Communicative language teaching

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Communicative language teaching (CLT), or the communicative approach, is
an approach to language teaching that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate
goal of study.
Language learners in environments utilizing CLT techniques, learn and practice the target language
through the interaction with one another and the instructor, the study of "authentic texts" (those
written in the target language for purposes other than language learning), and through the use of the
language both in class and outside of class.
Learners converse about personal experiences with partners, and instructors teach topics outside of
the realm of traditional grammar, in order to promote language skills in all types of situations. This
method also claims to encourage learners to incorporate their personal experiences into their
language learning environment, and to focus on the learning experience in addition to the learning of
the target language.[1]
According to CLT, the goal of language education is the ability to communicate in the target
language.[2] This is in contrast to previous views in which grammatical competence was commonly
given top priority.[3] CLT also focuses on the teacher being a facilitator, rather than an instructor.
Furthermore, the approach is a non-methodical system that does not use a textbook series to teach
English, but rather works on developing sound oral/verbal skills prior to reading and writing.

Contents

 1Background
o 1.1Societal influences
o 1.2Academic influences
 2Classroom activities
o 2.1Role-play
o 2.2Interviews
o 2.3Group work
o 2.4Information gap
o 2.5Opinion sharing
o 2.6Scavenger hunt
 3Critiques
 4See also
 5References
 6Further reading

Background[edit]
Societal influences[edit]
Language teaching was originally considered a cognitive matter, mainly involving memorization. It
was later thought, instead, to be socio-cognitive, meaning that language can be learned through the
process of social interaction. Today, however, the dominant technique in teaching any language is
communicative language teaching (CLT).[4]
It was Noam Chomsky's theories in the 1960s, focusing on competence and performance in
language learning, that gave rise to communicative language teaching, but the conceptual basis for
CLT was laid in the 1970s by linguists Michael Halliday, who studied how language functions are
expressed through grammar, and Dell Hymes, who introduced the idea of a wider communicative
competence instead of Chomsky's narrower linguistic competence.[4] The rise of CLT in the 1970s
and early 1980s was partly in response to the lack of success with traditional language teaching
methods and partly due to the increase in demand for language learning. In Europe, the advent of
the European Common Market, an economic predecessor to the European Union, led to migration in
Europe and an increased population of people who needed to learn a foreign language for work or
for personal reasons. At the same time, more children were given the opportunity to learn foreign
languages in school, as the number of secondary schools offering languages rose worldwide as part
of a general trend of curriculum-broadening and modernization, and foreign-language study ceased
to be confined to the elite academies. In Britain, the introduction of comprehensive schools, which
offered foreign-language study to all children rather than to the select few in the elite grammar
schools, greatly increased the demand for language learning.[5]
This increased demand included many learners who struggled with traditional methods such
as grammar translation, which involves the direct translation of sentence after sentence as a way to
learn language. These methods assumed that students were aiming for mastery of the target
language, and that students were willing to study for years before expecting to use the language in
real life. However, these assumptions were challenged by adult learners, who were busy with work,
and some schoolchildren, who were less academically gifted, and thus could not devote years to
learning before being able to use the language. Educators realized that to motivate these students
an approach with a more immediate reward was necessary,[5] and they began to use CLT, an
approach that emphasizes communicative ability and yielded better results.[6]
Additionally, the trend of progressivism in education provided further pressure for educators to
change their methods. Progressivism holds that active learning is more effective than passive
learning;[5] consequently, as this idea gained traction, in schools there was a general shift towards
using techniques where students were more actively involved, such as group work. Foreign-
language education was no exception to this trend, and teachers sought to find new methods, such
as CLT, that could better embody this shift in thinking.[5]
Academic influences[edit]
The development of communicative language teaching was bolstered by new academic ideas.
Before the growth of communicative language teaching, the primary method of language teaching
was situational language teaching. This method was much more clinical in nature and relied less on
direct communication. In Britain, applied linguists began to doubt the efficacy of situational language
teaching. This was partly in response to Chomsky's insights into the nature of language. Chomsky
had shown that the structural theories of language prevalent at the time could not explain the variety
found in real communication.[7] In addition, applied linguists such as Christopher Candlin and Henry
Widdowson observed that the current model of language learning was ineffective in classrooms.
They saw a need for students to develop communicative skill and functional competence in addition
to mastering language structures.[7]
In 1966, linguist and anthropologist Dell Hymes developed the concept of communicative
competence. Communicative competence redefined what it meant to "know" a language; in addition
to speakers having mastery over the structural elements of language, they must also be able to use
those structural elements appropriately in a variety of speech domains.[2] This can be neatly summed
up by Hymes's statement, "There are rules of use without which the rules of grammar would be
useless."[5] The idea of communicative competence stemmed from Chomsky's concept of
the linguistic competence of an ideal native speaker.[2] Hymes did not make a concrete formulation of
communicative competence, but subsequent authors have tied the concept to language teaching,
notably Michael Canale.[8] Canale and Swain (1980) defined communicative competence in terms of
three components: grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, and strategic competence.
Canale (1983) refined the model by adding discourse competence, which contains the concepts
of cohesion and coherence.[8]
An influential development in the history of communicative language teaching was the work of
the Council of Europe in creating new language syllabi. When communicative language teaching
had effectively replaced situational language teaching as the standard by leading linguists, the
Council of Europe made an effort to once again bolster the growth of the new method. This led to the
Council of Europe creating a new language syllabus. Education was a high priority for the Council of
Europe, and they set out to provide a syllabus that would meet the needs of European
immigrants.[7] Among the studies used by the council when designing the course was one by the
British linguist, D. A. Wilkins, that defined language using "notions" and "functions", rather than more
traditional categories of grammar and vocabulary. The new syllabus reinforced the idea that
language could not be adequately explained by grammar and syntax, and instead relied on real
interaction.[7]
In the mid 1990s, the Dogme 95 manifesto influenced language teaching through the Dogme
language teaching movement. This proposed that published materials stifle the communicative
approach. As such, the aim of the Dogme approach to language teaching is to focus on real
conversations about practical subjects, where communication is the engine of learning. The idea
behind the Dogme approach is that communication can lead to explanation, which will lead to further
learning. This approach is the antithesis of situational language teaching, which emphasizes learning
through text and prioritizes grammar over communication.[9]
A survey of communicative competence by Bachman (1990) divides competency into the broad
headings of "organizational competence", which includes both grammatical and discourse (or
textual) competence, and "pragmatic competence", which includes both sociolinguistic and
"illocutionary" competence.[10] Strategic competence is associated with the interlocutors' ability in
using communication strategies.[10]

Classroom activities[edit]
CLT teachers choose classroom activities based on what they believe is going to be most effective
for students developing communicative abilities in the target language (TL). Oral activities are
popular among CLT teachers, as opposed to grammar drills or reading and writing activities,
because they include active conversation and creative, unpredicted responses from students.
Activities vary based on the level of language class they are being used in. They promote
collaboration, fluency, and comfort in the TL. The six activities listed and explained below are
commonly used in CLT classrooms.[5]
Role-play[edit]
Role-play is an oral activity usually done in pairs, whose main goal is to develop students'
communicative abilities in a certain setting.[5]
Example:

1. The instructor sets the scene: where is the conversation taking place? (E.g., in a café, in a
park, etc.)
2. The instructor defines the goal of the students' conversation. (E.g., the speaker is asking for
directions, the speaker is ordering coffee, the speaker is talking about a movie they recently
saw, etc.)
3. The students converse in pairs for a designated amount of time.
This activity gives students the chance to improve their communication skills in the TL in a low-
pressure situation. Most students are more comfortable speaking in pairs rather than in front of the
entire class.[5]
Instructors need to be aware of the differences between a conversation and an utterance. Students
may use the same utterances repeatedly when doing this activity and not actually have a creative
conversation. If instructors do not regulate what kinds of conversations students are having, then the
students might not be truly improving their communication skills.[5]
Interviews[edit]
An interview is an oral activity done in pairs, whose main goal is to develop students' interpersonal
skills in the TL.[11]
Example:

1. The instructor gives each student the same set of questions to ask a partner.
2. Students take turns asking and answering the questions in pairs.
This activity, since it is highly-structured, allows for the instructor to more closely monitor students'
responses. It can zone in on one specific aspect of grammar or vocabulary, while still being a
primarily communicative activity and giving the students communicative benefits.[11]
This is an activity that should be used primarily in the lower levels of language classes, because it
will be most beneficial to lower-level speakers. Higher-level speakers should be having
unpredictable conversations in the TL, where neither the questions nor the answers are scripted or
expected. If this activity were used with higher-level speakers it wouldn't have many benefits.[11]
Group work[edit]
Group work is a collaborative activity whose purpose is to foster communication in the TL, in a larger
group setting.[11]
Example:

1. Students are assigned a group of no more than six people.

2. Students are assigned a specific role within the group. (E.g., member A, member B, etc.)
3. The instructor gives each group the same task to complete.
4. Each member of the group takes a designated amount of time to work on the part of the task
to which they are assigned.
5. The members of the group discuss the information they have found, with each other and put
it all together to complete the task.
Students can feel overwhelmed in language classes, but this activity can take away from that feeling.
Students are asked to focus on one piece of information only, which increases their comprehension
of that information. Better comprehension leads to better communication with the rest of the group,
which improves students' communicative abilities in the TL.[11]
Instructors should be sure to monitor that each student is contributing equally to the group effort. It
takes a good instructor to design the activity well, so that students will contribute equally, and benefit
equally from the activity.[11]
Information gap[edit]
Information gap is a collaborative activity, whose purpose is for students to effectively obtain
information that was previously unknown to them, in the TL.[12]
Example:
 1. The class is paired up. One partner in each pair is Partner A, and the other is Partner B.
2. All the students that are Partner A are given a sheet of paper with a time-table on it. The
time-table is filled in half-way, but some of the boxes are empty.
3. All the students that are Partner B are given a sheet of paper with a time-table on it. The
boxes that are empty on Partner A's time-table are filled in on Partner B's. There are also
empty boxes on Partner B's time-table, but they are filled in on Partner A's.
4. The partners must work together to ask about and supply each other with the information
they are both missing, to complete each other's time-tables.
Completing information gap activities improves students' abilities to communicate about unknown
information in the TL. These abilities are directly applicable to many real-world conversations, where
the goal is to find out some new piece of information, or simply to exchange information.[12]
Instructors should not overlook the fact that their students need to be prepared to communicate
effectively for this activity. They need to know certain vocabulary words, certain structures of
grammar, etc. If the students have not been well prepared for the task at hand, then they will not
communicate effectively.[12]
Opinion sharing[edit]
Opinion sharing is a content-based activity, whose purpose is to engage students' conversational
skills, while talking about something they care about.[12]
Example:

