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Trinidad and Tobago - ACP - 2007 Eng PDF
Trinidad and Tobago - ACP - 2007 Eng PDF
2005
2005 Report on the
2.1.1 Location.............................................................................................................. 20
2.1.2 Climate................................................................................................................ 21
2.1.4 Geology.............................................................................................................. 28
2.1.4.1 Trinidad....................................................................................................... 28
2.1.6.1 Trinidad....................................................................................................... 31
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 3
2.1.6.2 Tobago ......................................................................................................... 31
2.1.9.1 Trinidad....................................................................................................... 35
2.1.10 Biodiversity......................................................................................................... 37
2.1.11 Water Resources ............................................................................................... 38
2.2.3 Poverty................................................................................................................ 43
2.2.3.1 A Profile of the Poor .................................................................................. 44
3.1.2 Erosion................................................................................................................ 54
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 4
3.2 Causes of Land Degradation ............................................................................. 62
3.2.3.1 Trinidad....................................................................................................... 69
Perennial Forest and Bush Fires.............................................................................. 69
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 5
A1. Solid Waste Management and Disposal.............................................. 87
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 6
Tables
Table 1: Quarry Production....................................................................................................... 32
Table 2: Possible Un-audited and Un-risked Reserves ......................................................... 33
Table 3: Extent of Indigenous Forests in Trinidad and Tobago ........................................... 33
Table 4: Ownership of Forested Areas in Trinidad and Tobago ......................................... 34
Table 5: Classes of Soil Texture/Soil Slope Erodibility Factor............................................. 35
Table 6: Areas of Soils in Different Slope Classes .................................................................. 36
Table 7: Land Capability of Trinidad Soils ............................................................................. 36
Table 8: Classes of Soil Texture/Soil Slope Erodibility Factor............................................. 37
Table 9: Areas of Soils in Different Slope Classes .................................................................. 37
Table 10: Surface Water Sources in Trinidad and Tobago.................................................... 39
Table 11: Production, Safe Yields and Additional Potential of Ground Water Sources in
Trinidad and Tobago ................................................................................................................. 40
Table 12: Sectoral Water Demand in Trinidad and Tobago ................................................. 41
Table 13: Distribution of Population in Trinidad and Tobago............................................. 42
Table 14: Geographic Distribution of Poverty in Trinidad and Tobago............................. 44
Table 15: Overview of Existing Agricultural Land Use of Caroni Lands........................... 47
Table 16: Proposed Agricultural Land Use of Former Caroni Lands ................................. 47
Table 17: Scores for Selected EVI.............................................................................................. 51
Table 18: Major Pollution Problem in Each River System from Aripo and Chaguaramas
....................................................................................................................................................... 60
Table 19: A Summary of the Pre-disposing Environmental Conditions in Trinidad and
Tobago.......................................................................................................................................... 62
Table 20: Toilet Facilities by County........................................................................................ 67
Table 21: Main Causes of Land Degradation.......................................................................... 69
Table 22: Summary of Forest Fires and Dry Season Rainfall for Trinidad between 1987
and 2003 ....................................................................................................................................... 70
Table 23: Fertiliser Quantity, Value and Consumption in Trinidad and Tobago (1993 to
2002).............................................................................................................................................. 76
Table 24: Summary of Quarry Operations in Trinidad and Tobago in 2004...................... 80
Table 25: Squatter Communities in Trinidad and Tobago.................................................... 85
Table 26: Operations at the Disposal Sites .............................................................................. 89
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 7
Table 27: Municipality Solid Waste Delivered at the Beetham Landfill in 1993 and 200489
Table 28: Composition of Solid Waste at Beetham (1995) and US Average....................... 90
Table 29: Annual Quantities of Solid Waste Disposed at the Three SWMCOL-Managed
Landfills ....................................................................................................................................... 90
Table 30: Estimated Quantities of Hazardous Waste Generated for 1994 and 1998 ......... 93
Table 31: Legislation and Policies Relevant to Land Use and Management.................... 107
Table 32: Relevant International Conventions ..................................................................... 110
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 8
Figures
Figure 1: Trinidad and Tobago in Relation to the Caribbean Region and Latin America
....................................................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 2: Map of Trinidad and Tobago .................................................................................. 21
Figure 3: Annual Rainfall for Trinidad and Tobago, 1975-2005........................................... 23
Figure 4: Average Monthly Minimum and Maximum Temperatures for Trinidad and
Tobago, 1975-2005 ...................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 5: Geomorphology of Trinidad .................................................................................... 25
Figure 6: Topography of Trinidad............................................................................................ 25
Figure 7: Topography of Tobago.............................................................................................. 28
Figure 8: Geology of Trinidad................................................................................................... 28
Figure 9: Geology Map of Tobago............................................................................................ 30
Figure 10: Land Use Map of Trinidad ..................................................................................... 45
Figure 11: Land Use Map Tobago ............................................................................................ 46
Figure 12: Causes and Forms of Land Degradation in Trinidad and Tobago ................... 53
Figure 13: Frequency of Flood Events ..................................................................................... 57
Figure 14: Monthly Distribution of Flood Events .................................................................. 57
Figure 15: Landslide Susceptibility Map of Tobago .............................................................. 63
Figure 16: Trinidad and Tobago Population Distribution by Communities...................... 66
Figure 17: Number and Area of Squatting and All Agricultural Parcels in Trinidad and
Tobago.......................................................................................................................................... 73
Figure 18: Value of Pesticides Imported (1985 - 2003)........................................................... 75
Figure 19: Existing Relationship among Agencies with Responsibility for Land
Resources Planning, Management and Regulation ............................................................. 104
Figure 20: Composition of the NGO and Community Sector in Trinidad and Tobago as It
Relates to Land Resources Management............................................................................... 106
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 9
Photographs
Photograph 1: A View of the Upper Maraval Valley ............................................................ 15
Photograph 2: Parlatuvier, Tobago .......................................................................................... 18
Photograph 3: Erosion and massive land movement are major forms of land
degradation ................................................................................................................................. 55
Photograph 4: Coastal erosion has become a common occurrence along Trinidad’s
southwest coast........................................................................................................................... 56
Photograph 5: The incidence of flooding has increased over the years.............................. 58
Photograph 6: The Cipero River............................................................................................... 60
Photograph 7: The Oropouche Lagoon shows evidence of salt water intrusion with the
growth of weeds which are characteristics of the vegetative cover under saline
conditions .................................................................................................................................... 61
Photograph 8: One of the many landslides which occurred in the forested sections of
Northeast Tobago during the rainstorms of November 2004 in Speyside, Tobago.......... 64
Photograph 9: The incidence of annual forest fires has contributed tremendously to
deforestation................................................................................................................................ 70
Photograph 10: Illegal activities and unsustainable harvesting practices have led to
deforestation and soil degradation over the years ................................................................ 71
Photograph 11: Slash and burn agriculture is no longer considered a sustainable
method of land clearance for agriculture ................................................................................ 74
Photograph 12: Open pit quarrying, as practised in Trinidad and Tobago, results in the
removal of forest cover and top soil in order to mine the quarry materials ...................... 79
Photograph 14: Poor land clearance practices during housing construction have led to
scarring of landscape and increased sediment loads in waterways ................................... 82
Photograph 15: Formal housing in Diego Martin Valley...................................................... 83
Photograph 16: Squatter Housing, Usine, St Madeleine, South Trinidad .......................... 84
Photograph 17: Squatter Community on the Diego Martin Hillside .................................. 86
Photograph 18: White waste disposal is a major problem.................................................... 87
Photograph 19: Informal waste disposal site managed by the San Fernando City
Corporation ................................................................................................................................. 88
Photograph 20: A significant amount of garbage ends up in the country’s mangroves.. 92
Photograph 21: Faulty Coastal Defence Works, Goldsborough, Tobago ........................... 95
Photograph 22: Forest fire in Delaford, Tobago..................................................................... 96
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 10
Photograph 23: The 2004 Landslide at Flagstaff Hill, Charlotteville, Tobago ................... 98
Photograph 24: Gabion baskets, a low tech method, are used to curb erosion and
landslide, but still expensive to low and middle income homeowner ............................... 99
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 11
Acronyms & Abbreviations
ACP - African, Caribbean and Pacific Countries
EU - European Union
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 12
GORTT - Government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 13
RIOD - Reseau International des ONGS pour la Desertification
International Network of NGOS for Desertification
SIDS - Small Island Developing State(s)
UK - United Kingdom
US - United States
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 14
Chapter 1
Introduction
Trinidad and Tobago is endowed with a diverse land resource base compared to other
Small Island States (SIDS) of similar size. It possesses a range of soils, minerals and
ecosystems which are utilised to achieve the country’s development goals. The country’s
development and its land resources are therefore closely inter-related and inter-
dependent.
However like most SIDS, its small size, coupled with its complex land tenure systems,
soil types, topography and climatic variation, restricts the area available for human
settlement, agriculture, forestry, mining/quarrying, tourism and infrastructure, and
creates intense competition among land use options.
Most aspects of environmental management in Trinidad and Tobago are directly
dependent on and influenced by the planning and utilisation of its land resources.
Competing demands and a lack of a comprehensive land use planning and development
mechanism have led to unsustainable utilisation, overuse and degradation of the
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 15
country’s land resources. Moreover, extreme climatic events and other natural disasters
particularly tropical storms and landslides, have impacted adversely on the land
resources of certain regions of the country (for example, North Coast of Trinidad and
Windward Tobago) to such an extent that corrective measures must be taken for
recovery of the region’s economies.
Planning for and ensuring sustainable development of Trinidad and Tobago requires
that consideration be given and actions taken to address its land management and
degradation challenges. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
(UNCCD) to which Trinidad and Tobago became a signatory on August 6, 2000,
provides a suitable framework within which Trinidad and Tobago could tackle land
degradation and implement solutions to promote sustainable management and wise use
of land resources. The implementation of the UNCCD is expected to strengthen the
prevention and correction of land degradation and enhance the framework for
sustainable management and wise use of land resources.
Although Trinidad and Tobago is not characterised as having dryland conditions, land
degradation and the impacts of land degradation are major development and
environmental issues. By becoming an Affected Country Party to the Convention,
Trinidad and Tobago has expressed its willingness to adopt and be guided by the
principles and processes of the Convention for addressing the land degradation that the
country currently experiences.
1Kairi Consultants Limited, 1999. Environmental Data and Information Project (EDIP): Land. Conducted on
behalf of the EMA (Final Report).
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 16
• The First Report on the Implementation of the UNCCD in Trinidad and Tobago
undertaken by the Ministry of Public Utilities and the Environment (MPUE)2.
The study involved the review of the existing literature on land degradation
and related policy issues in Trinidad and Tobago; the conduct of interviews
with key officials involved in public policy functions of relevance to land
degradation; and conduct of a workshop held in April 2002 to obtain the
views of stakeholders on the issues addressed in the Report.
The results of the Assessment of the land resources of Trinidad and Tobago were
achieved through undertaking the following key activities:
• A review of the existing data and literature on socio-economic characteristics and
land resources of, and land degradation noted in Trinidad and Tobago;
• Generation of quantitative and qualitative data through interviews with key
personnel (from communities, government agencies and non-government
organisations (NGOs), and through field and drive-by surveys;
• Conduct of situational analyses, including the examination of the country’s
political, economic, physical, social, technological and environmental situation as
they affect land management and degradation;
• Analysis and examination of the institutional framework governing land
management and to combat land degradation in Trinidad and Tobago
(international conventions, national policies, programmes and projects) based on
the review of available literature and discussions with key stakeholder agencies;
and
• Identification and prioritisation of the issues relating to land management and
degradation, and the identification of priority areas for corrective action.
2Dennis Pantin and Seth Tyler, 2002. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification: First National
Report of Trinidad and Tobago. Prepared on behalf of the Ministry of Public Utilities and the Environment
(MPUE)
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 17
the Committee to determine and explore the extent, causes and impact of land
degradation, and identify corrective measures for combating the problem.
• Meetings with public, private and NGO sector agencies involved in land
management and environmental management. Individual meetings were held
with representatives of these agencies including various divisions of the Tobago
House of Assembly (THA) (including Public Utilities and Infrastructure,
Environment, Community Development, Agriculture, Tourism, among others),
Environment Tobago, and Caribbean Network for Integrated Rural Development
(CNIRD). These meetings were held to obtain information on the land resources
and land degradation in Trinidad and Tobago; to identify sources of secondary
data on the same; and to explore the issues relating to land management and
degradation in Trinidad and Tobago;
• Meetings with community-based organisations (CBOs) in affected areas – A
meeting was held with the National Arm of the International Network of NGOs
for Desertification3 on the drafting of the UNCCD National Action Programme
(NAP).
• Conduct of the four National Awareness Seminar and Public Consultations held
in North, Central and South Trinidad and in Tobago. Over 190 persons attended
these one-day seminars geared at raising awareness of the UNCCD, the
International Network of NGOs for Desertification (RIOD) and to discuss and
explore the issues of land degradation in the context of Trinidad and Tobago.
The seminars were also used to identify critical areas where land degradation is
taking place, and to formulate corrective actions to address the issues identified.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 18
1.3 The Structure of the Report
The Second Chapter of the Report provides a description of the natural environment and
socio-economy of Trinidad and Tobago. It gives an account of the climate and land
resources including an examination of the country’s forest, water resources and
biodiversity.
Chapter Three provides definitions of land degradation and desertification and identifies
the extent, type, causes and impact of land degradation and where possible attempts to
quantify and give examples of the problem.
Chapter Four examines the legislative, policy and institutional framework for land
management in Trinidad and Tobago and identifies gaps which may hamper proper
land management. The Chapter also identifies the international conventions of relevance
in the fight against land degradation in Trinidad and Tobago. In addition, it looks at the
key programmes and projects currently being undertaken to address land degradation.
Finally the Report concludes with Chapter Five which summarises the key priority areas
for action to correct land degradation in Trinidad and Tobago.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 19
Chapter 2
Trinidad and Tobago in Context
2.1.1 Location
Trinidad and Tobago, the most southerly of the Caribbean islands, is an archipelagic
State, situated appropriately between 100 2' and 11º 12' north latitude, and 600 30' and 61º
56' west longitude (Figure 1). The country consists of the two larger islands, Trinidad
and Tobago, and 21 smaller islands and islets.
Figure 1: Trinidad and Tobago in Relation to the Caribbean Region and Latin America
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 20
Trinidad is separated from Venezuela by a distance of about 13 kilometres, and from
Tobago by a distance of 32 kilometres (Figure 2). Tobago is located northeast of Trinidad
and is separated from Trinidad by a channel which is nearly 12 kilometres in width. The
two main islands have a total land area of 5,128 square kilometres, while the country has
an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) in 2003 extending to some 60,659 square kilometres4.
Much of the country’s exclusive economic zone lies in shallow enough depths to permit
exploitation of petroleum, natural gas and other seabed resources.
Source: http://www.hydrocarbons-technology.com/projects/pointfortin/images/img5.jpg
2.1.2 Climate
Trinidad and Tobago has a humid tropical marine climate with little seasonal or diurnal
variation. The country lies within the belt of the Trade Winds, which provides a fairly
constant strong wind flowing from the east. The islands are affected mainly by the
subtropical anticyclone belt and the inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ), and it is the
movement and location of these two systems which give the weather its seasonal
characteristics. As a result, rains tend to be distributed roughly in two seasons. The dry
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 21
season is experienced from January to May and a wet season from June to December.
There is also a short dry spell, the Petit Careme, during September and October.
During the wet season from June through to the end of November, there is risk of
tropical storms and hurricanes. However, owing to its southern location the country is
less vulnerable to tropical storms and hurricanes than most of the Caribbean region.
In the Island of Trinidad, average annual rainfall is 2,200 millimetres. However,
depending on location and topography, there can be a wide variation between different
areas on the Island. In the eastern section of the Northern Range, rainfall can reach as
high as 3,800 millimetres, and for the same period be as low as 1,200 millimetres both on
the off-shore islands of the northwest peninsula and in the southwest peninsula of
Trinidad. The pattern for Tobago is comparable with that of Trinidad in quantity,
seasonality and spatial distribution. Here, rainfall ranges between 3,800 millimetres in
the Northeast and 1,400 millimetres in the Southwest. Figure 3 shows the annual rainfall
for Trinidad and Tobago for the period 1975 to 2005.
