IEEE Power & Energy Society TECHNICAL PAPER COMPENDIUM

Aug 2016 PES-TPC3

Wind Power Plant

Collector Design
PREPARED BY THE
Energy Development and Power Generation Committee
Integration of Renewable Energy into the Transmission
and Distribution Grids Subcommittee
Wind and Solar Plant Collector Design Working Group

© IEEE 2016 The Institute of Electrical and

i Electronic Engineers, Inc.
No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form, in an electronic retrieval system or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.


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 Wind and Solar Plant Collector Design Working Group Contributors

Chairs: Ernst Camm (2007 – 2009)

Mitch Bradt (2009 – 2011)
Michael Starke (2011 – 2013)
Wayne Dilling (2013 -2015)

Members and Contributors

M. Bates P. Maibach
B. Badrzadeh K. McLean
T. A. Bellei D. Mueller
M. R. Behnke T. Nicolai
W. G. Bloethe J. Niemira
O. Bolado K. Nuckles
M. Bollen J. Patiño
C. Brooks S. V. Pasupulati
N. Castillo M. Reza
M. Edds B. Richardson
B. Goltz N. Samaan
W. J. Hejdak S. Saylors
J. Hermanson J. Schoene
D. Houseman T. Siebert
R. Janakiraman T. Smith
R. Kennedy I. Snyder
S. Klein K. Tay
F. Li M. Tesch
J. Li L. Vargas
P. Loy R. Walling
G. Zahalka

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 Wind and Solar Plant Collector Design Working Group History

The Wind and Solar Plant Collector Design working group was initiated by the IEEE Power and
Energy Society in 2007 in response to the extreme growth in wind power installations in the
United States that kicked off in 2005. The Power and Energy Society saw a need for broad
distribution to its members of the significant issues that were unique to wind power plants.
Original research papers were not what were sought; rather a gathering of established best
practices and guidelines pertinent to the practical design of a utility scale wind power plant.
To this end, Dick Piwko, chair of the PES Wind Power Coordinating Committee, began this
endeavor by creating the working group and recruiting action officers. First to step to the plate
as working group chair was Ernst Camm who recruited the initial working group team members.
The group met four times in 2008 at both IEEE and AWEA conferences laying the foundation of
the group’s efforts and setting four years of productivity in motion. The first five papers were
presented at the 2009 PES General Meeting in Calgary.
Following this, Mitch Bradt took the chairmanship, shepherding the publication of four
additional papers at the 2010 PES Transmission and Distribution Conference & Expo in New
Orleans, followed shortly thereafter by a full day tutorial on Wind Plant Collector Design at the
2010 PES General Meeting in Minneapolis. The working group at this point had swelled to 45
contributing members.
Michael Starke became chair followed by Wayne Dilling. During their chairmanships the
remaining papers in this compendium were presented at several different PES conferences, along
with presentations on Testing and Commissioning, NEC versus NESC, and topics on personal
safety. The domain of this group was expanded from just wind to include solar, and a task force
was created for Wind Plant Grounding for Personal Safety. The task force has created its own
presentations and tutorials on wind plant design.
In total, more than a hundred participants and 45 active contributors collaborated to produce the
working group’s publications and presentations. The past chairs of this group want to extend
their gratitude to all these participants and to the companies and universities who supported this
working group’s activities. We hope that you find this publication valuable.

Ernst Camm, Mitch Bradt, Michael Starke and Wayne Dilling (posthumously)
Boston, MA 2016.

This work is dedicated to the memory of our friend and colleague, Wayne Dilling, who inspired
us, kept us grounded and fostered a wonderful environment of fun and productivity.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION vii

PART 1: WIND POWER PLANT DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Wind Power Plant Collector System Design Considerations 1

E.H. Camm, M. R. Behnke, O. Bolado, M. Bollen, M. Bradt, C. Brooks, W. Dilling, M. Edds, W.

J. Hejdak, D. Houseman, S. Klein, F. Li, J. Li, P. Maibach, T. Nicolai, J. Patiño, S. V. Pasupulati,
N. Samaan, S. Saylors, T. Siebert, T. Smith, M. Starke, R. Walling, “Wind Power Plant Collector
System Design Considerations,” in Proc. 2009 IEEE Power & Energy Society General Meeting.

Characteristics of Wind Turbine Generators for Wind Power Plants 8

E.H. Camm, M. R. Behnke, O. Bolado, M. Bollen, M. Bradt, C. Brooks, W. Dilling, M. Edds, W.

J. Hejdak, D. Houseman, S. Klein, F. Li, J. Li, P. Maibach, T. Nicolai, J. Patiño, S. V. Pasupulati,
N. Samaan, S. Saylors, T. Siebert, T. Smith, M. Starke, R. Walling, “Characteristics of Wind
Turbine Generators for Wind Power Plants,” in Proc. 2009 IEEE Power & Energy Society
General Meeting.

Wind Power Plant Substation and Collector System Redundancy, Reliability, and
Economics 13

E.H. Camm, M. R. Behnke, O. Bolado, M. Bollen, M. Bradt, C. Brooks, W. Dilling, M. Edds, W.

J. Hejdak, D. Houseman, S. Klein, F. Li, J. Li, P. Maibach, T. Nicolai, J. Patiño, S. V. Pasupulati,
N. Samaan, S. Saylors, T. Siebert, T. Smith, M. Starke, R. Walling, “Wind Power Plant
Substation and Collector System Redundancy, Reliability, and Economics,” in Proc. 2009 IEEE
Power & Energy Society General Meeting.

Design and Application of Cables and Overhead Lines in Wind Power Plants 19

M. Bradt, M. Bates, M. R. Behnke, W. G. Bloethe, C. Brooks, E.H. Camm, W. Dilling, B. Goltz,

J. Hermanson, J. Li, P. Loy, K. McLean, J. Niemira, K. Nuckles, J. Patiño, M. Reza, B.
Richardson, N. Samaan, J. Schoene, T. Smith, I. Snyder, M. Starke, M. Tesch, R. Walling, G.
Zahalka, “Design and Application of Cables and Overhead Lines in Wind Power Plants,” in Proc.
2010 IEEE Power & Energy Society Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exposition.

Power Transformer Application for Wind Plant Substations 25

M. Bradt, M. R. Behnke, W. G. Bloethe, C. Brooks, E.H. Camm, W. Dilling, B. Goltz, J. Li, J.

Niemira, K. Nuckles, J. Patiño, M. Reza, B. Richardson, N. Samaan, J. Schoene, T. Smith, I.
Snyder, M. Starke, R. Walling, G. Zahalka, “Power Transformer Application for Wind Plant
Substations,” in Proc. 2010 IEEE Power & Energy Society Transmission and Distribution
Conference and Exposition.

Wind Power Plant SCADA and Controls 31

B. Badrzadeh, M. Bradt, N. Castillo, R. Janakiraman, R. Kennedy, S. Klein, T. Smith, L. Vargas,

“Wind Power Plant SCADA and Controls,” in Proc. 2011 IEEE Power & Energy Society General
Meeting.

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Reactive Power Compensation for Wind Power Plants 38

E.H. Camm, M. R. Behnke, O. Bolado, M. Bollen, M. Bradt, C. Brooks, W. Dilling, M. Edds, W.

J. Hejdak, D. Houseman, S. Klein, F. Li, J. Li, P. Maibach, T. Nicolai, J. Patiño, S. V. Pasupulati,
N. Samaan, S. Saylors, T. Siebert, T. Smith, M. Starke, R. Walling, “Reactive Power
Compensation for Wind Power Plants,” in Proc. 2009 IEEE Power & Energy Society General
Meeting.

PART 2: WIND POWER PLANT EQUIPMENT PROTECTION AND SAFETY

Wind Power Plant Grounding, Overvoltage Protection, and Insulation Coordination 45

E.H. Camm, M. R. Behnke, O. Bolado, M. Bollen, M. Bradt, C. Brooks, W. Dilling, M. Edds, W.

J. Hejdak, D. Houseman, S. Klein, F. Li, J. Li, P. Maibach, T. Nicolai, J. Patiño, S. V. Pasupulati,
N. Samaan, S. Saylors, T. Siebert, T. Smith, M. Starke, R. Walling, “Wind Power Plant
Grounding, Overvoltage Protection, and Insulation Coordination,” in Proc. 2009 IEEE Power &
Energy Society General Meeting.

Arc-Flash Hazard in Wind Power Plants 53

M. Bradt, M. R. Behnke, W. G. Bloethe, C. Brooks, E.H. Camm, W. Dilling, B. Goltz, J. Li, J.

Niemira, K. Nuckles, J. Patiño, M. Reza, B. Richardson, N. Samaan, J. Schoene, T. Smith, I.
Snyder, M. Starke, K. Tay, R. Walling, G. Zahalka, “Arc-Flash Hazard in Wind Power Plants,” in
Proc. 2010 IEEE Power & Energy Society Transmission and Distribution Conference and
Exposition.

Wind Plant Collector System Fault Protection and Coordination 61

M. Bradt, M. R. Behnke, W. G. Bloethe, C. Brooks, E.H. Camm, W. Dilling, B. Goltz, J. Li, J.

Niemira, K. Nuckles, J. Patiño, M. Reza, B. Richardson, N. Samaan, J. Schoene, T. Smith, I.
Snyder, M. Starke, R. Walling, G. Zahalka, “Wind Plant Collector System Fault Protection and
Coordination,” in Proc. 2010 IEEE Power & Energy Society Transmission and Distribution
Conference and Exposition.

Harmonics and Resonance Issues in Wind Power Plants 66

M. Bradt, B. Badrzadeh, E. Camm, D. Mueller, J. Schoene, T. Siebert, T. Smith, M. Starke, R.

Walling, “Harmonics and Resonance Issues in Wind Power Plants,” in Proc. 2011 IEEE Power
& Energy Society General Meeting.

APPENDIX

Abbreviations and Terms Used in Wind Power Plant Collector System Design and
Operation 74

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 INTRODUCTION

By Andrew Leon
The wind power industry has experienced rapid growth resulting in more than 60 gigawatts of
installed wind capacity in the United States and over 300 gigawatts worldwide. Despite the
similarity to traditional utility power generation infrastructure, a number of critical design
considerations and issues unique to wind power plants (WPPs) have become evident. This recent
expansion of utility-scale renewable energy facilities led to the creation of the Wind and Solar
Plant Collector Design Working Group within the IEEE Power & Energy Society. This group
serves as a focal point within the PES for addressing topics related to the practical design issues
of collector systems for wind and solar plants.
Diverse challenges are encountered during the design and construction of wind power plants.
Typical WPPs consist of an interconnection substation, collection circuits, reactive compensation
equipment, step up transformers, as well as five main types of WTGs - each with their own
power conversion and performance characteristics. Improper system grounding can lead to
premature failure of collection circuit equipment, potentially resulting in costly repairs and
reduced availability. Utilities and system operators outline local reactive power requirements.
Mandatory compliance with these requirements can be approached in a number of different ways
each having its advantages and disadvantages. Additionally, the combination of complex
capacitive and inductive elements in a WPP can cause significant power quality issues related to
harmonics and resonance. Conventional utility design practices prioritize reliability, which is
addressed with increased levels of redundancy. In contrast, maximum economic availability of
wind turbine generators (WTGs) is the ideal focus for optimizing a new WPP.
This special publication is a compendium compiled from a series of 11 technical papers by 45
authors. These papers were published and presented by the working group to provide general
design guidance as well as to address specific issues encountered in WPPs. Covered design
principles include considerations for underground versus overhead collector lines, power
transformer specifications, reactive power compensation guidelines, as well as SCADA and
Control philosophy. Industry specific issues such as the system grounding of WPPs and
harmonic/resonance issues are discussed along with available protection and mitigation options
that may address these concerns.
The compendium is organized into two parts. A brief summary of the papers within each section
is provided for the reader. An appendix includes abbreviations & terms related to WPP collector
systems.
PART 1 Wind Power Plant Design Principles
1. “Wind Power Plant Collector System Design Considerations”
A summary of the most important design considerations for wind power plants are presented.
The configuration of feeder strings is discussed aside important design aspects such as conductor
sizing and the thermal characteristics of site-specific soil. Substation design and equipment
specifications are explained as well as the various engineering studies required to support the
overall design of a wind power plant.

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2. “Characteristics of Wind Turbine Generators for Wind Power Plants”
Summary of the most important characteristics of wind turbine generators applied in modern
wind power plants is presented. Various wind turbine generator designs, based on classification
by machine type and speed control capabilities are discussed highlighting their operational
characteristics, voltage and power factor control capabilities, voltage ride-through characteristics,
behavior during short circuits, and reactive power capabilities.
3. “Wind Power Plant Substation and Collector System Redundancy, Reliability, and
Economics”
Basic guidelines on design considerations for wind power plant substations and collector systems
are discussed. Wind power plant design often prioritizes aspects not normally considered in
traditional utility systems. Power loss and overall economic analysis in a typical wind power
plant is explained.

4.“Design and Application of Cables and Overhead Lines in Wind Power Plants”
This paper presents a summary of the most important considerations for wind power plant
collection system underground cable and overhead designs. Various characteristics, including
conductor selection, soil thermal properties, installation methods, splicing, concentric grounding,
and NESC/NEC requirements are discussed.
5.“Power Transformer Application for Wind Plant Substations”
Here, the application of wind power plant transformers with regard to the selection of winding
configuration, MVA rating, impedance, loss evaluation, on-load tap changer requirements, and
redundancy is presented. Wind power plants use power transformers to step plant output from
the medium voltage of the collector system to the high or extra high voltage transmission system.
6. “Wind Power Plant SCADA and Control”
This paper discusses the range of application for SCADA and control systems in a wind power
plant, the most important SCADA and control system considerations, and contractual
requirements for SCADA and control systems.
7.“Reactive Power Compensation for Wind Power Plants”
The basic guidelines for the application of reactive compensation systems to be used as part of a
wind power plant are presented. A brief history of wind plant reactive compensation systems is
discussed, including the fundamental need for reactive power compensation. This paper provides
alternatives for reactive compensation, reactive compensation analytics, and an overview of the
operating principles in various compensation devices.
PART 2 Wind Power Plant Equipment Protection and Safety
8.“Wind Power Plant Grounding, Overvoltage Protection, and Insulation Coordination”
Presents a tutorial description of the process of selecting and applying surge arresters to wind
plant medium voltage collector systems, with emphasis on the peculiar properties of this

viii
application. Proper insulation coordination is critical to preventing premature failure in wind
plant equipment. The collector systems of large wind plants require the application of surge
arresters to protect the equipment insulation from transient overvoltages. This application is
constrained by maximum operating and temporary overvoltage levels.
9. “Arc-Flash Hazard in Wind Power Plants”
A brief review of the concept of arc flash and a methodology for arc-flash hazard analysis on a
WPP collector system follows. Addressed topics include faults fed by multiple sources and
modeling of the resultant wind turbine generator fault current. The paper concludes with two
examples using the presented methodology.
10. “Wind Plant Collector System Fault Protection and Coordination”
Presents a summary of the most important protection and coordination considerations for wind
power plants. Short-circuit characteristics of both aggregate wind plant and individual wind
turbine generators, as well as general interconnection protection requirements are discussed.
Many factors such as security, reliability, and safety are considered for proper conservative
protection of the wind power plant and individual turbines.
11. “Harmonics and Resonance Issues with Wind Plants”
Summarizes the most important issues with respect to harmonics and resonances within wind
power plants. An introduction is given to provide an overview of the various power quality
related issues encountered when designing, commissioning, or operating a wind power plant, as
well as typical characteristics of the components associated with wind power plants. The many
variables which influence harmonics and resonance in wind power plants will be described with
respect to analysis methods, avoidance, mitigation, and compliance with IEEE Std 519-1992
recommended practices.