1. The instructor introduces a topic and asks students to contemplate their opinions about it.
(E.g., dating, school dress codes, global warming)
2. The students talk in pairs or small groups, debating their opinions on the topic.
Opinion sharing is a great way to get more introverted students to open up and share their opinions.
If a student has a strong opinion about a certain topic, then they will speak up and share.[12]
Respect is key with this activity. If a student does not feel like their opinion is respected by the
instructor or their peers, then they will not feel comfortable sharing, and they will not receive the
communicative benefits of this activity.[12]
Scavenger hunt[edit]
A scavenger hunt is a mingling activity that promotes open interaction between students.[11]
Example:

1. The instructor gives students a sheet with instructions on it. (e.g. Find someone who has a
birthday in the same month as yours.)
2. Students go around the classroom asking and answering questions about each other.
3. The students wish to find all of the answers they need to complete the scavenger hunt.
In doing this activity, students have the opportunity to speak with a number of classmates, while still
being in a low-pressure situation, and talking to only one person at a time. After learning more about
each other, and getting to share about themselves, students will feel more comfortable talking and
sharing during other communicative activities.[11]
Since this activity is not as structured as some of the others, it is important for instructors to add
structure. If certain vocabulary should be used in students' conversations, or a certain grammar is
necessary to complete the activity, then instructors should incorporate that into the scavenger
hunt.[11]
Critiques[edit]
Although CLT has been extremely influential in the field of language teaching, it is not universally
accepted and has been subject to significant critique.[13]
In his critique of CLT, Michael Swan addresses both the theoretical and practical problems with CLT.
In his critique, he mentions that CLT is not an altogether cohesive subject, but one in which
theoretical understandings (by linguists) and practical understandings (by language teachers) differ
greatly. Critique of the theory of CLT includes that it makes broad claims regarding the usefulness of
CLT while citing little data, that it uses a large amount of confusing vocabulary, and that it assumes
knowledge that is predominately language non-specific (ex. the ability to make educated guesses) is
language specific.[13] Swan suggests that these theoretical issues can lead to confusion in the
application of CLT techniques.[14]
Where confusion in the application of CLT techniques is readily apparent is in classroom settings.
Swan suggests that CLT techniques often suggest prioritizing the "function" of a language (what one
can do with the language knowledge one has) over the "structure" of a language (the grammatical
systems of the language).[14] This priority can leave learners with serious gaps in their knowledge of
the formal aspects of their target language. Swan also suggests that, in CLT techniques, whatever
languages a student might already know are not valued or employed in instructional techniques.[14]
Further critique of CLT techniques in classroom teaching can be attributed to Elaine Ridge. One of
her critiques of CLT is that it implies that there is a generally agreed upon consensus regarding the
definition of "communicative competence", which CLT claims to facilitate, when in fact there is not.
Because there is not such agreement, students may be seen to be in possession of "communicative
competence" without being able to make full, or even adequate, use of the language. That an
individual is proficient in a language does not necessarily entail that they can make full use of that
language, which can limit an individual's potential with that language, especially if that language is
an endangered language. This critique is largely to do with the fact that CLT is often highly praised
and is popular, when it may not necessarily be the best method of language teaching.[15]
Ridge also notes that CLT has nonspecific requirements of its teachers, as there is no completely
standard definition of what CLT is; this is especially true for the teaching of grammar (the formal
rules governing the standardized version of the language in question). Some critics of CLT suggest
that the method does not put enough emphasis on the teaching of grammar and instead allows
students to produce utterances which are grammatically incorrect as long as the interlocutor can get
some meaning from them.[15]
Stephen Bax's critique of CLT has to do with the context of its implementation. Bax asserts that
many researchers associate the use of CLT techniques with modernity and, therefore, the lack of
CLT techniques as a lack of modernism. In this way, these researchers consider teachers or school
systems which don't use CLT techniques as outdated and suggest that their students learn the target
language "in spite of" the absence of CLT techniques, as though CLT were the only way to learn a
language and everyone who fails to implement its techniques is ignorant and will not be successful
in teaching the target language.[3]

See also

Communicative Language Teaching

(The Communicative Approach)
BY MOHAMMED RHALMI · PUBLISHED SEPTEMBER 2, 2009 · UPDATED MAY 18, 2017
 As the language theories underlying
the Audiolingual method and the Sitiuational Language Teachingmethod were
questioned by prominent linguists like Chomsky (1957) during the 1960s, a new trend
of language teaching paved its way into classrooms. Communicative Language
Teaching (CLT), which is an approach to the teaching of second and foreign
languages, emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning
a language. It is also referred to as “Communicative Approach”. Historically, CLT has
been seen as a response to the Audio-Lingual Method (ALM), and as an extension or
development of the Notional-Functional Syllabus. Task-based language learning, a
more recent refinement of CLT, has gained considerably in popularity.
Shortcomings of structuralism and behaviorism
The theories underlying the audiolingual method and the situational language teaching
were widely criticized during the 1960s. Noam Chomsky, for instance, rejected the
structuralist view of language and demonstrated that there is a distinction between
performance and competence. The goal of the linguist is to study the linguistic
competence native speakers are endowed with. He also showed, rightly, that
structuralism and behaviorism were unable to account for one fundamental aspect of
language, namely the creativity and uniqueness of individual sentences. A child is
able to produce an infinite number of sentences that s/he has never encountered. This
makes the factors of imitation, repetition and habit formation weak arguments to
account for any language learning theory.
A shift towards communicative proficiency
The increasing interdependency between the European countries necessitated a need
for a greater effort to teach adults the principal languages of the continent. New goals
were set in language teaching profession:

 The paramount importance of communication aspects of language.

 The increasing interest in meaningful learning.
 The growing centrality of the learner in teaching processes.
 The subordinate importance of structural teaching of language.
Notional / functional dimension of language
Applied linguists and philosophers addressed another fundamental dimension of
language: the functional and communicative potential of language. The speech act
theory showed that we do something when we speak a language. We use language ( cf
Halliday 1975)

 to get things,
 to control behavior,
 to create interaction with others,
 to express personal feelings,
 to learn,
 to create a world of imagination,
 to communicate information.
Besides applied linguists emphasized a teaching of language based on communicative
proficiency rather than mastery of structures. instead of describing the core of
language through traditional concepts of grammar and vocabulary, they (Van Ek &
Alexander, 1975; Wilkins, 1976) attempted to show the systems of meaning
underlying the communicative use of language. They described two kinds of
meanings.

 Notional categories: concepts such as time, sequence; quantity, location,

frequency.
 Functional categories: requests offers, complaints, invitation …
In other words, a “notion” is a particular context in which people communicate. A
“function” is a specific purpose for a speaker in a given context. For example, the
“notion,” of shopping requires numerous language “functions,” such as asking about
prices or features of a product and bargaining.
One language competence or numerous
competences?
For Chomsky the focus of linguistics was to describe the linguistic competence that
enables speakers to produce grammatically correct sentences. Dell Hymes held,
however, that such a view of linguistic theory was sterile and that it failed to picture
all the aspects of language. He advocated the need of a theory that
incorporate communication competence. It must be a definition of what a speaker
needs to know in order to be communicatively competent in a speech community.
Later Canale and Swaine (1980) described four dimensions of communicative
competence.

 Grammatical competence: refers to what Chomsky calls linguistic competence.

 Sociolinguistic competence: refers to an understanding of the social context in
which communication takes place (role relationships, shared beliefs and
information between participants …)
 Discourse competence: refers to the interpretation of individual messsage
elements in terms of their interconnectedness and how meaning is represented in
relationship to the entire discourse or text.
 Strategic competence: refers to the coping strategies that participants use to
initiate terminate, maintain, repair and redirect communication
Learning theory
According to the the communicative approach, in order for learning to take place,
emphasis must be put on the importance of these variables:

 Communication: activities that involve real communication promote learning.

 Tasks: activities in which language is used to carry out meaningful tasks supports
the learning process.
 Meaning: language that is meaningful and authentic to the learner boosts learning.
Acquiring or learning?
Stephen Krashen later advocated in his language learning theory that there should be a
distinction between learning and acquiring. He sees acquisition as the basic process
involved in developing language proficiency and distinguishes this process from
learning. Acquisition is an unconscious process that involves the naturalistic
development of language proficiency while learning is the conscious internalization of
the rules of language. It results in explicit knowledge about the forms of language and
the ability to verbalize this knowledge. Learning according to Krashen can not lead to
acquisition.
Syllabus
Communicative language teaching syllabus organizes the teaching according to the
notional and functional categories of language rather than according to its structures.It
concentrates on the following:

 Interactions: using language to communicate,

 Tasks: using language to perform meaningful tasks
 Learner: putting the learner’s interests, needs in the forefront.
Merits of CLT
There are many advantages in teaching according to the communicative approach:

 CLT is a holistic approach. It doesn’t focus only on the traditional structural

syllabus. It takes into consideration communicative dimension of language.
 CLT provides vitality and motivation within the classroom.
 CLT is a learner centered approach. It capitalizes on the interests and needs of the
learner.
 In a world where communication of information and information technology have
broken new considerable ground, CLT can play an important role in education.
Criticism
 Notional syllabus was criticized as merely replacing one kind of list, namely a list
of grammatical structures, with another list of notions and functions.
 The various categories of language functions are overlapping and not
systematically graded like the structures of the language.
 The communicative approach focuses on the use of language in everyday
situations, or the functional aspects of language, and less on the formal structures.
There must be a certain balance between the two.It gives priority to meanings and
rules of use rather than to grammar and rules of structure. Such concentration on
language behavior may result in negative consequences in the sense that
important structures and rules would be left out.
 The approach relies extensively on the functional-notational syllabus which
places heavy demands on the learners.
 A major principle underlying this approach is its emphasis on learners’ needs and
interests. This implies that every teacher should modify the syllabus to fit the
needs of the learners.
 The requirements are difficult. Not all classrooms can allow for group work
activities and for teaching aids and materials.
In spite of its critics, CLT has gained widespread acceptance in the world of language
study. CLT can succeed, as long as teachers don’t completely reject the need for the
structure provided by grammar. Teachers must strive for moderation and shouldn’t
neglect the merits of other methods. CLT, in the hands of a balanced teacher, can
bring new life and joy to the classroom. Its vitality makes it an important contributor
to language learning approaches.

Read more on the Communicative Approach.