The mean annual average air temperature varies between 28 degrees Celsius (in the day)
and 22.5 degrees Celsius (at nights). Average relative humidity is approximately 80 per
cent, but ranges between 50 per cent in the dry season and 100 per cent in the rainy
season. During the dry season, there is wide diurnal fluctuation in relative humidity.
Figure 4 shows the mean monthly minimum and maximum temperature for Trinidad
and Tobago.
The Northeast Trades dominate the wind regime, showing great steadiness throughout
the year. The average wind speed ranges between 20 to 28 kilometres per hour, with the
lowest speeds in the rainy season5. There is considerable local variation in wind
directions, related to a range of factors including topography, the diurnal cycle and
thunderstorm activity.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 22
3,000.0
2,500.0
2,000.0
1,500.0
1,000.0
500.0
0.0
75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05
Year
Dry Season Wet Season Tot al Trinidad
2,500.0
2,000.0
1,500.0
1,000.0
500.0
0.0
75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05
Year
Dry Season Wet Season Tot al Tobago
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 23
24.5
24.0
23.5
23.0
22.5
22.0
21.5
21.0
20.5
75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05
Year
33.0
32.5
32.0
31.5
31.0
30.5
30.0
29.5
75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05
Year
Figure 4: Average Monthly Minimum and Maximum Temperatures for Trinidad and Tobago,
1975-2005
2.1.3.1 Trinidad
Trinidad has the following five physiographic regions, namely the three mountain
ranges - Northern Range, Central Range, Southern Range, and the intervening lowland
areas – the Northern and Southern Basins (Figure 5). The wetlands are common in
coastal locations and serve as prime habitat for a diverse number of species.
The Mountain Ranges - The Northern Range is an area of rugged topography which
runs the length of the North Coast. The average elevation of the Northern Range is
between 500 metres and 700 metres with the highest peaks at 940 metres (El Cerro del
Aripo) and 936 metres (El Tucuche). Figure 6 shows the topography of Trinidad and
Tobago.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 24
Figure 5: Geomorphology of Trinidad6
(m)
1,066.8
762.0
457.2
152.4
61.0
30.5
(16.1 km) 0
6 http://www.procicaribe.org/networks/clawrenet/reports/z_tt/ttmp211.htm
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 25
The Central Range runs diagonally across the middle of the island from northeast to
southwest. This Range consists mainly of hill-ridges radiating from rugged limestone
peaks rising to 300 metres in the Montserrat District, 290 metres at Mount Harris and 335
metres at Mount Tamara situated at the eastern end of the Range. Ravines containing
fast-flowing streams fed by springs separate the ridges, but these springs disappear
during the dry season. Slopes are mostly mild except those on the southern flanks of the
limestone peaks which are steep, up to 30 degrees.
The main rivers that arise from the northern side of the Central Range are Arena,
Talparo, Tumpuna and Cumuto, which are tributaries of the Caroni River, and the
Cunapa and Sangre Grande, which are tributaries of the Northern Oropouche River. The
L’Ebranche River empties on the east coast and the Couva River on the west coast. The
main rivers which arise on the southern flanks are the Guaracara and Poole Rivers,
together with a series of rivers which drain into the Nariva Swamp.
The highest point of the Southern Range is the Trinity Hills (325 metres). From this
point, the range terminates almost abruptly on the east in the low areas of
Guayaguayare, although there is a remnant of the Range in the extreme southeast at
Point Galeota. West of Moruga the Range splits into two sections, which peter out
towards the Cedros Peninsula. The Range is drained on the eastern end by the Pilote
River, in the centre by the Maraquite/Moruga River and on the west by the Erin River.
The Basins - The Northern Basin extends from the foothills of the Northern Range to
those of the Central Range and consists of the floodplains and alluvial flats of Caroni
and North Oropouche River systems; the Northern Terraces (which lies north of the
Caroni and Oropouche rivers and east of Arouca); and the Las Lomas Peneplain (which
occupies the Manzanilla District in the southeast of the region).
The Southern Basin consists of the Naparima Peneplain. The landscape of the Basin is
gently rolling reaching its highest point in the San Fernando Hills at 260 metres. The
peneplains are dissected by numerous small streams which become dry in the dry
season and have high runoff rates in the wet season. The main drainage systems are the
Poole, Guaracara and Oropouche Rivers.
The Wetlands - There are several wetlands in Trinidad. On the north coast the largest
(approximately 25 hectares) is the freshwater swamp forest found at Maracas Bay.
However, the largest and most diverse wetland in Trinidad and Tobago is the Nariva
Swamp which is located on the southern section of the east coast. This wetland is a
complex of freshwater marsh, freshwater swamp forest, palm forest and an eastern
fringe of mangrove forest. The area, which covers approximately 6,234 hectares,
supports a rich fauna including many threatened species, including the globally
threatened manatee Trichechus manatus. The site is very important for several species in
Trinidad and Tobago, and is critical for the maintenance of the biological diversity in the
region. Because of its ecological importance, it was declared a Ramsar site in 1992.
Although long an area of small scale mixed farming activity and artisanal fishing, in the
recent past, it was subjected to tremendous pressure from large-scale intensive rice
farming which has since been brought under control.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 26
The North Manzanilla and the Manzanilla Windbelt are both systems of estuarine
mangrove also found on the east coast. In addition, the North Oropouche Swamp
occupies a small area at the mouth of the North Oropouche River.
Mangrove swamps are also dominant on Trinidad’s south coast. The largest of these is
Los Blanquizales which consists of approximately 840 hectares. In general, wetlands
along this coast have been only slightly modified by human activity. On the west coast,
the main swamps are the Caroni in the north, the Couva River/Carli Bay in the central,
the South Oropouche and Roussillac in the south, and the Cedros in the southwest.
Caroni Swamp, the largest mangrove swamp in Trinidad and Tobago, consists of 3,265
hectares, is an important critical habitat for a number of bird species, including the
Scarlet Ibis (Eudocimus ruber). Urban development and industrialisation have negatively
affected the west coast wetlands, and in some instances have greatly modified and
severely damaged these systems.
2.1.3.2 Tobago
There are two main physiographic regions in Tobago; the Main Ridge, an area of
highland running for about two-thirds of the length of the island in a southwest to
northeast direction, and the coastal plain in the southwest. As a result, the topography
at the north eastern part of Tobago is precipitous with the 200 metres contour being
within seven kilometres of the coastline (Figure 7). The highest point is found in the
Main Ridge which stands at 600 and 650 metres above sea level. The five perennial rivers
which originate from the Main Ridge and drain to the north are the Bloody Bay, Castara,
Englishman’s Bay, Parlatuvier and Courland Rivers. Draining south to the Atlantic
Ocean are the Richmond, Goldsborough and Hillsborough Rivers.
Most of the wetlands along the Windward Coast of Tobago are mangrove swamps (e.g.
Petit Trou and Little Rockly Bay) which have been affected by human activity. There is
no dominant wetland type along the leeward coast. The wetlands range from mangrove
swamps to freshwater marshes, annual floodplain to freshwater ponds. The largest
wetland in Tobago is the Bon Accord Lagoon/Buccoo Bay wetland which is
approximately 105 hectares. This wetland is closely associated with the Buccoo Reef and
the seagrass community in the Bon Accord Lagoon. It is a critical habitat for various
types of waterfowls and has been affected greatly by urban and tourism development.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 27
(8.1 km) (m)
610.0
305.0
61.0
30.5
0
2.1.4 Geology
2.1.4.1 Trinidad
The geology of Trinidad is characterised by sedimentary and metamorphic rocks which
cover more than 95 five per cent of the island, with the other five per cent, comprising of
igneous rocks. The geology of the island is shown in Figure 8.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 28
Alluvia and colluvial deposits are found on the terraces and in the valleys and
floodplains of most northern rivers. The Northern Basin, which is made up of the East
West Corridor and Caroni Plains, is mainly comprised of sedimentary silts and clays,
with superficial gravel terraces and river and swamp alluvia.
The Central Range is a folded anticlinal uplift consisting of sedimentary rocks from the
Cretaceous and Eocene era, with Miocene formations along the southern and eastern
flanks. The Naparima Plains and the Nariva Swamp form the southern shoulder of this
uplift.
The geology of the Southern Basin and Southern Range is sedimentary. The Southern
Basin consists of Miocene and Pliocene sands, clays, and gravels which overlie oil and
natural gas deposits, especially north of the Los Bajos Fault. The Southern Range, which
forms the third anticlinal uplift, consists of sandstones, shales, siltstones and clays
formed in the Miocene era and uplifted in the Pleistocene period. Oil sands and mud
volcanoes are especially common in this area.
2.1.4.2 Tobago
The geology of Tobago, like that of Trinidad, is closely related to that of the South
American continent. Tobago consists of about 50 per cent igneous rocks, with about 33
per cent covered with sedimentary rocks. Figure 9 shows the geology of the island.
Northeast Tobago consists mainly of metamorphic rocks made up of North Coast
schists and intrusive igneous rocks, while the southern and south eastern parts of
the island are made up of volcanic materials. The underlying geology of a significant
portion of the Northeast is made up of unstable formations which render the region
highly susceptible to land slips7. The south western end of the island consists of a flat
coral limestone platform that extends seaward to form the offshore coral reefs.
7Final Report on North East Tobago Management Plan Project (NO. 8 ACP TR 005) prepared by the
Environment and Development Group and Kairi Consultants Limited on behalf of the THA and the
Government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago [GORTT] (2003)..
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 29
Figure 9: Geology Map of Tobago
2.1.5.1 Asphalt
The 46 hectare Pitch Lake at La Brea is one of the well-known deposits of natural asphalt
in the world. It was first used locally for road surfacing in 1815. The present depth of the
lake is estimated at 87 metres and at current extraction rates, It is expected to last
another 400 years.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 30
2.1.6 Mineral Resources
Trinidad and Tobago has several mineral deposits of economic value. The more
economically important ones include sands and gravels, limestone, clays, andesite,
porcellanite and tar/oil sands.
2.1.6.1 Trinidad
Limestone Deposits: There are three main types of limestone found in Trinidad. The
Laventille limestone formation is found only at Laventille, Point Gourde, and some of
the offshore islands. The Rio Seco or "blue" re-crystallised limestone formations occur
throughout the Northern Range from the Santa Cruz Valley eastward. These limestones
are hard and dense and are well suited as road aggregates and building material. Rubble
"yellow" reefal limestone occurs in the Central Range. This yellow limestone, which is
utilised for the manufacture of Portland cement, is a prime mineral asset.
Sand and Gravel Deposits: Extensive deposits of the "Melajo" and "Guanapo" gravels
occur from Wallerfield through Valencia to Matura in the eastern region of the Northern
Basin. The quartzitic sands also found throughout this area include a valuable deposit of
silica sand at Matura used for the manufacture of glass. Additionally, deposits of fine-
grained plastering sand occur where the aquifers at the southern margin of the Northern
Basin outcrop, and at scattered localities elsewhere. Sand and gravel of various grades
are quarried for use in the construction industry.
Clay Deposits: Clay is the most abundant and extensively utilised non-petroleum raw
material. Clay deposits are concentrated in the Northern Basin. Areas where clay
material is located include Longdenville, Wallerfield (near Arima), Valencia-Quare River
area, Mayo, Carlsen Field, Guatapajaro Road, four miles south of Cumuto, Arima-
Blanchisseuse Road, San Rafael, Central Trinidad, and Plaisance Industrial Estate -
Pointe-a-Pierre. Clays are primarily used in the manufacture of blocks, tiles and pottery.
Porcellanite: A formation of naturally burnt clays with pozzolanic properties occurs
between Granville and Buenos Aires in the southwestern peninsula of Trinidad. This
porcellanite material is used as an alternative to Portland cement and as a low grade
road base material.
Tar/Oil Sands: Deposits of tar or oil sands, which are used as road surfacing material,
occur in the Southern Basin, mainly in the area south of La Brea. These deposits are
associated with hydrocarbons found throughout this area and are used as road paving
materials.
Minor Mineral Deposits: These include fluorspar on Gaspar Grande Island; graphite in
Maracas, St Joseph; gypsum in Agostini Street and Champs Fleurs; iron in Maracas
Valley; quartz gravel in the Northern Range and argillite in south Trinidad.
2.1.6.2 Tobago
Andesite is part of the Bacolet Formation, which includes according to Maxwell (1948)
"interbedded tuffs, tuff breccias and agglomerates and some intercalated flows.” The
two largest quarries in Tobago are sited in the andesitic rocks of the Bacolet Formation.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 31
These are: Green Hill Quarry and Studley Park. Clay is found at the Winfield Scotts
Quarry at Rocky Bay, Old Government Stock Farm and Bishops High School.
Unlike Trinidad, Tobago has no alluvial deposits of sand. Some of the sand used for the
construction industry is obtained by sand mining on beaches and in river beds,
particularly the Richmond and Goldsborough beaches and the Goldsborough River.
Other minor mineral materials deposits in Tobago include chromium and copper.
Most of the minerals extracted is utilised locally as road paving and construction
materials, and for the manufacture of a variety of products, such as cement, abrasives,
glass, fillers, putty, drilling fluids, concrete, clay and ceramic products (tiles, ornaments,
etc.) in the downstream industry. The potential reserves in the country, as it stood at
January 2004, were about 1,934 million cubic metres covering about 5,435 hectares (Table
2). About 50 per cent of these reserves are clays. However, a significant proportion
(about 59 per cent) is situated in the Valencia area under approximately 2,000 hectares.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 32
Table 2: Possible Un-audited and Un-risked Reserves9
Mineral Reserves
2.1.8 Vegetation
The biota and terrestrial habitats of Trinidad and Tobago reflect the ecology of
equatorial South America. The country is endowed with a significant amount of natural
forests, the extent of which was first documented in 1946 and is shown in the table
below (Table 3).
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 33
In 2003, 248,000 hectares or approximately 48 per cent of the total land area in Trinidad
and Tobago was still classified as forest land, although much was under severe pressure
from alternative uses (Table 4). State-owned forests accounted for 192,000 hectares or
about 77 per cent of all forested lands. Nowadays, these forests are not exploited
commercially for timber and, hence, are conserved primarily for ecological, educational,
recreational, and scientific purposes.[h1]
Estimates of forest cover and calculations of forest loss and changes, which involves
little or no field verifications, are based primarily on dated information derived from the
last Forest Resources Inventory conducted some 25 years ago using 1969 aerial
photography.
Source: Annual Report of the Forestry Division 2003, MPUE (May, 2004)
Forest cover data is outdated and a new forest inventory is urgently required. Towards
this end, the Forestry Division is working towards the development of new forest cover
maps for the country.
2.1.8.1 Tobago
While the forests of Trinidad include the eight indigenous types, there are four major
vegetation communities in Tobago, namely, littoral woodland, deciduous seasonal
woodland, rainforest and swamp forests. The rain forest is found in the sheltered
mountain valleys of the Main Ridge. Lower montane forest, xerophytic rain forest,
evergreen formations and some elfin woodland also occurs (Davis et al. 198610, Thelen
and Faizool, 198011).
10Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C.J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H. and
Zantovska, J. 1986. Plants in Danger: What do We Know? IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.
461 pp.
11 Thelen, K.D. and S. Faizool 1980. Policy for the Establishment and Management of a National Park System
in Trinidad and Tobago. Technical Document Forest Division/OAS Project on the establishment of a system
of national parks and protected areas. Forest Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Port of Spain, Trinidad. 26
pp.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 34
2.1.9 Soils and Land Capability
Trinidad and Tobago possesses a large number of soil types per unit area. These soil
types are formed from the five main groups of geological parent materials: igneous rock,
metamorphic rock, sedimentary rock, alluvial and colluvial deposits and volcanic
formation. Apart from the parent materials, other factors also determine the types of
soils formed, such as relief and physiography, geology, climate and vegetation. Trinidad
and Tobago possesses a range of soils, the majority being fine sands and heavy clays.
Many of these soils are highly erodible (that is, inherently prone to erosion), particularly
those on gently to steeply sloping lands (Table 5).
