inferential statistics to quantify the results, which is typical of quantitative research, as
strengths worthy of combining into a single research study.
Architectural research
Architectural research requires a global or holistic understanding pf architecture. It is linked
to the central activity of architects: design. It is conditioned by the fact that there are no
determinist theories of which the design would be the application; the design itself is what
connects/ translates them.
It is a development/ extension/innovation of architectural practices.
It is interested in the recognized practices subjects and themes of architecture. Architecture is
a creative discipline oriented towards practice. It is engaged, creative, reflective practice.

TYPES OF RESEARCH STUDIES

Historical research
Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to
study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any
remote point of time.

Qualitative research
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or
amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative
research, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving
quality or kind.
For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behavior (i.e.,
why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an
important type of qualitative research. This type of research aims at discovering the
underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose.

Quantitative research
Quantitative research also involves data collection that is typically numeric and the researcher
tends to use mathematical models as the methodology of data analysis. Additionally, the
researcher uses the inquiry methods to ensure alignment with statistical data collection
methodology.
There are three broad classifications of quantitative research: descriptive experimental and
causal comparative (Leedy and Ormrod, 2001). The descriptive research approach is a basic
research method that examines the situation, as it exists in its current state. Descriptive research
involves identification of attributes of a particular phenomenon based on an observational
basis, or the exploration of correlation between two or more phenomena.
Correlational
Broadly speaking, each study sought to clarify patterns of relationships between two or more
variables, that is, factors involved in the circumstances under study.
Within the general framework of correlational research, as described in the previous section,
two major subtypes can be identified: relationship and causal comparative.

Experimental
An attempt by the researcher to maintain control over all factors that may affect the result of
an experiment. In doing this, the researcher attempts to determine or predict what may occur.
Steps involved in conducting an experimental study:
1. Identify and define the problem.
2. Formulate hypotheses and deduce their consequences.
3. Construct an experimental design that represents all the elements, conditions, and
relations of the consequences.
4. Select sample of subjects.
5. Group or pair subjects.
6. Identify and control non experimental factors.
7. Select or construct, and validate instruments to measure outcomes.
8. Conduct pilot study.
9. Determine place, time, and duration of the experiment.
10. Conduct the experiment.
11. Compile raw data and reduce to usable form.
12. Apply an appropriate test of significance.

Methods of Experimental Control

 Physical Control
 Selective Control- Manipulate indirectly by selecting in or out variables that cannot
be controlled.
 Statistical Control - Variables not conducive to physical or selective manipulation
may be controlled by statistical techniques

Simulation and modeling

 Simulation research comes out of a broader human fascination with the replication
(mimesis, imitation) of real-world objects and settings.
 Simulation’s very goal is to create “copies” of reality.

Logical and argumentation

 Logical argumentation entails the framing of broad explanatory theories.
 Of course, theoretical thinking permeates any research design. But when a broad
explanatory theory is itself the targeted outcome of a research endeavor, most likely
the strategy used to get there is logical argumentation.
Case study
“A case study is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its
real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not
clearly evident.”

Briefly, the five particularly salient characteristics are:

 a focus on either single or multiple cases, studied in their real-life contexts;
 the capacity to explain causal links;
 the importance of theory development in the research design phase;
 a reliance on multiple sources of evidence, with data converging in a triangular
fashion; and
 the power to generalize to theory.

Mixed methods
1. A Combined Strategy: A Two-Phase Design
As the term itself suggests, a two-phase research design involves combining two or
more strategies in a sequence of distinct phases. The advantage of such an approach is
that the particular procedures and standards associated with each strategy can be
presented fully and distinctly. A possible disadvantage is the potential for a perceived
lack of connection or coherence if the strategies are not conceptually well Linked.

2. A Combined Strategy: A Dominant–Less Dominant Design

As its name suggests, the dominant–less dominant design entails the insertion of one
type of research design within the framework of a distinctly different research design.

The advantage of this design is that it offers the potential of maintaining the overall
coherence of the study as it is vested in the dominant research design. The less
dominant design is then used to provide greater depth and/or validity concerning a
particular aspect of the study. The consequent disadvantage is that the full and
potentially complementary strengths of the less dominant design will not be fully
realized.