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Wind Power Plant Collector System Design

Considerations
IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group

Contributing Members: E.H. Camm, M. R. Behnke, O. Bolado, M. Bollen, M. Bradt, C. Brooks, W. Dilling,
M. Edds, W. J. Hejdak, D. Houseman, S. Klein, F. Li, J. Li, P. Maibach, T. Nicolai, J. Patiño, S. V. Pasupulati,
N. Samaan, S. Saylors, T. Siebert, T. Smith, M. Starke, R. Walling

Abstract—This paper presents a summary of the most impor- system voltage of 34.5 kV (Figure 1). In this configuration,
tant design considerations for wind power plants. Various con- turbines are connected together in a “daisy chain” style, mov-
siderations, including feeder topology, collector design, intercon- ing outward from the project substation to the furthest located
nect and NESC/NEC requirements, and design engineering stu- turbine. These feeder strings are commonly underground but
dies are discussed. may be of overhead construction as well. Each individual
feeder string may also have branch strings, connected by sec-
Index Terms— Wind turbine generator, turbine layout, tran-
sient analysis, harmonics analysis, wind power plants.
tionalizing cabinets that can make up several string paths
within a feeder string. Sectionalizing cabinets, sometimes
I. INTRODUCTION referred to as junction boxes, have separable connectors, or
elbows, that can isolate a feeder string to allow the remaining

C onsiderations in Wind Power Plant (WPP) collector sys-

tem design are driven by economics and reliability.
While WPPs have many things in common with traditional
connected turbines to operate while maintenance or repair
work is being performed. The separable connectors can come
in two forms: 200 A load-break or 600 A dead-break style.
utility electrical systems, they also have a number of unique The load-break elbows allow removal and isolation of the
characteristics that require special attention. This paper will feeder string while the connector is energized by use of a
discuss various important design considerations applicable to “hotstick” and properly trained electricians. For strings with
modern WPPs. The scope of the discussion includes design full load current ratings above 200 A, 600 A dead-break el-
considerations associated with plant and equipment ranging bows are required, which also requires the circuit to be de-
from the point of interconnection (POI) to the switchgear or energized before removing and isolating the connector, or a
converter in the base of the wind turbine tower. live-front cable termination (without use of elbows) which
also must be de-energized for connection or disconnection. An
II. FEEDER TOPOLOGY alternative to the sectionalizing cabinet is padmounted switch-
es, with or without interrupting devices, that can more easily
Feeder topology, also referred to as collection system isolate a feeder for maintenance or troubleshooting. However,
layout, can range widely in function and features depending the increased cost needs to be weighed against the expected
on several factors including, turbine placement, terrain, relia- frequency of operation.
bility, landowner requirements, economics, and expected cli- The number of winds turbine generators (WTGs) placed on
matic conditions for the location. a feeder string is limited by the conductor ampacity. In addi-
After site selection for the WPP has been determined, the tion, the total number of collector circuits is driven by the size
tower specific locations are defined, based on wind resource, of the substation transformer (ST) located in the collector
soil conditions, FAA restrictions, land agreements, and con- substation. System reliability is also a consideration since any
structability considerations. The turbine locations and the POI given collector circuit cable fault will typically result in an
will be the primary factors in the design and layout of the outage to all WTGs connected to that particular circuit. Un-
WPP feeder topology. A POI located far from the wind pow- derground feeders are generally limited to roughly 25 to
er plant may require a transmission line and interconnect 30 MW per string due to soil thermal conditions and practical
switchyard in addition to the collector substation; otherwise, cable sizes, although parallel conductors may be combined at
the collector substation can be connected directly to the POI. the collector substation circuit breaker to increase the number
To optimize loss efficiencies within the collector system, the of WTGs on the feeder.
ideal collector substation location is within a central area of
the wind power plant to minimize collector conductor lengths.
However, this is not always possible due to land constraints
and the actual utility POI location itself.
The majority of large wind power plants built in North
America have a radial feeder configuration with a collection

978-1-4244-4241-6/09/$25.00 ©2009 IEEE 1

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construction. However, high Rho values which translate to

lower cable ampacities may warrant the implementation of an
overhead collector system. Since collector systems typically
spread throughout a vast area and land conditions vary, the
collector system may consist of both overhead and under-
ground portions. Many factors must be considered when de-
ciding on overhead versus underground systems and in most
cases cost is the biggest consideration. Total lifecycle costs,
including losses should be evaluated, but often designs are
optimized on a least first-cost basis. CTBs and their installa-
tion can be extremely expensive and have a significant impact
on the overall project cost. Where portions or all of the col-
lector system resides in extreme soil conditions, such as gra-
nite or perhaps lava-rock, not only must the CTB be consi-
dered but also the means for trench excavation. For example,
in extreme conditions blasting or hydraulic hammers may be
Figure 1: Typical Collector Circuit required to prepare the circuit trenches. After preparing the
circuit trench and prior to backfill and cable installation an
Overhead conductors can carry more power for comparable additional mesh or netting material is typically installed. The
or smaller size conductors, typically up to 40 to 50 MW per mesh is placed in between the excavated rock trench and CTB
string, but will have higher losses associated with it. Over- with the purpose of preventing the CTB from eroding through
head conductors typically have higher outage frequency rates the permeable trench. Figure 2 shows the cross section of a
than a comparable underground circuit, but because of its ac- typical trench with CTB and mesh.
cessibility for locating and repairing failures, the outage dura-
tion will typically be less for repair. Reliability concerns
should also be evaluated, which will influence the quantity of
turbines on a single feeder string. If a feeder string expe-
riences a failure, the entire WTG capacity on that string will
be interrupted, resulting in revenue losses until the damage is
repaired. Sectionalizing cabinets can help with isolating dam-
aged sections to allow some portion of WTGs to be returned
to service more quickly. For additional information refer to
companion WG paper on Wind Power Plant Substation and
Collector System Redundancy, Reliability, and Economics
[10].

III. COLLECTOR DESIGN

Many considerations apply to the overall design of the
WPP collector system. The first is typically the soil’s thermal
resistivity or Rho, which is measured in °C-cm/W. Thermal
resistivity is basically the ability of the soil to dissipate heat
Figure 2: Typical Circuit Trench Cross Section
generated by energized and loaded power cables. Proper me-
thods must be utilized when testing soil to ensure correct val- Where a total life-cycle cost evaluation is used, cable ther-
ues are available when sizing cables and designing the collec- mal ampacity tends to be a less limiting factor. This is be-
tor system layout. Improving thermal resistivity is commonly cause when the lost revenue from losses are considered, the
required due to the native soil conditions, which can have ex- optimized cable size is typically considerably larger than the
tremely high thermal resistivity. Common solutions to address size that approaches ampacity limits at peak loading.
high soil thermal resistivity include providing Corrective After considering the costs associated with the above ex-
Thermal Backfills (CTB) or Fluidized Thermal Backfills ample the decision to go with an overhead collector system
(FTB) [11] within the trench and surrounding the circuit could be justified on a portion or the entire collector system.
cables. These materials will improve the soil Rho condition, An added benefit of the overhead system is the increase in
but project cost impacts must be considered and weighed collector circuit capacity as mentioned above, but this comes
against the disadvantages of utilizing an overhead collector with an increase in system losses and decrease in reliability.
system. Careful analysis is required when selecting an overhead versus
Underground collector systems are the most commonly ap- underground system and in some cases even though the over-
plied systems within WPPs because of their better acceptance head system will realize cost savings it may be prohibited due
from landowners and less restrictions on crane travel during

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to land owner requirements. dards may be purely local and in large WPP may vary from
Conductor sizing starts with the soil Rho data and layout of machine to machine as you cross local jurisdictions.
the collector circuit trenches. In multiple circuit trenches de- Some of the key standards bodies and regulators that should
rating factors must be applied due to mutual heating effects of always be reviewed include:
close proximity circuits. Commercially available software is 1. IEC and IEEE - both standards bodies have a large
typically used to perform an analysis on various circuit trench number of standards that can be applied to the collec-
layouts and many variables including trench dimensions, cir- tor design. These include standards like C37 (Circuit
cuits per trench, trench spacing and soil Rho can be manipu- Breakers, Switchgear, Relays, Substations, and Fus-
lated until the optimum trench layout is achieved. In some es), C57 (Transformers), C62 (Surge Arresters), and
other emerging standards. IEC standards include the
cases where specific circuit ampacities are required the cables
IEC 61400 Series (Wind turbine generator systems).
may need to be oversized due to trench parameter limitations.
2. ISO has a number of standards that apply to wiring
and cables.
IV. SUBSTATION DESIGN 3. Many national organizations have taken ISO or IEC
The planning of the substation and switchyard is not strictly standards and renumbered them for local use.
focused on a single design but does have some flexibility. It is 4. State and provincial regulators. In many cases the
important, however, that the substation be planned for reliabil- regulators in a sub-jurisdiction (e.g. a state in the US
ity, operability, as well as maintainability. or a province in Canada) have developed additional
Substation designs typically consist of both medium- guidelines that need to be followed.
voltage (MV) and high-voltage (HV) bus configurations that 5. Local zoning. Most local zoning agencies have
are interconnected through wye-wye, delta-wye, or even wye- height, noise, setback, landscaping and road require-
delta transformers. Wye-wye transformers with buried tertiary ments that are not covered in any other standard.
are often used. In wind plant substations, the medium- voltage These can quickly impact collector and WPP design
buses are primarily of the single and sectionalized bus type by restricting what can be done and how it can be
while the high voltage buses could be composed of five dif- done. In almost every case local zoning and regula-
ferent types: ring, single, sectionalized, main and transfer, tion reduces the number of options that are available
breaker-and-a-half, double breaker double bus. for designing and building the collector and place-
The location of substation(s) will typically be at the wind ment of WTGs.
plant site, but if the POI is several miles away there may be a 6. Utility requirements. In most utilities there are re-
need for switching station(s) for locating line breakers and quirements that are set by the planning and standards
associated equipment. There are many IEEE substation design groups. While many of these mirror the requirements
standards and guidelines such as IEEE-605 for rigid bus struc- of national and international standards, some do not,
tures and IEEE-80 for substation grounding. These are availa- and for good reason in most cases. The design of the
ble as references in the planning and engineering of substation existing grid may not match the ideal that was used to
facilities. Also refer to a companion WG paper on Wind Pow- create the international standards and to help main-
er Plant Substation and Collector System Redundancy, Relia- tain the function of the grid, each utility has devel-
bility, and Economics [10]. oped standards that keep the grid functioning.
7. Manufacturer's requirements and standards. As trans-
V. INTERCONNECTION REQUIREMENTS AND REGULATIONS formers, wind turbines, and other equipment are se-
In the United States, Federal requirements for certain as- lected they come with their own set of standards and
pects of WPP interconnection are contained in the provisions restrictions. To keep warranties in force, these will
of FERC Order 661-A [13], which have been adopted as Ap- have to be reviewed and accounted for in the collec-
pendix G to the Large Generator Interconnect Agreement tor design.
(LGIA). This Appendix contains requirements for voltage In all there will be many documents that will have to be
ride-through (VRT), power factor design criteria (reactive reviewed and it is not unusual for them to conflict with each
power), and Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition other. In most cases, that conflict can be resolved most easily
(SCADA) capability. Other provisions contained in the LGIA by starting with the most local requirements. They are typical-
for each project include metering and protection requirements. ly the easiest ones to get changed when a higher authority
Note, for WPPs located within the Electric Reliability Council conflicts with them.
of Texas (ERCOT) region, similar interconnection require-
ments exist, but do not necessarily follow FERC guidelines. VI. NESC AND NEC CONSIDERATIONS FOR WIND POWER
Refer to companion WG paper for additional details [4]. PLANTS
There are a large number of agencies that can impact the The application of the National Electrical Code (NEC) and
design and construction of the collector system. They range the National Electrical Safety Code (NESC) to wind power
from local zoning agencies to international agencies. The final plants is in general a shared concern. Local jurisdictions also
design of the collector system will be heavily dependent on have rules, ordinances, and laws that may supersede both the
the regulations and standards that you are required to follow. NESC and NEC, so thorough advance research with local
Some national standards, like the National Electric Code professional engineers, electricians, and inspectors is critical.
(NEC) may apply in some states and not in others. Other stan-

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Any WPP with a medium-voltage (MV) collector system VII. TURBINE STEP-UP TRANSFORMER APPLICATION
design and construction may be considered by some to be sub- For wind turbines in the MW rating category, a dedicated
ject to the NESC rules, but inside the wind turbine tower the step-up transformer is used for each turbine.
best approach is to assume that both codes may apply. The
tower is both a “generation” plant, which is covered by the A. Transformer Type
NESC, but it also has aspects of being an industrial site, which Padmounted three-phase distribution transformers are used
falls under the NEC. Regardless, each US state has the right for WTG step-up transformers. These transformers are a
to enforce whichever code or create new ones for its own pur- commodity and meet the required function at minimum cost.
poses. It is also well known that there are now many states WTGs with transformers in the nacelle or on platforms in the
with permitting laws and regulations specifically for WPP tower are outside the scope of this document since it is pro-
which could impact the application of these safety rules. vided by the WTG manufacturer as part of the WTG installa-
On the collector system NESC rules may apply because tion.
they involve grounding (sections in the 90’s), overhead con-
B. Winding Connection
ductor clearances and loadings (Part 2), and underground ca-
ble clearances and considerations (Part 3). A quick example Many WTG manufacturers specify delta (MV) – grounded-
of each would be: For grounding – collector cables or over- wye (LV) winding connections for wind turbine step-up trans-
head must be grounded at least every quarter mile. As a spe- formers. The reasons for this connection are to provide isola-
cial note - when grounding a collector cable special considera- tion of the WTG from the zero-sequence behavior of the col-
tion must be taken to cross ground all sheaths and external lector feeder; e.g., unfaulted phase voltage rise during ground
grounds to reduce induced effects (see IEEE 575-1988). For faults, and to provide a solid ground source for the LV side
overhead (sections in the 200’s) – overhead collector conduc- connected to the WTG.
tors must be designed for local temperature, ice and wind Grounded wye-wye transformers are more commonly used
loading conditions and maintain minimum clearance distances for utility load-serving applications, and are thus more widely
from the ground surface and other objects and structures. For available. There is a common misconception that this connec-
underground (sections in the 300’s) – cables must be set at tion provides a ground source to the collector feeder, in the
proper burial depths and have certain underground clearances. case that that the feeder becomes isolated from the collection
NESC rules are generally self-regulated by the power and substation. This is only correct when the WTG is a grounded
utility industry, but a few states have inspectors who will
source, which is generally not the case.
check new installations.
In the tower the best approach is to assume both the C. Transformer Protection and Switchgear
NESC and NEC may apply. From the NESC it is mainly the Padmounted transformers are usually protected by internal
grounding rules and the supply station rules in Part 1 (sections fuses. Due to the short-circuit current available in most wind
in the 100’s), which may apply and these would also include farm applications, current-limiting fuses are usually needed.
the rules for WTG unit transformers whether located inside or These fuses are either coordinated with expulsion fuses, or
outside of the tower. From the NEC there are applicable rules full-range current-limiting fuses are applied. Since fusing
for the LV cables and equipment that may apply. Such rules options are limited for 34.5 kV delta configurations, careful
include cable ampacities, cable routing, small LV transformer consideration must be made when selecting coordinated fus-
use, LV circuit protection, and cabinets. There are also local ing to ensure the fuse combination is matched for the applica-
(city, county, and/or state) inspectors who interpret the NEC tion in which it will be applied.
in different ways, so advance meetings with the local authori- In some applications it can be difficult to ensure that prima-
ties are important to determine what is most important to ry (MV) fuses can adequately protect against faults at the
them. point of secondary interconnection to the WTG equipment,
As to arc-flash considerations, the most basic approach particularly if a delta-wye transformer is used (in the case of
would be to consider the NESC arc-flash rules from Section single-phase faults, due to the lack of one-for-one correspon-
410 to the collector system and the NFPA 70E rules to the dence between primary and secondary phases.)
inside of the tower. This would provide good coverage of the LV molded-case circuit breakers are sometimes installed
inside equipment and the proper approach to the power lines inside the transformer secondary compartment to provide
outside and will define the proper personal protective equip- coordinated protection through to the end of the secondary
ment (PPE) for both working situations. cables and also may help in reducing arc-flash levels. Atten-
Lastly, there are rules for safe practices once the site is tion needs to be given to the ambient temperature for this
operational that must also be followed by workers. These mounting location, with respect to the molded case circuit
include the rules in Part 4 (sections in the 400’s) of the NESC, breaker specifications.
in NFPA documents, and in federal (OSHA) and state occupa- An internal primary MV oil switch, typically referred to as
tional safety rules and regulations when working in a tower or a LBOR (Load Break Oil Rotary) switch is commonly speci-
on the power line. fied to allow isolation of the transformer and permit continued
operation of other “downstream” WTGs.