2.1.9.1 Trinidad
There are 120 types of soils in Trinidad, with three soil series each occupying more than
40,000 hectares, namely the Talparo (which is widespread in Central and South
Trinidad), the Maracas (which occurs only in the Northern range) and the Moruga
(which occurs only in Central and South Trinidad). Seven other soil types, each occupy
more than 10,000 hectares, while eleven soil series occupy more than 5,000 hectares.
More than 60 per cent of the soils series each occupy less than 2,000 hectares. The soils of
the alluvial valleys of the Northern Range and the East West Corridor are the most
fertile and on these lands, there is often conflict among competing uses for residential,
agricultural and industrial purposes.
About 30 per cent of the soils in Trinidad occupy flatlands that is land under five
degrees (Table 6).
12 Kairi Consultants Limited, 1996. National Parks and Watershed Management Project – Identification of
Sub-watersheds. Prepared on behalf of Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources - Final Report.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 35
Table 6: Areas of Soils in Different Slope Classes13
Group No of Total Slope
Soil Area
A B C D E F
Series
0-2 2-5 5-10 10-20 20-30 +30
Land capability is one of the systems used to determine the value of land for numerous
uses. The land resources of Trinidad and Tobago are based on the United States
Department of Agriculture (USDA) system which is based on the potential of soils for
mechanised agricultural production and soil conservation. It is designed for determining
the maximum intensity of land use consistent with low erosion risks and sustained
productivity. The USDA system defines lands suited for cultivation as those in Classes I
to IV. The best agricultural lands are Class I (those soils which do not require special
land management practices), while Class IV soils require the special land management
practices though best suited for tree crops and pasture grasses. Sixty nine per cent of the
soils in Trinidad are designated as being of Class V to VII and are best suited for tree
crops, timber and forest trees (Table 7).
2.1.9.2 Tobago
There are 43 soil series in Tobago, with 85 per cent of the acreage of land between Class I
and Class V (Table 8). Thirty nine per cent of the soils are flat to gently sloping (Table 9).
13F. Hardy, 1974. Land Capability Survey of Trinidad and Tobago, No 6. Government Printery, Trinidad
and Tobago.
14F. Hardy, 1974. Land Capability Survey of Trinidad and Tobago, No 6. Government Printery, Trinidad
and Tobago.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 36
Table 8: Classes of Soil Texture/Soil Slope Erodibility Factor15
No of Total Land Capability Class Per Cent
Soil Area I II III IV V VI VII of Total
Series Area
43 30,474 283 3,441 6,799 6,582 8,720 4,372 277 100.0%
43 30,474 283 3,441 6,799 6,582 8,720 4,372 277 100.0%
2.1.10 Biodiversity
Trinidad and Tobago, is reported to be the most biologically diverse country in the
Caribbean archipelago, with a wide array of biological resources resulting from its
proximity to, and recent geological split from the South American mainland. The islands
have eight main indigenous types of forest, and approximately 175 families and 2,500
species of plants. They provide a wide range of habitats which supports more than 400
species of birds, over 90 species of mammals, 93 species of reptiles, 30 species of
amphibians and numerous species of butterflies. A number of these species are endemic.
In an effort to maintain the country’s biodiversity[h2], there are some 127,500 hectares of
proclaimed forest reserve in Trinidad and Tobago, with an additional 11,650 hectares
which are managed as such.
The coastal and marine areas of the two main islands contain a rich biological diversity
of ecosystems that are of significant regional and global importance, in particular,
mangroves, coastal swamps and coral reefs. They also contain many plants, small
invertebrate and vertebrate species, including endangered ones, such as the leather back
turtle. The Nariva Swamp, Caroni Swamp and Buccoo Reef/Bon Accord Lagoon
Complex have been designated as Ramsar sites. A number of these sites have been
identified for global and regional priority and are considered among the “Global 200”
list of top global priority eco-regions by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF)16.
15F. Hardy, 1974. Land Capability Survey of Trinidad and Tobago, No 1. Government Printery, Trinidad
and Tobago.
16 WWF has identified those large areas of the Earth that best represent the breadth of biodiversity and
ecological processes. These large areas are called "eco-regions" and the list of priority eco-regions is known
as the Global 200 eco-regions.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 37
2.1.11 Water Resources
The network of rivers in Trinidad and Tobago has been described earlier in Sections
2.1.3.1.1 and 2.1.3.1.2. The largest watersheds contain the major river systems and drain
the Northern and Southern Basins to the west into the Gulf of Paria and to the east into
the Atlantic Ocean. The Caroni River is the largest watershed which drains two-thirds
of the Northern Basin and eventually empties into the Gulf of Paria. Other major river
systems are the South Oropouche River which drains South Trinidad on the west; the
North Oropouche which empties in the east; and the Ortoire and Poole Rivers which
merge and also drain in the east. The watersheds of Tobago are smaller than those
observed in Trinidad with the largest being the Courland and the Hillsborough.
The aquifers of Trinidad are associated with the variety of gravels and sands in north,
central and south of the island17. The major aquifers of Trinidad are the unconfined
Northwest Peninsula Gravels and the Northern Gravels, and the confined Central Sands
and Southern Sands. The minor aquifers include the Mayaro Sandstone and
Guayaguayare Sandstone. The Northwest Peninsula Gravels extend from Chaguaramas
to Port of Spain and are mainly recharged by direct infiltration of rainfall and by
streambed infiltration and subsurface flow to a lesser extent. Therefore, maintaining a
sizeable recharge zone is critical.
The Northern Gravels, which comprise those aquifers east of Port of Spain to just
outside Arima and southward onto the Caroni Plains, are made up of alluvial deposits
and gravel fans along the southern foothills of the Northern Range. The rivers in the
valleys between Port of Spain and Arima recharge the aquifers as they flow over them
on their way to the Caroni River. These aquifers are connected laterally.
The Central Sands are located on the southern section of the Northern Basin and extend
in irregular bands in a north-easterly diagonal direction from Clayton Bay to Cumuto
and dip in a north-westerly direction towards the Gulf of Paria. The Southern Sands are
multiple-sand aquifers divided into the Erin Formation and Morne L’Enfer Formation.
While most of the aquifers are exploited, it is the Northern Gravels and Northwest
Peninsula Gravels that are the top producers.
Since Tobago is largely composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks, it is not
considered rich in groundwater resources. However, recent hydro-geological studies in
2002 have identified the presence of substantial water resources in fracture systems of
deep bedrock aquifers.
17 EMA, 1999. State of the Environment 1998 Report. Trinidad and Tobago.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 38
annual per capita water availability level of 1,000 cubic metres and lower, experience
chronic water scarcity, which could hamper economic development and human health
and well-being. Thus, by international standards, Trinidad and Tobago is not a water
scarce country. However, surface water availability which is the major source of water is
strongly influenced by seasonal and spatial variations.
About 76 per cent of Trinidad and Tobago’s water supply is derived from surface water
sources, while the remainder is provided from groundwater sources18. Table 10
highlights the major surface sources in Trinidad and Tobago. The major surface water
supply sources are the Caroni Arena Reservoir, North Oropouche Intake, Hollis
Reservoir, Guanapo River, and the Navet Reservoir in Trinidad, and the Hillsborough
Reservoir and Courland Intake in Tobago. These reservoirs are producing currently at
levels just under their natural water availability and any excess availability from these
catchments should be allocated to satisfy ecological requirements (20 per cent of
availability).[h3]
The available surface water in Trinidad is estimated at 3,600 million cubic metres per
year20. For the year 2000, water demand was estimated to be 336 million cubic metres, 10
times less than the available surface water. In 2000, water supply totalled 300 million
cubic metres. This means that there was an 11 per cent (36 million cubic metres) deficit
in 2000. Such deficit is worsened during severe dry seasons when surface water flows
are at their lowest, adversely affecting the reliability of raw water supply.
The country’s groundwater potential is estimated at 611 million cubic metres per year
(545 million cubic metres per year for Trinidad and 66 million cubic metres for Tobago).
Groundwater abstraction for 2000 was 82 million cubic metres per year (77 million cubic
metres per year for Trinidad and four million cubic metres for Tobago) [Table 11].
18Government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, 2003. National Water Resources Management Policy
Project: National Water Resources Management Policy. MPUE.
19 Vision 2020 Planning Committee, 2003. Draft Report (Environment): Report of the Sub-Committee on the
Environment in the Formulation of a Strategic Development Plan for Trinidad and Tobago.
20Government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, 2003. National Water Resources Management Policy
Project: National Water Resources Management Policy. MPUE.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 39
Table 11: Production, Safe Yields and Additional Potential of Ground Water Sources
in Trinidad and Tobago21
Public and Private Sector Water Production Safe Yield Additional
Supply (mcm/yr) (mcm/yr) Potential
(mcm/yr)
Northwest Peninsula Gravels 29.72 30.02 0.35
Northern Gravels 26.18 28.10 1.92
Central Sands 13.70 8.72 -4.98
Southern Sands 9.89 26.32 16.43
Misc Aquifers 1.86 13.19 12.02
Rockly Bay Sands 0.14 0.30 0.16
Bloody Bay Gravels 0.20 0.33 0.13
Total Supply 81.69 107.72 26.03
Total Ground Water Production 72.09
(public supply)
Total Ground Water Production 9.60
(private supply)
Annual surface water and ground water availability for Tobago have been calculated at
140 million cubic metres and 65 million cubic metres, respectively22. The natural water
balance suggests that there is sufficient water available to satisfy year round demand.
However, the country continues to experience water supply problems, particularly
during the dry season.
The domestic sector is the largest single user of water in the country, accounting for
approximately 36 per cent of demand, followed by the industrial sector accounting for
18 per cent, and irrigated agriculture accounting for only approximately three per cent
of demand. Unaccounted-for-water comprises 43 per cent of water demand. Although
difficult to quantify, ecological demand represents an important user of water (Table 12).
Water is necessary to maintain the productive ecology of Trinidad and Tobago’s rivers
and wetlands.
21 Vision 2020 Planning Committee, 2003. Draft Report (Environment): Report of the Sub-Committee on the
Environment in the Formulation of a Strategic Development Plan for Trinidad and Tobago.
22 Vision 2020 Planning Committee, 2003. Draft Report (Environment): Report of the Sub-Committee on the
Environment in the Formulation of a Strategic Development Plan for Trinidad and Tobago.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 40
Table 12: Sectoral Water Demand in Trinidad and Tobago23
Category 1997 2000
mcm/yr % Mcm/yr %
Domestic 118 39.7 120 36.0
Industrial, Major 36 12.1 51 15.1
Industrial, Minor 9 3.0 10 2.9
Irrigated Agriculture 10 3.4 10 2.9
Unaccounted-for-water 124 41.8 145 43.1
Total 297 100.0 336 100.0
2.2 Socio-economy
Trinidad and Tobago is now approaching the mature stage of the demographic cycle
with the population growth rate now on the decline. In 2000, the population of Trinidad
and Tobago was 1,262,366 persons. Of the total population, males accounted for 50.1 per
cent and females 49.9 per cent. Some four years later (in 2004), the total mid-year
population for Trinidad and Tobago was estimated at 1,209,646 persons. This drop in
population of 52,720 or four per cent was due mainly to reduced birth rates and outward
migration.
The population is concentrated in urban areas in northwest Trinidad (from Diego Martin
to Arima), Chaguanas and its satellite communities, and in San Fernando.
Approximately 43 per cent of the population live along the corridor of Northwest
Trinidad in the valleys and along the foothills of the Northern Range. In Tobago, most of
the population is concentrated in the southwest sections of the island. Population
densities range from 3,632 persons per square kilometre in the Municipality of Port of
Spain to 38 persons per square kilometre in the municipality of Mayaro/Rio Claro. The
East-West Corridor, the strip of land extending along the foothills of the Northern Range
in an east to west direction, is the most densely populated region of the country, with
23Government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, 2003. National Water Resources Management Policy
Project: National Water Resources Management Policy, MPUE.
24 EMA, 1997. State of the Environment 1996 Report.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 41
population densities being greatest in the urban centres of Port of Spain (3,832 persons
per square kilometre) and Arima (2,882 persons per square kilometre).
San Fernando is the second most densely populated municipality of Trinidad and
Tobago with a density of 2,980 persons per square kilometre. In addition, population has
been increasing in Chaguanas, the country’s youngest borough, at a significant rate since
the mid 1970’s and now stands at 1,130 persons per square kilometre. The characteristics
of the population are detailed in Table 13.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 42
cent per annum. The country seems poised for continued positive economic
performance.
The country’s economic development and improvement in the living standards of its
residents are based primarily on its hydrocarbon, petrochemical and metals sectors, with
significant increases in exports, and its diversification efforts in services, tourism,
manufacturing and agriculture. While the first energy boom was based on the country’s
oil reserves, at present the economy, which is driven by its offshore natural gas reserves,
is experiencing a second energy boom. Trinidad and Tobago is experiencing a transition
from an oil-based economy to a natural gas based economy. Apart from the recent
increases in crude oil prices, the recent discovery of major offshore oil and gas fields has
bolstered the current and future economic prospects.
The country’s energy sector has allowed for the development of energy intensive
industries, including a range of petrochemicals, including ammonia, methanol, urea and
natural gas. Trinidad and Tobago ranks amongst the top five liquefied natural gas
(LNG) producers in the world, is the largest exporter of ammonia and methanol, and is
the third largest nitrogen producer globally. One of the world’s largest methanol plants
was completed and commissioned in Trinidad and Tobago in 200525.
Of the non-hydrocarbon sectors, distribution, construction, transportation,
communications, and manufacturing all show signs of continued growth. Agriculture,
however, has been experiencing stagnant growth rates.
2.2.3 Poverty
Despite its economic fortunes, poverty represents a deficiency in resources and is a
challenge Trinidad and Tobago must overcome in order to achieve sustainable
development. Since the 1980’s, Trinidad and Tobago has experienced a general increase
in poverty from 3.5 per cent in 1981/82 to 14.8 per cent in 198826. A 2004 Inter-American
Development Bank (IADB) study27, based on data from the 1997/1998 Household
Budgetary Survey (HBS) determined that current levels of poverty are much higher and
is calculated as 24 per cent of the total population in 18.4 per cent of the total number of
households. Approximately 8.3 per cent of the population are ‘extremely poor’ or
indigent - that is, they cannot afford the cost of a minimum low-cost food basket.
Table 14 shows the distribution of poverty in Trinidad and Tobago. Although the largest
population of poor people is found in St George (about 33 per cent), poverty is
concentrated in pockets within this highly urbanised county (for example, in Cocorite,
25Feature Address by the Honourable Patrick Manning Prime Minister of the Republic of Trinidad and
Tobago at the Second Biennial International Conference on Business, Banking and Finance. Website of the
Office of the Prime Minister of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago.
http://www.opm.gov.tt/news/index.php?pid=2001&nid=sp060501
26Cited in Poverty Reduction and Social Development (Final Report). Prepared by Kairi Consultants
Limited, on behalf of Inter-American Development Bank, Washington DC.
27IADB, 2004. Trinidad and Tobago – Poverty Reduction and Social Development (Final Report). Prepared
by Kairi Consultants Limited, 2004. on behalf of the IADB, Washington DC.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 43
Laventille, Sea Lots, Morvant, St Joseph, the hillside communities of San Juan, and
Sherwood Park (The Congo, Arima).
Historically and currently St Andrew/St David, Nariva/Mayaro, St Patrick and Victoria
have been the poorest areas in the country. However, in these counties the incidence of
poverty is more diverse and thus a higher proportion of the population is poor. In
addition, level of indigence in Nariva/Mayaro was more than twice the national average
at 19 per cent; that is almost one in every five persons in this region of Trinidad is
extremely poor. While it would be important to only target and implement poverty
reduction projects in the specific communities within St George and in the rural counties
it would be critical to target the entire county because poverty is more diverse and
affects higher proportions of the population.