 Check Richards & Rogers’ book: Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching
(Cambridge Language Teaching Library)
 Brown’s book: Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (6th Edition)
References
H. Douglas Brown (1987).Principles of language learning and teaching. Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice Hall

Richards, Jack C. and Theodore S. Rodgers (1986). Approaches and methods in

language teaching: A description and analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press
 Other sources: Wikipedia – CLT

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
 Communicative Language Teaching
The role of
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Learning and
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 Background
 The origins of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) are to be found in the changes in the
British language teaching tradition dating from the late 1960s. Until then, Situational Language
represented the major British approach to teaching English as a foreign language. In Situational
Language Teaching, language was taught by practicing basic structures in meaningful situation-
based activities.
 British applied linguists emphasized another fundamental dimension of language that was
inadequately addressed in current approaches to language teaching at that time - the functional
and communicative potential of language. They saw the need to focus in language teaching on
communicative proficiency rather than on mere mastery of structures.
 Another impetus for different approaches to foreign language teaching came from changing
educational realities in Europe. With the increasing interdependence of European countries
came the need for greater efforts to teach adults the major languages of the European Common
Market and the Council of Europe, a regional organization for cultural and educational
cooperation. Education was one of the Council of Europe's major areas of activity. It sponsored
international conferences on language teaching, published monographs and books about
language teaching. The need to articulate and develop alternative methods of language
teaching was considered a high priority.
 In 1971 a group of experts began to investigate the possibility of developing language courses
on a unit-credit system, a system in which learning tasks are broken down into "portions or
units, each of which corresponds to a component of a learner's needs and is systematically
related to all the other portions" (van Ek and Alexander 1980: 6). The group used studies of the
needs of European language learners, and in particular a preliminary document prepared by a
 British linguist, D. A. Wilkins (1972), which proposed a functional or communicative definition of
language that could serve as a basis for developing communicative syllabuses for language
teaching. Wilkins's contribution was an analysis of the communicative meanings that a
language learner needs to understand and express. Rather than describe the core of language
through traditional concepts of grammar and vocabulary, Wilkins attempted to demonstrate
the systems of meanings that lay behind the communicative uses of language.
 The work of the Council of Europe; the writings of Wilkins, Widdowson, Candlin, Christopher
Brumfit, Keith Johnson, and other British applied linguists on the theoretical basis for a
communicative or functional approach to language teaching; the rapid application of these ideas
by textbook writers; and the equally rapid acceptance of these new principles by British
language teaching specialists, curriculum development centers, and even governments gave
prominence nationally and internationally to what came to be referred to as
the Communicative Approach, or simply Communicative Language Teaching. (The
terms notional-functional approach and functional approach are also sometimes used.)
Although the movement began as a largely British innovation, focusing on alternative
conceptions of a syllabus, since the mid-1970s the scope of Communicative Language Teaching
has expanded. Both American and British proponents now see it as an approach (and not a
method) that aims to (a) make communicative competence the goal of language teaching and
(b) develop procedures for the teaching of the four language skills that acknowledge the
interdependence of language and communication.
 Howatt distinguishes between a "strong" and a "weak" version of Communicative Language
Teaching:
 There is, in a sense, a 'strong' version of the communicative approach and a 'weak' version. The
weak version which has become more or less standard practice in the last ten years, stresses the
importance of providing learners with opportunities to use their English for communicative
purposes and, characteristically, attempts to integrate such activities into a wider program of
language teaching.... The 'strong' version of communicative teaching, on the other hand,
advances the claim that language is acquired through communication, so that it is not merely a
question of activating an existing but inert knowledge of the language, but of stimulating the
development of the language system itself. If the former could be described as 'learning to use'
English, the latter entails 'using English to learn it.' (1984: 279)
 Finocchiaro and Brumfit (1983) contrast the major distinctive features of the Audiolingual
Method and the Communicative Approach , according to their interpretation.
 Approach
 Theory of language
 The communicative approach in language teaching starts from a theory of language as
communication. The goal of language teaching is to develop what Hymes (1972) referred to as
"communicative competence." Hymes coined this term in order to contrast a communicative
view of language and Chomsky's theory of competence. Chomsky held that linguistic theory is
concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener in a completely homogeneous speech
community, who knows its language perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatically
 irrelevant conditions as memory limitation, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and
errors (random or characteristic) in applying his knowledge of the language in actual
performance. (Chomsky 1965: 3)
 For Chomsky, the focus of linguistic theory was to characterize the abstract abilities speakers
possess that enable them to produce grammatically correct sentences in a language. Hymes
held that such a view of linguistic theory was sterile, that linguistic theory needed to be seen as
part of a more general theory incorporating communication and culture. Hymes's theory of
communicative competence was a definition of what a speaker needs to know in order to be
communicatively competent in a speech community. In Hymes's view, a person who acquires
communicative competence acquires both knowledge and ability for language use with respect
to
 1. whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible;
 2. whether (and to what degree) something is feasible in virtue of the means of implementation
available;
 3. whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate (adequate, happy, successful) in
relation to a context in which it is used and evaluated;
 4. whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done, actually performed, and what its
doing entails.
 This theory of what knowing a language entails offers a much more comprehensive view than
Chomsky's view of competence, which deals primarily with abstract grammatical knowledge.
 Another linguistic theory of communication favored in CLT is Halliday's functional account of
language use. "Linguistics ... is concerned... with the description of speech acts or texts, since
only through the study of language in use are all the functions of language, and therefore all
components of meaning, brought into focus" (Halliday 1970: 145). In a number of influential
books and papers, Halliday has elaborated a powerful theory of the functions of language,
which complements Hymes's view of communicative competence for many writers on CLT (e.g.,
Brumfit and Johnson 1979; Savignon 1983). He described (1975: 11-17) seven basic
functions that language performs for children learning their first language:
 1. the instrumental function: using language to get things;
 2. the regulatory function: using language to control the behaviour of others;
 3. the interactional function: using language to create interaction with others;
 4. the personal function: using language to express personal feelings and meanings;
 5. the heuristic function: using language to learn and to discover;
 6. the imaginative function: using language to create a world of the imagination;
 7. the representational function: using language to communicate information.
 Learning a second language was similarly viewed by proponents of Communicative Language
Teaching as acquiring the linguistic means to perform different kinds of functions.
 At the level of language theory, Communicative Language Teaching has a rich, if somewhat
eclectic, theoretical base. Some of the characteristics of this communicative view of language
follow.
 1. Language is a system for the expression of meaning.
 2. The primary function of language is for interaction and communication.
 3. The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses.
 4. The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features, but
categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse.
 Theory of learning
 In contrast to the amount that has been written in Communicative Language Teaching literature
about communicative dimensions of language, little has been written about learning theory.
Neither Brumfit and Johnson (1979) nor Littlewood (1981), for example, offers any discussion of
learning theory. Elements of an underlying learning theory can be discerned in some CLT
practices, however. One such element might be described as the communication
principle: Activities that involve real communication promote learning. A second element is
the task principle: Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks
promote learning (Johnson 1982). A third element is the meaningfulness principle: Language
that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process. Learning activities are
consequently selected according to how well they engage the learner in meaningful and
authentic language use (rather than merely mechanical practice of language patterns). These
principles, we suggest, can be inferred from CLT practices (e.g., Little-wood 1981; Johnson
1982). They address the conditions needed to promote second language learning, rather than
the processes of language acquisition.
 More recent accounts of Communicative Language Teaching, however, have attempted to
describe theories of language learning processes that are compatible with the communicative
approach. Savignon (1983) surveys second language acquisition research as a source for learning
theories and considers the role of linguistic, social, cognitive, and individual variables in
language acquisition. Other theorists (e.g., Stephen Krashen, who is not directly associated with
Communicative Language Teaching) have developed theories cited as compatible with the
principles of CLT. Krashen sees acquisition as the basic process involved in developing
language proficiency and distinguishes this process from learning. Acquisition refers to the
unconscious development of the target language system as a result of using the language for
real communication. Learning is the conscious representation of grammatical knowledge that
has resulted from instruction, and it cannot lead to acquisition. It is the acquired system that we
call upon to create utterances during spontaneous language use. The learned system can serve
only as a monitor of the output of the acquired system. Krashen and other second language
acquisition theorists typically stress that language learning comes about through using language
communicatively, rather than through practicing language skills.
 Johnson (1984) and Littlewood (1984) consider an alternative learning theory that they also see
as compatible with CLT-a skill-learning model of learning. According to this theory, the
acquisition of communicative competence in a language is an example of skill development. This
involves both a cognitive and a behavioral aspect:
 The cognitive aspect involves the internalisation of plans for creating appropriate behaviour. For
language use, these plans derive mainly from the language system — they include grammatical
rules, procedures for selecting vocabulary, and social conventions governing speech. The
behavioural aspect involves the automation of these plans so that they can be converted into
 fluent performance in real time. This occurs mainly through practice in converting plans into
performance. (Littlewood 1984: 74)
 This theory thus encourages an emphasis on practice as a way of developing communicative
skills.

 Design
 Objectives
 Piepho (1981) discusses the following levels of objectives in a communicative approach:
 1. an integrative and content level (language as a means of expression)
 2. a linguistic and instrumental level (language as a semiotic system and an object of learning);
 3. an affective level of interpersonal relationships and conduct (language as a means of
expressing values and judgments about oneself and others);
 4. a level of individual learning needs (remedial learning based on error analysis);
 5. a general educational level of extra-linguistic goals (language learning within the school
curriculum).
 (Piepho 1981: 8)
 These are proposed as general objectives, applicable to any teaching situation. Particular
objectives for CLT cannot be defined beyond this level of specification, since such an approach
assumes that language teaching will reflect the particular needs of the target learners. These
needs may be in the domains of reading, writing, listening, or speaking, each of which can be
approached from a communicative perspective. Curriculum or instructional objectives for a
particular course would reflect specific aspects of communicative competence according to the
learner's proficiency level and communicative needs.
 The syllabus
 Discussions of the nature of the syllabus have been central in Communicative Language
Teaching. We have seen that one of the first syllabus models to be proposed was described as a
notional syllabus (Wilkins 1976), which specified the semantic-grammatical categories (e.g.,
frequency, motion, location) and the categories of communicative function that learners need
to express. The Council of Europe expanded and developed this into a syllabus that included
descriptions of the objectives of foreign language courses for European adults, the situations
in which they might typically need to use a foreign language (e.g., travel, business), the topics
they might need to talk about (e.g., personal identification, education, shopping), the
functions they needed language for (e.g., describing something, requesting information,
expressing agreement and disagreement), the notions made use of in communication (e.g.,
time, frequency, duration), as well as the vocabulary and grammar needed. The result was
published as Threshold Level English (van Ek and Alexander 1980) and was an attempt to
specify what was needed in order to be able to achieve a reasonable degree of communicative
proficiency in a foreign language, including the language items needed to realize this "threshold
level."
 Types of learning and teaching activities
 The range of exercise types and activities compatible with a communicative approach is
unlimited, provided that such exercises enable learners to attain the communicative
 objectives of the curriculum, engage learners in communication, and require the use of such
communicative processes as information sharing, negotiation of meaning, and
interaction. Classroom activities are often designed to focus on completing tasks that are
mediated through language or involve negotiation of information and information sharing.
 Learner roles
 The emphasis in Communicative Language Teaching on the processes of
communication, rather than mastery of language.