3. A Combined Strategy: Mixed-Methodology Design

The mixed-methodology design represents the most complete level of integration
among two or more research designs.
 A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE DESIGN THESIS
In a professional architecture degree program, a design thesis is generally considered to be an
independent design project developed by an upper level student in the last year of study with
direction from a faculty advisor. The design project undertaken is an invented one, chosen by
a student because it allows for the exploration of a certain set of issues in which the student
has a personal interest. A written conceptual statement, short research paper, and/ or design
portfolio can also precede or parallel the development of the independent design project. The
completed design thesis project is defended by the student before a jury review with a select
number of invited design professionals and academics in attendance. The design thesis differs
from a thesis in other disciplines because ideas are primarily communicated through
drawings and models, not a scholarly paper or research report. Also unlike other disciplines,
outside researchers or professionals generally do not use the final findings from a design
thesis for application in the field. The design thesis is much more likely to be utilized by
architecture faculty to "test" the competency of a student.
The design thesis has been a degree requirement at many architectural schools since the turn
of the century when the very first architecture schools were being formed. By the 1930's
when fifty-two architecture programs were in existence, architecture programs at Yale,
Harvard, Princeton, and Cornell among others required a design thesis as part of the terminal
degree (Bosworth 58)

ARCHITECTURAL THESIS
 This presentation is a general view of writing an architectural thesis, generated by
some research on the writing and reading skills of the writers as well as readers
respectively.
 Use this presentation as a reference only,
 Each thesis topic may differ in its contents, system and methodology of research.

THESIS SHOULD CONTAIN:

I. ABSTRACT
II. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
III. TABLE OF CONTENTS
IV. LIST OF MAPS, CHARTS, GRAPHS & TABLES
V. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
1.1: Background – Problem statement; Research questions
1.2: Objective – Sub-objectives
1.3: Methodology
1.4: Scope and Parameters
1.5: Rationale and Justification
1.6: Expected results
1.7: Use of Study

CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1: Definitions and descriptions (background of literature review)
2.2: Different Authors and their books, articles etc. (Summary of whatever literature
reviewed)
2.3: Architect’s perspective
2.4: Research Arguments ( view points of different authors both for and against)
2.5: Theoretical Framework (Identification of the gaps in arguments where you want to work)
2.6: Conceptual Framework (Hypothesis development)

CHAPTER 3 – RESEARCH DESIGN

3.1: Lessons learned through literature review
3.2: Breakup of Hypothesis in Parameters / Variables; Indicators/Values and Sources.
3.3: What data shall be collected (Based on Hypothesis breakup)
3.4: What shall be the method to collect the data
3.4.1: Observations
3.4.2: Interviews
3.4.3: More literature review
3.4.4: Questionnaire Survey
3.4.5: Photographic Survey
3.4.6: Map making (GIS/Remote Sensing)
3.4.7: Retrospective Prospective Study or Before and After study
3.4.8: Case studies method etc. Comparison of Local as well as International cases
3.4.9: Experimentation (Practical Modeling)
3.5: Method of data presentation
3.6: Method of analysis
CHAPTER 4 – ARCHITECTURAL RESEARCH
4.1: Factual data presentation (Local and International Case Studies/Contextual Information)
4.2: Data analysis as per selected method of Analysis
4.3: Synthesis (Summary of Arguments)

CHAPTER 5 – CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1: Summary of Research Findings
5.2: Interpretation of Research Findings into Design Brief
5.3: Justification of Design Brief
5.4: Site Selection Criteria; Site Selection and Analysis
5.5: Design Philosophy, Concepts and its Justification
CHAPTER 6: DESIGN PROPOSAL
6.1: Design Development Process
6.2: Master Planning Process and Alternatives Development
6.3: Detailed Design Process and Alternative development
6.4: Proposed Master Plan
6.5: Proposed Detailed Design (Floor Plans, Elevations, Sections, Views, Details below ups,
Block Models and Detailed Models.

CHAPTER 07 – RESEARCH APPRAISAL

7.1: Brief Presented to the Jury
7.2: Questions asked by Jury Members
7.3: Answers given to Jury Members
7.4: Jury’s Final Remarks (Unanswered questions)
7.5: Avenues for further research in future

8: REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

9: ANNEXURES
 Architectural Research for Sustainable Environmental Design

Simos Yannas

Environment & Energy Studies Programme

MSc & MArch Sustainable Environmental Design

Architectural Association School of Architecture, London, UK

Introduction
While much international research over the last forty years focused on energy efficiency
and the engineering of environmental design, little of this dealt directly with architecture
or answered any of the environmental questions commonly encountered by architectural
students in the course of their studies. As a result, doubt, ignorance and preconception
still prevail and need to be addressed in architectural education as well as in practice.
Providing alternatives to the universal architecture and brute force engineering that are
still the norm for architects in most countries requires new knowledge on what makes a
good environment for inhabitants and how architecture can contribute to this, reclaiming
and enhancing its historical role as a tool of environmental design.