Source: Kairi Consultants Limited, 2004. Trinidad and Tobago – Poverty Reduction and Social Development
(Final Report). Prepared on behalf of the Inter-American Development Bank, Washington DC
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 44
2.2.4 Land Use and Tenure
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 45
Figure 11: Land Use Map Tobago
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 46
Table 15: Overview of Existing Agricultural Land Use of Caroni Lands
Type of Activity Hectares Percentage
Source: Report of the Inter-Agency Land Use Planning Team. April 2004
Most of the agricultural lands are currently being sub-divided for distribution to over
7,000 former Caroni workers. Sub-division of these lands into two acres and fifty acre
parcels would have serious implications for future use and management. Care must be
taken to ensure that these lands are managed sustainably and are used for agricultural
purposes.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 47
Land
Proposed
No. Section Total Hectares Proposed Activity Class
Hectares
Capability
8. Exchange 1,584.4 Vegetables and III 500
food crops
Sugarcane III, IV 560
(estimated)
9. Montserrat 1,667.6 Food crops III, IV, V 126
Tree crops IV, V, VI 720
Forestry V, VI 70
10. Esperanza 1,266 Small ruminants III, IV, V 280
Food crops VI 300
Forestry V, VI, VII 140
11. Reform/Williamsvi 2,318.8 Food crops III, IV 600
lle Sugarcane III, IV, V 800
(estimated)
12. Cedar Hill 977.6 Sugarcane IV, V, VI 720
(estimated)
13. Petit Morne 1,744.4 Sugarcane III, IV, V 800
(estimated)
14. La Fortune 1 & 2 1,890.8 Livestock (beef) III, IV, V 1,160
Sugarcane III, IV, V 160
(estimated)
15. La Gloria 1,816.8 Citrus IV, V, VI 600
Livestock IV, V, VI 1,060
Food crops IV, V 80
16. Forres Park 999.2 Forestry V, VI, VII 500
Food crops II, IV, V 200
17. Mora Valley 6,662.4 Cocoa III, IV 72
Buffalypso III, IV 590.4
Total Under 25,177.2 16,580.4
Agricultural Use*
*Excludes Built Development
Source: Report of the Inter-Agency Land Use Planning Team. April 2004
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 48
descendants of African slaves or immigrants from other Caribbean islands. These
distinctions, however, are not as marked as they once were and have been eroded over
time. However, the State remains the key land owner in Trinidad and Tobago. Today,
the State controls over 50 per cent of the total land mass.
Land tenure in Trinidad and Tobago includes freehold, leasehold on private or State
land and rented on private or State land, squatting on State or private land, and
occupation of 'family land28'. About 52 per cent of all lands are owned by the State in
86,000 parcels, while private lands make up the remaining 48 per cent on 334,000
parcels29.
Leasehold tenure on State lands provides lower income individuals an opportunity to
own land. The State leases lands for residential, agricultural, commercial, religious or
community purposes. Over many years of land leasing by the State, the system has
become fraught with problems. These problems include the inadequacy of the State
institutions to manage the leases, lack of information on the status of the leases,
inability to monitor the land use, rampant breaches of lease terms, and tenure insecurity
resulting from expired leases. In Trinidad and Tobago, it is estimated that 47 per cent of
households do not have clear, registered rights to the land on which their houses are
located30.
28Family land is a phrase used in the Caribbean where formal landowners die and their heirs do not pursue
formal transfer of the title of the land. This situation may continue over generations resulting in land in
which an ever-increasing number of kin hold un-subdivided interests that are not formally documented in
the national cadastre. The percentage of land held under this type of tenure may be as high as 12.9.
29Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources, 2005. Implementing the Trinidad and Tobago Land
Adjudication and Registration Project Registration Project. A Presentation at the Real Property Rights and
Development in Trinidad & Tobago, held at the Trinidad Hilton and Conference Centre on the 19th January
2005; South Trinidad Chamber of Industry and Commerce (STCIC) and the Inter-American Alliance for
Accountability on Real Property Rights, with funding from the United States Agency for International
Development. Website Source: http://www.southchamber.org/files/cms/LARP_Jan_05.PDF.
30Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources, 2005. Implementing the Trinidad and Tobago Land
Adjudication and Registration Project Registration Project. A Presentation at the Real Property Rights and
Development in Trinidad & Tobago, held at the Trinidad Hilton and Conference Centre on the 19th January
2005; South Trinidad Chamber of Industry and Commerce (STCIC) and the Inter-American Alliance for
Accountability on Real Property Rights, with funding from the United States Agency for International
Development. Website Source: http://www.southchamber.org/files/cms/LARP_Jan_05.PDF.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 49
The history of land use over much of the 20th century demonstrates the effect of the
change in culture on the approach of the population to the environment. In the colonial
period – Spanish and then British - agriculture was the dominant economic activity.
After the end of slavery and during indentureship, a large percentage of the population
lived and worked in or near to their village. Most lived off the resources of the land and
were dependent on the land for their livelihood and support. Their relationship with the
land reflected their sense of stewardship and responsibility for its protection, which
guided the way the land was managed and people's behaviour with respect to access to,
and use of, land resources. [h5]
As agricultural production became less important and residents migrated to urban
centres, many estates were abandoned and traditional practices made way for ‘modern’
practices which often lead to deterioration of land resources. People’s relationship with
the land has become fractured and one of alienation, particularly in the urban and
suburban centres. This disconnect of people from the land is translated into a number of
social and environmental problems.
Like other small Caribbean countries, urbanisation and exposure of society to outside
influences have brought with it a material culture and patterns of consumption which
are heavily influenced by the norms of North America, in particular, and the North
Atlantic in general. Quality of life is defined socially in terms of the approximation to
what obtains in the United States, which is the main destination of the large migratory
flow from the country. The consumer culture is reinforced by the mass media, and by
close and continuing links between residents and relatives in North America. The
impact has been considerable, touching such areas as eating habits, modes of transport,
and home entertainment.
There are two major implications for Trinidad and Tobago SIDS. Firstly, it has to lay a
massive infrastructure of roads to treat with the traffic caused by the predilection for
private modes of transport. Secondly, it is increasingly challenged in the safe disposal of
waste that is out of proportion with its capacity to manage landfill. High per capita
income has made this problem particularly acute in Trinidad and Tobago[h6]. As a result,
a major issue facing the country is the disposal of the ever-growing volume of solid and
liquid waste which accompanies increased affluence and heavy reliance on imported
goods the use of which creates problems in land use.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 50
Chapter 3
Land Degradation in Trinidad and Tobago
31 A working definition for Land Degradation as formulated by the UNCCD Multi-sectoral Committee is the
“reduction or loss of bio-physical or economic productivity of land resulting from a process or combination
of processes arising from natural phenomena and human activities.”
32 The calculation of the EVI is based on the 50 indicators of environmental vulnerability, which have been
selected by global scientific and expert review. This list includes 35 indicators of risk, seven of intrinsic
resilience and eight indicators of environmental integrity for degradation.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 51
EVI Description Scores Comments
26 Fragmentation Per cent of natural 7 High incidence of habitat
of Land and vegetative cover in fragmentation placing high stress
Habitats fragments of less than or on species inhabiting that area.
equal to 1,000 hectares,
excluding those that
occupy entire islands.
31 Fertilisers Tonnes of nitrogen, 6 The vulnerability of the
phosphorus and environment of Trinidad to
potassium fertilisers used damage caused by fertilisers is
per year per square high.
kilometre of agricultural
land (average over the
last five years).
32 Pesticides Tonnes of pesticides used 7 The environment of the country is
per square kilometre of very vulnerable to damage from
agricultural land (average pesticides.
over the last five years).
36 Renewable Mean percentage of water 7 There is a need to carefully
Water usage per year met from manage rivers and watersheds.
renewable and non-
declining sources.
38 Waste Total net tonnage of 5 Moderately vulnerable to pollution
Production generated and imported of waterways, coastal regions and
toxic, hazardous and groundwater caused by large
municipal wastes per volume of wastes generated on an
square kilometre annual basis..
39 Waste Mean per cent of 4 The waterways, groundwater and
Treatment hazardous, toxic, and coastal regions in Trinidad are at
municipal waste moderate risk to pollution from the
effectively managed or improper wastes.
treated per year
42 Mining Tonnes of mining 7 The environment of Trinidad is
materials (ore plus highly vulnerable to land
tailings) extracted per degradation which is associated
square kilometre per year with sedimentation of waterways.
for an average of five
years
45 Population Total human population 6 The environment of Trinidad and
Density density (number per Tobago is under stress to support
kilometre of land area) the growing number of persons
living on the islands and is highly
vulnerable to damage associated
with human activities.
48 Coastal Density of people living 7 Coastal areas and associated
Population in coastal settlements ecosystems in Trinidad and
(that is with a city centre Tobago are very vulnerable to
within 20 kilometres of pollution and other negative
the coast) impacts of highly developed areas.
Source: 2001 and 2002 State of the Environment Report, EMA, 2003
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 52
Most of the land degradation witnessed in Trinidad and Tobago is caused by human
action. Figure 12 characterises land degradation in Trinidad and Tobago.
Figure 12: Causes and Forms of Land Degradation in Trinidad and Tobago
In Trinidad and Tobago, the main types of land degradation are deforestation,
accelerated soil erosion, declining soil fertility, the increased incidence of flooding, soil
and water pollution/ contamination.
3.1.1 Deforestation
Deforestation is the conversion of forestland to other uses and decreased forest quality.
It generally increases rates of soil erosion, by increasing the amount of runoff and
reducing the protection of the soil provided by tree litter. Deforestation also leads to
forest fragmentation and forest degradation.
According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO),
deforestation in Trinidad and Tobago accounted for the loss of approximately 2,200
hectares of natural forests per year, or 0.8 per cent per year, during the period 1990 to
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 53
200033. The 2001 to 2002 Report on the Environment34 shows that Trinidad and Tobago is
highly vulnerable to loss of its naturally vegetated areas and has a high incidence of land
and habitat fragmentation35.
There has been extensive deforestation in critical watersheds, associated with annual
forest fires, logging, the practice of slash and burn agriculture, construction (site
clearance and preparation), squatting, quarrying, gas and oil exploitation. Recent rapid
urban and industrial development suggests that the rate of deforestation may have
increased within the last five years. Deforestation significantly lowers the water table
and causes siltation in water courses, increased flooding, and reduced perennial stream
flow. Deforestation also reduces natural vegetation thus reducing available habitat and
threatening the existence of the native flora and fauna.
3.1.2 Erosion
There has been increased soil erosion throughout [h8]Trinidad and Tobago. Erosion
reduces soil productivity and adversely affects the environment. The last mapped data
on the status of soil erosion in Trinidad and Tobago was produced some 30 years ago
and is therefore outdated. Nonetheless, there is evidence that erosion is widespread in
the northwest Trinidad, in the rolling hills in Central Trinidad and in the Courland
watershed in Tobago. The consequence of increased erosion is the high sediment loads
in river systems and waterways which reduces the capacity of the systems to carry
runoff water. One of the main indicators of increased erosion is the high silt and
sediment loads dredged from main river systems in Trinidad over the years.
Despite the fact that erosion is one of the main problems of land degradation, discussion
of the impact of erosion remains anecdotal since there is no continuous, systematic
programme to assess the extent of erosion in Trinidad and Tobago. However, periodic
studies have generated some information on water runoff and soil loss. These studies
mainly demonstrate large soil losses from bare steeply sloping soils. Soil loss on bare
Maracas/Matelot soils, two main soil types on Northern Range, was up to 55 tonnes of
soil per hectare in a three month period36. Another study on a Concordia soil in Tobago
33Achieving the International Tropical Timber Council (ITTO) Objective 2000 and Sustainable Forest
Management in Trinidad and Tobago. Report submitted to the International Tropical Timber Council by the
Diagnostic Mission Established under Decision 2(XXIX) “ITTO Objective 2000.”
34 EMA, 2004. State of the Environment Report 2001 and 2002.
35Environmental Vulnerability Indicator #25 – Rate of Loss of Natural Cover (Net percentage of land area
changed by removal of natural vegetation over the last five years). The indicator measures the risk of further
losses of natural vegetation from deforestation, and losses of wetlands and other natural vegetation
ecosystems. The country has a score of seven. However, confidence in this estimate is low.
Environmental Vulnerability Indicator #26 – Fragmentation of Land and Habitats as a percentage of natural
vegetation cover in fragments of less than or equal to 1000 hectares, excluding those that occupy entire
islands. Trinidad and Tobago both score a 7 for this indicator, with a high confidence level.
Lindsay, J. I., 1979. Rainfall Erosivity, Soil Erodibility and Soil Loss Studies under Different
36
Managements at Two Sites in Trinidad. M.Sc. Thesis, Department of Soil Science. UWI, St
Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 54
showed extremely high soil losses from bare soil between 100 and 150 tonnes per hectare
per annum37.
Gully Erosion after land clearance for housing Landslide on North Coast Road, Trinidad
development
Photograph 3: Erosion and massive land movement are major forms of land degradation
37Ahmad, N. and Breckner, E, 1974. Soil Erosion on Three Tobago Soils. Tropical Agriculture (Trinidad);
Volume 51:p313-324.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 55
Even to the casual observer, the loss of beach is quite obvious along the Cedros and
Icacos coast line (personal communication: David Neale, Consultant). The backshore
land in much of the southwest comprises soft soil material on steep cliffs that collapse
periodically. This is principally responsible for the erosion that over time alters the coast
line.
Erosion along Trinidad’s southwest and south coasts has prompted the construction of
coastal protection measures by both the State and private entities in Manzanilla,
Guayaguayare, Fanny Bay and Clifton Hill Beach, Point Fortin. However, the
construction of coast defence works by the Ministry of Works and Transport (MWT) has
been hampered by limited funding. Thus, less than 100 metres of wall have been
constructed per year in communities like Guayaguayare. Apart from the erection of a
few sheet piles, very little has been done on this coast. Currently, erosion threatens the
main road connecting Sangre Grande and Rio Claro.
Photograph 4: Coastal erosion has become a common occurrence along Trinidad’s southwest
coast
3.1.3 Flooding
The problem of flash and acute flooding has become an annual occurrence in Trinidad
and Tobago. Among those areas most severely affected are Caroni, flood plains of the
Carapo River, along the Eastern Main Road, downstream Port of Spain, Penal,
Barrackpore and South Oropouche (Figure 13). Moreover, the problem no longer seems
to be restricted to the traditional October to December period. Instead flooding now
extends from June and January and seem to get an early start in the wet season when
there are above average rainfall during the dry season. Figure 14 shows the distribution
of flood events 1981 and January, 2005.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 56
200
100
50
0
Ortoire Caparo Oropouche Caroni
14 98 100 182
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Jan Feb M ar A pr M ay Jun Jul A ug Sep Oct No v Dec
32 4 6 4 7 33 82 90 80 112 187 78
M o nth
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 57
5. Unsustainable legal and illegal logging which lead to deforestation, disrupted
ecosystem services and reduced biodiversity; and
6. Slash and burn agriculture which leads to the burning of forests and shrub land
and puts stress on the land, eventually leading to soil loss and reduced soil
productivity.
Flooding has tremendous social, economic, physical and environmental costs. Flood
waters have resulted in injuries and loss of lives and destroyed infrastructure, crops and
livestock, and household, commercial and industrial assets.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 58
In more recent times, there is evidence of the build up of industrial pollution pressures
associated with a wide range of industrial activities, ranging from the petrochemical
industry to light manufacturing and this includes from both the small numbers of large
industries and even larger numbers of medium and small industries. Surface sediments
indicate significant levels of contamination with hydrocarbons on the west coast of
Trinidad, probably due to contaminants from land-based operations transported via the
Guapo, Vance, Oropouche and Guaracara Rivers38.
Domestic wastewater management is to be a serious and chronic problem and there
needs to be greater emphasis on addressing this issue. Apart from causing land
degradation, discharged wastewater finds its way into the fresh water and marine
environments where it can have negative public health effects.
The quality of the water in the streams and rivers is a litmus test on how well the land
within water catchments is being managed. Soil, water, vegetation, and animal and
human activity are inextricably linked and their interaction dictates whether the
management of the land is ecologically sustainable. The monitoring of land based
pollution, in the past, has been sporadic. Because of its importance as a water source, the
Caroni watershed represents one of the key areas where detailed studies have taken
place, the most recent of which is being undertaken now. Data from previous illustrate
the pollution problem in northwest Trinidad (Table 18). A 31-day study of the pollutant
load for the Caroni River at the Caroni Arena Water Treatment Plant (CAWTP) in 1997
estimated 5,713 tonnes with a daily average of 184 tonnes. Most of the pollutants (88 per
cent) were derived from high sediment loads, with organic matter and organic
contaminants, each accounting for five per cent. The Mausica/Manacal and Arima
Rivers were heavily polluted and were rated fairly poor in water quality, while the
Guanapo River was rated as having poor water quality39.