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D. Transformer Primary Terminals the wind on the transformer; C57.91’s algorithms assume still
Transformer primary terminals can either be live-front air. For this wind plant, an under-sized transformer was suc-
bushings, or separable connector (“elbow”) bushings. There cessfully applied.
are two different types of elbows in IEEE standards: load- Selection of transformer rating on a thermal basis must
break elbows which are rated up to 200 A load current, and consider factors such as additional loading on transformers
dead-break elbows which are rated for up to 600 A. Load- due to passage of harmonic currents. In one wind power plant
break elbows allow the transformer connections to be opened application, WTG unit transformers failed from overloads
“live” under load current conditions, using a hot-stick. The caused by grid background harmonics resonating with WTG
circuit must be de-energized to operate (make or break) the power factor correction capacitors. Harmonics can have a
600 A elbow connections. disproportionate impact on transformer heating. Refer to
When elbows bushings are applied, it is common to specify C57.110.
a feed-through bushing configuration, which provides two 10000
bushings for each phase, and an internal connection between
each pair of bushings. This allows both the substation-side
and remote-end side cables in a daisy-chain radial configura-

Predicted Insulation Life (yrs)

1000
tion to be connected directly to the transformer without junc-
tion boxes.
The 200 A capability of load-break elbows is a significant 100
restriction in many applications, particularly where there are a
number of wind turbines connected in a radial string. Also,
many wind plant operators do not have hot-stick-trained tech- 10
nicians in their maintenance crews.
E. Transformer Impedance 1
IEEE Standard C57.12.24 specifies that three-phase trans- 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800

formers rated 750 kVA and larger have a minimum impedance Rated kVA

of 5.75%. However, some manufacturers will supply trans-

Figure 3 – Transformer predicted insulation life as a function of kVA rating
formers with smaller impedance on specification. for a 1.5 MW WTG application operating at 0.95 power factor in an actual
wind and ambient temperature regime.
F. Transformer Rating
It is common practice to select transformers with a standard
kVA rating, as listed in C57.12.24, which is at least as large as VIII. DESIGN ENGINEERING STUDIES
the kVA rating of the WTG. This is extremely conservative in There are several important engineering studies to be per-
most applications due to the cyclical loading of WTG step-up formed during the various stages of the development of a new
transformers. It is common practice in utility load-serving WPP. In each of these studies, it is important to model the
transformer applications to intentionally select a transformer WPP, and in particular, the WTG properly and to use the ap-
rating less than the minimum load, thus subjecting the trans- propriate software package to perform the required analysis.
former to limited-duration overloads. The loss-of-life of a In the following subsection, an overview of typical design
transformer due to loading is a cumulative function of the engineering studies is given. It should be noted that prelimi-
temperatures to which the windings are exposed, and the nary interconnection studies performed by the transmission
winding temperature is a function of loading history and the provider are outside of the scope of this paper.
ambient temperature. IEEE C57.91 specifies transformer
A. Load Flow Studies
thermal modeling and aging functions that can be used to de-
termine a transformer kVA rating that provides adequate ser- Load flow studies are performed to determine the final
vice life for the particular WPP application; both loading ratings of any required reactive power compensation system,
cycles, and the contemporaneous ambient temperature condi- and the steady-state performance of the wind farm under vari-
tions. ous operating conditions. The steady-state performance fo-
Figure 3 shows the results of a transformer thermal aging cuses on the determination of transformer no-load tap settings
analysis, using the algorithms in IEEE C57.91 with contempo- or the need for an on-load tap changer (OLTC). A model of
raneous wind velocity and ambient data, for an actual WPP the entire WPP, with detailed collector system is typically
application. In this example, the WTG is rated 1.5 MW and is used in commercially-available software. Each WTG LV bus
operated at a 0.95 power factor. Wind conditions at this site is represented as a PV (voltage controlled) or PQ (specified
yield a 42% capacity factor. The typical transformer kVA rat- MW and MVAR) bus with certain MW and MVAR output
ing used for this WTG turbine rating is 1750 kVA. The anal- based on specific conditions or based on voltage, power fac-
ysis shows that this rating yields a predicted transformer insu- tor, or reactive power control at the WTG terminals. Load
lation life of 3,000 years, obviously much more than needed. flow analysis should be performed for different active and
And, there is no consideration of the forced cooling effect of reactive power output levels of the WTG while varying the

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output of any substation-based reactive compensation system, needed in most cases to determine TOV levels and to choose
to determine the WPP net active and reactive power flows and the best method for the mitigation of TOV due to feeder isola-
voltage profiles at the POI during different operating scena- tion and to select arrester ratings [7]. The use of high-speed
rios. grounding switches or grounding transformer banks on each
feeder will help in solving the TOV problem in most WPP
B. Short Circuit Analysis
collector circuits. The type of the WTG plays an important
This analysis, using a detailed model of the WPP as de- role in selecting which grounding method to be used.
scribed for the load flow studies above, is performed to de-
termine momentary and interrupting ratings of circuit break- E. TRV Analysis for Circuit Breakers
ers, cable ratings for proper short-circuit withstand capabili- The Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV) analysis is needed
ties, and momentary ratings of all equipment Special consid- in special cases where circuit breakers are used to switch ca-
eration must be given to the WTG short-circuit contribu- pacitor banks with current-limiting reactors (CLRs) in series
tions[5], [12]. Both the maximum and minimum short circuit or where current-limiting reactors are used to limit feeder fault
current contribution from the grid should be considered. It currents. The very high inherent frequencies of CLRs can
should also be noted that, the line-to-line or single-line-to- challenge the ability of the circuit breaker to interrupt succes-
ground faults can result in higher short circuit currents than sively and may in some cases require TRV “taming” capaci-
three-line-to-ground faults in some WPP configurations. tors to be applied across the circuit breaker or connected
phase-to-ground.
C. Harmonics Analysis
It is realized that due to the significant amount of capacit- F. Grounding Studies
ance in a typical WPP, there is a high potential for resonance The overall grounding design of the WPP should begin in
problems to occur. That can result in unacceptable levels of an early stage of the project and involves the substation, col-
harmonic current distortion at the substation capacitor banks, lector system, and tower grounding. Data must be acquired on
significant voltage distortion at the MV bus of the plant main soil resistivity, short-circuit duty at different locations in the
substation, and unacceptable harmonic current injected from collector circuit, and short-circuit duty at the POI. Soil resis-
the plant at the POI. tivity can vary widely in the landscape of the project and
The first stage is to collect the data needed for harmonic should be measured in many locations. The collected data is
analysis such as measuring background harmonic voltages at applied in grounding software to obtain best design geometry,
the POI and to obtain power quality test results for the WTG. ground potential rise, and step and touch potentials [9].
Measurement of background harmonics may be useful even if
switched capacitor banks are not used in the WPP. The second G. Arc Flash Assessment Studies
stage is to use the appropriate frequency dependent models for Arc-flash studies for the WPP will vary with the applicable
different types of WTG, padmount transformers, collector code. For MV collector circuits under the NESC an assess-
system cables and overhead lines, shunt capacitor and reac- ment of the cal/cm2 levels throughout the system will be re-
tors, substation transformer and equivalent model for the quired. That assessment uses a short circuit evaluation and
transmission network. Appropriate frequency-dependent mod- the knowledge of the length of time it takes to clear the fault at
els should be used to represent the transmission system. This any given location. These two values are then used in a loo-
can be a complex task, which can be simplified by modeling kup table in the NESC to define the minimum level of PPE.
the system for several buses after the POI. The third stage is to For locations under the NEC the proper standard for an arc-
perform frequency scans and harmonics load flow. The fre- flash assessment is the NFPA 70E. This standard defines a
quency scans is used to identify series and parallel resonance detailed procedure that uses a series of lookup tables or an
problems while harmonics load flow is used to calculate har- assessment study can be done that accomplishes the same
monic distortion indices to determine if the relevant IEEE goal. The basic results of an NFPA 70E assessment will be a
standards are satisfied in the WPP. Finally, solutions to over- set of information labels for various pieces of apparatus and
come identified harmonic problems such as filter installation switchgear that will inform the worker of the arc flash hazard
or changing the size of substation capacitor banks should be level that must be prepared for in terms of cal/cm2 and the
investigated [6]. appropriate PPE level. The NESC assessment results must be
communicated to the workers, but does not require posting
D. Temporary Overvoltage and Insulation Coordination Stu- any labels, and also does not exclude it. To best address these
dies details, the WG is planning a future separate paper on arc-
There is a potential for severe temporary overvoltage to flash assessment for WPPs.
develop in WPP collector circuit when a single line to ground
H. Other Special Studies
fault occurs on one of the plant feeders. Transient analysis is
needed to determine the level of TOV and to assess the dam- These studies include protection and coordination studies
age possibility of surge arresters in WPP collector circuit due for the WPP and reactive compensation system (if any),
to temporary overvoltages. SCADA, communication, and control interaction studies, and
A detailed transient simulation with accurate WTG model voltage ride-through studies (in cases where alternative tech-
using an Electromagnetic Transient Program (EMTP) is nologies from that used in the System Impact Study are consi-

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dered). [22] IEEE Std. C57.110-2008, IEEE Recommended Practice for Establishing
Liquid-Filled and Dry-Type Power and Distribution Transformer Capa-
bility When Supplying Nonsinusoidal Load Currents.
IX. REFERENCES
[1] Robert Zavadil, Nicholas Miller, Abraham Ellis, and Eduard Muljadi,
“Making Connections [Wind Generation Facilities],” IEEE Power &
Energy Magazine, vol. 3, no. 6, pp. 26-37, Nov.-Dec. 2005.
[2] E. Muljadi, C. P. Butterfield, A. Ellis, J. Mechenbier, J. Hochheimer, R.
Young, N. Miller, R. Delmerico, R. Zavadil, and J. C. Smith, “Equiva-
lencing the collector system of a large wind power plant,” in Proc. 2006
IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting, Montreal, Canada,
June 2006.
[3] M. Behnke, A. Ellis, Y. Kazachkov, T. McCoy, E. Muljadi, W. Price,
and J. Sanchez-Gasca, “Development and Validation of WECC Variable
Speed Wind Turbine Dynamic Models for Grid Integration Studies,” in
Proc. 2007 WindPower Conference, Los Angeles, USA, June 2007.
[4] Wind Plant Collector Design WG, “Reactive Power Compensation for
Wind Power Plants,” in Proc. 2009 IEEE Power and Energy Society
General Meeting, Calgary, Canada, July 2009.
[5] Nader Samaan, Robert Zavadil, J. Charles Smith and Jose Conto, “Mod-
eling of Wind Power Plants for Short Circuit Analysis in the Transmis-
sion Network,” in Proc. of IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution
Conference and Exposition, Chicago, USA, April 2008.
[6] Jun Li, Nader Samaan and Stephen Williams, “Modeling of Large Wind
Farm Systems for Dynamic and Harmonics Analysis,” in Proc. of
IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exposition,
Chicago, USA, April 2008.
[7] R. A. Walling, “Overvoltage Protection and Arrester Selection for Large
Wind Plants,” in Proc. IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution Confe-
rence and Exposition, Chicago, USA, April 2008.
[8] E. R. Detjen and K. R. Shah, “Grounding Transformer Applications and
Associated Protection Schemes,” IEEE Trans. Industrial applications,
vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 788-796, Jul.-Aug. 1992.
[9] Steven. W. Saylors, “Wind Farm Collector System Grounding,” in Proc.
of IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exposition,
Chicago, USA, April 2008.
[10] Wind Plant Collector Design WG, “Wind Power Plant Substation and
Collector System Redundancy, Reliability, and Economics” in Proc.
2009 IEEE Power and Energy Society General Meeting, Calgary, Cana-
da, July 2009.
[11] Deepak Parmar and Jan Steinmanis, “Underground Cables Need a
Proper Burial,” Transmission & Distribution World, April 2003.
[12] Wind Plant Collector Design WG, “Characteristics of Wind Turbine
Generators for Wind Power Plants,” in Proc. 2009 IEEE Power and
Energy Society General Meeting, Calgary, Canada, July 2009.
[13] FERC Order No. 661-A, Interconnection for Wind Energy, Docket No.
RM05-4-001, December 2005.
[14] 2007 National Electrical Safety Code, C2 Standard, IEEE, 2006.
[15] 2008 National Electrical Code, NFPA 70 Standard, National Fire Pre-
vention Association, 2008.
[16] 2009 NFPA 70E Standard, National Fire Prevention Association, 2009.
[17] IEEE guide for the application of sheath-bonding methods for single-
conductor cables and the calculation of induced voltages and currents in
cable sheaths, IEEE Std. 575-1988, Nov. 25, 1987.
[18] IEEE Std. 386-2006, IEEE Standard for Separable Insulated Connector
Systems for Power Distribution Systems Above 600 V.
[19] ANSI C57.12.10-1997, American National Standard Requirements for
Transformers 230 kV and Below, 833/958 through 8333/10 417 kVA,
Single Phase, and 750/862 through 60 000/80 000/100 000 kVA Three-
Phase without Load Tap Changing; and 2750/4687 through 60 000/80
000/100 000 kVA with Load Tap Changing—Safety Requirements.
[20] IEEE Std C57.12.00-2000, IEEE Standard General Requirements for
Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power, and Regulating Transformers
[21] IEEE Std C57.91-1995(R2004), IEEE Guide for Loading Mineral-Oil-
Immersed Transformers.

7
 1

Characteristics of Wind Turbine Generators for

Wind Power Plants
IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group

Contributing Members: E.H. Camm, M. R. Behnke, O. Bolado, M. Bollen, M. Bradt, C. Brooks, W. Dilling,
M. Edds, W. J. Hejdak, D. Houseman, S. Klein, F. Li, J. Li, P. Maibach, T. Nicolai, J. Patiño, S. V. Pasupulati,
N. Samaan, S. Saylors, T. Siebert, T. Smith, M. Starke, R. Walling

gy. This is accomplished by using aerodynamic rotor

Abstract—This paper presents a summary of the most im- blades and a variety of methodologies for mechanical pow-
portant characteristics of wind turbine generators applied in er control. The second process is the electro-mechanical
modern wind power plants. Various wind turbine generator energy conversion through a generator that is transmitted
designs, based on classification by machine type and speed to the electrical grid.
control capabilities, are discussed along with their operational Wind turbines can be classified by their mechanical
characteristics, voltage, reactive power, or power factor con-
trol capabilities, voltage ride-through characteristics, behavior
power control, and further divided by their speed control.
during short circuits, and reactive power capabilities. All turbine blades convert the motion of air across the air-
foils to torque, and then regulate that torque in an attempt
Index Terms— Wind turbine generator, voltage ride- to capture as much energy as possible, yet prevent damage.
through, wind power plants. At the top level turbines can be classified as either stall
regulated (with active stall as an improvement) or pitch
I. INTRODUCTION regulated.

M odern wind power plants (WPPs), comprised of a Stall regulation is achieved by shaping the turbine
blades such that the airfoil generates less aerodynamic
large number of wind turbine generators (WTGs), a
force at high wind speed, eventually stalling, thus reducing
collector system, collector and/or interconnect substation
the turbine’s torque—this is a simple, inexpensive and ro-
utilize machines that are designed to optimize the genera-
bust mechanical system. Pitch regulation, on the other
tion of power using the energy in the wind. WTGs have hand, is achieved through the use of pitching devices in the
developed from small machines with output power ratings turbine hub, which twist the blades around their own axes.
on the order of kilowatts to several megawatts, and from As the wind speed changes, the blade quickly pitches to the
machines with limited speed control and other capabilities optimum angle to control torque in order to capture the
to machines with variable speed control capabilities over a maximum energy or self-protect, as needed. Some turbines
wide speed range and sophisticated control capabilities now are able to pitch each blade independently to achieve
using modern power electronics [1]. more balanced torques on the rotor shaft given wind speed
The application of WTGs in modern WPPs requires an differences at the top and bottom of the blade arcs.
understanding of a number of different aspects related to Beyond mechanical power regulation, turbines are fur-
the design and capabilities of the machines involved. This ther divided into fixed speed (Type 1), limited variable
paper, authored by members of the Wind Plant Collector speed (Type 2), or variable speed with either partial (Type
Design Working Group of the IEEE, is intended to provide 3) or full (Type 4) power electronic conversion. The dif-
insight into the various wind turbine generator designs, ferent speed control types are implemented via different
based on classification by machine type and speed control rotating AC machines and the use of power electronics.
capabilities, along with their operational characteristics, There is one other machine type that will be referred to as
voltage, reactive power, or power factor control capabili- Type 5 in which a mechanical torque converter between
ties, voltage ride-through characteristics, behavior during the rotor’s low-speed shaft and the generator’s high-speed
short circuits, and reactive power capabilities. shaft controls the generator speed to the electrical syn-
chronous speed. This type of machine then uses a syn-
II. TURBINE CHARACTERISTICS chronous machine directly connected to the medium vol-
tage grid.
The principle of wind turbine operation is based on two The Type 1 WTG is implemented with a squirrel-cage
well-known processes. The first one involves the conver- induction generator (SCIG) and is connected to the step-up
sion of kinetic energy of moving air into mechanical ener- transformer directly. See Figure 1. The turbine speed is
fixed (or nearly fixed) to the electrical grid’s frequency,
and generates real power (P) when the turbine shaft rotates
978-1-4244-4241-6/09/$25.00 ©2009 IEEE 8
 2

faster than the electrical grid frequency creating a negative Soft Starter Cap Bank
slip (positive slip and power is motoring convention).
Gear Collector
IG Feeder
Box

Soft Starter Cap Bank

Gear Collector
IG Feeder
Box
Figure 3: Typical Configuration of a Type 2 WTG

By adding resistance to the rotor circuit, the real power

Figure 1: Typical Configuration of a Type 1 WTG curve, which was shown in Figure 2, can be “stretched” to
the higher slip and higher speed ranges. See Figure 4.
That is to say that the turbine would have to spin faster to
Figure 2 shows the power flow at the SCIG terminals. create the same output power, for an added rotor resis-
While there is a bit of variability in output with the slip of tance. This allows some ability to control the speed, with
the machine, Type 1 turbines typically operate at or very the blades’ pitching mechanisms and move the turbines
close to a rated speed. A major drawback of the induction operation to a tip speed ratio (ration of tip speed to the
machine is the reactive power that it consumes for its exci- ambient wind speed) to achieve the best energy capture. It
tation field and the large currents the machine can draw is typical that speed variations of up to 10% are possible,
when started “across-the-line.” To ameliorate these effects allowing for some degree of freedom in energy capture and
the turbine typically employs a soft starter and discrete self protective torque control.
steps of capacitor banks within the turbine.