The urban environment

By getting in the way of pre-existing energy flows, buildings alter the energy balance of
their surroundings, interfering with solar radiation and wind directed toward other
buildings, forcing microclimatic changes in their vicinity as well as impinging on
pedestrian activities. Moreover, whether heated or cooled, free-running or mechanically
controlled, buildings will release all of the energy used in them into the urban environment
around them in the form of waste heat, thus constantly and relentlessly warming the
surrounding air, acting like giant heaters for the city. In these ways urban morphology has
a dramatic influence on the climates of cities. The outcome is the fragmentation of the
urban landscape into what appears to be a random assemblage of accidental microclimates.
It is these microclimates we encounter walking in the city between its urban blocks and
terraces, its parks, squares and roofscapes. At any moment, as well as over any period of
time, the air and surface temperatures, sunshine and wind we might experience while
walking through any of these microclimates are likely to be quite different to those on
which the buildings that are housed there would have been designed. Even if we did design
environmentally architectured buildings, they might still fail badly unless we could
account for the climatology of their site (no wonder that many recent buildings failed to
live-up to
 their environmental expectations). This is the environmental inheritance of the
contemporary city, an outcome of the architecture and urbanism of the last century.

Learning environmental design

The conditions for a symbiotic relationship between buildings and the urban environments
they form and occupy are the main concern of the Masters programme in Sustainable
Environmental Design (SED) at the Architectural Association School of Architecture in
London. Knowledge and understanding of the physical principles underlying this
relationship, along with the conceptual and computational tools to translate them into an
ecological architecture and urbanism, form the core of the taught programme. Key
objectives are to improve environmental quality in cities, achieve independence from non-
renewable energy sources and promote an architecture of sustainable environmental
design. In the last five years the programme’s continuing research agenda on
“Refurbishing the City” has initiated over 350 student projects in 70 cities and some 40
countries, both north and south of the equator, encompassing a wide range of building
types and climates with proposals for both new and existing schemes. The briefs of these
projects combine on-site observations and measurements with design research that makes
use of computational tools calibrated with measured data. For architectural students the
undertaking of case studies of occupied buildings provides valuable insights on
fundamental environmental issues that affect the comfort and wellbeing of occupants as
well as the environmental performance and energy use in buildings, and which are of an
architectural origin, Fig.1.

Figure 1: Robin Hood Gardens, an iconic scheme designed by Alison and Peter Smithson in
the late 1960s which is now being demolished. Measurements and simulations performed for
this scheme highlighted both the ingenuity of its complex interweaving of dwellings
(coloured section, right) and the environmental weaknesses this built form and its “streets in
the sky”(left) entailed (Calleja et al 2011).

The combination of on-site empirical studies with analytical work provides students with
the means for testing theoretical propositions, as well as supporting design research and its
generative processes, Fig. 2. The empirical work consists of short-term measurements of
environmental parameters, surveys and interviews (with occupants, architects, engineers,
building managers). Measurements provide comparative indications of the environmental
conditions achieved and how these have varied over time, as well as between and across
different spaces. Surveys and interviews provide useful information on how things work in
practice, highlighting key issues identified by the measurements. Data collected this way on
environmental conditions, occupancy schedules, usage of appliances and on other
operational characteristics, form a useful environmental profile of the case study buildings.
They also provide the inputs needed for the calibration of digital models. There is no
substitute for the knowledge acquired by students this way and even if such case studies
were to be undertaken solely as an environmental exercise it would still teach students more
about architecture than any lecture.

Figure 2 : Generative processes for new residential development showing the evolution of
site layout and building form based on environmental studies, mixed-use requirements,
on-site food production and links with adjacent urban setting in Brixton, South London,
UK, 51o 30 N 00o 07 W (Guzman et al 2013).