38 CEPNET/IDB Project - State of the Coasts Hypertext Report: Trinidad & Tobago. URL:
http://grid2.cr.usgs.gov/cepnet/trini_tbgo/ttsoc/intro.html; (Last accessed: June 2005).
39 EMA, 1997. Final Report on Pollution Sources Affecting the Caroni Arena Water Treatment Plant.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 59
Photograph 6: The Cipero River
Table 18: Major Pollution Problem in Each River System from Aripo and
Chaguaramas
River Main Source of Pollution
Aripo Quarrying and agricultural runoff
Guanapo Quarrying and agricultural runoff
Cumuto Agricultural runoff
El Mamo Agricultural runoff
Arima Urban runoff, industrial and municipal wastewater
Manacal Industrial and municipal wastewater
Mausica Industrial and municipal wastewater, urban runoff,
agricultural runoff, construction runoff
Arouca Urban runoff, construction runoff, agricultural runoff
Caura/Tacarigua Agricultural runoff, urban runoff, construction runoff
Tunapuna Urban runoff, construction runoff, industrial wastewater,
agricultural runoff
Maracas/St Joseph Urban runoff, construction runoff, industrial wastewater,
agricultural runoff
Santa Cruz Urban runoff, construction runoff, industrial wastewater,
agricultural runoff
Black (Malick) Urban runoff, construction runoff, industrial wastewater,
agricultural runoff
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 60
River Main Source of Pollution
Caroni Urban runoff, industrial and municipal wastewater,
agricultural runoff, construction runoff
St Anns/Port of Spain Industrial and municipal wastewater, urban runoff,
agricultural runoff, construction runoff
Maraval Industrial and municipal wastewater, urban runoff,
agricultural runoff, construction runoff
Diego Martin Urban runoff, construction runoff, industrial wastewater
Chaguaramas Urban runoff, industrial wastewater, agricultural runoff
Photograph 7: The Oropouche Lagoon shows evidence of salt water intrusion with the growth of
weeds which are characteristics of the vegetative cover under saline conditions
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 61
3.2 Causes of Land Degradation
To develop effective approaches to land degradation, both the direct and root
(underlying) causes have to be properly understood. The causes of land degradation can
be a result of natural (inherent), direct and underlying factors. Natural causes are those
conditions of the physical environment which increase the potential of land degradation
and in a few instances can be the principal cause of land degradation. Some soils, for
example, are highly erodible and naturally prone to landslides during heavy rainfall
events.
Direct causes refer to those natural and anthropogenic factors that lead to land
degradation. While its inherent characteristics may predispose the land to degradation
and reduce the potential for recovery through natural processes, in more cases than not,
it is human activities that accelerate the problem. For example, vegetable production on
steep slopes greatly increases the risk of water erosion during high intensity rainstorm
events. Annual fires reduce the ability of native forest to regenerate itself resulting in fire
climax vegetation and accelerated soil loss.
There can be a number of root or underlying reasons for these direct causes of land
degradation and these can be found within the wider social, cultural, economic, policy
and legislative environment in which the society operates. For example, there are clear
guidelines which restrict farmers from cultivating on steeply sloping lands. However,
institutional framework to ensure that farmers adhere to these standards is clearly
lacking.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 62
Forms of Land Natural Hazards
Degradation
In some cases, the landslide hazard is sufficient to give rise to land degradation without
human interference. For example, the underlying geology of a large portion of the
windward Tobago consists of unstable formations, which coupled with the generally
steep slopes and frequent earth tremors, render the region highly susceptible to land
slips40 (Figure 15). The 2004 rainy season demonstrated how vulnerable the area is to
landslides and the fact that not all the landslides were human-induced, since a number
of landslides also occurred in heavily forested sections of the Main Ridge. Similar
landslides also occurred in Trinidad’s Northern Range during 2004.
40 Final Report on North East Tobago Management Plan Project (NO. 8 ACP TR 005) prepared by the
Environment and Development Group and Kairi Consultants Limited on behalf of the THA and the
GORTT, 2003.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 63
3.2.1.2 Drought Conditions in Trinidad and Tobago
Photograph 8: One of
the many landslides
which occurred in the
forested sections of
Northeast Tobago
during the rainstorms of
November 2004 in
Speyside, Tobago.
Drought conditions in Trinidad and Tobago are associated with the occurrence of the
phenomenon of El Niño41. During El Niño years, the Caribbean region usually
experiences reduced rainfall and increased ambient temperature and consequently
reduced water availability which negatively affects water supply and increases the
incidence of forest and bush fires. The 2001 and 2002 Report on the Environment indicated
that Trinidad and Tobago has a low vulnerability to increasing frequency of dry periods.
However, Trinidad and Tobago does appear to be adversely affected by the El Niño.
Therefore, the relationship between this phenomenon and the local weather needs to be
further studied. La Niña usually follows El Niño and locally results in increased rainfall
during both the wet and dry seasons and this increases the incidence of flooding.
41 El Niño is the global climate phenomenon which involves the warming of some sections of the Pacific
Ocean and the weakening of the east-west trade winds. This large-scale abnormal warming of the surface of
the eastern and central Pacific Ocean is known to occur every two to seven years, with varying degrees of
intensity and duration. It is associated with significant changes to climate patterns all over the world,
causing droughts and floods in parts of the Americas, Africa, Asia and the South Pacific. El Niño was
recorded worldwide during 1981/1982, 1987/1988, 1997/1998 and 2002/2003. Among the more recent El
Niño episodes, the 1981/1982 and 1997/1998 were the most severe and had profound effects on the world
economy.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 64
private and NGO sectors, and some negative elements of popular culture which
promote wasteful consumption. These causes are outlined below.
42Halcrow, 2000. Greater Port of Spain Local Area Master Plan: Technical Report. Prepared for Urban
Development Corporation of Trinidad and Tobago Ltd, Ministry of Housing and Settlements, Trinidad &
Tobago Local Area Plan. Website Source: http://www.nalis.gov.tt/plan2-Intro.htm.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 65
Source: CSO
3.2.2.2 Poverty
Not all economically poor communities are engaged in land degradation activities.
However, some low income groups lack the means and resources to provide for some of
their basic needs and have resorted to the unsustainable exploitation of natural
resources. While squatting is not restricted to the landless and poor, historical patterns
of inaccessibility to affordable land by some low income groups have exacerbated the
problem of squatting.
These squatting communities cause a myriad of environmental problems including land
degradation. For example, the 2004 IADB Poverty Reduction and Social Development
Study using 1997/1998 HBS data showed the prevalence of poor sewage treatment
facilities. About 62 per cent of the lowest quintile (the poor) was dependent on pit
latrines. Some 72 per cent of the indigent was dependent on pit latrines (Table 20).
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 66
Table 20: Toilet Facilities by County43
Proportion of Total House-holds in Trinidad and Tobago
WC not
County Pit WC Not
linked to Other None T&T
Latrine Sewer Stated
Sewer
Port of Spain 2.8 16.8 0.6 0 0 0 4.7
San Fernando 0.8 6.4 5.9 0 0 0 4.3
St George 29.8 72.3 29.0 50.0 85.7 0 38.6
Caroni 12.2 2.2 21.2 16.7 0 0 14.2
Nariva/Mayaro 5.3 0.2 2.0 0 0 0 2.7
St Andrew/ 9.2 0 4.1 0 0 100 4.9
St David
Victoria 19.9 0.2 16.1 16.7 14.3 0 13.7
St Patrick 13.7 2.0 12.6 0 0 0 10.6
Tobago 7.1 0 8.6 16.7 0 0 6.3
Total 100.8 100.1 100.1 100.1 100 100 100
43IADB, 2004. Trinidad and Tobago – Poverty Reduction and Social Development (Final Report). Prepared
by Kairi Consultants Limited, 2004. on behalf of the IADB, Washington DC.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 67
rationalisation and improving inter-institutional collaboration. The natural resources
and environment of Trinidad and Tobago are governed by some 40 pieces of legislation
and managed by about 28 state agencies, with the EMA playing a focal and coordinating
role. However, this arrangement has been unsuccessful in curbing environmental
degradation. Instead, the sector is currently characterised by deficiencies in its
institutional structure and capacity.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 68
norms. Whilst modern day living drives society and people to consume more and more,
this is done often without regards to the consequences to human health and the natural
environment and to the needs of future generations.
3.2.3.1 Trinidad
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 69
Table 22: Summary of Forest Fires and Dry Season Rainfall for Trinidad between 1987
and 2003
Year Dry Season Number Area
Rainfall of fires burned
Amount (hectares)
(Jan-May)
Millimetres
1987 152.5 502 21,420
1988 167.9 583 5,495
1989 308.1 146 970
1990 363.3 234 1,100
1991 272.7 229 680
1992 332.4 431 2,710
1993 293.7 228 1,570
1994 235.3 256 2,600
1995 160.0 516 7,245
1996 333.0 178 2,664
1997 322.9 156 446
1998 313.6 764 10,289
1999 351.9 167 988
2000 421.7 91 927
2001 118.9 464 5,309
2002 588.2 62 273
2003 124.0 347 4,723
Photograph 9: The incidence of annual forest fires has contributed tremendously to deforestation
The number of fires and total areas burnt increase during harsh dry seasons when
drought conditions render both forested and non-forested lands more vulnerable to
fires. There is some conflict about the amount of acreage that burn annually. Singh
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 70
(2001)44 reported that 41 hectares (100 acres) of natural forested land burn annually.
However, data from Forestry Division suggest that this figure could be closer to 82 to
123 hectares (200 to 300 acres), with larger acreage lost during severe dry seasons.
The most severe forest fires occurred during the drought of 1987, when it was estimated
that over 21,000 hectares were burnt, of which over 4,100 hectares was estimated to be
natural forests.
Fires in Trinidad and Tobago are caused by human activity. Fires are started for a
number of reasons, with a significant number of them being deliberately set or started
during the preparation of lands for farming (mainly for slash and burn agriculture).
The highest incidence of fires was reported on grasslands, particularly on the southern
slopes of the western side of the Northern Range. Recurring fires on grasslands prevent
regeneration of the forests. In addition, teak plantations tend to be quite susceptible to
fires and so the largest areas burnt tend to be located in the teak plantations and natural
forests of southwest Trinidad (in the Municipality of Siparia). In 2003, for example, four
fires burned a total of 1,059 hectares in southwest Trinidad.
Photograph 10: Illegal activities and unsustainable harvesting practices have led to deforestation
and soil degradation over the years
44 Kenny Singh, 2001. Fire Situation in Trinidad and Tobago. Noted in Global Forest Fire Assessment, 1990-
2000. FAO.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 71
Inappropriate Agricultural Land Usage and Harmful Practices
Agriculture is practised both on flat and steeply sloping lands in Trinidad and Tobago.
However, it is the practice of agricultural production on steeper slopes which cause the
greatest environmental problems45. Four agricultural practices pose the greatest threats,
namely, squatting for agriculture, slash and burn agriculture, limited or no soil
conservation practices on steep slopes, and pesticide use.
45Kairi Consultants Limited, 1999. Environmental Data and Information Project: Land. Conducted on behalf
of the EMA (Final Report).
46 Kairi Consultants Limited, 1999. Environmental Data and Information Project: Land. Conducted on behalf
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 72
The Food and Agriculture Policy for 1995 to 1997 (the draft White Paper) indicates that
landlessness and squatting are closely related and reflect the problems of acquiring land
legitimately. The document expresses the view that most agricultural squatters are either
unable or unwilling to make significant investments in the land they occupy and,
therefore, tend to operate at low levels of technology, without appropriate soil
conservation practices.
30,000.0 27,406.0
25,000.0
20,000.0
No of Parcels
15,000.0
10,000.0
3,096.0
5,000.0 944.0 702.0
0.0
100,000.0
87,032.1
90,000.0
80,000.0
70,000.0
60,000.0
Area
50,000.0
40,000.0
30,000.0
20,000.0
5,180.4 1,361.6 875.6
10,000.0
0.0
Figure 17: Number and Area of Squatting and All Agricultural Parcels in Trinidad and Tobago
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 73
A2. Shifting Cultivation
Photograph 11: Slash and burn agriculture is no longer considered a sustainable method of land
clearance for agriculture
In shifting cultivation, the land is completely cleared by slash and burn methods. This
practice leaves the land exposed to the erosive power of rainfall before the crop is fully
established. Fire is the common method of land clearance, but poor fire control often
results in the burning of a much larger tract of land than can be cultivated.
Shifting cultivation, which is commonly practised on the slopes of the Northern Range,
is much influenced by land tenure where farmers are squatting on State or private lands.
Once a sustainable system, the long fallow periods allow the land to rejuvenate before
cultivation was again attempted. However today, farmers resort to shorter fallow
periods. Unfortunately under the current land tenure arrangement, there is little
incentive for shifting cultivators to abandon the practice.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 74
the then Minister of Health of Trinidad and Tobago, the country imported 2,400 tonnes
of pesticides in 2004 (Sunday Express 13 November article “Safety Comes First”)48. Figure
18 shows the value of the pesticides imported between 1985 and 2003. However, there is
little information available today on the concentrations of pesticide residues in soils,
surface and groundwater.
12000
10000
Import Trade Value (1,000$)
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Fungicides 386 456 503 331 350 989 644 724 473 603 480 755 854 934 936 939 942 1,074 1,097
Herbicides 1,690 1,495 1,544 1,108 2,083 1,521 2,331 2,512 2,621 2,238 1,891 1,750 1,878 2,489 2,531 2,081 1,572 1,611 1,276
Insecticides 4,161 3,892 4,218 4,133 5,019 3,967 5,720 5,312 3,887 3,869 5,058 6,343 4,936 5,882 6,473 5,127 5,902 6,125 5,518
To tal 6,237 5,843 6,265 5,572 7,452 6,477 8,695 8,548 6,981 6,710 7,429 8,848 7,668 9,305 9,940 8,147 8,416 8,810 7,891
Year
48As quoted in the Background Paper entitled, “Development of a National Programme of Action (NPA) for
the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Sources and Activities.” Prepared by the IMA,
May 2006.
49 Report on the Regional Training Workshop on Farmer Participatory Methods for Ecological Crop
Management held between 11 and 15 September 2000 at the Centre of Excellence, Macoya, Trinidad and
Tobago. The Report was compiled/Edited by Moses Kairo, Anthony Little, Paul van Mele, Gesa Wesseler,
Falguni Guharay, Gene Pollard, Cynthra Persad, David Dolly, Luz Palengleng, Martin Kimani. The
Workshop was jointly organised by CAB International, CTA, CARDI, and PROCICARIBE in collaboration
with the MALMR.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 75
The patterns of pesticide use remain the same today, with a wide range of pesticides
being used and the same pesticides being used on several crops to control different
pests. Pesticide run-off has had negative effects on freshwater sources and the coastal
environment. Some pesticides are known to persist in the soil, reaching toxic levels,
which can limit soil productivity and fertility. Paraquat, for example, remains one of the
most frequently used herbicides in Trinidad and Tobago, despite its property of binding
strongly to clays and its persistence in some soils for up to 13 years50.
A similar picture is painted for fertiliser use. An average of 6,593 tonnes of fertiliser was
consumed in Trinidad and Tobago during the period 1993 to 2002 (Table 23). Existing
data show that fertiliser consumption has declined considerably over the last five year
(between 1997 and 2001), with an increase noted in 2002. This could be due to
considerable decline in sugar cane production. However, fertiliser use in vegetable
production remains high.
Table 23: Fertiliser Quantity, Value and Consumption in Trinidad and Tobago (1993
to 2002)51
Imports Year
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Nitrogenous Qty (Mt) 500 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 400 300 704 465 988
Fertilisers Val (1000$) 228 256 216 248 259 250 421 358 634 535
Consumption (Mt) 3,000 3,000 3,000 6,000 6,000 5,000 4,900 7,278 626 1,155
Phosphate Qty (Mt) 600 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 400 300 710 340 821
Fertilisers Val (1000$) 197 307 465 982 189 458 415 454 235 286
Consumption (Mt) 600 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 400 300 686 340 821
Potash Qty (Mt) 1,800 1,400 3,000 3,430 3,600 1,400 600 1,258 774 1,282
Fertilisers Val (1000$) 662 496 625 741 290 317 739 1,123 262 298
Consumption (Mt) 1,800 1,400 3,000 3,430 3,600 1,400 900 1,240 774 1,282
Total Qty (Mt) 2,900 3,400 5,000 5,430 5,600 2,200 1,200 2,672 1,579 3,091
Consumption (Mt) 5,400 5,400 7,000 10,430 10,600 6,800 6,100 9,204 1,740 3,258
50EMA, 1999. Environmental Data and Information Project (EDIP): Land. Conducted by Kairi Consultants
Limited on behalf of the EMA (Final Report).