 Teacher roles
 Several roles are assumed for teachers in Communicative Language Teaching, the importance of
particular roles being determined by the view of CLT adopted. Breen and Candlin describe
teacher roles in the following terms:
 The teacher has two main roles: the first role is to facilitate the communication process
between all participants in the classroom, and between these participants and the various
activities and texts. The second role is to act as an independent participant within the
learning-teaching group. The latter role is closely related to the objectives of the first role and
arises from it. These roles imply a set of secondary roles for the teacher; first, as an organizer of
resources and as a resource himself, second as a guide within the classroom procedures and
activities.... A third role for the teacher is that of researcher and learner, with much to
contribute in terms of appropriate knowledge and abilities, actual and observed experience of
the nature of learning and organizational capacities. (1980: 99)
 Other roles assumed for teachers are needs analyst, counselor, and group process manager.

 NEEDS ANALYST
 The CLT teacher assumes a responsibility for determining and responding to learner language
needs. This may be done informally and personally through one-to-one sessions with students,
in which the teacher talks through such issues as the student's perception of his or her learning
style, learning assets, and learning goals. It may be done formally through administering a needs
assessment instrument, such as those exemplified in Savignon (1983). Typically, such formal
assessments contain items that attempt to determine an individual's motivation for studying the
language. For example, students might respond on a 5-point scale (strongly agree to strongly
disagree) to statements like the following.
 I want to study English because...
 1. I think it will someday be useful in getting a good job.
 2. it will help me better understand English-speaking people and their way of life.
 3. one needs a good knowledge of English to gain other people's respect.
 4. it will allow me to meet and converse with interesting people.
 5. I need it for my job.
 6. it will enable me to think and behave like English-speaking people.
 On the basis of such needs assessments, teachers are expected to plan group and individual
instruction that responds to the learners' needs.
 COUNSELOR
 Another role assumed by several CLT approaches is that of counselor, similar to the way this role
is defined in Community Language Learning. In this role, the teacher-counselor is expected to
exemplify an effective communicator seeking to maximize the meshing of speaker intention and
hearer interpretation, through the use of paraphrase, confirmation, and feedback.

 GROUP PROCESS MANAGER

 CLT procedures often require teachers to acquire less teacher-centered classroom management
skills. It is the teacher's responsibility to organize the classroom as a setting for communication
and communicative activities. Guidelines for classroom practice (e.g., Littlewood 1981;
Finocchiaro and Brumfit 1983) suggest that during an activity the teacher monitors, encourages,
and suppresses the inclination to supply gaps in lexis, grammar, and strategy but notes such
gaps for later commentary and communicative practice. At the conclusion of group activities,
the teacher leads in the debriefing of the activity, pointing out alternatives
 and extensions and assisting groups in self-correction discussion. Critics have pointed out,
however, that non-native teachers may feel less than comfortable about such procedures
without special training.
 The focus on fluency and comprehensibility in Communicative Language Teaching may cause
anxiety among teachers accustomed to seeing error suppression and correction as the major
instructional responsibility, and who see their primary function as preparing learners to take
standardized or other kinds of tests. A continuing teacher concern has been the possible
deleterious effect in pair or group work of imperfect modeling and student error. Although this
issue is far from resolved, it is interesting to note that recent research findings suggest that
"data contradicts the notion that other learners are not good conversational partners because
they can't provide accurate input when it is solicited" (Porter 1983).

 The role of instructional materials

 A wide variety of materials have been used to support communicative approaches to language
teaching. Unlike some contemporary methodologies, such as Community Language Learning,
practitioners of Communicative Language Teaching view materials as a way of influencing the
quality of classroom interaction and language use. Materials thus have the primary role of
promoting communicative language use. We will consider three kinds of materials currently
used in CLT and label these text-based, task-based, and realia.
 TEXT-BASED MATERIALS
 There are numerous textbooks designed to direct and support Communicative Language
Teaching. Their tables of contents sometimes suggest a kind of grading and sequencing of
language practice not unlike those found in structurally organized texts. Some of these are in
fact written around a largely structural syllabus, with slight reformatting to justify their claims to
be based on a communicative approach. Others, however, look very different from previous
language teaching texts. Morrow and Johnson's Communicate (1979), for example, has none of
the usual dialogues, drills, or sentence patterns and uses visual cues, taped cues, pictures, and
sentence fragments to initiate conversation. Watcyn-Jones's Pair Work (1981) consists of two
 different texts for pair work, each containing different information needed to enact role plays
and carry out other pair activities. Texts written to support the Malay-sian English Language
Syllabus (1975) likewise represent a departure from traditional textbook modes. A typical lesson
consists of a theme (e.g., relaying information), a task analysis for thematic development (e.g.,
understanding the message, asking questions to obtain clarification, asking for more
information, taking notes, ordering and presenting information), a practice situation description
(e.g., "A caller asks to see your manager. He does not have an appointment. Gather the
necessary information from him and relay the message to your manager."), a stimulus
presentation (in the preceding case, the beginning of an office conversation scripted and on
tape), comprehension questions (e.g., "Why is the caller in the office?"), and paraphrase
exercises.
 TASK-BASED MATERIALS
 A variety of games, role plays, simulations, and task-based communication activities have been
prepared to support Communicative Language Teaching classes. These typically are in the form
of one-of-a-kind items: exercise handbooks, cue cards, activity cards, pair-communication
practice materials, and student-interaction practice booklets. In pair-communication materials,
there are typically two sets of material for a pair of students, each set containing different kinds
of information. Sometimes the information is complementary, and partners must fit their
respective parts of the "jigsaw" into a composite whole. Others assume different role
relationships for the partners (e.g., an interviewer and an interviewee). Still others provide drills
and practice material in interactional formats.
 REALIA
 Many proponents of Communicative Language Teaching have advocated the use of "authentic,"
"from-life" materials in the classroom. These might include language-based realia, such as signs,
magazines, advertisements, and newspapers, or graphic and visual sources around which
communicative activities can he built, such as maps, pictures, symbols, graphs, and charts.
Different kinds of objects can be used to support communicative exercises, such as a plastic
model to assemble from directions.

 Conclusion
 Communicative Language Teaching is best considered an approach rather than a method. Thus
although a reasonable degree of theoretical consistency can be discerned at the levels of
language and learning theory, at the levels of design and procedure there is much greater room
for individual interpretation and variation than most methods permit. It could be that one
version among the various proposals for syllabus models, exercise types, and classroom
activities may gain wider approval in the future, giving Communicative Language Teaching a
status similar to other teaching methods. On the other hand, divergent interpretations might
lead to homogeneous subgroups.
 Communicative Language Teaching appeared at a time when British language teaching was
ready for a paradigm shift. Situational Language Teaching was no longer felt to reflect a
methodology appropriate for the seventies and beyond. CLT appealed to those who sought a
more humanistic approach to teaching, one in which the interactive processes of
 communication received priority. The rapid adoption and implementation of the
communicative approach also resulted from the fact that it quickly assumed the status of
orthodoxy in British language teaching circles, receiving the sanction and support of leading
British applied linguists, language specialists, publishers, as well as institutions, such as the
British Council (Richards 1985).
 Now that the initial wave of enthusiasm has passed, however, some of the claims of CLT are
being looked at more critically (Swan 1985). The adoption of a communicative approach raises
important issues for teacher training, materials development, and testing 'and
evaluation. Questions that have been raised include whether a communicative approach can be
applied at all levels in a language program, whether it is equally suited to ESL and EFL situations,
whether it requires existing grammar-based syllabuses to be abandoned or merely revised, how
such an approach can be evaluated, how suitable it is for non-native teachers, and how it can be
adopted in situations where students must continue to take grammar-based tests. These kinds
of questions will doubtless require attention if the communicative movement in language
teaching continues to gain momentum in the future.
 TOP

Communicative Language Teaching

The term "Communicative Language Teaching" (CLT) means different things to different teachers. To some teachers,
it simply means a greater emphasis on the use of the target language in the classroom, and in particular, a greater
emphasis on orality. To other teachers, communication entails the exchange of unknown information between
interlocutors. And finally, some teachers understand communication in the most global, anthropological terms, that is,
as a cultural-bond system for making meaning. Despite their various definitions of CLT, all the module instructors
seem to advocate for a communicative approach.
Have you heard educators use the term "Communicative Language Teaching?" What did they mean by this term?
Did you notice different emphases? What is your own definition? Do you teach for communication?

lt/lt-02-04-communicative.xml

Dr. Abrams discusses Communicative Language Teaching.

Duration: 02:32

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Dr. Abrams emphasizes "real-life language use" in her definition of communicative language teaching. In her
discussion, she takes the "speech event" as the point of departure for language teaching, rather than a discrete
grammar point or a set of vocabulary items. Do you think that current pedagogical materials meet these criteria for
"communicativeness?" In other words, how much information do pedagogical materials contain about the larger
cultural context of communication?

Authentic Texts in the Foreign Language Classroom

Discussions about real-life language use often mention the role of authentic texts and authentic materials. Dr. Garza
defines authentic language as "language produced by native speakers for native speakers to be consumed in a
native environment." But this leads to further questions about the appropriate use of authentic texts in a foreign
language classroom. After all, the classroom is not to be confused with the "native environment."

lt/lt-03-03-authenticity.xml

Dr. Garza on authentic texts.

Duration: 00:50

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Authentic materials present special challenges for beginning teachers and beginning students. Dr. Garza
acknowledges that teachers must "manipulate and massage" authentic materials to make them appropriate for the
classroom. What do you think he means? Choose an authentic text and specify how you would "massage" it for you
own classroom.

OW TO USE THE COMMUNICATIVE

APPROACH
Free Introduction to the Communicative Approach
The Communicative Approach is based on the idea that learning a language successfully comes
through having to communicate real meaning. In the Communicative Approach, the main
objective is to present a topic in context as natural as possible.
In this page, OnTESOL introduces the principles, features, and techniques used in the
Communicative Approach. You will also find free video tutorials on how to teach grammar,
vocabulary, and language skills using the Communicative Approach.
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Teaching Skills
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Principles of The Communicative Approach:

1. Language learning is learning to communicate using the target language.
 2. The language used to communicate must be appropriate to the situation, the roles of the
speakers, the setting and the register. The learner needs to differentiate between a formal
and an informal style.
3. Communicative activities are essential. Activities should be presented in a situation or
context and have a communicative purpose. Typical activities of this approach are: games,
problem-solving tasks, and role-play. There should be information gap, choice and feedback
involved in the activities.
4. Learners must have constant interaction with and exposure to the target language.
5. Development of the four macroskills — speaking, listening, reading and writing — is
integrated from the beginning, since communication integrates the different skills.
6. The topics are selected and graded regarding age, needs, level, and students’ interest.
7. Motivation is central. Teachers should raise students’ interest from the beginning of the
lesson.
8. The role of the teacher is that of a guide, a facilitator or an instructor.
9. Trial and error is considered part of the learning process.
10. Evaluation concerns not only the learners’ accuracy but also their fluency.
Communicative Language Teaching
Main Features and Techniques:
1. Meaning is paramount.
2. Dialogues, if used, enter around communicative functions and are not normally
memorized.
3. Contextualization is a basic premise. (Meaning cannot be understood out of context.
Teachers using this approach will present a grammar topic in a meaningful context.
Example: If the new topic to teach is Present Continuous, the teacher will not mime the
action of ‘walking’ and ask: What am I doing? I am walking. Instead, the teacher will show,
say, pictures of her last trip and tell the students something like: I have pictures of my
vacation. Look, in this picture I am with my friends. We are having lunch at a very
expensive restaurant. In this other picture, we are swimming at the beach.
4. Language learning is learning to communicate and effective communication is sought.
(When learners are involved in real communication, their natural strategies for language
acquisition will be used, and this will allow them to learn to use the language.)
5. Drilling may occur, but peripherally.
 6. Comprehensible pronunciation is sought.
7. Translation may be used where students need or benefit from it.
8. Reading and writing can start from the first day.
9. Communicative competence is the desired goal (i.e., the ability to use the linguistic
system effectively and appropriately).
10. Teachers help learners in any way that motivates them to work with the language.
11. Students are expected to interact with other people, either in the flesh, through
pair and group work, or in their writings.