Figure 2: Variation of Real and Reactive Power for SCIG Figure 4: Variation of Real and Reactive Power with External Rotor Resitor
in a Type 2 WTG

In Type 2 turbines, wound rotor induction generators are

connected directly to the WTG step-up transformer in a The Type 3 turbine, known commonly as the Doubly Fed
fashion similar to Type 1 with regards to the machines sta- Induction Generator (DFIG) or Doubly Fed Asynchronous
Generator (DFAG), takes the Type 2 design to the next
tor circuit, but also include a variable resistor in the rotor
level, by adding variable frequency ac excitation (instead
circuit. See Figure 3. This can be accomplished with a set
of simply resistance) to the rotor circuit. The additional
of resistors and power electronics external to the rotor with
rotor excitation is supplied via slip rings by a current regu-
currents flowing between the resistors and rotor via slip lated, voltage-source converter, which can adjust the rotor
rings. Alternately, the resistors and electronics can be currents’ magnitude and phase nearly instantaneously. This
mounted on the rotor, eliminating the slip rings—this is the rotor-side converter is connected back-to-back with a grid
Weier design. The variable resistors are connected into the side converter, which exchanges power directly with the
rotor circuit softly and can control the rotor currents quite grid. See Figure 5.
rapidly so as to keep constant power even during gusting
conditions, and can influence the machine’s dynamic re-
sponse during grid disturbances.

9
 3

4 turbine, as the inverters convert the power, and offer the

Gear Collector possibility of reactive power supply to the grid, much like a
IG
Box Feeder STATCOM. The rotating machines of this type have been
constructed as wound rotor synchronous machines, similar
to conventional generators found in hydroelectric plants
with control of the field current and high pole numbers, as
permanent magnet synchronous machines, or as squirrel
cage induction machines. However, based upon the ability
Figure 5: Typical Configuration of a Type 3 WTG of the machine side inverter to control real and reactive
power flow, any type of machine could be used. Advances
in power electronic devices and controls in the last decade
A small amount power injected into the rotor circuit can have made the converters both responsive and efficient. It
effect a large control of power in the stator circuit. This is does bear mentioning, however, that the power electronic
a major advantage of the DFIG — a great deal of control converters have to be sized to pass the full rating of the
of the output is available with the presence of a set of con- rotating machine, plus any capacity to be used for reactive
verters that typically are only 30% of the rating of the ma- compensation.
chine. In addition to the real power that is delivered to the
grid from the generator’s stator circuit, power is delivered
to the grid through the grid-connected inverter when the
generator is moving faster than synchronous speed. When
the generator is moving slower than synchronous speed,
real power flows from the grid, through both converters,
and from rotor to stator. These two modes, made possible
by the four-quadrant nature of the two converters, allows a
much wider speed range, both above and below synchron-
ous speed by up to 50%, although narrower ranges are
more common. Figure 7: Typical Configuration of a Type 5 WTG
The greatest advantage of the DFIG, is that it offers the
benefits of separate real and reactive power control, much
like a traditional synchronous generator, while being able Type 5 turbines (Figure 7) consist of a typical WTG
variable-speed drive train connected to a torque/speed con-
to run asynchronously. The field of industrial drives has
verter coupled with a synchronous generator. The tor-
produced and matured the concepts of vector or field
que/speed converter changes the variable speed of the rotor
oriented control of induction machines. Using these con-
shaft to a constant output shaft speed. The closely coupled
trol schemes, the torque producing components of the rotor synchronous generator, operating at a fixed speed (corres-
flux can be made to respond fast enough that the machine ponding to grid frequency), can then be directly connected
remains under relative control, even during significant grid to the grid through a synchronizing circuit breaker. The
disturbances. Indeed, while more expensive than the synchronous generator can be designed appropriately for
Type 1 or 2 machines, the Type 3 is becoming popular due any desired speed (typically 6 pole or 4 pole) and voltage
to its advantages. (typically medium voltage for higher capacities). This ap-
proach requires speed and torque control of the tor-
que/speed converter along with the typical voltage regula-
Gear IG/ Collector tor (AVR), synchronizing system, and generator protection
Box SG Feeder system inherent with a grid-connected synchronous genera-
tor.

Figure 6: Typical Configuration of a Type 4 WTG III. VOLTAGE, REACTIVE POWER, AND POWER FACTOR
CONTROL CAPABILITIES
The voltage control capabilities of a WTG depend on the
The Type 4 turbine (Figure 6) offers a great deal of wind turbine type. Type 1 and Type 2 WTGs can typically
flexibility in design and operation as the output of the ro- not control voltage. Instead, these WTGs typically use
tating machine is sent to the grid through a full-scale back- power factor correction capacitors (PFCCs) to maintain the
to-back frequency converter. The turbine is allowed to power factor or reactive power output on the low-voltage
rotate at its optimal aerodynamic speed, resulting in a terminals of the machine to a setpoint. Types 3 through 5
“wild” AC output from the machine. In addition, the gear- WTGs can control voltage. These WTGs are capable of
box may be eliminated, such that the machine spins at the varying the reactive power at a given active power and
slow turbine speed and generates an electrical frequency terminal voltage, which enables voltage control [2]. In a
well below that of the grid. This is no problem for a Type Type 3 WTG voltage is controlled by changing the direct

10
 4

component of the rotor current (this is the component of rated output can vary from 0.8 leading to 0.8 lagging. A
the current that is in-line with the stator flux). In a Type 4 range of 0.9 leading and lagging is more typical. At power
WTG voltage control is achieved by varying the quadrature outputs below rated power, the reactive power output is
(reactive) component of current at the grid-side converter. only limited by rotor or stator heating, stability concerns,
To allow voltage control capability, the grid-side converter and local voltage conditions and it is unlikely that PFCCs
must be rated above the rated MW of the machine. Since a would be required. As with some Type 3 and 4 WTGs, it
synchronous generator is used in a Type 5 WTG, an auto- is also possible to operate the machine as a synchronous
matic voltage regulator (AVR) is typically needed. Modern condenser, requiring minimal active power output with
AVRs can be programmed to control reactive power, pow- adjustable reactive power output levels.
er factor and voltage.
The voltage control capabilities of individual WTGs are
typically used to control the voltage at the collector bus or
on the high side of the main power transformer. Usually a
centralized wind farm controller will manage the control of
the voltage through communication with the individual
WTGs. A future companion Working Group paper is
planned to discuss the WPP SCADA and control capabili-
ties.

IV. REACTIVE POWER CAPABILITIES

The reactive power capabilities of modern WTGs are
significant as most grid codes require the WPP to have
reactive power capability at the point of interconnect over
a specified power factor range, for example 0.95 leading Figure 8: Reactive Power Capabilities of a 2 MW Type 5 WTG
(inductive) to 0.95 lagging (capacitive). Typical intercon-
nect requirements related to total WPP reactive power ca-
pabilities are discussed in [3]. V. VOLTAGE RIDE-THROUGH
As stated earlier, Type 1 and Type 2 WTGs typically use The voltage ride-through (VRT) capabilities of WTGs
PFCCs to maintain the power factor or reactive power of vary widely and have evolved based on requirements in
the machine to a specified setpoint. The PFCCs may be various grid codes. In the United States, low voltage ride-
sized to maintain a slightly leading (inductive) power fac- through (LVRT) requirements specified in FERC Order
tor of around 0.98 at rated power output. This is often 661-A [5] calls for wind power plants to ride-through a
referred to as no-load compensation. With full-load com- three-phase fault on the high side of the substation trans-
pensation, the PFCCs are sized to maintain unity power former for up to 9 cycles, depending on the primary fault
factor or, in some cases, a slightly lagging (capacitive) clearing time of the fault interrupting circuit breakers at the
power factor at the machine’s rated power output. The location. There is no high voltage ride-through (HVRT)
PFCCs typically consists of multiple stages of capacitors requirement in FERC order 661-A, but NERC and some
switched with a low-voltage AC contactor. ISO/RTOs are in the process of imposing such require-
Type 3 (DFIG) WTGs typically have a reactive power ment. In many European countries WPP are required not to
capability corresponding to a power factor of 0.95 lagging trip for a high voltage level up to 110% of the nominal
(capacitive) to 0.90 leading (inductive) at the terminals of voltage at the POI [4].
the machines. Options for these machines include an ex- Some of the Type 1 WTGs have limited VRT capability
panded reactive power capability of 0.90 lagging to 0.90 and may require a central reactive power compensation
leading. Some Type 3 WTGs can deliver reactive power system [4] to meet wind power plant VRT capability.
even when the turbine is not operating mechanically, while Many of the Types 2, 3, and 4 WTGs have VRT capabili-
no real power is generated. ties that may meet the requirements of FERC Order 661,
As previously stated, Type 4 WTGs can vary the grid- which was issued before FERC Order 661-A (i.e., with-
side converter current, allowing control of the effective stand a three-phase fault for 9 cycles at a voltage as low as
power factor of the machines over a wide range. Reactive 0.15 p.u measured on the high side of the substation trans-
power limit curves for different terminal voltage levels are former). Most WTGs are expected to ultimately meet the
typically provided. Some Type 4 WTGs can deliver reac- FERC 661-A requirements.
tive power even when the turbine is not operating mechan- The VRT of a Type 5 WTG is very similar to that of
ically, while no real power is generated. standard grid-connected synchronous generators, which are
The synchronous generator in a Type 5 WTG has inhe- well understood. The capabilities of the excitation system
rent dynamic reactive power capabilities similar to that of (AVR) and physical design of the generator (machine con-
Type 3 and 4 machines. See Figure 8. Depending on the stants, time constants) will determine the basic perfor-
design of the generator, operating power factor ranges at mance of a synchronous generator during transient condi-

11
 5

tions. In order to meet utility VRT requirements, the set- obtainable from the generator manufacturer. Fault current
tings and operation of the turbine control system, excita- contribution for line to ground faults will depend on the
tion system and protection systems must be generally type of generator grounding used. Typical generator fault
coordinated and then fine-tuned for a specific site. current contribution can range from 4 to more times rated
current for close-in bolted three-phase faults. Fault current
VI. WTG BEHAVIOR DURING GRID SHORT CIRCUITS contribution for single-line to ground faults can range from
The response of WTGs to short circuits on the grid near zero amps (ungrounded neutral) to more than the
depends largely on the type of WTG. While the response three-phase bolted level (depending on the zero sequence
of Type 1 and Type 2 WTGs are essentially similar to that impedance of solidly grounded generators.)
of large induction machines used in industrial applications, A joint Working Group sponsored by the Power Systems
the response of Type 3, 4, and 5 WTGs is dictated by the Relaying Committee (PSRC) and the T&D Committee on
WTG controls. In short circuit calculations, a Type 1 short-circuit contributions from WTGs is currently discuss-
WTG can be represented as a voltage source in series with ing this topic. It is expected that more specific guidelines
on considerations in determining short-circuit contributions
the direct axis sub-transient inductance X d′′ . This practice
from different types of WTGs will be forthcoming.
is used to consider the maximum short-circuit contribution
from the induction generator as it determines the symme-
trical current magnitude during the first few cycles after VII. REFERENCES
the fault. A Type 1 WTG can contribute short circuit cur-
[1] Robert Zavadil, Nicholas Miller, Abraham Ellis, and Eduard Muljadi,
rent up to the value of its locked rotor current which is “Making Connections [Wind Generation Facilities],” IEEE Power &
usually on the order of 5 to 6 p.u [6]. Energy Magazine, vol. 3, no. 6, pp. 26-37, Nov.-Dec. 2005.
Type 2 WTGs employing limited speed control via con- [2] W.L. Kling, J.G. Slootweg, “Wind Turbines as Power Plants”
IEEE/Cigré Workshop on Wind Power and the Impacts on Power Sys-
trolled external rotor resistance are fundamentally induc-
tems, June 2002, Oslo, Norway.
tion generators. If, during the fault, the external resistance [3] Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group, “Wind Power
control were to result in short-circuiting of the generator Plant Collector System Design Considerations,” in Proc. 2009 IEEE
rotor, the short-circuit behavior would be similar to Type Power and Energy Society General Meeting, Calgary, Canada, July
2009.
1. On the other hand, if the control action at or shortly after [4] Wind Plant Collector SystemDesign Working Group, “Reactive Power
fault inception were to result in insertion of the full exter- Compensation for Wind Power Plants,” in Proc. 2009 IEEE Power
nal resistance, the equivalent voltage source-behind- and Energy Society General Meeting, Calgary, Canada, July 2009.
[5] FERC Order no. 661-A, "Interconnection for Wind Energy,” Docket
Thevenin impedance representation for the WTG should No. RM05-4-001, December 2005.
be modified to include this significant resistance value in [6] Nader Samaan, Robert Zavadil, J. Charles Smith and Jose Conto,
series with the equivalent turbine inductance. “Modeling of Wind Power Plants for Short Circuit Analysis in the
Transmission Network,” in Proc. of IEEE/PES Transmission and Dis-
Other wind turbine topologies employ some type of tribution Conference, Chicago, USA, April 2008.
power electronic control. Consequently, the behavior dur- [7] J. Morreu, S.W.H. de Haan, “Ridethrough of Wind Turbines with
ing short-circuit conditions cannot be ascertained directly Doubly-Fed Induction Generator During a Voltage Dip,” IEEE Trans-
from the physical structure of the electrical generator. actions on Energy Conversion, vol. 20, no. 2, June 2005
[8] Ackermann, Thomas, ed. Wind Power in Power Systems. West Sus-
Algorithms which control the power electronic switches sex, UK: John Wiley & Sons, 2005. ISBN 13: 978-0-470-85508-9
can have significant influence on the short-circuit currents [9] Hau, Erich. Wind Turbines: Fundamentals, Technologies, Applica-
contributed by the turbine, and the details of these control- tion, Economics, 2nd Edition. Trans. Horst von Renouard. Sidcup,
Kent, UK: Springer, 2006. ISBN 13: 978-3-540-24240-6
lers are generally held closely by the turbine manufactur-
ers.
For Type 3 WTGs (DFIG), if during the fault, the rotor
power controller remains active, the machine stator cur-
rents would be limited between 1.1 to 2.5 p.u. of the ma-
chine rated current. Under conditions where protective
functions act to “crowbar” the rotor circuit, the short-
circuit behavior defaults to 5 to 6 p.u. in the case of a fault
applied directly to the WTG terminals. [7]
In turbines employing full-rated power converters as the
interface to the grid (Type 4), currents during network
faults will be limited to slightly above rated current. This
limitation is affected by the power converter control, and is
generally necessary to protect the power semiconductor
switches.
Type 5 WTGs exhibit typical synchronous generator
behavior during grid short circuits. Generator contribution
to grid faults can be calculated from the machine constants,

12
 1

Wind Power Plant Substation and Collector

System Redundancy, Reliability, and Economics
IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group

Contributing Members: E.H. Camm, M. R. Behnke, O. Bolado, M. Bollen, M. Bradt, C. Brooks, W. Dilling,
M. Edds, W. J. Hejdak, D. Houseman, S. Klein, F. Li, J. Li, P. Maibach, T. Nicolai, J. Patiño, S. V. Pasupulati,
N. Samaan, S. Saylors, T. Siebert, T. Smith, M. Starke, R. Walling

maximized profitability. These factors can be determined

Abstract—This paper presents basic guidelines on design from the unique economic characteristics of the specific
considerations for wind power plant substation and collector project, including wind regime, cost of money, tax treatment,
system based on redundancy, reliability, and economics. Design and expected project return on investment.
considerations, although similar to utility substation and
This paper presents basic guidelines on the optimal design
underground or overhead distribution systems, often include
aspects not normally considered for those systems. This paper of WPP collector and/or interconnect substation that balances
will highlight design considerations unique to wind power plant redundancy, reliability, and economic considerations. This
design comparing economic and reliability benefits among paper covers only onshore WPPs.
available design options. Power loss analysis in a typical wind
power plant is explained. Finally, an overall economic analysis to II. DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS
be considered when designing a new wind power plant is
presented. A. Design Philosophy
Index Terms—collector, economics, losses, reliability, Utility substation and infrastructure designs focus on
substation, wind power plant, wind turbine generator. maintaining continuous power flow and thus reliability. This
design philosophy translates to redundancy and automatic
I. INTRODUCTION transfer concepts that recognize faults, clear them as fast as

C onventional utility design practices for substations and possible, and reconfigure the system appropriately to ensure
distribution systems are typically very different than the service continuity. Designs for increased reliability require
those applied for the medium-voltage collector system, large initial capital investments, increase the land area
collector and/or interconnect substation, and high-voltage required for the design, and can increase system losses and
transmission line of a wind power plant (WPP). This is due to complexity. These initial investments are justified by the
substantial differences in purpose and economics of these two value of uninterrupted service to the utility consumers. Since
respective applications. For example, the economic disruptions as brief as a few cycles can result in significant
incentives for a WPP are measured by availability, while production losses in manufacturing operations [2], the higher
utility designs focus on reliability, which often requires cost of the reliability design is justified by the increased
increased levels of redundancy. Due to incentives, such as the continuity of service.
Federal Production Tax Credit (PTC) in the United States, The variability of the wind forces the WPP to operate as a
provided for WPP production the economic penalties of source of energy, with a limited capacity value. Thus, the
inefficiency in a WPP are often substantially greater than requirements for service continuity and reliability are not as
those applied to a typical utility application. In contrast to critical as in the utility system design. However, the value of
conventional thermal/nuclear power plants, an off-line WPP “green” power is increasing and WPPs are now the most
can return back on-line in much less time; it also has the significant contributors to “green” power production targets.
advantage of operating at partial power output levels based on In addition to this significant requirement, the WPP
individual wind turbine generator (WTG) availability. infrastructure must be designed to efficiently deliver energy.
To optimize an electrical system design for a WPP, the Thus, consideration of economics and availability are more
life-cycle cost implications of various aspects such as lost critical in the design. A WPP requires auxiliary power for
availability, full load losses, and no-load losses must be WTG heaters, fan, auxiliary motors, and transformer no-load
considered. As discussed in [1], three economic factors losses when the WPP is not producing power due to wind
condense the complexities of the WPP business model into a unavailability; the WPP will need to buy power from the
form that can be conveniently used in simple spreadsheet utility at a rate which may be higher the purchased power rate.
calculations to optimize electrical system design for

978-1-4244-4241-6/09/$25.00 ©2009 IEEE 13

 2

B. Design Considerations substation transformer rating, it is hard to justify the more

The design of a WPP depends on a number of different complex buswork such as the high reliability bus types listed
design considerations, including: in Table I.