51 Source: FAOSTAT data, 2005; (last accessed June, 2005). URL: http://faostat.fao.org/faostat/ form
?collection=Fertilizers&Domain=Means&servlet=1&hasbulk=0&version=ext&language=EN
52 Report on the Regional Training Workshop on Farmer Participatory Methods for Ecological Crop
Management held between 11 and 15 September 2000 at the Centre of Excellence, Macoya, Trinidad and
Tobago. Compiled/Edited by Moses Kairo, Anthony Little, Paul van Mele, Gesa Wesseler, Falguni Guharay,
Gene Pollard, Cynthra Persad, David Dolly, Luz Palengleng, Martin Kimani. The Workshop was jointly
organised by CAB International, CTA, CARDI, and PROCICARIBE in collaboration with the MALMR.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 76
• The lack of a comprehensive national policy on ecologically-based agricultural
production systems;
• The lack of formal linkage among the agencies involved in research, the
dissemination of information and implementation of improved techniques.
While the research is being carried out it may not be relevant to farmers’ needs
nor is information reaching farmers;
• Insufficiencies in the agricultural extension services (lack of funding and
resources);
• Inadequate formal consumers’ lobby to advocate for the production of safer
foods despite increased awareness of health concerns by consumers, and an
increase in the demand for pesticide-free foods; and
• A lack of critical knowledge, skills and abilities by the main actors involved in
IPM/ICM to facilitate the implementation of IPM/ICM techniques.
While it may be argued that further education of farmers on safe operating practices
regarding pesticide and fertiliser application is also required, the effectiveness of the
current agricultural extension services programmes to farmers needs to be assessed and
upgraded to meet the current realities of today’s farmers. Over time the trend has been
for farmers to increasingly seek advice and information on available and new products
from commercial garden and agricultural shops (that are often only motivated by
profits) rather than from the agricultural extension services.
In addition, there is an urgent need for comprehensive monitoring, regulation and
control of fertiliser and pesticides use. This is includes drafting of appropriate legislation
and the introduction of application standards and systems for production and
marketing of ecologically based agricultural products. It would also be important to
solicit the public media to generate publicity on adverse pesticide impact on health and
the environment, and the needs, demand and benefits of ecologically sound agriculture
and IPM/ICM, and to publicise the outcome of the environmental monitoring
programme developed for fertiliser and pesticide use.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 77
irrigation and drainage systems associated with these areas has deteriorated due to a
lack of maintenance, thus resulting in saline soil conditions and a change in the ecology
of the areas.
The problem has affected the lower and middle areas of the Oropouche lagoon.
However, major repairs works have been undertaken within the last three years.
Already these lands are showing the signs of recovery with the re-emergence of wetland
plant species.
Industrial Activities
The major industries in Trinidad and Tobago are oil and gas, petrochemicals industries,
cement, fertiliser, light manufacturing and food processing. These industries cause
increased environmental pressures. The exploration and production of oil in south
Trinidad dates back to the late 19th century and, therefore, some of oldest oil fields and
pipeline systems in the world are found in southeast and southwest Trinidad. These
infrastructures were developed in times when pollution and environmental
management were not considered important issues and exact locations of many of these
old pipelines are not known. From time to time, one of these old pipelines burst creating
major human hazards and polluting surrounding lands.
Many forest areas in south Trinidad are criss-crossed by oil and gas extraction
infrastructure. Large numbers of small wells are located in the forests and the pipelines
servicing these wells form a dense network within the forest areas. Roads are
maintained along the pipelines and to give access to the wells and these facilitate access
to the forest. The criss-crossing of the forest with roads leads habitat fragmentation,
introduces more light into forest, and changes the microclimate of the forest ecosystem.
While, these roads facilitate access for the forest department and for recreational visitors,
it also provides access for hunters, illegal loggers, marijuana cultivators and squatters.
The actual area occupied by the oil and gas infrastructure does not constitute the major
problem - rather it is the secondary impacts of the ready access that this infrastructure
provides. Fires and oil spills associated with this infrastructure are a problem53. As a
result, the Erin and Morne L’Enfer Reserve and the Cap-de-Ville Reserve virtually have
been destroyed (Seepersad Rampersad, Forestry Division, personal communication).
It is difficult to determine the impact of the manufacturing sector on land resources of
Trinidad and Tobago. Many of the larger manufacturers have environmental
programmes. However, the monitoring of these environmental programmes and the
discharges from these large industries and from smaller industries by the State need to
be improved.
53 Achieving the ITTO Objective 2000 and Sustainable Forest Management in Trinidad and Tobago. Report
submitted to the International Tropical Timber Council by the Diagnostic Mission Established under
Decision 2(XXIX) “ITTO Objective 2000.”
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 78
A1. Mining/Quarrying
Photograph 12: Open pit quarrying, as practised in Trinidad and Tobago, results in the removal of
forest cover and top soil in order to mine the quarry materials
The majority of the country’s quarry resources are on State lands with a significant
percentage of the quarrying operations being illegal. In 2004, there were 56 active
quarries of which 80 per cent are located on State lands (Table 24). More than half of the
22 sand and gravel quarries are operating illegally. In 2002, half of the total 4.5 million
cubic yards of sand and gravel material was produced illegally54.
54Green Paper: Draft Quarry Policy for Trinidad and Tobago, Ministry of Energy and Energy Industries
(MEEI,) 2005.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 79
Table 24: Summary of Quarry Operations in Trinidad and Tobago in 2004
Type of Quarry No of General Location Proportion of
Quarries total quarried
materials
Sand and Gravel 22 Northern Basin – 70-80%
(Valencia and
Wallerfield)
Andesite 3 Tobago na
Blue Limestone 14 Northern Range 10-15%
(Maracas, Santa Cruz,
Arima)
Porcellinite 4 Southern Basin na
Chatham/Erin
Clay 4 Northern Basin, Central na
Basin and Central
Range
Oil Sand 1 Southern Basin – na
Guapo
Yellow Limestone 5 Central Range na
Plastering/Fill Sand 3 Central Basin na
Total 56
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 80
appointed Committee on pollution and restoration of quarry sites indicated that the
enforcement of existing legislation was a major hindrance. At the time the Committee
made recommendations for specific changes in institutional and regulatory framework
to ensure reduction of pollution. Seventeen years later, the EMA’s position paper on
Sand and Gravel Quarries and Wash Plants in Northeast Trinidad noted the same
problems and the need for legislative and institutional reform in dealing with quarry
management.[h12]
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 81
A1. Formal Human Settlements
Photograph 14: Poor land clearance practices during housing construction have led to scarring of
landscape and increased sediment loads in waterways
In recent years there has been an increase in urban settlements as well as the
intensification of development within the urban centres. Indeed, the last 20 years has
seen increased built development including residential and industrial development,
increased conversion of agricultural land to built uses, increasing incidence of squatting
on both public and private lands, expansion of satellite communities and a movement
towards higher density residential development.
New residential developments have occurred over the last two decades along the East-
West corridor. Developments at Almond Court in Carenage, La Riveria in West
Moorings and Bay Shore Towers on the Cocorite Highway are all located within a 10-
mile stretch of the western section of the Corridor. Moreover all of these housing
developments are high rise sea front properties developed in an area in which the single
family detached house was and is the dominant residential form. A little further east
between the Western Main Road and Mucurapo Road is the construction site of One
Woodbrook Place which is an extremely densely planned residential community with
commercial and recreational facilities.
New hillside communities constructed on the north-south oriented spurs of the western
section of the Northern Range include Semper Gardens in Diego Martin and the Buoys
in Carenage. These communities, also planned residential settlements, are migrating
further up the hills and are increasing the density of the area by either building on green
field sites or developing apartment buildings and town houses in areas where
traditional housing was single family flats on large lot sizes.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 82
Major residential communities are also being established in Trincity on what were
productive sugarcane lands, and through village expansion, new housing settlements on
recently abandoned sugarcane lands in Central are progressing with great speed. Here
Government policy is converting farmlands to settlement in new areas such as Felicity,
Picton, Waterloo and Mc Bean.
Squatter settlements has also increased in size and have become denser over the years as
they support a larger number of residences in both the rural and urban areas, for
example River Estate in Diego Martin, Pranz Village in Central Trinidad and Jacob Hills
in Wallerfield.
Many of these settlements have led to land degradation and environmental concerns.
Both formal and informal settlements have been constructed on inappropriate sites as
well as with inappropriate techniques. Planned residential development on steep land
and seafront properties have encouraged the bulldozing of slopes to create flat building
sites on steep slopes as well as the removal of mangrove and filling in of swampy areas.
These sites are inappropriate for building and need to be manipulated to the point
where the original landscape is destroyed.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 83
construction practices leave scarred landscapes, clogged municipal drains and
contribute to on site erosion and down stream flooding.
Squatter settlements have also increased in size and have become denser over the years
as they support a larger number of residents in both the rural and urban areas. It is
estimated that there are 25,000 squatter households on State lands and another 25,000 on
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 84
private lands55. Thus, over 15 per cent of the households in Trinidad and Tobago are
squatters. The State Lands (Regularisation of Tenure) Act (No. 25 of 1998) identifies 254
squatter settlements on State lands of which approximately 52 per cent of the total
squatter settlements on State lands are located in southern Trinidad (Table 25). Squatting
is extensive in certain communities in South Trinidad, such as Point Fortin (32 squatter
settlements), Penal (16 squatter settlements), Siparia (10 squatter settlements and
Fyzabad (five squatter settlements). About 39 per cent of the total squatter settlements
on State lands are located in North Trinidad, with Port of Spain accounting for 15 of
these settlements, Arouca eight, Valencia seven, Diego Martin seven, and Sangre Grande
five.
Squatting has led to encroachment of forest reserves and other protected areas. An
internal Forestry Department report in 2001 estimated that in 1994 about 11,593 hectares
or eight per cent of total forest cover had been removed illegally which was due mainly
to residential squatting57.
The situation of squatting on private lands is not that clear and in the absence of
information it is difficult to fully report on the extent of the problem. There is a need,
therefore, for research on squatter on private lands if the whole issue of squatting is to
be addressed satisfactorily.
Squatting create many environmental problems and hazardous conditions. The typical
squatter settlement is generally devoid of basic infrastructure and amenities for
sustainable development of the community. Housing and access are haphazardly
developed as households lay claim on space for their needs. Water supply is often
inadequate with households depending on public supply, water-borne trucks and
rainfall. Drainage systems are generally absent and in flat locations like River Estate,
Diego Martin would lead to frequent flooding. Waste management facilities and waste
disposal are inadequate and residents have been known to resort to the burning of
garbage as a means of disposal. On hillside communities this practice has led to bush
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 85
and forest fires. The origins of some of the bush and forest fires in northwest Trinidad
could be traced to hillside squatter communities.
The State Lands (Regularisation of Tenure) Act of 1998 sought to regularise squatters on
public lands but no provisions had been made to solve the problem on private lands.
This Act led to the establishment of the Land Settlement Agency (LSA) which is in
charge of the regularisation of squatters on designated areas and the containment of
squatting. Regularisation of these settlements includes the upgrading and provision of
services and provision of leasehold title.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 86
Inadequate Environmentally Sound Waste Management Systems
Most of the solid waste generated in Trinidad and Tobago is disposed at the country’s
landfills; the rest is dumped indiscriminately at informal dumpsites and in waterways,
leading to pollution, and the increased incidence of flooding. There is critical need for a
significant change in the way waste is managed.
Over 500,000 tonnes of solid waste are produced annually from municipal, commercial
and industrial sources. Most of the disposal sites throughout the country are inadequate
and inefficient. There are few facilities for, and only isolated efforts at, recycling, while
there is no formal facility for the treatment of toxic and hazardous waste. The disposal of
hospital and medical waste is also a serious issue since there are no segregation
mechanisms at source to reduce risk, and it is disposed of as part of the municipal waste
stream. Greater efforts must be made to reduce the amount of waste generated, to sort
waste at source and to increase substantially the re-use and recycling of waste.
Additionally, the waste to be disposed must be done in a manner that is most efficient.
The new technologies in waste disposal appear to offer a number of advantages which
should be explored.
The control of the generation, storage, treatment, recycling and reuse, transport,
recovery, and disposal of hazardous wastes are issues which have tremendous impact
on land degradation in Trinidad and Tobago.
Most of the country’s
sewerage systems are in a
state of disrepair. This has
serious implications for
human health and the
health of the surface water
resources and
neighbouring lands. The
WASA has embarked on a
programme to address this
challenge. However, a
consistent and
comprehensive approach is
required to deal with this
ever-increasing challenge.
58 Includes white goods such as refrigerators, stoves, washing machines, microwave ovens, dryers
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 87
consumption patterns59. The type and quantity of the waste has changed over the years
with the increased consumption and greater amounts of increasing levels of commercial,
industrial and household waste now reaching the solid waste disposal sites. The
significant gain made by the Chase-Charlie-Away Litter Campaign and NAG-Charlie
Litter Campaign of the 1980s in raising awareness to the issue of waste management has
long since eroded, and the country was again suffers significant land degradation due to
indiscriminate waste management and disposal practices
.
Photograph 19: Informal waste disposal site managed by the San Fernando City Corporation
There are three major public landfill sites in Trinidad: the Beetham, which serves the
northwest region; the Guanapo which serves the Northeast Trinidad; and Forres Park
which serves the central and southern regions. In addition, there are three other active
disposal sites in Trinidad established by regional corporations60. A private waste
disposal facility operates in Guapo, Point Fortin and receives waste from the Point
Fortin Borough and Municipality of Siparia. It is estimated that an average of one
kilogramme of waste is generated per capita per day, with a range from 0.55
kilogramme per capita per day in the rural areas to a 1.75 kilogramme per capita per day
59 Vision 2020 Planning Committee, 2003. Draft Report (Environment): Report of the Sub-Committee on the
Environment in the Formulation of a Strategic Development Plan for Trinidad and Tobago.
60 Pan American Health Organisation(PAHO)/World Health Organisation (WHO), 1998. A Visual
Assessment of the Existing Solid Waste Disposal Sites in Trinidad and Tobago. Executive Brief. As cited in
the 2003 Draft Report of the Sub-Committee on the Environment in the Formulation of a Vision 2020
Strategic Development Plan for Trinidad and Tobago.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 88
for a highly commercialised and industrialised area such as Port of Spain61. Table 26
details the actual operations undertaken at the respective disposal sites in Trinidad.
Although the Beetham area had long been used for dumping of solid waste, the landfill
facility, which began receiving waste in 1970, receives about 774 tonnes of waste each
day, or more than half of the daily tonnage of municipal solid waste delivered to the
public landfills in Trinidad. The quantity of waste entering the Beetham facility has
almost doubled in the last 10 years (Table 27).
Table 27: Municipality Solid Waste Delivered at the Beetham Landfill in 1993 and
2004
1993 2004
Daily tonnage (Mt) 144,554 283,456
Annual tonnage (Mt) 396 777
Annual number of vehicles entering the facility 80,749 154,661
Daily number of vehicles entering the facility 221 424
Source: SWMCOL
The 1995 study shows that the components of municipality solid waste deposited at the
Beetham landfill compared to the United States (US) figures (Table 28). Undoubtedly the
composition of solid waste reaching the landfill has changed over the years, with greater
consumption of goods in plastic and styrotex packaging and containers. Today more
than 50 per cent the waste reaching the landfill could be recycled (Alban Scott,
SWMCOL: personal communication).
61Adapted from Environmental Priorities in Trinidad and Tobago. Sustainable Economic Development
Unit, UWI for the EMA. As cited in the 2003 Draft Report of the Sub-Committee on the Environment in the
Formulation of a Vision 2020 Strategic Development Plan for Trinidad and Tobago.