12. The communicative approach is based on the idea that learning language
successfully comes through having to communicate real meaning. When learners
are involved in real communication, their natural strategies for language
acquisition will be used, and this will allow them to learn to use the language.
13. Example
Practising question forms by asking learners to find out personal information
about their colleagues is an example of the communicative approach, as it
involves meaningful communication.
14. In the classroom
Classroom activities guided by the communicative approach are characterised by
trying to produce meaningful and real communication, at all levels. As a result
there may be more emphasis on skills than systems, lessons are more learner-
centred, and there may be use of authentic materials.

The focus of every lesson or part of a lesson should be the performing of some action –
learning how to do something, to communicate something which he/she could not do
before learning the lesson. Learner can get answer to his/her question i.e. why is he/she
learning a particular lesson or any linguistic item. The learner understands the
importance of learning the same as it is going to help him/her in day-today
communication. So, here a learner understands and then acts.

All these actions can be approached on a variety of different levels of sophistication, and
bearing them in mind throughout the teaching/learning process.

The Whole is more than the sum of its parts

One of the most significant features of communication is that it is a dynamic and
developing phenomenon. In other words it cannot easily be analyzed into component
features without its nature being destroyed in the process. It is possible to identify
various formal features of the way language is used communicatively and these can be
studied individually. But the ability to handle these elements in isolation is no indication
of ability to communicate. What is needed is the ability to deal with strings of sentences
and ideas and in the oral modes processed in real life situations.

Thus, a crucial feature of a communicative method is that it operates with stretches of

language above the sentence level, and operates with real language in real situations.
Interestingly, this principle may lead to procedures which are themselves either synthetic
or analytic. A synthetic procedure would involve students in learning forms individually
and then practicing how to combine them; an analytic procedure would introduce
complete interactions of texts and focus for learning purposes on the way these are
constructed.

So, language used in the whole context is more useful than only studying the parts of it.

The processes are as important as the forms

A method which aims at developing the capacity of the learners to communicate in a
second language will focus at repeating continuously until they are able to
communicate well in a target language. So that the learners are able to practice the
forms of the target language, i.e. English within a given framework. It simply means
when the language is used for communication, the language forms are used for a
process of communication. There are three such processes –

Information gap
Communication is part and parcel of every human being. When two or more people are
conversing in day-today life, one may know something which is not known to the other.
The purpose of the communication is to bridge this information gap. In classroom
situation pair work undertaken to complete an incomplete picture is the best example of
transferring information as each member of the pair has a part of total information and
attempts to convey it verbally to the other.

Choice
Another crucial feature of communication is that the learners have option, both in terms
of what they will say and, more particularly, how they will say it. From the point of view
of the speaker this means that s/he must choose the ideas which s/he wants to express
with appropriate linguistic forms. Foreign language learners may face problems in
making choice in this regard.
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Feed back
This process is implicit in the above two processes. When two persons take part in an
interaction, there is normally some aim behind communicating and in what way other
person reacts is evaluated in terms of that aim. So, the strategies involved in this process
are important.

Learning by doing
It is now widely accepted that education must be ultimately learner-centred more than
the teacher-centered. The teacher may go on teach, but if the learner is not making any
effort, then there is no point of teaching. The teacher must involve the learner and must
be judged in terms of its effects on him/her. Another consequence is that learning
becomes to a large extent the learner’s responsibility. The teacher helps, advises, and
teaches, guides, the learners themselves have to learn. The learner has to be involved in
the activity. Only by practicing, acting, actually doing, the learners can learn to
communicate.

Mistakes are not always a mistake

While developing communicative ability of the learners, trivial mistakes of grammar or
pronunciation does not matter as long as the learner gets his/her message across. In the
initial stage of learning to communicate in a foreign language, mistakes are bound to
happen. The learners commit mistakes because they are trying to do something which
they have not been told or shown how to do, how to speak which they have not
mastered. It means they are not really making mistakes. If the teacher corrects each and
everything at every level, the learners may lose their confidence of using the language
for communication.

3.6.4 Principles of Communicative Language Teaching

Richards (2006) summarizes the following principles of CLT:
‘Authentic language’ in real context should be introduced in the classroom whenever
possible. It is the language used for day-today communication or functional purpose.

By teaching language, learner should be able to make out speaker’s or writer’s intention.
So that they will be communicatively competent.

There should be connectivity among all the language skills such as listening, speaking,
reading and writing together since they are regularly used in real life.

The target language is a vehicle for classroom communication, not just the object of
study. Hence, attention should be given to teaching language for communication.

One function may have different linguistic forms. As the language is taught for the
functional purpose, a variety of linguistic forms are presented together.

Students have to learn language properties i.e. cohesion and coherence which are
helpful to combine sentences together. It is essential for them as they work with
language at the discourse or super sentential (above sentence) level.

In CLT, games, role plays, group work, pair work, etc. play an important role as they have
certain feature in common to learn language effectively.

Errors are tolerated and treated as a natural outcome of the development of

communication skills.

Proper situations should be created by the teacher so as to promote communication in

the classroom.

The social contexts of the communicative situations are essential for giving meaning to
the utterances.

The grammar and vocabulary that the students learn follow from the functions,
situational context and the role of the interlocutors.

3.6.5 Communicative Ability and Communicative Competence

For effective communication one must have ability to communicate properly and have
communicative competence.

According to H. G. Widdowson, communicative abilities are ‘those skills in which the

system is realized as use. Communicative abilities embrace linguistic skills but not the
reverse. Communicative abilities are ways of creating or recreating discourse in different
modes.’ (Widdowson, 1978. 67)

These opinions about communicative abilities suggest that these are the abilities which
involve linguistic as well as other skills essential for conversation, communication or
discourse to take place.

On the other hand communicative competence has been defined in various ways.
According to Littlewood, communicative competence means, ‘a degree of mastery of a
very considerable range of linguistic and social skills which depend in part on the
learners’ sensitivity to meaning and appropriacy in language and on his/her ability to
develop effective strategies for communicating in the second language.’ (Littlewood,
1981.87)

K. Johnson and K. Marlow say that communicative competence is ‘the ability to be

appropriate, to know the right thing to say at the right time.’ (Johnson and Morrow,
1981.2)

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International Encyclopedia of Education defines communicative competence as the

“effective use of language in social contexts.” (The International Encyclopedia, 1985.834)

According to Widdowson, communicative competency is “the ability to produce

sentences for communicative effect.” (Widdowson, 1978.1)

It is revealed from the above definitions that communicative competence is –

The ability to use language appropriately in a given social context.

The ability to be appropriate to know the right thing at the right time.

Linguistic competence plus an understanding of proper use of language in various

contexts.

Knowledge which is additional to linguistic competence.

Ability to communicate something which is grammatical, proper, socially accepted,
formally possible, fluent in a particular context.

In this way communicative competence includes both grammatical knowledge and the
ability to use this knowledge to perform different kinds of functions like enquiring,
suggesting, greeting, denying, advising, reporting, apologizing, inviting and promising.

3.6.6 Dimension of Communicative Competence

Grammatical Competence

Sociolinguistic Competence

Communicative Competence
Strategic

Competence

Discourse Competence

Fig No.3.3: Components of Communicative Competence

Grammatical Competence
Grammatical competence, which refers to Chomsky’s notion of linguistic competence, is
indispensable for the practice of linguistic formation of the language. The focus is on
suitable structure which helps the learners to use the language appropriately and freely.

Sociolinguistic Competence
Sociolinguistic competence refers to an understanding of the social context in which
communication takes place, including role-relationships, the shared information of the
participants and the communicative purpose for their interaction.

Discourse Competence
Discourse competence refers to the interpretation of individual message elements in
terms of their inter-connectedness and of how meaning is represented in relationship to
the entire discourse or text.
Strategic Competence
Strategic competence refers to the coping strategies that communicators employ to
initiate, terminate, maintain, repair, and re-direct communication.

In CLT classrooms, the teachers need to create activities that would necessitate learners
to practice well in the target language.

3.6.7 Classroom Activities in CLT

There are various types of exercises and activities in communicative approach which
“help students to achieve the communicative competence, and engage learners in
communication” (Richards, 2001). Communicative activities play vital role in
communicative language teaching. These activities are helpful for the teachers to
broaden their repertoire of techniques and activities so as to enable the learners to
communicate more effectively in foreign language. Communicative activities are
purposeful and objective oriented.

According to Littlewood, the communicative activities can be represented

diagrammatically as follows. (Littlewood, 2003.86)

Structural activities

Pre-Communicative activities

Quasi Communicative activities

Functional Communicative activities

Communicative activities

Social interaction activities

(This diagram is adopted from Littlewoods’ Communicative

Language Teaching, P.86)
In these two major categories, the first types (Pre-communicative activities) serve to
prepare the learner for later communication. The two sub-categories of pre-
communicative activities are:
Structural activities: Focus is on the grammatical system and on ways in which linguistic
items can be combined.

Quasi- Communicative activities: Focus is on one or more typical conversation

exchanges. Some resemble drills, but other is closer to dialogues. Drills and dialogues
can be combined so as to provide a bridge from formal exercise to communicative use.

Communicative Activities – also have two sub-categories:

Functional Communicative activities include such tasks as comparing sets of pictures,
noting similarities and differences, working out continuously following directions and so
on. In these activities learners must work towards a definite solution for a problem.

Social interaction activities comprise exchange of words, converse with others,

improvisations and debates. Here, teachers prepare learners about the varied social
contexts in which they will need to perform outside the classroom using different social
interaction activities.