The role of computational simulation

Simulation software is introduced early on, so that students can use it on projects as soon
as they have a reasonable grasp of the principles. Environmental simulation software has
improved over the last ten years, having become more visual in its interfaces and easier
to use, as well as much faster to run. It still leaves a lot to be desired, lacking the capability
to deal with all the main environmental processes interactively, being limited both in what
is covered and in how the output is given. While such limitations are a source of confusion
and disappointment for students (who are generally extremely ambitious in their approach
and expectations), they are also useful reminders that it is the knowledge and judgment
of the software user that designs the buildings not the software. Experience with the
teaching of environmental software over the last thirty years has shown that architectural
students, both undergraduate and postgraduate, can master the mechanics of software of
any complexity very quickly. The task of creating digital models of real or virtual
buildings for the purpose of environmental simulation is akin to designing a building and
commissioning it to its intended functions. The process of preparing and running
simulations is also akin to the tasks of the architectural design process. Thus up to this
stage architectural students are by far the most capable users of such software. On the
other hand, the predictions of environmental conditions that result as the output of
simulations are new and unique outcomes. They provide critical knowledge never
previously available to architects that characterises a design and its constituents in new
ways, Fig. 3. Understanding and interpreting these predictions allows students and their
teachers to assess a design and, by varying its specifications, to modify the design and
improve environmental performance, thus employing the outcome generatively. Such
predictions can now be made with a high degree of accuracy and at great speed with any
of the several mature software readily available on the educational market.

Figure 3: Simulated air and surface temperatures in urban blocks exploring potential for
microclimatic improvements by planting in the central courtyards, Athens, Greece 37o 58
N 23o 43 E (Kapsali 2012).

A first round of modelling is typically simply in order to recreate the existing conditions
of the buildings being studied. This is followed by parametric and sensitivity runs aimed
at answering questions that would have arisen from building visits and occupant
comments, and potentially also more widely from presentation of other recently
completed buildings in the architectural literature. Subsequent simulations can then
pinpoint the effect that different design features have on occupant thermal and visual
comfort and on energy use. Students will typically consider the geometry and exposure
of individual spaces; the position, shape, orientation and surface area of openings; the
thermal and solar-optical properties and solar protection of glazed surfaces and other
external building elements; occupancy profiles and occupant activity and use of home /
work appliances. Some understanding of the environmental design principles is essential
at this stage in order to avoid wasting time and getting frustrated by performing
meaningless runs. With guided practice students can learn to orient themselves
productively so as to obtain useful results quickly. Simple models of real or virtual
buildings can be run in seconds to provide hourly output for a selection of periods.
Environmental simulation then becomes a natural extension of the design process, Fig. 4.
Moreover, within the limitations of its theoretical principles, each software is an excellent
tool for learning how the principles on which it is based apply to a climatic context and
set of design conditions of the user’s choice. With practice, by the time students come to
apply the software on a second or third project, they will have become capable of
anticipating the general outcome of the simulations; running the simulation then simply
fills in the detail. Acquiring this skill reduces dependence on the software thus freeing
time for other tasks.

Figure 4a/b: Extensive fieldwork and simulation studies were undertaken to assess the
potential from passive techniques and protected transitional spaces as alternatives to all-
year airconditioning in the hot-dry climate of Kuwait City, 29o22 N 47o58 E (Dib 2013).

Adaptive Architecturing
The knowledge gained from field studies in real buildings and from running simulations
of solar, thermal, airflow and daylighting processes shows that designing near zero-
emission buildings is now feasible in most climatic regions. It also shows how important
the role of architectural design is in providing good environments. As architects we have
always claimed that. Measurement and simulation help objectify such claim. Architecture
is environmental design, but it needs the knowledge to provide sustainable environmental
design. If we are to have free-running buildings, that do not depend on mechanical heating
and cooling systems, they need to be capable of matching daily and seasonal variations in
occupancy and weather by acquiring their own variable properties and adjustable
components. I have referred to this task elsewhere as adaptive architecturing, a generative
process by which we aim to provide the means to adjust the built form and its properties
to suit occupant activities inside and the daily and seasonal cycles outside (Yannas 2013).
The projects undertaken for the AA SED Masters programme have demonstrated that this
is applicable to all building types and built forms in all inhabited locations and climates.
They also highlighted a number of research topics of global interest, as well as local issues
arising directly from particular urban contexts and design briefs. Of primary importance
among the former are fundamental design considerations such as plan depth, room
geometry, the relationships between spaces in plan and section, the admission and control
of sunshine, daylight, airflow, and the adaptive mechanisms to occupants for thermal and
visual comfort and indoor air quality Fig. 5.