62 Vision 2020 Planning Committee, 2003. Draft Report (Environment): Report of the Sub-Committee on the
Environment in the Formulation of a Strategic Development Plan for Trinidad and Tobago.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 89
Table 28: Composition of Solid Waste at Beetham (1995) and US Average
Component Percentage
Beetham US Average
Organics 26.7 24.0
Paper 19.7 38.0
Glass 10.5 6.0
Metals 10.4 8.0
Plastics 19.9 9.0
Textiles 7.3 15.0
Rubber and Leather 5.3 -
Source: SWMCOL
A similar situation is noted at the Forres Park and Guanapo Landfills (Table 29). Indeed
the quantity of solid waste entering the facilities has increased over the years with the
increase in residential areas and industrial activities in the regions which these landfills
service.
Table 29: Annual Quantities of Solid Waste Disposed at the Three SWMCOL-
Managed Landfills
Year Annual Quantities (tonnes)
Beetham Forres Park Guanapo Total
The responsibility for solid waste management and disposal is shared by a number of
agencies and therein lies part of the problem of solid waste management and disposal.
SWMCOL was established in 1980, as the national authority with responsibility for
management of the solid waste systems in the country. However, the regional governing
bodies are responsible for collection of domestic waste within their individual
municipality. Moreover, because there is no single responsible institution/agency, there
is often duplication of efforts in some areas and negligence in others.
For various administrative and technical reasons, the collection and haulage of solid
waste in the municipalities is an inefficient and ineffective operation. Collection
scheduling problems are the main resultant problem. Often residents are not informed
of schedule changes or they themselves create problems when they put out their garbage
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 90
at irregular intervals. In addition, all businesses have legal responsibilities for the waste
they produce. However, these responsibilities are usually neglected, particularly in
commercial sector. The municipal authorities are obligated to dispose of the waste of a
commercial business within a limit. Beyond this weight it is the responsibility of
businesses to dispose of their waste. However, businesses are known to neglect their
responsibilities and put out large quantities of waste on the street at the end of the
business day for disposal.
There is little or no regulation of the operations of the country’s landfills. The three
public landfills, all of which have passed the average 20-year lifespan recommended for
operation of a landfill, operate at low level of efficiency and pose health and security
risks to persons entering and operating within the facilities. The operations of the public
facilities are plagued by low resources. [d13]
Little is known about the operations of the privately-owned waste facility in Guapo.
While solid materials, surface run-off and leachate from wastes can have devastating
effects on freshwater and marine ecosystems and can contaminate freshwater and
groundwater supplies, there is no consistent and regular monitoring of these facilities. In
recent times concerns have been voiced about the Guanapo and Beetham facilities as
sources of contaminants which affect the groundwater and freshwater supplies. Safe
handling of wastes at the facilities still presents a challenge since salvagers are known to
indiscriminately sort and handle waste materials and at times unearth buried materials.
Where the local population (the generators of waste) fit into this scenario is another
issue. Some argue that the country’s problems of solid waste management start with
people’s negative perception and hands-off attitude about waste. Waste is considered
just that, waste - something to dispose of at the first chance provided. While there has
been talk about recycling, the citizenry does not actually place value on waste. There is
the general perception that waste is somebody else’s business once it leaves the home or
business compound.
The existing legal framework does not comprehensively address the issues facing waste
management. The problem of environmental pollution caused by solid waste is visibly
evident throughout the island. The 1995 SWMCOL study estimated that about 85 per
cent of the solid waste is disposed of at the public landfills. This figure may well have
changed with the level of indiscriminate waste disposal being witnessed in the country,
which leads to obstruction and clogging of rivers with garbage and debris, particularly
those in the urbanised municipalities along the East West and Southern Corridors. Litter
abounds in many secluded public spaces – beaches, parks, etc. – creating not only land
degradation problems but also obnoxious odours and public health hazards. Illegal
dumping has become a common practice with over 300 informal reported dumpsites
throughout Trinidad.
Little attempt has been made to reduce amount of waste generated. In 1989, SWMCOL
established waste recovery systems and markets for recyclable materials, including
glass, paper, cardboard, metals, used-oil and textiles. The establishment of a recycling
industry was meant to reduce the amount of waste entering landfills, while at the same
contribute to the conservation of resources, employment creation and income
generation, and to create a source of foreign exchange. However, the recycling industry
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 91
remains rudimentary. Most of the sorting is done at the landfills creating health
problems for the persons who sort through the garbage to collect recyclable materials.
All the while the country remains with the challenge of disposing its waste. In recent
times, the Government has been considering the various options to management of the
country’s waste problems. One such option is the use of a plasma-based system, which
utilises high temperature (as high as 10,000 0C) ionised gas to convert waste to a vitrified
substance with separation of molten metal. The technology converts waste into energy
and slag. However, this is relatively new technology and as such, there is insufficient
information to assess the cost efficiencies and the long-term environmental impacts.
They also have a limited proven track record to demonstrate their operational reliability.
It would be necessary to review the technology, along with others, to determine its
applicability and feasibility in light of the need to develop an integrated solid waste
management and cost-efficient system.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 92
conducted in 2000, provided a list of the main hazardous materials generated which is
shown below:
• Waste acids/alkalis;
• Heavy metal sludge;
• Heavy metal slags, ashes and bag-house dust;
• Paint sludge;
• Oily waters, sludge and waste lube oils;
• Spent filter media;
• Spent catalysts;
• Waste solvents;
• Waste pesticides;
• Waste chemicals/pesticide containers; and
• Asbestos.
There is no recent comprehensive study that adequately estimates the quantity of
hazardous waste generated and disposed of in the country. However, estimates of the
quantities of various hazardous materials from a number of sectors in Trinidad and
Tobago suggest substantial increases for each category of waste (Table 30). With the
rapid increase in industrial activity since 1998, it is likely that there would be further
increases in quantities of waste generated.
Table 30: Estimated Quantities of Hazardous Waste Generated for 1994 and 199863
Waste Category Quantity of Waste (x1,000)
1994 1998
Waste acids/alkalis 430 tonnes 630 tonnes
Heavy metal sludges 1,500 tonnes 2,200 tonnes
Heavy metal slags, ashes and baghouse dust 1,300 tonnes 1,900 tonnes
Paint sludges 240 tonnes 350 tonnes
Spent filter media 80 tonnes 100 tonnes
Spent catalysts 90 tonnes 130 tonnes
Waste solvents 240 gallons 350 gallons
Pesticide wastes 1,700 tonnes 2,000 tonnes
Wastewater from oily waste treatment na 40,000
Asbestos 20 25
63 Vision 2020 Planning Committee, 2003. Draft Report (Environment): Report of the Sub-Committee on the
Environment in the Formulation of a Strategic Development Plan for Trinidad and Tobago.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 93
A3. Domestic Wastewater Management
Domestic wastewater management continues to be a serious and chronic problem. Poor
or non-existent piped sewerage systems in many rural and urban areas make sewage
treatment difficult in Trinidad and Tobago. Only a fraction of industrial and municipal
wastewater is treated before being discharged into the surrounding land and water
resources. Since many of the existing systems are operated in an unsanitary manner
without proper monitoring, they threaten human health, either directly through the
contamination of water supplies or indirectly through the contamination of food and
fodder.
Effective management strategies for wastewater treatment, including reuse are limited.
Moreover, a lack of technical capabilities to operate and maintain the existing facilities
for sewage treatment makes it difficult to control wastewater.
The septic tank has been an effective treatment method for wastewater in areas occupied
by a limited population. A number of problems, however, have been identified, such as
limited control over design, lack of sludge removal and poor facilities to dispose of
sludge. Its extensive use in heavy populated areas makes this a serious challenge.
Coastal Development
Coastal development in Trinidad and Tobago includes housing, commerce and industry.
While some industrial development has taken place on the south coast, most of the
industrial activity over the last 20 years has been located on the west coast, and given
current development plans, the west coast will continue to be the main recipient of
major industrial development.
The north-west coast which extends from Sea Lots in the east to Staubles Bay in the west
was historically the section of the coast where development took place and generally
involved single family detached housing, light industry (such as sales and services of
boat engines, repair and manufacture of pirogues and fishing gear, manufacture and
repair of speed boats) and recreation such as hotels and beach houses. Within the last
two decades, however, construction of housing especially high rise structures,
commercial complexes (West Mall, Movie Town, Marriot, BHP Billiton Petroleum Office
building, port expansion westward and coastal highway development) has accelerated
coastal development and the consequential destruction of the mangrove.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 94
Photograph 21: Faulty Coastal Defence Works, Goldsborough, Tobago
In the case of the south-west coast, industrial activity has been most pervasive. The
construction of the port and LNG trains at Point Fortin and the port and industrial estate
at La Brea, together utilized a significant expanse of coastal space. Other developments
along that coast include the commercial and residential complex at Gulf City, the high
density residential community at Embacadere and the redevelopment of public
transportation facilities at the port of San Fernando. Some of these activities and
particularly the industrial activities including the construction of the natural gas
pipelines along the coast at Guapo and Point Fortin have altered the coastline.
Intensification of coastal development is felt by many residents to be responsible for
acceleration of erosion on the south west coast. Indeed, along the coast from Point Fortin
to Cap-de-Ville residents blame the dredging operations for the accelerated erosion
while many visitors to the beach and residents of the area have felt that construction of
the pipeline along the Guapo Bay is responsible for the loss of Clifton Hill beach.
The establishment of a reclamation line on the northwest coast was intended to ensure
orderly development of the coast line. As a consequence, the line was expected to
address continued illegal land reclamation, the need for more developable land along
the coast and coastal environmental issues such as water pollution, tidal flushing,
destruction of bio forms and the like. Unfortunately this line was never established and
illegal reclamation continues virtually unabated. Recently, however, the EMA took
action against a developer engaged in illegal reclamation works. Based on the results of
that action, the Authority may be able to develop an approach to deal effectively with
other violators.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 95
3.2.3.2 Tobago
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 96
Record keeping on the number of forest and bush fires is far from satisfactory since only
fires on state land are recorded and the record is essentially the number of fires by
location.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 97
environmental regulatory agency in Tobago. The Report of the Vision 2020 Sub-
committee notes that there is no compaction, covering or leachate management of waste
at the facility. It is evident that this site may be reaching its capacity and that soon an
alternative site may have to be found. There is a need for the introduction of alternative
methods of dealing with waste. Waste materials are not considered as useful products,
and so reuse and recycling are not seen as alternatives.
Various types of hazardous waste are produced in Tobago; however like Trinidad, there
is no facility to deal with these special types of waste.
Poor placement and construction of on-lot sewerage disposal systems on hillsides were
seen as contributing to some of the major land slides. The ingress of water into the soil
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 98
overtime appeared to have weakened soil strength and contributed to land slides in
places like Charlotteville during the unusual rainfall in November 2004.
Photograph 24: Gabion baskets, a low tech method, are used to curb erosion and
landslide, but still expensive to low and middle income homeowner
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 99
Chapter 4
The Existing Institutional Framework to Support the
UNCCD
At present, in Trinidad and Tobago there are various State agencies that have statutory
responsibility for various aspects of environmental management, and by extension are
responsible for addressing sustainable land management issues. There are also public
sector and civil society organisations that are engaged in land management projects and
activities and play stewardship and advocacy roles in protecting land resources. In
addition, there are many legal and policies instruments in effect which deal with various
aspects of land issues. This multi-sectoral approach to land management results in:
• Overlaps among agencies involved in the management of land resources;
• Identifiable gaps in roles and responsibilities for land management;
• Uncertainty regarding resource utilisation;
• Conflicting legislation, for example, in the area of enforcement, penalties, etc;
and
• Inadequate legislation to deal with the issues of land degradation.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 100
the Environmental Management Act of 2000 and the National Environment
Policy (NEP);
• Coordinating environmental management functions of persons in Trinidad and
Tobago;
• Establishing and co-ordinating institutional linkages locally, regionally and
internationally;
• Making recommendations for the rationalisation of all governmental entities
performing environmental functions;
• Developing, establishing and monitoring national environmental standards and
programmes relating to the environment;
• Monitoring of compliance with the standards criteria and programmes relating
to environment;
• Taking all appropriate actions for the prevention and control of pollution and
conservation of the environment;
• Issuing CECs;
• Making recommendations for a NEP; and
• Undertaking anything incidental or conducive to the performance of any of the
foregoing functions.
As it relates to land management and protection, the EMA has responsibility for the
control of water pollution, contaminated lands, solid and hazardous waste, regulating
the use of land for solid waste disposal, improving sites as and when hazards need to be
dealt with, and developing such land which may have been contaminated and
remediated effectively to an environmental standard established by the EMA. Two of
the most powerful instruments available to the EMA, for the sustainable management
and protection of land resources are the Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESAs) Rules
of 2001 and the CEC of 2001. The former rules authorise the Authority to designate areas
in Trinidad and Tobago as ESAs. Such designations are meant to conserve natural
resources, protect the environment and to promote sustainable socio-economic
development. Through such designations, the EMA may establish limitations on use of
the area and the type of activities to be undertaken within the selected area. So far,
Matura Forest, Aripo Savannahs and Nariva Swamp have been designated as ESAs.
The CEC Rules establish a comprehensive framework to ensure proper management of
developed land and to safeguard these lands against degradation. These Rules apply to
proposed developers who are planning to undertake any one of the 44 designated
activities which cover a range of development from agricultural to heavy industrial
development. Such developers must obtain a CEC from the EMA prior to the
commencement of their project.
In addition, the Authority is expected also to develop an Environmental Code which
includes the conduct of a comprehensive evaluation of written laws and various
programmes which address environmental issues. The Code will provide for the overall
consolidation, rationalisation and modernisation of these laws and programmes and in
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 101
its development, the Authority is expected also to review, revise and develop a package
of incentives (direct government subsidies, the introduction of tax differentiation or tax
incentives) to encourage sound environmental activities and performance, and a
package of penalties (charges, fines) for product manufacturing process or usage which
are in violation of the Environmental Code.
There are a number of agencies with sectoral and regional responsibility for various
aspects of land management and control. Key among these institutions are the
following:
• MPHE which has responsibility for setting policy direction for the environmental
sector and for the supervision of a number of institutions, such as the EMA, and
the TCPD.
• Ministry of Public Utilities (MPU) which has responsibility for setting policy
direction for the environmental sector and for the supervision of a number of
institutions, such as the Water and Sewerage Authority (WASA), the Water
Resources Agency (WRA), the Water Resources Management Unit, SWMCOL.
• The Forestry Division (FD) of the Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine
Resources (MALMR) has responsibility for the management of forest resources.
Its responsibility has been traditionally limited to the management of forest
resources on State lands and through the Forestry Act of 1999 a system of
permits for the felling of certain species of trees and any trees on slopes over 30
degrees has been established. The Division’s control on private forest is however
limited.
• The WASA has responsibility for the development and maintenance of
waterworks and sewerage facilities, the promotion and proper use of water and
for the administration of the Water and Sewage Act of 1980 and sections of the
Waterworks and Water Conservation Act (1980 Revision).
• The WRA, which currently forms part of the WASA, has responsibility for
surveying, monitoring, research and development, water demand analysis,
planning and allocations of water resources and the issuing of abstraction
licenses.
• Municipal Corporations have responsibility for administration of the Regional
Corporation Act of 1995 and sections of the Public Health Ordinance of 1950, and
the execution of local infrastructural works, the disposal of municipal waste
(solid and sewage) and the inspection of properties for health nuisances within
their municipality.
• THA has responsibility for local governance in the island of Tobago. Its structure
somewhat mirrors that of Central Government Ministries and so there are
several divisions with responsibilities corresponding to their central government
counterpart ministry. THA holds responsibility for certain aspects of
environmental management and regulation, forest resources management, land
development control, mining of quarrying materials and the collection and
disposal of solid and sewage waste on the island of Tobago.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 102
• The LSA has responsibility for implementing the State Lands (Regularisation of
Tenure) Act of 1998 and administering the process of regularising the status of
squatters residing on State lands prior to January 1998 and redeveloping their
communities.
• The Drainage Division of the Ministry of Works and Transport has responsibility
for planning, design, construction and maintenance of drainage, flood control
measures, coastal protection works and irrigation interventions.