There is no clear dividing line in reality between these different categories and
subcategories; they represent differences of emphasis and orientation rather than
distinct divisions. E.g. cued dialogues can be undertaken both as pre-communicative
activity and as communicative activity. Similarly it would be arbitrary if we try to specify
how much attention must be paid to communicative function before an activity can be
called quasi- communicative, or how significant social meaning must become before it
falls into the social interaction sub category. This distinction depends on the varying
orientation of individual learner.

Difference between pre-communicative and communicative

activities
The following chart shows the difference between pre-communicative and
communicative activities.

Pre-communicative (non-communicative) activities

Communicative activities
A

Aims to develop grammatical competence

Aims to develop communicative competence

Focus on the product of isolated utterances.

Focus on the appropriate selection of utterances for communication.

Practice of language patterns or elements

Practice of total skill of communication.

Function is to prepare the learner for later communication.

Function is to make the learner to actually communicate.

Learners have controlled practice.

Learners use language creatively.

Teacher intervention

No teacher intervention

Emphasis on form, not on context.

Emphasis in on context, not on form.

One long item

Variety of language items.

I

Examples: drilling, question – answers, sentence patterns, etc.

Examples: Role simulation, dramatization, group discussion, dialogue, debate, etc.

3.6.8 Learner’s/Teacher’s Role in Communicative Language

Teaching
In CLT classroom teachers play a vital role in teaching/learning process of English.
Teachers select learning activities according to the interest of the learners and engage
them in meaningful and authentic language use.

There are various roles to be played by the teachers in order to facilitate the language
learning process. According to Hedge (2000.63), a communicative classroom involves
the teacher in “setting up activities, organizing material resources, guiding students in
group works, engaging contributions, monitoring activities, and diagnosing the further
needs of students.”

Richards Rodgers (2001) also describes the roles of the teacher as: needs analyst,
counselor, and group process manager. Similarly, Harmer (1991) as cited in Nunan and
Land (1996) describes the roles of the teacher as: Controller, assessor, promoter,
participant, resource, tutor and investigator. Of all these roles, Nunan and Lamb suggest
that it is the teacher as organizer that is the most important and difficult from the
perspective of classroom management.

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In order to perform all these roles effectively, teachers should be competent enough in
all aspects of language teaching. In line with this, Hedge (2000.67) states that, “teachers
need to build competence and confidence in fulfilling these various roles and in-service
training is necessary within institutions to ensure that, in any moves towards
implementing communicative approaches in the classroom, teachers are properly
supported.

3.6.9 Role and Relevance of CLT Concepts in Present Research

Since the main aim of the present research is to investigate teachers’ and students’
difficulties in teaching/learning process of English language, and support the teachers
with an in-service training programme by using Communicative Approach which is
essential in an ESL (English as a second language) environment, it is noteworthy to
furnish the role and relevance of CLT concepts in the present study.

Language is an inevitable phenomenon which permeates the human life. Of all

languages, English is the most important language for communication. Naturally,
English has become the language of worldwide communication rather than a language
of literature. Hence the prime need of the learners is not to know the theoretical
knowledge of English but to have an ability to understand and be understood in that
language.

In the past it was sufficient to focus only on structural accuracy when learning a
language was an entirely academic advantage and an obsession to acquire a new
language. But in today’s world, language teaching is no longer considered a luxury but
an obvious need. The language teaching methods in the past were based on linguistic
competence. The establishment of basic principles of CLT was a reaction in opposition
to the previously prevailing language teaching methods. Communicative language
teaching aims at developing and improving knowledge and skills that facilitate the
learners to make their message effective and successful.

The main goal of communication is the successful transmission of information, not the
achievement of grammatical correctness. By widening the horizons with other kinds of
competence, CLT initiated progressive and effective ways of teaching. CLT uses and
teaches as it is used in every day real life. Students are given the notion of language as
real, lived experience. Socio-linguistic, discourse and strategic competences are integral
part of communicative language teaching.

The use of CLT in the second language classroom is a means of changing the attitude of
the students towards language learning as well as positively influencing their way of
learning. Over-emphasis on grammatical correctness and fear of making grammatical
mistakes has negative effects on students. Such as being stressed at class and
experiencing sense of failure. CLT creates congenial atmosphere in the classroom in
different ways: the teachers emphasise on fluency and correctness to learn the target
language than correcting the structures and giving instructions on language rules or
grammar (Mangubai etal, 2004.292)

The focus of CLT is on success rather than failure. The students are encouraged to rely
on their own ingenuity and performance skills – namely their strategic competence
when speaking. Its emphasis is on the learner”. (Savignan cited in Magngubhai 2004,
292)

The four basic components of communicative competence summarized by Hymes (as

cited in Cook, 2003) are argued by some applied linguists as vague theoretical ideas
which can hardly be put into practice. The applied linguists draw attention to the fact
that ideas of appropriateness and correctness very much depend on the cultural norms
of a particular society. They are in a way right in their argument. Language itself is an
intrinsic part of culture. Hence, learning a language also implies learning a culture as
well. CLT integrates socio-cultural context with language teaching programmes and thus
aims at developing students’ sense of what is right and what is wrong in English.

Linguists have pointed out, according to academic research that they have not found
one single best method for all learners in all contexts and that no single method
appears to be naturally superior to other methods.

It is neither possible always nor appropriate to apply one and the same methodology to
all learners whose objectives, environments and learning needs are varied and different.

CLT is considered one of the best methods for use in the second language classroom for
several reasons: One, it gives confidence to the students to learn the second language
and use it as and when required. Two, CLT draws attention to the importance of socio
cultural skills. Three, the learners are given the realistic idea of language and are
provided with a sense of what is appropriate and right in a given culture. Four, the
learners learn English language and English culture simultaneously. It is vital and
imperative both for teachers and learners, living as they do in a globalized world, to
adopt and maintain the effective methods of language teaching/learning offered by
CLT.

Constant migration of people has become part and parcel of today’s globalized world.
Hence, English teaching/learning has become inevitable for anyone intending to move
onto other states/countries either for higher studies or better careers. In this context, it
is necessary to consider the lag between the aspiration for better prospects in life and
the existing situation of teaching/learning of English language in schools especially the
municipal corporation schools. Hence, the present research study is undertaken to
bridge this gap by finding ways and means to know the difficulties of teachers and
learners and develop a methodology that will enable them to improve the standards of
teaching/learning process of English at school level.

3.7 Procedure of the Test to the Students

A total number of 200 students from class VIII and IX standard of various Municipal
Corporation Schools were gathered in one of the municipal schools in two spells and
the tests on four language skills were given, data was collected, analysed and
interpreted in the next chapter.

3. 8 Flowchart of the Research Design

The research work during July 2008 to March 2011 was done as per the steps shown in
the following flowchart.

A Flow Chart
Submission of the research report

Selection of the problem

DTP and binding of final computerized research report

Review of related literature

Formation of objectives

Writing rough research reports and corrections in it

Formation of hypothesis

Suggestions for further research study

Sample selection

Findings, conclusions and recommendations

Preparation of research tools

Implementation of Pilot study

Verification of Objectives

Testing of hypothesis

Data collection with the help of questionnaires and its analysis

Analysis and interpretation data

Pre-observation of the lessons and its analysis

Data collection from students’ tests in all four language skills

Implementation of the training programme for the teachers

Post-observation of the teachers’ lessons

Discussion with the teachers and Guidance to the teachers

3.9 Summary
This chapter has discussed about the methods and procedures of the research study. It
includes research design, the methodology employed for the teachers, procedure used
for the research, the sampling design, participants, data collection, in-service training
programme, its benefits, and communicative approach for the teachers and its relevance
in the present research and analysis techniques. It has also discussed the procedure of
the test for the learners.

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The next chapter includes analysis and interpretation of the data collected through the
questionnaires from the teachers and observation of their lessons and also analysis and
interpretation of the students’ tests in all four language skills questionnaire. Data was
classified, analysed, interpreted using the statistical method and conclusions are drawn.

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Overview of CLT CLT places great emphasis on helping students use the target language in a variety of
contexts and places great emphasis on learning language functions. Its primary focus is on helping learners
create meaning rather than helping them develop perfectly grammatical structures or acquire native-like
pronunciation. CLT is usually characterized as a broad approach to teaching, rather than as a teaching method
with a clearly defined set of classroom practices. Applied linguistics ch.43

4 Features of CLT Use of target language as normal medium for classroom management and instruction.
Communicative approach is much more pupil-orientated, because dictated by pupils' needs and interests. Focus
is on functional/ usable language. Learners should be able to go to foreign country, prepared for reality they
encounter there. Success depends on the ability to do something with language. Applied linguistics ch.44

5 Cont. Features of CLT Classroom should provide opportunities for rehearsal of real-life situations and
provide opportunity for real communication. Emphasis on creative role-plays/ simulations/ surveys/ projects/
playlets - all produce spontaneity and improvisation - not just repetition and drills. More emphasis on active
modes of learning, including pairwork and group-work Primacy of oral work. Emphasis on oral and listening
skills in the classroom. Contact time with language is all- important -. Applied linguistics ch.45

6 Cont. Features of CLT Errors are a natural part of learning language. Learners trying their best to use the
language creatively and spontaneously are bound to make errors. Constant correction is unnecessary and even
counter-productive. Communicative approach is not just limited to oral skills. Reading and writing skills need
to be developed to promote pupils' confidence in all four skill areas. By using elements encountered in variety
of ways (reading/ summarising/ translating/ discussion/ debates) - makes language more fluid and pupils'
manipulation of language more fluent. Grammar can still be taught, but less systematically, in traditional ways
alongside more innovative approaches. Applied linguistics ch.46

7 Cont. Features of CLT Use of idiomatic/ everyday language (even slang words 'bof bof' / ). This is kind of
language used in communication between people - Makes use of topical items with which pupils are already
familiar in their own language - motivates pupils arouses their interest and leads to more active participation.
Avoid age-old texts - materials must relate to pupils' own lives / must be fresh and real. use authentic
resources- Newspaper and magazine articles, poems, manuals, recipes, telephone directories, videos, news
bulletins, discussion programmes - all can be exploited in variety of ways. Applied linguistics ch.47

8 Cont. Features of CLT Important not to be restricted to textbook, Never feel that text-book must be used
from cover to cover. Only a tool / starting-point. Teacher must free himself from it, rely more on his own
command of language and his professional expertise. Use of visual stimuli - OHP/ flashcards, etc - important
to provoke practical communicative language. Applied linguistics ch.48

9 Classroom activities used in CLT Example Activities: Role Play -Interviews – Information Gap – Games -
Language Exchanges – Surveys -Pair Work Applied linguistics ch.49

10 Problems with CLT Adaptation Problem If the teacher understands the student, we have good
communication. A teacher who is from the same region, understands the students when they make errors
resulting from first language influence. Native speakers of the target language can have great difficulty
understanding foreign students' errors. This observation may call for new thinking on and adaptation of the
communicative approach. Applied linguistics ch.410
 | Teaching Method | Home |