Figure 5 : Design proposals for office building in Santiago, Chile, 33o 26 S 70o 39 W, show
built form resulting from functional and environmental considerations to suit new work
relationships and with window positions and sizes optimised parametrically (Swett 2013).
The occupation of spaces, the nature and energy intensity of occupant activity and the use
of appliances have a strong bearing on these questions, as well as introducing further
issues arising from lifestyle trends and technical developments Fig. 6.

Figure 6: Project for a site outside Florence, Italy, 43o47 N 11o15 E, exploring a future
scenario of portable appliances and multiple adaptive opportunities for occupants to enjoy
environmental diversity provided by passive techniques at different times and in different
parts of the dwelling (Weber 2013).
While all of the above might be of equal interest wherever a building may be located
or however its spaces may be occupied and used, their implications on environmental
performance and occupant comfort can be very different depending on building
function and location.

Figure 7: Most architects and engineers tend to give-up on passive design when
considering projects in Dubai, UAE, 25o15 N 55o18 E. Yet when studied closely the
city’s climate is actually quite mild and nice for some six months of the year, while its
more extreme periods sets design challenges well worth pursuing as attempted by this
scheme for a university campus where the layering of spaces and building elements
smoothens the transitions between inside and outside (Mogali 2012).

Figure 8 : This proposal for self-sufficient social housing in Bangkok, Thailand, 13o 45
N 100o 29 E, draws its inspiration from the life and built form of the Thai vernacular; it
eliminates the use of glass on external elevations replacing glazing with screens that are
permeable to airflow and light while protecting from direct sun (Tedkajorn 2013).

Conclusion - A shortlist of essentials

1. Learning from precedents by taking existing buildings as case studies, combining
fieldwork and computational studies. What makes a good environment for occupants,
what worked, what did not turn out as expected.
2. Learning the principles with a taught course covering the basics is essential and
must slightly precede the introductions to any software.
3. Learning from computational tools as the fastest and most effective means for
contextualising knowledge and for generalising the findings from other sources.
However, skills development and meaningful application critically depend on
experienced support. To be introduced from first year.

See also the following:

4. Basic numeracy is essential as protection from errors and to help provide direction
5. A sense of judgment to avoid splitting hairs and wasting time
6. Global principles, local applicability something working well in one context may
not work the same or at all elsewhere or in the future
7. Understanding the climatology of the urban environment millions of buildings
and urban blocks around Europe requiring urgent attention
8. Daylighting & solar control these are generally poorly understood by students and
will require special teaching effort and supportThresholds, transitional spaces,
9. conditions and variable properties where architectural and environmental becomes
one and the sameLifestyle trends, technical developments, climate change good
10. for imaginative speculation and futuristic architectural utopias.

References:
Calleja, H., N. Czech, A. Hepner and A. Tziastoudi (2011). Robin Hood Gardens.
Term 1 Building Study. MSc / MArch Sustainable Environmental Design
(SED). Architectural Association School of Architecture (AA), London.

Dib, D. (2013). From Monotony to Diversity- residential development in Kuwait City.

MArch Dissertation SED, AA School, London.
Guzman, J., J. Natanian and J. Vallejo. (2013). Mixed-Use Development in
Southwyck, Brixton. Term 2 Design Project. MSc / MArch SED, AA School,
London.

Kapsali, M. (2012). Refurbishing the Urban Blocks in Central Athens. MSc

Dissertation SED, AA School, London.

Mogali, P. (2012). Optimising Building Form and Wind Towers in Dubai. MArch
Dissertation SED, AA School, London.

Swett, T. (2013). Passive Strategies for Office Buildings in Santiago de Chile.

MArch Dissertation SED, AA School, London.
 SAINT LOUIS COLLEGE
CARLATAN CITY OF SAN FERNANDO, LA UNION
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

RESMETH
T/TH 2:30 – 4:00 PM

TOPIC: DEFINITION OF TERMS

RESEARCH METHOD
METHOD OF RESEARCH
ARCHITECTURAL RESEARCH
TYPES OF RESEARCH STUDIES
ARCHITECTURAL THESOS
SAMPLE OF ARCH’L RESEARCH W/ RATIONALE

STUDENT:
MARQUEZ, CHRISTELLERY B.
BS – ARCHITECTURE 4

PROFESSOR:
ARCH. VIC QUIJANO