• The MEEI has responsibility for developing the energy and energy related
industries and for monitoring, controlling and regulating the mining of the
country’s minerals – oil and gas, quarry materials and asphalt by both private
sector and state agencies.
• SWMCOL has responsibility for managing the collection, handling, treatment
and disposal of solid waste and for managing the country’s three main landfills
in Trinidad – Beetham Landfill, Guanapo Landfill and Forres Park Landfill.
• The MALMR has responsibility for agricultural planning and management, soil
testing and research.
• The Land Administration Division (LAD) of the MALMR has responsibility for
the administration and distribution of state-owned agricultural lands. The
Division facilitates the leasing process and monitors fulfilment of lease
conditions.
• Land and Surveys Division (LSD) has responsibilities for arranging surveys,
verifying and approving surveys and ensuring valuations are carried out and
executing leases of State lands. The Commissioner of State Lands, is the
designated landlord of State lands.
• The IMA has responsibilities for the collection, analysis and dissemination of
data relating to the economic, technological, environmental, social and legal
developments in marine affairs, generally, and the formulation and
implementation of specific programmes/projects to achieve this objective.
Figure 19 shows the relationship among the agencies with responsibilities for land use
and management.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 103
Agencies with Responsibility for
Land Resources Planning, Management and Regulation
Ministry of
Planning ,
Set Policy Housing and
Direction the
Development and
Maintenance, and Municipal Government
Regulation at the Authorities
Municipal /district
Figure 19: Existing Relationship among Agencies with Responsibility for Land Resources
Planning, Management and Regulation
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 104
In this regard, the NGO and community sector undertake many key functions as key
stakeholders in the management of land resources. These functions include the
following:
• Contribution to national development by addressing direct and indirect issues
relating to land resources management;
• Involvement in community development, thus providing vital services, such as
education, services about environmental and natural resource management,
undertaking preventive and remedial programmes (forest rehabilitation and
management programmes);
• Involvement on development steering committees both at the district and
national levels;
• Formation of partnerships with State and private sector agencies in carrying
environmental programmes and projects;
• In the areas of advocacy and acting as pressure groups in land resources issues,
including reminding governments of past agreements and treaties;
• Advising and the provision of independent advice/feedback to State agencies
and the private sector about environmental and related social issues;
• Co-ordination of the efforts of groups through umbrella organisations;
• Mobilisation of volunteers, advisors and people to undertake environmental
management activities;
• Protecting the natural and physical environment and preserving cultural heritage
given their intimate knowledge of grassroots issues and realities;
• Provision of a counterbalance to competitive and consumerism values with
values that are traditional, people centred and co-operative; and
• Forming part of the repository of local and traditional knowledge for land
resources management.
This sector is diverse and includes NGOs, not-for-profit organisations, and CBOs, some
of which are informal in nature and may only act once an issue affect or threaten their
livelihoods. However, there are those who are continuously engaged in ‘quiet work’
with little recognition or external assistance.
While some strictly operate in environmental sector, there are those whose main roles
and functions are social in nature but who undertake environmental management
activities as part of their programme of activities. The number of organisations and
groups in the sector are large and their impact varied. A recent survey of agricultural
organisations in Trinidad and Tobago revealed that there are over 100 of them in the
country65. Figure 20 shows the composition of the NGO and community sector in
Trinidad and Tobago.
65Based on the Regional CaFANN survey of Agricultural Organisations conducted by the Caribbean
Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI) in 2004.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 105
LAND RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
ORGANISATIONS THAT
OPERATE AT THE
REGIONAL LEVEL
CNIRD, Caribbean Water and Wastewater
Key Functions: Advocacy, Association, The Trust of Sustainable
Represent their Special Interest
Livelihoods
Group, and provide assistance to
National Groups
ORGANISATIONS THAT
OPERATE AT THE Council of Presidents of the Environment,
NATIONAL LEVEL The Tropical Re-Leaf Foundation, , Cropper
Foundation, Caribbean Forest Conservation
Key Functions: Advocacy,
Association, Pointe a Pierre Wild Fowl Trust,
represent their Special Interest
Group and provide assistance to Asa Wright Nature Centre, Filed Naturalist
district and community-based Club, Greenplains Foundation, Agricultural
groups, undertake preventive or Society of Trinidad and Tobago, Trinidad
remedial environmental and Tobago Organic Agriculture Movement
activities
Figure 20: Composition of the NGO and Community Sector in Trinidad and Tobago as It Relates
to Land Resources Management
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 106
Established in 2002, so far the Trinidad and Tobago RIOD consists of seven members66.
As the RIOD Caribbean NGO Focal Point for the UNCCD, the CNIRD plays a critical
role in raising awareness of the Convention and the issues of land management and
degradation in Trinidad and Tobago and the Caribbean and has actively partnered with
the GORTT in the development of the NAP. However, the local Network remains in its
infancy stage and must be strengthened if it is to play the vital role in bringing about a
change in land practices in Trinidad and Tobago.
At present, Trinidad and Tobago does not have any legislation or policy framework
which directly addresses the implementation of the UNCCD. However, there are a
number of legislation, policies, plans and programmes which directly and indirectly
combat land degradation and promote sustainable land management, and which are,
therefore compatible with the aims and objectives of the UNCCD. The most significant
of legislation and policies are noted in the Table 31 below.
Table 31: Legislation and Policies Relevant to Land Use and Management
Area of Land Legislation/ Title Summary
Management Policies
Land Use Legislation: The Constitution Ensure the right of individuals to the
Planning and enjoyment of private property.
Development
Town and Country Planning Act Control and regulation of land
(Chapt 35:01 of 1969) development in Trinidad and Tobago
and provides a basis for structured land
development and land use.
66Environment Tobago, Caribbean Forest Conservation Association, Protectors of the Environment, The
Biodynamic Association of Trinidad and Tobago, The Tropical Re-Leaf Foundation, Greenplains
Foundation, Trinidad and Tobago Field Naturalists Club, and CNIRD.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 107
Area of Land Legislation/ Title Summary
Management Policies
Policy: National Physical Development Outlines how all lands in Trinidad and
Plan of Trinidad and Tobago Tobago are to be used.
(1984)
Environmental Legislation: Environmental Management Act Development and implementation of
Management (Act 3 of 2000) policies and programmes for the
effective management and wise use of
the environment; provisions for the co-
ordination of environmental
management among State agencies;
provision of a regulatory regime for
environmental management;
establishment and operations of the
Environmental Commission; granting
and issuing of CECs; definition of
responsibility of the EMA.
Designation of environmentally
Environmentally Sensitive Area sensitive areas and provision of
Rules (2001) guidelines for use and management of
designated area.
Forest Legislation: Forestry Act (Chapt. 66:01 1980) Provisions for regulation of the removal
management of timber and other forest products and
definition of the responsibilities of
Forestry Division.
Policy: Forest Policy of Trinidad and Provision of policy direction for the
Tobago (1942) management of the country’s forest
resources.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 108
Area of Land Legislation/ Title Summary
Management Policies
Water Resources Legislation: Waterworks and Water Provision for the control of natural
Management Conservation Act 1980 (Chapt. water courses and outfalls, and for the
54:41) removal of natural vegetation; and
responsibilities of WASA.
Water and Sewerage Act (Chapt. Provision for the establishment of the
54:40) Water and Sewerage Authority (WASA)
which is responsible for public
waterworks and water supply and
public sewerage systems.
Policy: Water Resources Management Provision of policy direction for
Policy (2003) management of the country’s water
resources including the development of
the legislative and institutional
framework for management of water
resources.
Coastal Zone Policy National Policy on Wetland Provision of a framework through
Management Conservation for Trinidad and which the wise use of the country’s
(Wetlands) Tobago (2002) wetlands can be achieved.
Administration of Legislation: Land Adjudication Act (Act 14, Provision of a package of legislation
State Lands 2000) which envisages a nation-wide
systematic adjudication process
Land Tribunal Act (Act 15, 2000) whereby the legal interests in every
parcel of land in the country will be
Registration of Titles to Land determined and registered in a new,
Act (Act 16, 2000) more efficient ‘real property’ registry;
creation of a new court for land matters.
Mineral Mining Legislation: Minerals Act (Act 61 of 2000) Provision for the licensing system for the
or Quarrying extraction of minerals and setting of
conditions for mining/quarrying
operations.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 109
Area of Land Legislation/ Title Summary
Management Policies
Solid and Legislation: Public Health Ordinance (Chapt Empowerment of local authorities to
Hazardous Waste 12 No. 4) inspect public and private properties,
Management their districts for public health
nuisances. Provisions for dealings with
the pollution of water supply and the
throwing of offensive matter into
waterways.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 110
Convention Year Signed National Synergy with the UNCCD
and Ratified Focal
Point
Convention on Signed: 1983 Wildlife Wetlands are important land resources
Wetlands of Accession: 1992 Section which over the years have experienced
International of the increasing pressure and degradation for
Importance Especially Forestry human activities. The Conventions calls
as Waterfowl Habitat Division for the establishment of management
(Ramsar Convention) system for the declared Ramsar site.
Nariva Swamp was first declared a
Ramsar site, followed by Caroni Swamp
and Buccoo Reef.
Basel Convention Signed: 1994 MPHE The main aim of the Convention is to
protect human health and the environment
by minimizing hazardous waste production
whenever possible. This Convention calls
for an “integrated life-cycle approach”,
which involves strong controls from the
generation of a hazardous waste to its
storage, transport, treatment, reuse,
recycling, recovery and final disposal.
Any proposed actions to be undertaken
as part of this Convention is expected to
reduce pollution due to hazardous waste
and reduce land degradation in Trinidad
and Tobago.
There are several current programmes which are compatible with the objectives of the
UNCCD and which could form important elements of the implementation of the
Convention. The more important ones include:
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 111
must be considered as critical success factors. This programme represents a pilot for the
conduct of extensive natural resources co-management programme and therefore
careful monitoring, evaluation and documentation of the processes involved in the
programme are key elements of this initiative. At present, the programme NRWRP
tends to focus on technical aspects of forest rehabilitation. However, greater attention
needs to be paid to the socio-economic aspects of the programme to ensure viability,
acceptance and sustainability. Lessons of past community-based forest rehabilitation
efforts also must be taken on board to ensure success.
The public consultations highlighted the following legislative and institutional issues:
1. Rationalisation, harmonisation and modernisation of the legislative and policy
framework for dealing with all aspects of land management in Trinidad and
Tobago.
a. The need for a more comprehensive and robust legislative and policy
package to deal with the management of public health, quarry resources,
solid waste, hazardous waste, medical waste, wastewater, watersheds,
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 112
water resources, soils, coastal zones and to address more ‘soft’ (social-
related) issues, such as co-management of State-owned natural resources,
partnering between the NGO and community sector and the State, and
the institutionalisation of public participation in the development
planning process.
b. Update and revisions are required to existing legislation to address the
needs of a modern society and these include revisions to:
i. Forests Act;
ii. Conservation of Wildlife Act;
iii. Sawmills Act;
iv. Agricultural Fires Act;
v. Pesticide and Toxic Chemical Control Act;
vi. Town and Country Planning Act;
vii. Tobago House of Assembly Act; and
viii. Municipal Corporations Act.
c. There is a need for updating the Town and Country Planning Act and
Municipal Corporations Act and the THA Act to include modern
principles of land use and development giving due attention to the roles
and responsibilities of the TCPD and the municipal authorities (which
include the THA, Borough and City Corporations and the Regional
Corporations). This also includes provisions for standards, guidelines and
a code for various built development and for the establishment of an
appropriate system of monitoring and enforcement, both at the national
and municipal levels.
d. There is a need to speed up the current process of modernisation of the
country’s administration process. The administration of land is currently
being improved through a number of the initiatives including the
enactment of Registration of Titles to Land, Land Adjudication and Land
Tribunal Acts of 2000 and the development of appropriate institutional
support. Provision of the supporting environment must be put in place in
order for these laws to be implemented.
e. The lack of proper legal arrangements and other shortcomings in the
administration of the quarry/mining industry become more obvious each
year as illegal quarrying occurs unabated and in the wake of continued
adverse environmental challenges and impacts. While the MEEI has
major responsibilities for management and regulation of the industry and
the enforcement of lease terms and legislation, some of its functions
overlap with those of the Commissioner of State Lands, MPHE, EMA,
TCPD, Forestry Division and municipal authorities. At present, the MEEI
is actively pursuing legislative, institutional, administrative and fiscal
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 113
reform to address current inadequacies. However, greater collaboration is
needed among critical agencies with overlapping responsibilities.
The Draft Quarry Policy of 2005 recognised some of the shortcomings of
the Minerals Act of 2000 which currently governs the operations of the
quarry industry. These include:
i. Absence of regulations for granting quarry licences;
ii. Ambiguity with respect to the procedures for assigning and
terminating licences;
iii. Conflicts with existing legislative provisions, for example, the
EMA Act;
iv. Ineffective and deficient regulatory control;
v. Inappropriate legislative mechanisms and institutional
weaknesses;
vi. Absence of enforcement measures;
vii. Bias in the legislation which favours large scale entrepreneurs;
and
viii. Lack of redress for investor complaints.
2. The need for greater collaboration among partners in land use planning and
Management – there needs to be formal mechanisms of collaboration to ensure
effective collaboration among the various stakeholder organisations/institutions;
firstly among State agencies and secondly between State agencies and non-
governmental bodies (the NGO and community sector and the private sector).
Greater inter-governmental collaboration is required to address the containment
of squatting, illegal quarrying and pollution control and in the areas of
watershed and water resource management.
3. Over the years the Government has compromised their position as a model for
good environmental stewardship and management by neglecting to follow the
environmental and planning laws of the country. It would be important at this
stage for the Government to demonstrate its commitment to sound
environmental management.
4. Co-management of land resources affords Government the opportunity to
improve the current management of some of the country’s important of land
resources. CEPEP and NRWRP can provide valuable lessons for the
establishment of future projects and should be periodically evaluated and
documented. However, there are other excellent examples of community-based
projects from which lessons can be learnt to strengthen these large scale ‘pilot’
programmes. It would also be important to focus on the targeted communities
and draw out the involvement of residents in informal activities to monitor
changes in patterns of behaviour.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 114
5. Inadequate monitoring and enforcement of existing laws and regulations retards
proper land management and are considered to be among the primary
underlying causes of land degradation. The issue of monitoring and enforcement
must include both the revision of existing regulations to include stricter penalties
and to clear up ambiguities and loopholes and preparation of regulations for
existing laws (Pesticide and Toxic Chemical Control Act).
6. There are in fact many cultural and social aspects to land management and
securing meaningful people’s participation in the process and this becomes
critical if lasting changes are to be made. There are mutual benefits to be derived
and lessons learnt when the State and the non-governmental bodies work
together to address societal issues. Therefore ensuring mechanism for
involvement of people in the development process must be considered as a
priority if the country is to address its land degradation issues.
7. People’s attitudes, norms and patterns of behaviour towards the environment is
reflected in the way they utilise and manage their natural resources. Land
degradation reflects the poor choices and decisions the people of Trinidad and
Tobago have made over the years. Changing traditions, the popular culture and
modern lifestyles have brought unsustainable uses of natural resources;
deforestation and pollution arising from an attitude that nature can absorb all
that the population can give. The social requirements for protecting a delicate
environment and ecosystem remain a major challenge in Trinidad and Tobago.
Changing the way the population values its land resources and changing
negative behaviours are critical requirements for reversing current land
degradation trends.
8. Research and development in the area of land management remains disconnected
from the needs of the country and must be coordinated and revised based on the
problems of land degradation.
9. Many NGOs and CBOs lack the institutional capacity to be equal partners in
development process with the Government and private sector. There is need to
strengthen the capacity of the NGO and community sector so that they could
true partners in this process of combating land degradation.
10. Most State agencies lack the resources to make them good managers of the
country’s land resources. This includes the lack of technical personnel and
equipment and inadequate organisational structures and mechanism, all of
which contribute at times to low morale and poor work ethics.
11. Initiatives such as competitions, school and community-based environmental
projects, etc. are not recognised as avenues for behavioural change and,
therefore, not given the kind of support where they would make major
differences in people’s response to the environment and environmental issues,
particular in urban and suburban centres where the problem of land degradation
is perhaps more acute.
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 115
Chapter 5
Conclusion
The 2005 Report on the State of Land Resources of Trinidad and Tobago 116