In traditional instruction environments, because the focus of classroom instruction is on accuracy, errors are
frequently corrected. Yet with the popularity of communicative language teaching in ESL contexts and the
understanding of "interlanguage", the role of error correction has changed. Errors are considered natural products in
language learning and in fact reflect the patterns of students' developing interlanguage system. Thus, errors are no
longer the thorns in the teachers' flesh that need immediate picking. It is advocated that errors should be treated with
care and in a humanistic manner.
First of all, it is important that the teachers form the concepts that not all errors need to be corrected right after they
are made. To decide when to give corrective feedback, teachers can take the frequency of errors as a norm. Some
errors are infrequent and may be slips of the tongue. These errors mostly can be corrected by the students
themselves. As for persistent errors, especially those shared by most students, teaches should correct them
consistently. Besides, teachers need to discern global errors, which interfere with understanding, from local errors,
which may not hinder comprehension. Generally speaking, global errors should be corrected to further clarify
speakers' intentions. Moreover, the timing of correction depends on the purpose of the classroom activities. If the goal
is to have students express themselves, it is better that the teacher do not interrupt immediately. If the focus is on
form, then it is useful to correct errors to enhance students' accuracy. Another consideration concerns students'
individual reactions towards error correction. Some students may emotionally over-react to this kind of face-
threatening act. If teachers are able to expect students' individual reactions towards correction, he or she can have
great timing of correction.
Teachers should not only know when to treat errors but also how to do error correction. On a humanistic
consideration, it is essential to convey the message to the students that making errors are not unforgivable or
shameful. Positive affective feedback should be offered first to encourage students and to decrease the tension
caused by error correction (e.g. students' fear of losing face). To avoid potential risk of discouraging students,
students' self correction with teachers' or peer's help is encouraged. By doing so, students are provided with more
opportunities to accomplish his or her task and thus to obtain a sense of achievement. This kind of approach creates
a friendlier atmosphere than teacher correction. However, this does not suggest that teacher correction would always
hurt students' feelings and should always be eschewed. Teacher correction can be beneficial when errors are
repeatedly made by most students. In fact, it can be applied without necessarily making students feel embarrassed or
threatened. For example, teachers can postpone the correction till the end of an activity or a class period and discuss
with all the students in class.
Understandably, it is not easy for teachers to resist the temptation of correcting every error because we feel
responsible for preventing the fossilization of errors. However, as we all know, excessive error correction could
frustrate students and even smother students' motivation of learning the language. Therefore, it is really important for
teachers to have "good timing" and use "appropriate" correction strategies when giving error correction.

Communicative competencies of english

language III
Communicative Language Teaching

Presenter: Cristina

Social constructivist perspectives draw our attention to language as communication

across individuals.

"Communicative competence" has become a household word in SLA, and still stands as
an appropriate term to capture current trends in teaching and research.
As the field of second language pedagogy has developed,
what characterizes the present era?
Almost certainly the answer lies in our recent efforts to engage in communicative
language teaching (CLT).
The "push toward communication" . (Higgs & Clifford 1982)

The communicative nature of language classes characteristics of CLT:

Classroom goals are focused on all of the components of communicative competence

and not restricted to grammatical or linguistic competence.

Language techniques are designed to engage learners in the pragmatic, authentic,

functional use of language for meaningful purposes. Organizational language forms are
not the central focus but rather aspects of language that enable the learner to
accomplish those purposes.

Fluency and accuracy are seen as complementary principles underlying communicative

techniques. At times fluency may have to take on more importance than accuracy in
order to keep learners meaningfully engaged in language use.
In the communicative classroom, students ultimately have to use the language,
productively and receptively, in unrehearsed contexts.

Language Competence
Organizational Competence Pragmatic Competence

Grammatical Textual Illocutionary Sociolinguistic

Competence Competence Competence Competence
-Vocabulary -Cohesion -Ideational -Sensitivity to
Functions Dialect or
Variety
-Morphology -Rhetorical - -Sensitivity to
Organization Manipulative Register
Functions
-Syntax -Heuristic -Sensitivity to
Functions Naturalness
-Phonology -Imaginative -Cultural
/Graphology Functions References
and Figures
of Speech

Organizational competence: all those rules and systems that dictate what we can do
with the forms of language, whether they be sentence-level rules (grammar) or rules
that govern how we "string" sentences together (discourse). Canale and Swain's
sociolinguistic competence is now broken down into two separate pragmatic categories:
functional aspects of language (illocutionary competence, or, pertaining to sending and
receiving intended meanings) and sociolinguistic aspects (which deal with such
considerations as politeness, formality, metaphor, register, and culturally related
aspects of language).

Functions are essentially the purposes that we accomplish with language, e.g., stating,
requesting, responding, greeting, parting, etc. Functions cannot be accomplished, of
course, without the forms of language: morphemes, words, grammar rules, discourse
rules, and other organizational competencies. While forms are the outward
manifestation of language, functions are the realization of those forms.

Functions of language

Instrumental
Communicative acts that bring about a particular condition

Regulatory
Control of events of certain power as the maintenance of control

Representational
The use of language to make statements, convey facts and knowledge, explain, or
report

Interactional
Serves to ensure social maintenance such as knowledge of slang, jokes, folklore,
cultural mores, politeness and formality expectations, and other keys to social
exchange.

Personal
Allows a speaker to express feelings, emotions, personality, and “gut-level" reactions.

Heuristic
Involves language used to acquire knowledge, to learn about the environment. Heuristic
functions are often conveyed in the form of questions that will lead to answers.

imaginative
Serves to create imaginary systems or ideas. Telling fairy tales, joking, Poetry, tongue
twisters, writing a novel, are all uses of the imaginative function.

A single sentence or conversation might incorporate many different functions

simultaneously

Communicative Competence
The aspect that enables us to convey and interpret messages and to negotiate
meanings interpersonally within specific contexts.

Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP)

and basic interpersonal communicative skills (BICS)

CALP is what learners often use in classroom exercises and tests that focus on form.
BICS, on the other hand, is the communicative capacity that we acquire in order to be
able to function in daily interpersonal exchanges.

Discourse competence is the complement of grammatical competence in many ways. It

is the ability we have to connect sentences in stretches of discourse and to form a
meaningful whole

One learns how to do conversation, one learns how to interact verbally, and out of this
interaction syntactic structures are developed.

Evelyn Hatch (1978: 404)

Communicative Approach: interdependence of language and communication

Being able to communicate requires more than mastering linguistic structures.

Students may know the rules of linguistic usage, but be unable to use the language.
(Widdowson 1978)

It became clear that communication required that students perform certain functions as
well, such as promising, inviting, and declining invitations within a social context .
(Wilkins 1976)

Communicative Language Teaching aims broadly to apply the theoretical perspective of

the Communicative Approach by making communicative competence the goal of
language teaching and by acknowledging the interdependence of language and
communication.

CLT
is a unified, but broadly based, theoretical position about the nature of language and of
language learning and teaching.

Communicative Language Teaching Principles

Whenever possible, 'authentic language'—language as it is used in a real context—

should be introduced.
Being able to figure out the speaker's or writer's intentions is part of being
communicatively competent.
The target language is a vehicle for classroom communication, not just the object of
study.
One function can have many different linguistic forms. Since the focus of the course is
on real language use, a variety of linguistic forms are presented together. The emphasis
is on the process of communication rather than just mastery of language forms.
Students should work with language at the discourse or suprasentential (above the
sentence) level. They must learn about cohesion and coherence, those properties of
language which bind the sentences together.

Games are important because they have certain features in common with real
communicative events—there is a purpose to the exchange. Also, the speaker receives
immediate feedback from the listener on whether or not he or she has successfully
communicated. In this way they can negotiate meaning. Finally, having students work in
small groups maximizes the amount of communicative practice they receive.

Students should be given an opportunity to express their ideas and opinions.

Errors are tolerated and seen as a natural outcome of the development of

communication skills. Since this activity was working on fluency, the teacher did not
correct the student, but simply noted the error, which he will return to at a later point.

One of the teacher's major responsibilities is to establish situations likely to promote

communication.

Communicative interaction encourages cooperative relationships among students. It

gives students an opportunity to work on negotiating meaning.

The social context of the communicative event is essential in giving meaning to the
utterances.
Learning to use language forms appropriately is an important part of communicative
competence.
The teacher acts as a facilitator in setting up communicative activities and as an advisor
during the activities.
In communicating, a speaker has a choice not only about what to say, but also how to
say it.
The grammar and vocabulary that the students learn, follow from the function,
situational context, and the roles of the interlocutors.
Students should be given opportunities to listen to language as it is used in authentic
communication.

Reviewing the Principles

1. What are the goals of teachers who use Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)?
The goal is to enable students to communicate in the target language.
2. What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the students?
The teacher facilitates communication in the classroom.
Students are, above all, communicators.

3. What are some characteristics of the learning process?

The most obvious characteristic of CLT is that almost everything that is done, is done
with a communicative intent.

4. What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of student-

student interaction?
The teacher may present some part of the lesson, such as when working with linguistic
accuracy.

At other times, he/she is the facilitator of the activities, but she/he does not always
him/herself interact with the students.

Students interact a great deal with one another. They do this in various configurations:
pairs, triads, small groups, and whole group.

5. How are the feelings of the students dealt with?

One of the basic assumptions of CLT is that by learning to communicate, students will
be more motivated to study a foreign language since they will feel they are learning to
do something useful with the language.

6. How is language viewed? How is culture viewed?

Language is for communication. Linguistic competence, the knowledge of forms and

their meanings, is just one part of communicative competence. Another aspect of
communicative competence is knowledge of the functions language is used for.

7. What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are emphasized?

Language functions might be emphasized over forms. Students work on all four skills
from the beginning. Just as oral communication is seen to take place through
negotiation between speaker and listener, so too is meaning thought to be derived from
the written word through an interaction between the reader and the writer.

8. What is the role of the students' native Language?

The target language should be used not only during communicative activities, but also
for explaining the activities to the students or in assigning homework. The students
learn from these classroom management exchanges, too, and realize that the target
language is a vehicle for communication, not just an object to be studied.

9. How is evaluation accomplished?

A teacher evaluates not only the students' accuracy, but also their fluency.

10. How does the teacher respond to student errors?

Errors of form are tolerated during fluency-based activities and are seen as a natural
outcome of the development of communication skills.

STYLES AND REGISTERS

Another important issue in describing communicative competence is the way we use

language in different styles depending on the context of a communicative act in terms of
subject matter, audience, occasion, shared experience, and purpose of communication.
A style is not a social or regional dialect, but a variety of language used for a specific
purpose.

Styles vary considerably within a single language user's idiolect. When you converse
informally with a friend, you use a different style than you use in an interview for a job
with a prospective employer. Native speakers, as they mature into adulthood, learn to
adopt appropriate styles for widely different contexts.

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

Language becomes distinctly human through its nonverbal dimension.