• The cost and availability of physical space. To Utility

• Interconnect requirements for metering and protection. CCVT’S

• The optimal layout of the WTGs, taking into

consideration the terrain with the objective of
minimizing the potential interaction between adjacent
WTGs that can result in reducing the wind energy 52

captured by the individual turbines.

• The type of trenching used for the collector system. T1
HV

• The soil thermal and electrical resistivity. 34.5kV

• Meteorological factors such as temperature, humidity, PT’s

possibility of ice and snow accumulation. 34.5kV Bus

• The outcomes of engineering design studies such as

load-flow and short circuit analysis.
The details of some of these design considerations are
discussed in a companion Working Group paper [3]. The 52-1 52-2 52-3

remaining sections of this paper focus on the reliability and

economic aspects of the WPP design.
Collector Collector
III. SUBSTATION DESIGN
Collector

1 2 3

Collector substation(s) for WPPs typically use an open-air Fig. 1. Single bus arrangement.
buswork design with single bus or sectionalized bus
arrangements. The latter design is typical for large WPPs
(typically 80 MW or larger.) The single bus design shown in
Figure 1 is simple and has the lowest overall cost, but has the
lowest reliability. The sectionalized bus arrangement shown
in Figure 2 enables continued availability when one
transformer is out of service. The economic value of the
redundancy offered by the second transformer can be
evaluated by considering the value of the increased energy
production through the life of the WPP. A detailed example of
redundant transformer evaluation is given in [1].
The design of the interconnect substation, if separate from
the collector substation, is largely dictated by the interconnect
requirements. The simplest design can be a pole-mounted
disconnect for a small WPP. A more typical design for larger
WPPs not involving an additional transformation is shown in
Figure 3. In some cases, a ring bus arrangement as shown in
Figure 4 is required for reliability at the point of interconnect.
For WPPs where a second transformation of voltages occur
(typically for interconnection voltages of 345 kV and above),
a single bus design is typical.
There are six different bus configurations for consideration
when designing the substation of a new WPP. Table I
compares the cost and reliability associated with each, noting
that three of these would apply to medium-voltage buswork. It
is apparent that the double breaker-double bus and breaker-
and-a-half configurations have the highest reliability, but also
have the highest cost. The configurations that are utilized in
the medium-voltage bus design have relatively low reliability Fig. 2. Sectionalized bus arrangement.
compared to the more complicated buswork. Due to the

14
 3

IV. COLLECTOR SYSTEM DESIGN

The length of cable in each section of the collector system
is dictated by the layout of the WTGs, the terrain, and access
roads in the WPP. The cable sizing is typically dictated by
HV
the thermal resistivity (rho) of the soil, ampacity
requirements, short-circuit withstand requirements, and
CCVT’s
conductor arrangement in the trench. The collector system
typically represents the largest portion of the total WPP
HV Switching Station
losses. Cable sizing can be optimized to minimize losses by
52 considering the impact of load losses for a particular
conductor size [1]. The economic value of sectionalizing
HV Transmission
Line
collector feeders through the use of sectionalizing switchgear
must be evaluated before implementing in the collector
CCVT’s
HV Substation design.
EHV

52 52
V. WIND POWER PLANT LOSS CONSIDERATION
The WPP economic evaluation involves consideration of
HV the economic impact of various electrical losses in the WPP. .
HV
There are two different approaches commonly used in
evaluation of WPP collector losses during design: (1)
T1 T2

34.5kV
34.5kV optimized design where the costs of loss reduction are traded
34.5kV Bus
off with the revenue gains realized, and (2) design to a fixed,
PT’s 34.5kV Bus
No.1 No.2 arbitrary loss goal. Where the latter practice is utilized,
typical collector system loss targets are on the order of 2% to
3%. The optimized approach can realize very substantial
incremental investment returns for long-term WPP owners.
Estimated total electrical losses in WPP are usually
52-1 52-2 52-3 52-4 52-5 52-6 52-7 52-8

calculated and reported in one of two ways:

• Based on the rated output of the WPP, i.e., losses are
Collector Collector Collector Collector Collector Collector Collector Collector
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

expressed as a percentage of the rated output (in MW) of

Fig. 3. Typical interconnect substation arrangement. the WPP.
• Based on the annual total energy losses in the WPP, i.e.,
To Utility
losses are calculated based on an rms equivalent
generation level and expressed as a percentage of the
52 52 annual energy generated by the WPP. The rms
equivalent generation level and associated loss factor
52 52
(defined as the ratio of the average losses and the losses
at rated power) are determined based upon the annual
wind speed and power data for the WPP.
To Wind Plant To Wind Plant

The various losses in the WPP include:

Substation 1 Substation 2

Fig. 4. Ring bus arrangement for interconnect substation.

• Fixed losses, which do not vary with the WPP production
level. These losses include transformer excitation (no-
Table I. Cost/Reliability Comparison for different Bus Configurations. load losses) and conductor dielectric losses.
Bus Type Cost Reliability HV MV • Variable load losses, which vary according to the square
Single 46.7% Low X X of output. These losses are due to ohmic losses in cables
Sectionalized 57.0% Low X X and transformers.
Main & Transfer 66.8% Low X X
Ring 53.3% Medium X A. Collector system losses
Breaker-and-a-Half 73.8% High X Collector system losses are typically determined based on
the rated output of the individual WTGs operating at a
Double Breaker – 100% High X specified power factor and the schedule of cable sizes and
Double Bus lengths indicated in the collector system design drawings.
Annual energy losses are determined based on the loss factor

15
 4

and the total number of annual hours. F. Forced Loss of Energy Production
Another loss component not generally considered in the
B. WTG step-up transformer losses loss calculations for the WPP is the loss of energy due to
WTG step-up transformer losses are determined based on unavailability of electrical equipment. This would include
the no-load and load losses reported in the transformer test loss in energy production due to loss of, for example, a WTG
report or from representative data for the type and size of transformer or cable failure. Representative loss calculations
transformer involved. If the transformer is operated at less are explained in [1].
than rated kVA, the energy losses are adjusted by the square
of the ratio of the operating kVA and the rated kVA. Annual
VI. OVERALL ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF WIND POWER
energy losses are determined based on the loss factor and the
PLANT
total number of annual hours. Due to the high value of the
wind generation, and various U.S. tax code provisions, there is Based on the established economic evaluation process in
a strong incentive for WPP owners to select transformers [4], utility planning should be performed in an incremental
based on economic loss evaluation. The low loss factor of cost evaluation. When this principal is applied in WPP
WPP applications, and provisions that may require the WPP economic evaluation, especially for existing plants, the capital
to procure no-load losses during no-wind conditions at investment to reduce the next per unit losses should be
unfavorable (e.g., retail) rates, increases the relative justified by the savings from reduced losses. This can be
importance of no-load losses. For this reason, a number of further classified to two factors in utility planning process [3]:
major WPP developers are now procuring transformers with the A factor for fixed losses and the B factor for the variable
very low-loss amorphous metal cores. losses. Taking the A factor as an example, it means an initial
incremental capital investment of $A (after considering
C. Feeder and substation grounding transformer losses amortization, property taxes, insurances, asset depreciation,
and desired rate of investment return) will yield the same
Feeder and substation grounding transformer losses are
amount of cost savings from reduced fixed losses. Similarly,
also based on no-load losses from transformer test data or
the B factor means investment for variable-loss-saving capital
representative loss data. Annual energy losses are determined
investment that reaches the desired investment rate of return.
based on the total number of annual hours.
For a capital investment to reduce either fixed cost or
D. Collector and/or interconnect substation transformer variable cost, it should be justified by the annual savings from
losses the reduced cost. Certainly, if the amortization, property
taxes, insurances, and asset depreciation are all considered,
Collector and/or interconnect substation transformer losses
the model will be complicated. The A and B factors allow the
are based on no-load losses from transformer test data or
engineer to be relieved from directly dealing with these
representative loss data. If the transformer is operated at less
financial intricacies while still allowing these details to be
than rated MVA, the energy losses are adjusted by the square
fully included in design optimization. Refer to discussion
of the ratio of the operating MVA and the rated MVA.
below on how to obtain the A and B factor as a guideline for
Losses associated with cooling fans are also estimated for
economic evaluation of projects to reduce losses.
various stages of cooling. Annual energy losses are
Fixed losses are present at all times. However, the
determined based on loss factor and the total number of
associated cost when the WPP is generating will be different
annual hours.
from the cost when the WPP is not generating. When it is
generating, the reduced cost is the selling price from the WPP
E. Reactive power compensation system losses
to the grid. As a comparison, when the WPP is not generating,
Reactive power compensation system losses are estimated the cost associated with losses should be the purchase price
based on representative no-load and load losses associated from the grid to the WPP. Based on this guideline, the
with the type of reactive power compensation system. For present worth of net after-tax revenue change (increase) by a
hybrid systems consisting of a dynamic reactive power 1 kW reduction in fixed loss can be calculated as:
compensator and mechanically-switched capacitors and
reactors, losses associated with the various components must
[ ]
i

be considered separately. Assumptions must be made on the PV rev = ⎛⎜ p ⎞

⎟ ∗ H o ∗ C ep + (8760 − H o ) ∗ C gw + C dem ∗ (1 − T ) +
⎝ a ⎠ life
expected total ON duration for capacitor banks and reactors i
⎛p ⎞
and the average reactive power output level of the dynamic ⎜ ⎟ ∗ (8760 − H o ) ∗ C ptc
⎝ a ⎠ life _ ptc
compensator. Other technologies, such as static var
(1)
compensators (SVCs) will have different components with
where:
losses similar to that of a hybrid reactive power compensation
Ho = Hours per year with no generation
system.
Cep = Cost per kWh of purchased energy
Cew = Selling price per kWh of wind generation
Cdem = Demand (capacity) charge for purchased

16
 5

power per kWpeak per year The calculation of the unavailable hours can be a complicated
Cptc = Production tax credit, per kWh of wind process that is not covered here. However, once the average
generation unavailable hours are calculated, the economic analysis can be
life_ptc = Duration of production tax incentive performed with an evaluation factor that is derived similarly
to the derivation of the A and B factors. Reference [1]
The present value of capital investment associated with a provides the details of this unavailability evaluation.
capital investment A, with consideration of amortization,
property taxes, insurance, and the effect of asset depreciation VII. AVAILABILITY/RELIABILITY CONSIDERATIONS FOR WIND
on income taxes can be calculated as: POWER PLANTS
There are a number of factors that affect reliability and
∑
life i i
PVcap = A − A ∗ T ∗
⎡⎛ p ⎞ ⎤
A⎛⎜ p ⎞ (2) availability. The general formula for availability is
⎢⎜ ⎟ ∗ D (n )⎥ + ∗ (1 − T ) ∗ P
n =1 ⎣⎝
f ⎠n ⎝ a ⎟⎠ life MTBF/(MTBF+MTTR), where MTBF is the mean time
⎦
between failures and MTTR is the mean time to repair. The
where: reciprocal of MTBF is the failure rate.
A = Initial capital investment A redundant system increases the aggregate failure rate of
T = Income tax rate components (called the “logistics failure rate”), but reduces
p
y the overall system failure rate. In a WPP, the effect of a
⎛
⎜
⎞
⎟ = Present value of a future cash flow in year x failure on production depends on the details of the collector
⎝ f ⎠x
structure, any associated redundancy, and the extent to which
using the compound interest rate y
the failure affects the individual WTGs and their associated
D(n) = Tax depreciation of capital asset in year n
y
equipments.
⎛ p ⎞ = Present value of a uniform set of future cash The MTTR for an individual component includes several
⎜ ⎟
⎝ a ⎠x elements:
flows from year 1 until year x, at a compound • Time to discover the failure.
interest rate y • Time to travel to the site.
T = Property tax rate • Time to diagnose the cause of failure.
Life = Economic life of WPP desired after-tax • Time to obtain any needed replacement parts.
return on investment. • Time to complete and test the repair.

Hence, as (1) and (2) should be equal to each other, we can If the WPP has redundancy and can be reconfigured, the
easily find the A factor. process of system “repair” is the reconfiguration. Any failed
Similarly, we can find the B factor by finding the present individual components can be subsequently repaired with less
value of future net revenues from the capital investment to urgency regarding system availability.
reduce variable losses and the present value of the capital The individual element times in the MTTR can be reduced
investment. by remote monitoring and control, implemented in a SCADA
The present worth of future net revenues is given by: system. IEC-61400-25 is a standard for control of wind
power equipment that extends the IEC-61850 utility
automation standard by adding objects found in a WPP.
PVrev = ( p a )life × 8760 × K Loss × Cew × (1 − T ) +
i

(3) Examples of these objects include attributes and status of the

( p a )ilife × 8760 × K Loss × C pte wind turbine rotor, nacelle, yaw, generator, converter,
transformer, and the WPP active power, reactive power, and
meteorological tower. A summary of benefits of 61850 and
where Kloss is the ratio of average losses divided by the 61400-25 can be found in [4].
losses at rated production. Condition monitoring of WPP equipment can help identify
The present value of the capital investment B considering potential failures before they occur, thereby allowing
depreciation and tax is given by: preventive maintenance to be scheduled and performed. IEC-
61400-25-6 supports condition monitoring, primarily of the
WTG where vibration is a major indicator of a potential
∑
life i i
PVcap = B − B × T ×
⎡⎛ p ⎞ ⎤
× Dn ⎥ + B × ⎛⎜ p ⎞
× (1 − T ) × P (4)
⎢⎜ f ⎟
a ⎟
problem.
n =1 ⎣⎝ ⎠n ⎦ ⎝ ⎠ life
The value of both redundancy and automation depends on a
number of factors:
where B is the initial capital investment.
1. The overall importance of wind power production to
the grid. For example, at a penetration in the range
The breakeven value of B should make (3) is equal to (4).
of 20% to 30%, a forced outage of all or part of a
Then, the B factor can be easily calculated. wind farm is likely to have a more significant effect
It should be noted that from a reliability viewpoint the than it would at 1% penetration. At the lower
outage of WPP will lead to some hours without power output. penetration level, the lost production due to

17
 6

unavailability of a WPP can be more easily replaced

by other generation. At higher penetration levels, it
becomes more important to maintain availability of
wind power production. It is not surprising that
leadership within the IEC working group that
developed 61400-25 came from countries, such as
Denmark, with higher wind power penetration.
2. The maintenance approach selected. At high
penetration the larger number of WTGs, assuming
any reasonable MTBF, ensures that at any time some
of the WTGs will have failed and require urgent
maintenance. Redundancy and automation reduce
the urgency of traveling to the site to accomplish
restoration. Similarly, condition monitoring allows
scheduling of preventive maintenance and routing of
associated travel to minimize urgent direct trips.
3. How many WPPs are being managed by the same
entity. The more WPPs that are managed by the
same entity, the greater likelihood that automation
and redundancy will have benefits to that entity.

VIII. REFERENCES

[1] R. A. Walling and T. Ruddy, “Economic Optimization of Offshore

Windfarm Substations and Collection Systems,” in Proc. of 5th
International Workshop on Large-Scale Integration of Wind Power and
Transmission Networks for Offshore Wind Farms, Glasgow, Scotland,
April 2005.
[2] Wind Plant Collector Design WG, “Wind Power Plant Collector System
Design Considerations,” in Proc. 2009 IEEE Power and Energy Society
General Meeting, Calgary, Canada, July 2009.
[3] Edison Electric Institute, A Method for Economic Evaluation of
Distribution Transformers, EEI Task Force Report, April, 1981.
[4] S. A. Klein, “Security, Cost, and Operational Benefits of IEC-61850”
presented at 2008 PES General Meeting, Paper number PESGM2008-
001437.

18
 1

Design and Application of Cables and

Overhead Lines in Wind Power Plants
IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group

Contributing Members: M. Bradt, M. Bates M. R. Behnke, W. G. Bloethe, C. Brooks, E.H. Camm,

W. Dilling, B. Goltz, J. Hermanson, J. Li, P. Loy, K. McLean, J. Niemira, K. Nuckles, J. Patiño, M. Reza,
B. Richardson, N. Samaan, J. Schoene, T. Smith, I. Snyder, M. Starke, M. Tesch, R. Walling, G. Zahalka

Abstract-- This paper presents a summary of the most impor- cable selection for the WPP application.
tant considerations for wind power plant collection system un- While a power cable needs to be sized for its current carry-
derground and overhead cable designs. Various considerations, ing capacity, ease of installation and handling must be consi-
including conductor selection, soil thermal properties, installa-
dered as well. The underground power cable on wind plants
tion methods, splicing, concentric grounding, and NESC/NEC
requirements are discussed. often requires trenching or plowing in the middle of a field far
from a navigable road. With wind turbines being placed ap-
Index Terms— Turbine layout, wind turbine generator, wind proximately 1000 feet apart, it would be a nuisance to change
power plant, collection system. the size of cable every 1000 feet for each wind turbine added
to a feeder string. Minimizing the number of different sizes of
I. INTRODUCTION cable used on a WPP can simplify installation, minimize the

T HE medium-voltage collection cable and conductor sys-

tem for a wind power plant (WPP) is in many ways very
similar to a utility distribution system, yet due to its unique
amount of reel handling, and reduce the amount of cable reels
in inventory as spares. Many WPP owners limit the quantity
of sizes to no more than three or four with the most common
and differing purpose, poses different challenges and consid- sizes utilized being #1/0 AWG, #4/0 AWG, 500 kcmil, and
erations. This paper will focus primarily on the standard WPP 1000 kcmil, although within the past several years, as the av-
configuration found in North America. The typical WPP col- erage WPP output rating has increased, so too has the cable
lection cable system in North America is delta or grounded- size and 1250 kcmil and even 1500 kcmil have become more
wye connected and is underground, overhead, or a combina- common.
tion of both. The predominant installations, to date, have been Energy losses within the collection cable system will also
underground and are primarily due to aesthetic reasons to sa- weigh heavily on the conductor sizing criteria. For example,
tisfy landowner requests but also alleviate construction related loading a cable to 100% of its rated ampacity will produce
interferences with crane path travel and the erection of the much higher losses than loading a cable to 75% of its rating
towers themselves. due to power losses being proportional to the square of the
current. This becomes a significant factor when evaluating
II. UNDERGROUND MEDIUM VOLTAGE CABLE AND the economics of an installation over a typical 20 year power
CONSTRUCTION purchase agreement. Sizing a conductor that fairly addresses
In this section a brief description of commonly used cables the life cycle costs of the installation will generally not be
in a WPP is given. Different cable splicing methods are ex- constrained by the limiting factor of its maximum ampacity
plained. Different types of cable installations are then dis- rating.
cussed. Other considerations in proper cable selection include the
outer jacket material, insulation material and rating, short cir-
A. Cable Selection cuit withstand ratings, and conductor material.
Cable selection as it pertains to the power industry can be There are two predominant types of outer jacket material
very different across all sectors of the industry. For example, available: polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and Polyethylene (PE), or
electric utilities and rural electrical co-ops often have a set of more specifically, linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE).
standard specifications and these are used over and over again Each are widely used in URD (underground residential distri-
for varying applications. Standards enable the user to reduce bution) type cable that are also used in WPP construction.
their inventory and focus on fewer pieces of equipment. PVC was one of the earliest jacket materials and has per-
Standards also reduce installation errors due to familiarity of formed well. However, LLDPE has better mechanical proper-
the product being installed. This concept also applies to power ties and is more resistant to moisture ingress. The choice of
jacket material is usually a user/installer preference and driven
by economic considerations.
While the jacket is on the outside of the cable, the key ele-
ment is the electrical insulation which contains the very high

978-1-4244-6547-7/10/$26.00 © 2010 IEEE 19

 2

voltage between the conductor and the grounded shield. Two with Concentric Neutral (CN) that is commonly used in WPP
insulation technologies compete in the market: insulation applications. At the center of the cable is the phase conductor,
based on mineral filled ethylene propylene rubber (EPR) and then comes a semiconducting conductor shield, next the pri-
insulation based on relatively pure cross linked polyethylene mary insulation material (EPR or TR-XLPE), a semiconduct-
(TR-XLPE). ing insulation shield, the neutral or shield, and finally an over-
all covering jacket. Since the collection system of a WPP has
B. Commonly used cables in WPP
no intentional neutral current flow, the concentric neutral is
1) EPR not used as a neutral, but rather is bonded to the earth ground
Ethylene-Propylene Rubber (EPR) compounds are thermo- system to provide shielding. Any charges induced on the out-
set, normally with a high-temperature steam curing process side of a cable will likely be shielded by this “neutral,” which
that ‘sets’ cross-linking agents. Most new EPR insulated has been grounded to a theoretical zero potential. The outer
cables are rated to 105 ºC under normal conditions and to 140 protective jacket has markings to indicate the type, manufac-
ºC for emergency conditions, giving the cable the UL Stan- turer, and other ratings of the cable.
dard 72 designation of MV-105. EPR, with its rubber compo-
nent, is more flexible, and is considered naturally more water
tree retardant than TR-XLPE and has a proven reliable record
in the field since first introduced in the early 1960’s. Howev-
er, EPR has a higher dielectric constant leading to slightly
higher losses over the lifetime of the cable and has traditional-
ly had a higher upfront cost than TR-XLPE.

2) TR-XLPE
The cross linked polyethylene insulation used today for MV
cables is significantly cleaner than the XLPE introduced in the
mid 1960’s and has been modified to inhibit the growth of
water trees, thus allowing for increased reliability for wind Fig. 1. Typical Medium-Voltage Cable with Concentric Neutral (or Shield).
farm applications. Tree retardant XLPE (TR-XLPE) insula-
tion is now the standard for MV XLPE cables. TR-XLPE is a The conductor can be either aluminum or copper with the
pure, simple unfilled polymer compound composed of greater predominant use on WPPs being aluminum due to commodity
than 96% polyethylene, the rest composed of the cross-linking pricing of copper versus aluminum, even when including life-
(cure) agents, anti-oxidants and an effective water tree retar- cycle costs. Copper has lower resistivity and higher ampacity
dant additive. TR-XLPE material has been successfully tested for a given size, while aluminum is less expensive with lighter
for MV-105 applications and several North American cable weight, making it easier to handle.
manufacturers have this certification, but it is more commonly
specified as MV-90. The MV-105 rating is not commonly
used for WPP applications since operating at the elevated D. Cable Splicing: Underground / Above Ground Splice Box-
temperature results in higher losses and can alter the soil es /Sectionalizing Cabinets
thermal resistivity by drying out a normally damp soil. Care 1) Cable splicing should be avoided as much as possible,
must also be used when specifying cable with the MV-105 but is necessary because of the limitations of practical cable
since many of the connectors and terminations are only rated length on transportable and manageable reels. The cable
for 90 ºC. splices can be underground or above ground. The main com-
ponents of an underground splice kit are the cable connector,
C. Cable Properties the shield sleeve, the splice body, and either a heat or cold
shrink jacket. Typically a marker ball is placed at the under-
Standards specify different levels of insulation thickness ground splice location and is GPS referenced for locating pur-
based on how the cables are applied. The primary factors are poses. An above-ground splice consists of a junction box,
grounding and the duration needed to clear line-to-ground also referred to as a sectionalizing cabinet that utilizes ‘elbow’
faults. 100% and 133% insulation levels are commonly avail- termination joints. There are advantages and disadvantages to
able, although other thicknesses can be custom ordered. The both types of methods for joining cables but in the end it
100% insulation level, 345 mils at the 34.5 kV rating, is the comes down to preference or may be governed by require-
most common type used in WPP applications and is allowed ments of specific cable testing. A relatively new field cable
where line-to-ground faults are cleared by upstream protection testing procedure gaining acceptance is partial discharge (PD)
within one minute; this is common for grounded circuits. testing. This type of testing has limitations in the length of
Where line-to-ground faults can be cleared within one hour, cable section that can be tested and has generally been limited
typically ungrounded circuits, 133% insulation is required. to 8,500 feet. Therefore, in order to accommodate PD testing,
Figure 1 illustrates a typical Medium Voltage (MV) Cable either for acceptance testing or future maintenance testing, the

20
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underground sections will need to be less than this defined III. CABLE NEUTRAL (CONCENTRIC)
limitation by utilizing above-ground junction boxes where
appropriate. A. Definition
The definition of concentric, according to Merriam-
2) “Cold” Shrink Splice Webster’s dictionary, is “having a common center or axis.”
The cold shrink tube is made from elastomers with high- The definition of shield, according to Merriam-Webster’s dic-
performance physical properties. The tube is pre-stretched at tionary, is “a device or part that serves as a protective cover or
the factory and supported with a removable plastic core. The barrier.” Electrically speaking, the concentric shield wires
cold shrink tube is placed (parked) in position and the remov- hold the outside of the cable at (or near) ground potential.
able plastic pull cord core is removed. The tube collapses The National Electrical Code (NEC) states that metallic electr-
around the cable and creates a watertight seal. Depending on ically- shielding components such as tapes, wires, braids, se-
the installation conditions the cold shrink splice may take days miconducting material, or combinations thereof are the con-
to reach its preferred final state. It is imperative to follow all centric shield wires. It also states that cables rated 2400 V
of the splice manufacturer’s requirements for temperature and and higher must be shielded by a sheath or metallic path that
environment of installation. It is generally recommended that is grounded. In order to properly electrically shield the vol-
the splice set for a minimum of 24 hours before a test voltage tage of the conductor the shield wires must be grounded. This
is applied, especially when PD testing is performed. brings up a common mistake on WPP applications: calling the
concentric wires concentric neutrals. Grounding of the con-
3) “Heat” Shrink Splice centric neutral wires, or the more correct term shield wires,
every ¼ mile as stipulated in the National Electrical Safety
The heat shrink tube is made from a cross-linked polyole- Code (NESC) and NEC would only be necessary if required
fin. The tube is placed in position and heat is applied. The to limit the shield voltage rise to safe limits. In a typical WPP
heat collapses the tube around the cable and creates a water- collection system, the design is a balanced three-phase system
tight seal. Upon completion the heat shrink splice is at its that is effectively grounded, which has no intended neutral
optimal condition and will not increase in integrity after this current flow but only grounds to help carry the fault current.
point. Thus, there is no neutral wire but only a grounded concentric
shield wire. The purpose of the concentric shield wires is for
shielding and carrying fault current and is not intended to car-
E. Direct Burial (Plowing/Trenching) vs. Duct Bank
ry load current back to the source.
There are several methods of installation for the medium-
voltage cable with the most common being direct buried via B. Sizing of Cable Neutral (or Shield)
trenching or plowing. Due to the extremely long cable lengths Sizing the concentric shield wires for a WPP in the common
on WPPs, lengths of 10 miles for a single circuit are not un- three phase configuration is determined by the available fault
common. Conduit duct banks are rarely used, except for areas current. It is important to understand that, under fault condi-
of high congestion and in some cases when entering the subs- tions, the damage to the shield is more likely than damage to
tation. Plowing utilizes a plow blade that breaks up and lifts the phase conductor. During a ground fault, the shield will
the earth as it feeds the cable into a ‘shoe’. Plowing elimi- conduct almost as much as the phase conductor, and as men-
nates the need for backfilling, but is not practical in rock or tioned above, the shield is typically a fraction of the size of
other hard surfaced regions. In regions with a significant the phase conductor. One must size these wires to withstand
amount of drain tile installed, plowing is not recommended the available fault current in order to protect the cable from
since tile damage may go unnoticed causing flooding of crops damage during a fault condition. Particular attention should
or other landowner property. Also, when plowing, considera- be paid to those conductors closer to the substation where the
tion must be given to ampacity, since air pockets can develop fault currents are higher. One way to help minimize the size
between the cable and the soil, creating a thermal barrier cap- of the shield wires is to add a bare ground wire throughout
turing heat. your system to help carry the fault current. Some turbine
Trenching is probably the most utilized method for instal- manufacturers require a separate ground wire to be routed
ling cable on WPPs. Trenching methods vary widely and can with the underground collection circuit to help mitigate effects
consist of either a multi-step or a one-pass process. In the from lightning strikes to the wind turbine tower.
multi-step process a trench is dug, cable installed, backfill is
C. Single/multi Point Grounding and Cross-Bonding
added and tamped, and the surface restored. A more common
and efficient method is the one-pass process where the instal- Cross-bonding has been confused with multi-point groun-
lation is a seamless operation with the trenching, installation, ding but are very different subjects. The intent of cross-
backfill, and surface restoration being performed at the same bonding is to limit the induced voltage on the concentric
time. With trenching, it is critical to properly backfill and shield wires, which helps increase the current-carrying capa-
stamp the soil to the compaction levels identified in the cable bility of the conductor. When designing any collection system
ampacity design parameters in order to maintain proper soil it is important to take into account the induced voltage on the
thermal properties. concentric shield wires. For safety reasons, cable sheaths, or
shields, must be earthed, at least at one point in a run. The
three basic bonding methods are single-point, solid bonding

21
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(or multi-point), and cross-bonding. ues observed in practice where wind plants have been built,
In a single-point bonded system, the heating effect of circu- range from 120 to over 300 when considering dry-out condi-
lating currents is avoided, but voltages will be induced along tions. It is of utmost importance to verify the actual thermal
the length of the cable. Care must be taken to insulate and resistance properties of a given site to ensure proper ampacity
provide surge protection at the open end of the shield to avoid calculations are performed.
dangerous voltages to personnel. A common procedure used for testing thermal resistance is
Solid bonding, sometimes referred to as multi-point groun- taking a sample of the soil, sending it to a laboratory, and
ding, will eliminate the induced voltages by bonding both compacting the sample to 85%-90% of its density found at the
ends of the cable run. The disadvantage of this is that the cir- test site. Compacting the soil eliminates air voids in the soil
culating currents which flow in the shields will reduce the which will act as an insulator and raise the thermal resistivity
ampacity of the cable. The induced voltage is highest at the of the sample. It is important to verify that the compaction of
center point of the cable between grounds. the soil surrounding the installed cable conforms to the design
Cross bonding (see Figure 2) is a method of avoiding circu- parameter as tested in the lab. Thermal resistance testing
lating currents and avoiding excessive sheath voltages while should be conducted at several locations along the defined
permitting increased cable spacing and long run lengths. In routing path of the collection circuit, particularly at those loca-
cross bonding, the cable length is divided into three equal sec- tions where the cables with the highest current-carrying capac-
tions. Each of the three shields are transposed ‘cross-bonded’ ities will be located. This is usually completed at the same
at each of these sections resulting in each section being 120 time as the geotech study that is performed for the wind tur-
degrees apart, and summing the three sections together results bine tower foundation design and access road design.
in a total sheath voltage of zero for a balanced system. For
B. Calculating Cable Losses
slight unbalances due to cable layout and configuration, these
unbalances can be minimized further by also transposing the There are many factors that affect the losses of cables, such
main conductors at each 1/3 section as the cable is laid. The as the current flowing through the cable, the temperature of
largest benefit of cross bonding is evident when three phase the cable and area surrounding the cable, the resistance of the
cables are installed in a flat configuration as opposed to a tre- cable, and the concentric shield wires.
foil configuration since the trefoil configuration will inherent- The current flowing through the cable is the largest factor
ly have some sheath voltage reduction. Cross bonding can be in calculating cable losses. The basic I2R calculation provides
expensive and also introduces additional failure points since the most basic information about power loss that the cable will
the cable jacket must be opened to expose the concentric have.
shield wires. It is a more common practice at higher voltage The concentric shield wires around the conductor will have
levels. a current flowing through it caused by induced voltage from
the power conductor. This induced current on the concentrics
will cause an added loss to the power conductor and should
also be considered. There are various commercially-available
software programs in which manufacturer data for a cable can
be entered and which can calculate the added power loss per-
centage caused by the concentrics. These programs will also
determine the cables ampacity at a defined operating tempera-
ture, configuration of the cables, the soil thermal resistivity
data, soil ambient temperature, and effects from other heat
sources, such as nearby cables.
The losses throughout a wind farm can become very com-
plex as the size of the farm increases. Commercially-available
Fig. 2. Cross Bonding Example. energy loss software programs can be used to determine pow-
er loss at different output levels of the wind farm to aid in
energy loss studies. These programs take in information, such
IV. CALCULATION OF CABLE AMPACITIY as steady-state conductor temperature, conductor size and
A. Soil Considerations length, and no-load and load losses of transformers to deter-
mine the losses throughout the entire wind plant system. Typ-
Soil Thermal Resistivity is dependent on the type of soil,
ically, the engineer is provided with a wind frequency distri-
moisture content, mineral content, and degree of compaction
bution table that has been normalized across the site. This
of the soil. A common thermal resistance, or Rho value, given
table will identify the expected number of hours over the
by the National Electrical Code (NEC) is 90 °C-cm/W and is
course of a year the wind turbine will be operating at for spe-
often assumed for ampacity calculations. This thermal resis-
cified wind speeds. Steady state power flow studies must be
tance value cannot be used indiscriminately when determining
performed at each generation output level and results summed
the ampacity of cables carrying high power since the heating
proportionally with the number of hours at each output level
caused by these cables is often significant. Typical Rho val-