CRITERION OF FORMALITY

Oratorical style is used in public speaking before a large audience.

Deliberative style is also used in addressing audiences, usually audiences too large to
permit effective interchange between speaker and hearers, although the forms are
normally not as polished as those in an oratorical style.

Consultative style is typically a dialogue, though formal enough that words are chosen
with some care.

Casual style is conversations between friends or colleagues or sometimes members of

a family.

Intimate style is one characterized by complete absence of social inhibitions.

Styles are manifested by both verbal and nonverbal features.

Registers are commonly identified by certain phonological variants, vocabulary, idioms,

and other expressions that are associated with different occupational or socioeconomic
groups.
 The Ecology of Language Acquisition

A good teacher offers practice, a bad one offers theories.

Approaches to Instruction

The Role of the Teacher

The role of the teacher undergoes fundamental changes with the delivery of a
multidimensional second-language program. As the Core French classroom moves
from teacher-centred to student-centred and from a language-based to a needs-
based approach, the teacher's responsibilities also change.
The primary role of the teacher in a multidimensional language class is to establish
conditions and develop activities so that students are able to practise the language
in a meaningful context. It is one of the teacher's greatest responsibilities to develop
in the students a positive attitude to learning French as a second language.

It is the teacher who acts as facilitator, resource person and language model for the
second- language classroom. If developing units, the teacher needs to predict the
possible needs of the students and have communicative language activities readily
available to meet these needs. The activities should be designed so that the students
experience a high degree of success. Teachers will also experience greater success
when activities are planned around the students' interests and take into account
subjects that they have some knowledge about.

The teacher is also instrumental in creating a positive and supportive learning

environment within the class. Students who feel safe and secure are much more
willing to practise a second language. A healthy classroom climate promotes risk-
taking and allows the students to experiment. Positive experiences in the classroom
lead to an excellent attitude toward language and culture.

The constant re-entry and review of linguistic content throughout the different
units enable the students to practise and internalize the language. Although this
spiral approach is ideal in language learning, the teacher must be aware of the
program objectives and ensure that the objectives are being met. Instruction and
evaluation must reflect these objectives.

The teacher will continue to serve as a language model for the students. While
remaining the person with whom the students will communicate most often, one of
the main functions of the teacher will now be to discover or invent ways to
encourage students to communicate meaningfully with each other. Instead of
actively directing and controlling all activities the teacher will aim to set up
conditions for meaningful practice and then take on the role of a resource person.

The classroom becomes student-centred rather than teacher-centred; the students

do most of the talking and the role of the teacher is to facilitate, advise, assist and
offer direction. As the students most often work in small groups the teacher will
observe the activities, noting problem areas for future work. During these activities,
the teacher will interrupt to correct students only if the errors are so serious as to
block communication. The role of the Core French teacher in the classroom has
traditionally been to convey knowledge. As the teacher moves toward being a
facilitator of language learning, the students acquire skills that will enable them to
be independent language learners.

Teachers are encouraged to become more knowledgeable about theories and

methods of second language instruction. This can be done through reading and
attending workshops, professional development days and conferences whenever the
opportunity lends itself. Mini-immersion or immersion courses are instrumental in
providing the opportunity for improvement/maintenance of communicative
competence. Meeting with colleagues, formally or informally, also provides an
opportunity for discussion, sharing and practising the language on another level.

The Role of the Secondary Student

The role of the students is also evolving in the second language classroom. Students
are becoming more active in their role as learners and are playing a major part in
many aspects of the Core French class.

One significant development is the amount of student input and decision-making

that naturally occurs in the development of the unit. In the initial phase of a unit,
students are asked for their input and the knowledge that they possess on a
particular subject. It is this input phase that begins to motivate the students.
Students are encouraged to make a number of decisions. They need to decide what
vocabulary and structures are important for their activities and projects. The
decisions that are made regarding the projects reflect the interests and strengths of
the students. Although there are specific objectives and guidelines that need to be
met in the second language classroom, students who are allowed some freedom to
move within the parameters are more likely to remain motivated and on task.

The experiential goal at the end of the unit gives the students the opportunity to
work toward their potential. The students become aware of this project in the
early stages of the unit. They are then able to tailor their vocabulary, their
activities and their thinking toward the final task. As the students realize that the
work they do within the class leads them toward their final goal, they are much
more inclined to stay on task. Students are able to personalize their projects and
use their personal abilities and talents. Students with a strong French background
may wish to expand on the oral or written aspect of the projects. Students with
artistic or creative talents may wish to add an original dimension to the finished
product. Students with a lesser degree of language skill will also be able to work
toward their own potential. Students learn in different ways and at a different pace
and their final projects will reflect these unique differences.

As students become more responsible for their own language learning, their success
in the second language class increases. The work that students do in the Core
French class takes on new meaning as the students work toward a final task.
Student self-evaluation becomes more common as the students reflect on what they
have learned, how they have learned and what they still need to learn.

Organization of Teaching Units

Teaching units provide the framework for the delivery of the Core French program.
The units are based on fields of experience taken from the interests of the students.
Each of the units includes an introductory or pre-activity phase, a main or activity
phase and a post or reflection phase.

In the introductory phase, (pre-activity), the teacher activates any knowledge

that the student may have about the topic to be covered. The students share their
knowledge and explore their attitudes in this area. Some French vocabulary may be
reviewed or explained at this point, however it is not the purpose of the introductory
phase to formally teach a pre-determined list of vocabulary. This phase stimulates
interest in the topic and provides the impetus for further discussion and activity.

In the main phase, (activity) the students perform a number of tasks and
activities in order to develop language skills, knowledge and attitudes in the field of
experience. At this point, the students spend time developing their language skills
in a meaningful context. The activities move toward the experiential goal and at the
end of the unit, the students will produce a final project.

The post or reflection phase, (post-activity) allows the teacher and students to
step back and reflect on what they have learned and the strategies used. It includes
discussion on French vocabulary and structures as well as new knowledge they
have gained about the topic. It is also a time to reflect on how the experience may
have affected their attitudes and behaviours and how they may transfer what they
have learned to new situations.

The organization of the teaching unit allows the students to become interested in a
topic, become familiar with the experiential goal at an early stage and do activities
that will give them success with the final product. The final product and the
reflection on the unit give the students a sense of completion and accomplishment.
As the students begin the next unit, linguistic structures will re-emerge and this
spiral approach will ensure that the students continue to practice and apply what
they have learned during the unit.

A teaching unit is thus organized as follows:

Field of experience/Champs d'expérience:

This identifies the aspect of the students' experience which will provide the content.

Topic to be developed/Sujet à développer: This narrows the focus to content

around which the student already has some experience, knowledge and behaviour.

Experiential goal/But expérientiel:

This goal or task creates a need to know certain vocabulary and grammar in order
to be able to do the task in French. The goal should always involve creating a
product, something concrete, whether written or oral.

Suggested steps/Etapes suggérées

These steps are organized in logical order. Each unit has a beginning
(brainstorming, motivation, introducing the goal or task); a middle phase (where
students are involved in meaningful activities where they learn the language and
general knowledge necessary to complete the task and actually do things in French)
and an end (where they complete the task and demonstrate the product.) Some are
language activities while others involve general knowledge development.

First Step: Students and teacher share what they already know about the
topic, both in language and content. In the process, students become
interested in the topic and motivated to learn more about it.

Second Step (Approximately): The experiential goal for the unit is

introduced. Students decide with the teacher what elements of French they
will need to learn and they select from the suggested steps those which they
will complete in order to achieve the goal.

Subsequent steps: Students learn more about the topic, focussing on the
information they need to complete the task. Group work and cooperative
learning are an important part of this phase. A resource-based learning
approach is necessary.

Second last step: The students present their version of the completed task
or product.

Final Step: The last part of every unit involves having the students step
back and reflect upon the experience of doing the unit. They try to identify
what new knowledge they gained from the experience, what language they
acquired, what new strategies they found most appropriate and suggest how
these strategies could be used in new situations.

The implementation of technology into the language-learning classroom is altering the roles
of both the language teacher and student. Transitioning from twentieth century teacher-
centered classrooms, language learning has built on didactic and behaviouralism
pedagogies to now have a greater focus on the learner (Spodark, 2001). Pedagogically
prepared teachers now face the role of facilitating the implementation of these technologies
into the classroom, with the control of learning and content decided by the learner (Spodark,
2001). As the facilitator, the teacher’s role should focus on accommodating the
technological needs of their students, providing each student with sufficient time and
feedback for ongoing learning, in an ideal stress atmosphere to support student learning
(Levy, 2013b).

In modern, technology-focused language classrooms, students have been transformed from

the passive consumers of class content delivered by their teachers to active, interactive
controls of their own learning (Spodark, 2001). Students can now bring their own diverse
experiences into the classroom for a personalized learning environment. As a result of
possessing an active role that is in control of their learning, students are now interacting
with their languages an extensive deal then before technology-focused classroom (Steele,
2013d). Student’s now have digital identities, are technologically literate and have the
capacity to utilize a number of technologies to benefit their language learning. Below is a
short, one-minute clip I developed about the concept of produsing, which is involved in
student’s active responsibility in relation to Language Learning.

Such teacher and student roles are developed among a number of important language
theories and pedagogical practices. Two language pedagogies that I personally view as
important for learning languages are the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and
Intercultural Language Teaching and Learning (ILT) models. Steele (2013c) regards the
CLT model focusing on the student’s active role in their learning, deciphering their own
meanings and perspectives of the language, with errors viewed as an important learning
tool. In comparison, the ILT model incorporates culture into learning a language, using the
study of a language into a practical use of understand culture (2013c). If the student is to be
responsible in an active learner role, then teachers need to facilitate their classroom for this
to occur, in which the CLT provides through the learning of mistakes and authentic learning
experiences (Steele, 2013c). The ILT model however, creates a sense of relevance for
learning a language, using a language to engage and understand the culture. Both in
retrospect can operate together well, with the two approaches providing the language
learner with authentic contexts and situations to learn a language (Steele, 2013c).

Within these pedagogical methods, there are a number of learning theories that are further
supporting language learning. As I discussed earlier, my prior Japanese study operated
along the behaviouralism and didactic teaching strategies, which were often unengaging
and provided inferior opportunities for students to interact with their languages. With the
CLT model of active learner responsibilities, problem-based learning excels with students
positioned to identify their learning challenges and struggles, working on implementations
and in turn evaluating their improvements. The theory allows students to make mistakes,
valuing the important of errors (as does the CLT model) for future, authentic language ability
(Steele, 2013c). The theory of constructivism also favors the CLT and ILT models by
placing students into a situation that allows them to engage with authentic, cultural learning,
whilst having complete control on the journey their learning follows (Steele, 2013c). These
learning strategies connect back to the role of the teacher, whereby as the lesson facilitator,
it is their responsibility to create lessons that ensure students are able to experience these
important and engaging learning theories within the classroom.