22
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to determine an annualized loss percentage ACCR, etc.), which provide increased ampacities with smaller
diameters and/or reduced sag, T2 or VR conductors, which are
C. Circuit Configuration/Spacing
resistant to galloping and also Aeolian vibrations (large ampli-
There are different configurations used to arrange the tude conductor oscillations), reduce the likelihood of outages
cables in a WPP collection system. Each configuration has due to conductor-to-conductor contact during wind and ice
certain requirements for optimum performance. conditions. Another option is spacer cable, which is a covered
The trefoil configuration consists of cables placed in a tri- conductor. It is supported by a messenger for mechanical
angle with two cables laid next to each other and the third strength. It performs well during storms and is used for long
cable centered above the first two. This configuration negates runs or tight right of way. Covering provides protection
a large amount of the induced fields that each cable creates against momentary contact.
and lowers the losses on the concentric caused by the induced The NESC specifies the minimum wind and ice loads which
currents. structures must be designed to withstand. These wind and ice
The flat layout and the stacked layout are similar in that the loads are regional requirements, and designs may include
three cables are placed in parallel with each other. The differ- larger wind or ice loads in locations where the known wind
ence in these two layouts is that, in the flat arrangement the and ice conditions exceed the NESC levels.
Conductor configuration and insulator size have an impact
cables are paralleled horizontally, and the stacked configura-
on outages due to lightning. Higher-voltage transmission
tion is vertical. These configurations can be easier to install
lines are configured with one or two overhead ground wires,
than the trefoil configuration, but do not negate induced cur-
also called shield wires, at the top of the poles to shield the
rents on the concentric shields as well as the trefoil configura- conductors from lightning strikes. A lightning strike to a con-
tion. Because of the induced currents on the concentrics in the ductor at any voltage may result in a flashover across an insu-
flat and stacked configurations, cross bonding can provide a lator to the pole ground, which results in a 60 Hz flashover to
greater benefit for those installations. The random lay confi- the pole ground and an outage to the line. A lightning strike
guration is by far the simplest layout. This layout is very dif- to an overhead ground wire is diverted to ground through the
ficult to determine the effects of induced currents and losses pole ground and the pole ground rods. If the insulation level
of the system because the cables are in a random lay. is adequate, and the pole ground resistance is low, the
Spacing of the conductors can also play a major role in the lightning strike will not result in an outage to the line.
ampacity of a circuit. Spacing the conductors farther apart Most 34.5-kV and lower voltage lines are configured with
will expose each cable to less heat from the other two cables the overhead ground wire, usually a neutral wire, below the
but also increase the losses due to the induced current on the phase conductors, where it is more accessible to transformers
concentrics. and other equipment. At voltages of 34.5 kV and below, the
overhead ground wire is ineffective as a shield wire for pre-
V. OVERHEAD CONSTRUCTION venting outages due to lightning, unless larger insulators, such
as 69 kV insulators, are used. Without larger insulators, or
A. Design Considerations where a low ground resistance cannot be achieved economi-
Overhead line design considerations include conductor type cally, installing surge arresters on the top phase is a more ef-
and size, structure type, strength, conductor configuration and fective means of reducing outages due to lightning.
insulator size. Conductor size is chosen based on current- B. Transition from Underground Sections
carrying capacity (ampacity) as well as energy loss considera-
Transitions from underground sections require structures
tions. Structure type, strength, conductor configurations, and
that will support and accommodate the underground cables
insulator size are selected to minimize cost and avoid exces-
and accessories, and support the overhead conductors. The
sive outages due to mechanical failure and lightning.
underground cable accessories include riser pipes, cable ter-
The most common conductor type used is ACSR, which
minations, surge arrestors, and switches. The riser pipes pro-
consists of steel strands for mechanical strength, and alumi-
tect the cables from being damaged. The cable terminations
num outer strands for electrical conductivity. The conductor
prevent moisture ingress into the cable, and insulation to pre-
size is chosen to optimize strength and ampacity, while mini-
vent flashovers from the exposed conductors to ground. The
mizing conductor diameter. Increased conductor diameter
arresters prevent damage to the cable insulation from surges
results in increased mechanical load on the structures due to
and lightning strikes. Switches allow isolation of circuit sec-
wind and ice on the conductors, and necessitates larger and
tions for maintenance.
more expensive poles. Note: TW (trapwire) is also an option.
Regarding support for the overhead conductors, the transi-
The diameter is equivalent to ACSR/TW, has lower losses,
tion structures are designed with similar criteria for strength
and more capacity for variable loading without changing
and configuration as other structures.
structure designs.
Conductor ampacity is calculated using IEEE 738, Standard
VI. REFERENCES
for Calculating the Current-Temperature of Bare Overhead
[1] Deepak Parmar, “Underground Cables Need a Proper Burial,” Transmis-
Conductors, using local ambient temperature and wind speeds.
sion & Distribution World, April 2003.
Conductors are sized to carry the maximum output of the tur- [2] IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design WG “Wind Plant Col-
bines connected to the collector. Others conductor types lector System Design Considerations,” 2009 IEEE PES General Meet-
available include “high temperature conductors” (i.e. ACSS, ing, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, July 2009.

23
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[3] IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design WG “Wind Power Plant
Substation and Collector System Redundancy, Reliability, and Econom-
ics,” 2009 IEEE PES General Meeting, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, July
2009.
[4] AEIC CS5-94, Specification for Cross-Linked Polyethylene Insulated,
Shielded Power Cables rated 5 through 46 kV, Association of Edison Il-
luminating Companies, 1994.
[5] AEIC CS6-96, Specification for Ethylene Propylene Rubber Shielded
Power Cables rated 5 through 69 kV, Association of Edison Illuminating
Companies, 1996.
[6] ANSI/ICEA S-94-649-2000, Standard for Concentric Neutral Cables
Rated 5 through 46 kV, Insulated Cable Engineers Association,
2000.PSS/E, version 30, Feb. 2006, Siemens Power Technologies Inter-
national.
[7] ANSI/ICEA S-97-682-2000, Standard for Utility Shielded Power Cables
Rated 5 through 46 kV, Insulated Cable Engineers Association, 2000.
[8] Tom A. Short, Electric Power and Distribution Equipment and Systems,
CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2006.

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Power Transformer Application for

Wind Plant Substations
IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group

Contributing Members: M. Bradt, M. R. Behnke, W. G. Bloethe, C. Brooks, E.H. Camm, W. Dilling, B. Goltz,
J. Li, J. Niemira, K. Nuckles, J. Patiño, M. Reza, B. Richardson, N. Samaan, J. Schoene, T. Smith, I. Snyder,
M. Starke, R. Walling, G. Zahalka

Abstract—Wind power plants use power transformers to step • Loading patterns of wind plant transformers are
plant output from the medium voltage of the collector system to significantly more variable, which is due to the
the HV or EHV transmission system voltage. This paper intermittency in the primary energy sources (wind
discusses the application of these transformers with regard to the
speed), than typical power transformer applications,
selection of winding configuration, MVA rating, impedance, loss
evaluation, on-load tapchanger requirements, and redundancy. with a relatively low load factor (20% to 40% load
factor, from field experience).
Index Terms—Wind generation, power transformers, • The value of wind-generated energy that is
substations. transformed by and lost within the transformer is
greater than typical transformer applications due to the
I. INTRODUCTION incentives and mandates related to renewable power

W
generation.
IND power plants that are too large for direct
connection to a local distribution system, are • The value of transformer reliability (frequency of
interconnected to HV or EHV transmission systems. failure) becomes less significant than availability
Today, the vast majority of wind generation is interconnected (capacity loss times duration of loss) due to the
to the utility grid at the transmission level. This relatively low contribution of the wind plant to system
interconnection is accomplished using one or more power generation capacity requirements. However, it should
transformers to step-up plant output, from the medium voltage be recognized that low transformer reliability can
level used for the plant’s collector system to the transmission directly result in low availability when the mean time
system voltage level. These transformers, along with to replace or repair is long. Transformer replacement
switchgear, protective relays, metering, reactive compensation and major repair lead times tend to be long, and
equipment (in some plant designs), and other equipment outage times can be particularly long for wind plants
needed to perform the interconnection and control and protect in remote or offshore locations
the collection system, are located in a substation. • The transformer must usually provide a ground source
The functional requirements for wind plant substation to both the transmission and collector systems.
transformers are to reliably transfer power to the transmission This paper describes the unique considerations of wind
system, provide ground sources for the transmission grid and power plant substation transformer application. Some use the
collector system, and maintain acceptable collector system term “wind plant step-up transformer” to indicate the
voltage (sometimes aided in this function by the controllable transformer between the MV collector and HV/EHV
reactive power output of the wind generators or supplemental transmission voltage levels. However, wind plants also have
reactive compensation equipment) at the least life-cycle cost, small step-up transformers at each wind turbine generator
including losses as well as initial capital costs.
(WTG) to transform unit output from the voltage level of the
The application considerations for a wind power plant
generator to the collector system voltage. Thus, the term
substation transformer have elements in common with
“step-up” is ambiguous in usage. For this reason, this paper
conventional power plant step-up transformers, as well as
elements in common with primary distribution substation will use the term wind plant substation transformer
transformers. However, there are a number of unique aspects exclusively.
of the wind plant application that strongly influence substation
transformer application, including: II. WINDING CONNECTIONS
The choice of winding connections for wind plant
substation transformers is constrained by the necessity to
provide ground sources, and sometimes also by requirements
to provide zero-sequence isolation.

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A. Ground Source Requirements generally requires use of 200 kV BIL equipment. While
All transmission systems in North America, as well as most substation-class equipment of this insulation level is widely
transmission systems around the world, are designed to be available, it is generally cost prohibitive to apply 200 kV BIL
effectively grounded. This means that the ratio of driving substation class equipment throughout the wind plant
point zero-sequence reactance to positive-sequence reactance collection system.
(X0/X1) must be less than three, and the ratio of zero-sequence B. Winding Configuration Alternatives
resistance to positive sequence reactance (R0/X1) must be less
As previously discussed, the grounded-wye/delta winding
than one at any point in the transmission system [1]. If a
configuration for wind plant substation transformers is
power plant were to be interconnected such that it did not
generally not favored due to the necessity of providing wind
contribute a zero-sequence shunt admittance (ground source),
plant collector system grounding via alternate means. The
its positive sequence short-circuit contribution would reduce
exception is where this winding configuration is mandated by
the system’s positive sequence reactance, X1, without
the transmission system operator. Some Canadian utilities
providing a commensurate reduction of its zero sequence
have required grounded-wye/delta wind plant substation
reactance, X0. As a result, the X0/X1 and R0/X1 driving point
transformers in order to completely block the zero sequence
impedance criteria might not be met at points in the
currents from any wind plant collector faults from being seen
transmission system near the wind plant interconnection.
by the utility ground relays.
Excessive temporary overvoltages could result during ground
A delta (HV/EHV side)/grounded-wye (MV side)
faults due to insufficient grounding.
transformer is generally not acceptable to transmission system
An additional consideration is the possible contingency
operators due to the absence of a ground source contribution
involving the power plant, and a portion of the transmission
to the transmission system. There have been some situations
system, becoming isolated from the remainder of the grid. If
where the existing grid X0/X1 ratio is sufficiently low that
the power plant provides no ground source, then the isolated
interconnection of a wind plant with this transformer
subsystem may be completely ungrounded. Extreme
connection has been deemed tolerable, when combined with
overvoltages could result.
protection schemes that ensure that sufficient grounding is
Therefore, most transmission system operators require that
maintained under all conditions.
power plants present a ground source to the transmission
A grounded-wye/grounded-wye connection does not
system. For conventional power plants, this is typically
provide a substantial zero sequence admittance; thus it does
accomplished using a grounded-wye/delta step-up
not create a ground source. This connection, however, will
transformer. This transformer configuration, however, does
transmit a ground source existing on one side of the
not present a ground source to the collector system. A
transformer to the other side. In general, this winding
previous Wind Plant Collector Design Working Group paper
connection is not used because it does not create a ground
[2] provides substantial discussion regarding collector system
source.
grounding requirements.
A possible exception, however, is when a grounded-wye/
Some grounding must be provided for the collector system
grounded-wye three-phase transformer, wound on a three-leg
in order to avoid extreme overvoltages due to the repetitive
core, is used. Because the return path for zero sequence flux
interruption and restriking of low-current arcing ground faults
in this transformer design is outside of the core, the zero-
that can occur in ungrounded medium voltage systems.
sequence shunt impedance is moderately low. Typically, the
Actually, such a system without intentional grounding is not
zero-sequence shunt impedance is on the order of one per-unit
truly ungrounded, but rather it is grounded via the capacitance
on the transformer base, and this may be a sufficient ground
of the collector cables and lines; a highly dangerous condition.
source in some applications. In the normal operating
Grounding can be provided by a supplemental device, such
condition, with the wind plant interconnected to the
as a grounding transformer. However, if the collector system
transmission grid, the zero-sequence driving point impedance
is to be effectively grounded, the grounding transformer must
of the transmission system reflects through the transformer
be very large as it must present a shunt zero-sequence
and usually transfers sufficient grounding to allow the MV
reactance that is less than three-times the sum of the
collector system to be considered effectively grounded. If the
substation power transformer leakage reactance plus the
wind plant should become separated from the grid, the
minimum driving point positive-sequence reactance of the
grounding source provided by the three-leg three-phase
transmission grid at the point of interconnection. An
grounded-wye/grounded-wye substation transformer may be
impedance-grounded collector system is a possible option that
sufficient to maintain effective grounding considering the
allows use of a smaller grounding transformer. However, an
relatively low short-circuit current capacity of the wind
impedance-grounded system will generally require an increase
turbines in the plant. On the transmission voltage side during
in the insulation levels of all the collector system equipment.
the islanded condition, grounding also may be sufficient.
The maximum basic insulation level (BIL) available for many
The isolation of the wind plant zero sequence from the
of the distribution-class components used in a collection
transmission system zero sequence provided by this type of
system, such as separable cable connectors, is 150 kV. This is
transformer is only partial, and may not be acceptable to the
problematic for a 34.5 kV collector system as coordination
transmission system operator from the standpoint of
with this maximum available BIL usually requires an
transmission system protective relaying coordination.
effectively-grounded system. Insulation coordination with an
impedance-grounded 34.5 kV (nominal voltage) system

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A grounded-wye/grounded-wye transformer with a delta particular loading and temperature conditions of the specific
tertiary provides a low impedance grounding source to both wind plant. IEEE Standard C57.91-1995 provides transformer
the transmission system and to the wind plant collector thermal and insulation aging models which can be used to
system. Zero sequence isolation of the wind plant from the model the specific application, allowing the transformer
grid is not complete, but is usually sufficient. It is for this specifier to determine a transformer rating that can provide
reason that this connection seems to be predominately selected adequate insulation life [3].
for wind plants in the US. Often, the delta tertiary is Because the substation power transformer is critical to the
unloaded, and is solely present to provide a low-impedance wind plant’s revenue stream, transformer rating specification
ground source. In this case, the delta winding may not even should be performed conservatively. Although the principles
be brought out to external bushings (embedded delta tertiary). of transformer thermal loading and intentional overloading,
In other applications, the delta tertiary is used for supplying according to C57.91, are well accepted in the utility industry,
station service load. the institutions financing a wind plant may require a full
When the ratio of transmission voltage to wind plant capacity transformer MVA rating.
collector voltage is less than approximately three, it may be
feasible to consider an autotransformer. An autotransformer IV. TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE
constrains the main windings to the grounded-wye There tends to be a “natural impedance” of a transformer
configuration, but a delta tertiary may be specified. An that is dependent on the MVA rating, nominal voltages,
autotransformer is physically smaller, and less expensive, than insulation levels, and manufacturer. The manufacturer can
a two-winding transformer because only a portion of the produce a transformer with natural impedance at less cost than
transmitted power is magnetically transformed. The ratio of if a greater or lower impedance is specified. Unless the design
the physical MVA of an autotransformer to the MVA of a of the wind plant dictates otherwise, it is preferable to specify
two-winding transformer having the same throughput capacity an impedance near this value.
is equal to the transformer’s co-ratio. The co-ratio is the A greater impedance than this natural value may need to be
difference between the high and low side voltages, divided by specified to reduce the maximum short-circuit current on the
the high-side voltage. wind plant MV collector bus. High short-circuit current can
be an issue for large wind plants where a single transformer is
III. TRANSFORMER MVA RATING used. Alternatives to an artificially-high power transformer
Power transformers have a self-cooled rating, and usually impedance include designing with a two-transformer design
one or more forced-cooled ratings. The most conservative having a split MV bus, specification of higher short-circuit
approach to wind plant substation transformer MVA rating current rated MV equipment, or inclusion of current-limiting
selection is to specify a transformer with the maximum self- reactors in the design.
cooled MVA rating equal to the plant’s rated real power Wind turbines need to have a specified system strength in
output, divided by the minimum required power factor. order to meet performance specifications, such as low-voltage
Transformer MVA ratings do not present a hard limit to the ride-through, and to avoid instabilities. The system strength
loading MVA that can be safely applied. Load current causes seen by the wind turbines is defined by the grid driving point
heating of the transformer winding, which in turn causes impedance, substation power transformer impedance, as well
aging of the transformer insulation. Loss of transformer as the collector system impedances, including individual unit
insulation life is a highly non-linear function of transformer transformers. In situations where the transmission grid is
winding temperature, as well as the duration of exposure. A particularly weak (high impedance), a design alternative may
period of excess winding temperature causes accelerated be to specify a reduced substation power transformer
aging, but aging progresses at less than the nominal rate when impedance.
the winding temperature is less than the nominal full-load
value (110 °C at the hottest spot on the winding). Thus, V. TRANSFORMER LOSS EVALUATION
retarded aging during low-load periods tends to offset All transformers have load loss, which is proportional to the
accelerated aging caused by overload periods. square of the current loading, and no-load loss that is present
Transformer rating is based on continuous loading at the whenever the transformer is energized, whether it is loaded or
MVA rating, at an ambient temperature of 30 °C. Wind plant not. (No-load losses vary in a non-linear relationship to
output, however, tends to be highly variable, and plants are applied voltage. However, because voltage is usually
infrequently required to operate continuously at the minimum maintained within a defined range, no-load losses are typically
power factor. Thermal time constants of a power transformer considered fixed, without consideration of voltage variation.)
are typically hours long, thus tending to smooth the winding In addition, a power transformer will also have auxiliary
temperature rise caused by a variable load. Wind plants in losses (fans and sometimes pumps) that increase step-wise
many locations rarely reach full output during weather with loading.
conditions that produce high ambient temperatures, and In a wind plant, these losses decrease the metered power
maximum loading tends to occur primarily during the cooler delivered to the utility grid, and thus decrease the plant
seasons. All of these factors make it technically feasible to revenue. In addition, no-load losses are present even when
select a transformer MVA rating that is less than the the wind is below cut-in speed, and the plant is not generating
maximum wind plant MVA. To do so, however, requires power. In this situation, the power flows from the utility grid
careful analysis of the transformer aging that occurs for the

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to supply the no-load losses. Depending on tariffs and particularly those where the wind turbines are capable of
agreements, this power may need to be purchased at a cost per providing voltage regulation functionality, do not need
kWh rate that is greater than the value of energy sold by the OLTCs. Where possible, OLTCs should be avoided. They
plant to the market or power purchase agreement recipient. add substantially to transformer costs and maintenance
It is in the long-term interests of the wind plant owner to requirements, and decrease transformer availability.
select a transformer that balances initial capital costs and the Application considerations which drive the need for OLTC
present worth of losses accrued over the life of the specification include:
transformer. Instead of specifying a certain loss levels, the • Unusual range in transmission system voltage,
preferable means to achieve this optimization is to allow the typically greater than the usual 0.95 to 1.05 p.u.
competing power transformer vendors to optimize their range
designs given specified loss evaluation factors. • Very long collector feeders, where the collector bus
The no-load loss factor, typically called the “A factor” in voltage must be decreased with increasing power
the utility industry, is the amount of initial transformer capital output, to compensate for the impedance voltage
cost increase that justifies a unit of no-load power loss rise along the feeders and maintain adequate voltage
reduction. The load loss factor, typically called the “B range at all of the wind turbine generators.
factor,” is the amount of initial transformer capital cost • Wind turbines that are not capable of regulating
increase that justifies a unit of power loss reduction at rated collector system voltage using variable reactive
load. The unit of power typically used for a power power generation and absorption.
transformer is one kW, and the typical unit for a distribution-
type padmount transformer (such as used for individual wind On-load tapchangers are typically applied to the
turbine unit step-up transformers) is one Watt. The total transformer winding having the greatest voltage variation.
evaluated cost of the transformer is: Where an OLTC is used to compensate for transmission
Initial Cost + A × No-Load Loss + B × Load Loss (1) voltage variation, the OLTC is on the HV/EHV winding.
Off-load tapchangers are routinely applied to power
Each transformer manufacturer has different manufacturing transformers. They allow taps to be changed only with the
costs and design tradeoffs, yielding a different relationship transformer de-energized.
between transformer price and losses. Using the A-B factor
methodology allows the manufacturers to compete with each VII. MULTI-TRANSFORMER APPLICATIONS
other on the common basis of total life-cycle cost to the
For large wind plants, multiple substation power
owner. This results in a far better optimization of design than
transformers may be considered. The unit cost (cost per
specification of a given kW loss limit.
MVA) of power transformers tends to decrease with MVA
The A and B factors are specific to a given wind plant
rating. All other considerations aside, a single substation
project. Proper calculation of these factors considers the wind
power transformer provides the lowest cost solution.
plant load-duration curve (diurnal curve), project financing,
However, there are a number of considerations that can drive
taxes, value of sold and purchased energy, as well as other
application of multiple wind plant substation transformer;
technical and financial factors. A previous Wind Plant
either as multiple transformers in a common substation, or
Collector Design Working Group paper [4] details the
construction of multiple substations dispersed within the wind
derivation and calculation of A and B loss evaluation factors.
plant. These considerations are discussed below.
Compared to typical power transformer loss evaluation
factors, the factors for a wind plant may differ substantially A. Practical Constraints
due to a number of reasons. The loading factor of a wind Very large transformers are difficult to ship, due to their
plant substation transformer is less than a typical power physical dimensions and weight. Many wind plants are
transformer which would tend to reduce the B factor. located in remote areas, distant from heavy-duty roads and rail
However, the higher value of wind-generated energy due to lines. The logistical costs of transporting a very large
incentives (e.g., Production Tax Credit) and mandates transformer may offset the benefits of scale of using a very
(Renewable Energy Standards), plus the reduced effective cost large transformer.
of capital investment due to the special tax depreciation Another constraint relates to the practical limits on the
schedules for wind plant equipment, tends to result in a larger current rating of the transformer on the medium-voltage side.
than normal B factor. The high value of produced energy, and Load currents above 3000 A pose difficulty with regard to the
possibly the higher cost of purchased energy for non- ratings of commonly-available switchgear and the capacity of
generating hours, combined with the tax depreciation impacts practical bus conductor sizes. While equipment is available to
result in A factors that tend to be far greater than typical handle higher currents, the associated cost premiums may
transformer applications. offset the transformer cost advantage of a single large
transformer.
VI. LOAD TAPCHANGER APPLICATIONS
B. MV Collector System “Reach”
On-load tapchangers (OLTC) are specified for some wind
plant substation power transformers to compensate for Wind generation inherently requires a minimum geographic
transmission system voltage variations, or to provide means to area per MW of generation capacity, in order to sufficiently
adjust the collector bus voltage. Many wind plants,

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separate turbines to minimize aerodynamic wake effects. compare single and multi-transformer designs, and to
Except in flat areas, terrain features dictate the placement of determine transformer MVA ratings for multi-transformer
wind turbines, and in practice, may require mean distance designs, should consider the probability of transformer failure,
between turbines to be far greater than the theoretical mean time to repair or replace, value of energy output,
minimum. A large wind plant MW rating inherently results in transformer losses (a single, full-sized transformer generally
the wind plant covering a large geographic extent. Use of a has lower no-load and load losses than two, half-sized
single substation in a large wind plant requires transmission of transformers), transformer costs, costs of ancillary substation
power from wind turbines at the outer extent of the plant to equipment, and financial parameters including tax
the substation via MV lines. This affects the cost of the MV implications. Ancillary substation costs in a multi-transformer
design include additional buswork, switchgear, and protection.
collection system, increases losses, and may create voltage
regulation issues. The costs of an extended MV collector
system can offset the benefits of scale derived from a single
substation design, and at some size, the extent of the MV
collector system becomes technically impractical.

C. Availability and Reliability

In typical utility and industrial applications, the need for
reliability often drives the use of multiple transformers. Wind
plants differ, however, in that reliability (frequency of outage)
is not a critical metric, but availability (available energy not
delivered) is critical to plant financial viability.
A design with two transformers, each with 50% of required
total capacity, has a much lower chance of complete outage
(two unit failure) than the failure rate of a single transformer.
However, the chance of a single unit failure is twice that of
one large transformer, but each failure results in loss of 50% Figure 1. Illustration of constrained capacity.
capacity. Viewed simplistically, the transformer capacity
availability is the same with either the 2×50% or 1×100%
options. D. Constraints on Contingency Operation
However, the nature of wind generation makes this In collection system designs where the wind power plant is
comparison somewhat more complex. Wind plants operate served by more than one co-located substation transformer, it
most of the time at much less than rated capacity. During is common practice to configure the substation such that each
outage of one transformer, the remaining half capacity in a transformer serves a number of feeders but the two groups are
2×50% design is sufficient to transform the entire wind plant not normally operating in parallel (split bus design). This
output for much of the time, and requires only partial limits the short-circuit level on the MV bus, which could be
curtailment of wind plant output for other hours. As a result, otherwise very large if the transformers were paralleled. In
a 2×50% transformer capacity design can yield substantially the event of a transformer outage, the bus tie can be closed
more than 50% of the available energy output when one of the and the wind plant operated via the remaining transformer.
transformers is unavailable, without any transformer There are a number of issues that need to be addressed when
overloading. This is illustrated by Figure 1, which shows a considering this contingency mode of operation.
typical wind plant cumulative generation duration curve. If the wind turbines are capable of sufficient short-circuit
Potential output exceeding 50% capacity is lost during outage current contribution, operation of all turbines with the bus tie
of one transformer, shown by the shaded region, but this area closed may exceed the short-circuit current limitations of the
is less than half of the total area under the generation duration equipment on that bus. In this case, some turbines may need
curve. (This is an average result. A transformer outage to be taken out of service during closed bus tie operation.
during a period of consistent high wind could cause loss of up Removal of wind turbines from service also can be a means
to 50% of the available energy. Likewise, a failure during a used to curtail loading of the in-service substation transformer
low wind period could have minimal impact on plant output.) to an acceptable level.
During outage of one transformer in a two-transformer The driving point impedance of the wind plant, relative to
design, intentional overloading of the remaining transformer is the total rating of the wind turbines connected to the tied bus,
an option that can also be considered. Using the thermal and is inherently reduced during operation with one substation
insulation life models provided in [3], an overload limit can be transformer out of service with the bus tie closed, and all wind
determined that results in an acceptable loss of life during the turbines in operation. Attention must be given to ensure that
period during unavailability of the other transformer. the resulting short-circuit ratio is within the specifications for
Another option in a two-transformer design is to rate each the wind turbines. Some wind turbines may need to be taken
transformer greater than 50% of the total required transformer out of service to meet this constraint.
capacity, such that greater wind plant output can be obtained Operation with a tied MV bus fed from one transformer can
during a single transformer outage. An economic analysis to also greatly change the resonant characteristics of the wind

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plant. That is due to the fact that the series and parallel
resonances frequencies will be shifted from the designed
points to other values. Frequency scans should be performed
for all modes of operation of the substation transformers and
the modes of operation where resonance problems can occur
at low order odd harmonics should be avoided.

VIII. REFERENCES
[1] IEEE Guide for the Application of Neutral Grounding in Electrical
Utility Systems—Part I: Introduction, IEEE Standard C62.92.1-2000.
[2] IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group, "Wind
Power Plant Grounding, Overvoltage Protection, and Insulation
Coordination" Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE Power and Energy Society
General Meeting.
[3] IEEE Guide for Loading Mineral-Oil-Immersed Transformers, IEEE
Standard C57.91-1995.
[4] IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group, “Wind
Power Plant Substation and Collector System Redundancy, Reliability,
and Economics" Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE Power and Energy
Society General Meeting.

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Wind Power Plant SCADA and Controls

IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group
Contributing Members: B. Badrzadeh, M. Bradt, N. Castillo, R. Janakiraman, R. Kennedy, S. Klein, T. Smith, L. Vargas

Abstract— This paper discusses the range of application substation. A WPP’s ability to maximize efficiency is
for SCADA and control systems in a wind power plant, directly related to monitoring and control infrastructure.
the most important SCADA and control system SCADA and control requirements are contractually
considerations, and contractual requirements for specified under interconnection agreements (IA), and are
SCADA and control systems. subject to security and reliability requirements under
mandatory reliability compliance provisions. SCADA
Index Terms— SCADA, wind power plant, wind systems and options are integral to compliance with
turbine control, data acquisition, supervisory control, interconnection requirements including voltage and power
plant control, security and reliability compliance. factor control, curtailment, and ramp control. SCADA
systems are also a medium for data transportation and
List of Acronyms—
communication with external sources, such as, providing
BOP Balance of Plant
meteorological data necessary for forecasting to
CIP Critical Infrastructure Protection
DFAG Doubly Fed Asynchronous Generator Independent System Operators (ISOs). SCADA systems
FERC Federal Energy Regulatory Commission are integral to availability and performance measurement
IA Interconnection Agreement and warranty enforcement.
IEC International Electrotechnical There are many different options for control and data
Commission acquisition in a WPP. This paper provides an overview of
IED Intelligent Electronic Device common applications, considerations, and requirements for
ISO Independent System Operator WPP SCADA and control systems.
LGIA Large Generator Interconnection
Agreement II. WIND TURBINE CONTROLS
NERC North American Electric Reliability A wind turbine’s control system enables the safe,
Corp. reliable, and automated control necessary for continuous
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer power production and shutdown, as required. A typical
OLE Object Linking & Embedding wind turbine’s control system consists of control hardware,
OPC OLE for Process Control supervisory controls, safety systems, and closed-loop
PDD Presidential Decision Directive controls that enable power production by controlling the
PLC Programmable Logic Controller blade pitch angle and the generator torque of the turbine
POI Point of Interconnection [1].
PRC Protection and Control A horizontal axis wind turbine control system will
PRR Power Ramp Rate
consist of several sensors, actuators, and a microprocessor
PSR Protection System Relaying
controller. A list of common hardware elements include:
RAS Remedial Action System
RTO Regional Transmission System Operator • Nacelle mounted anemometer and wind vane;
SCADA Supervisory Control and Data • Rotor speed sensor;
Acquisition • Electric power sensor;
SPS Special Protection System • Pitch position sensors;
WPP Wind Power Plant • Vibration sensors;
XML Extensible Markup Language • Oil level and temperature indicators;
• Hydraulic pressure sensors; and
I. INTRODUCTION
• Operator switches.
Modern wind power plants (WPPs) include an
amalgamation of Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition The microprocessor controller uses defined logic to
(SCADA) systems, control systems, and various other process inputs from the various sensors and generates
intelligent electronic devices (IEDs). SCADA and control outputs to operate the turbine. Commercially available
systems are critical parts of all WPPs, regulating nearly programmable logic controllers (PLCs) are commonly
every aspect from the individual turbine to the collection used.

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There are several independent systems within the drive train natural frequency and at an appropriate phase
turbine that are controlled as a whole by the turbine angle.
controller. These include the pitch, yaw, generator, and
supervisory control systems. A separate and independent D. Closed loop design
safety system protects the turbine hardware from damage To maximize the power output and to minimize the
in the event of a controller failure. dynamic loading the turbine controller utilizes typical
closed loop control algorithms. The usual method is to
A. Pitch construct a proportional-integral (PI) or proportional-
There are typically two types of turbines, stall regulated integral-derivative (PID) control loop to dynamically vary
and pitch regulated. Stall regulated machines do not or the pitch angle and generator torque for maximum power
only slightly vary the pitch angle of the blade and rely on production and minimal dynamic loading.
the stall characteristics of the blade to limit the rotor speed
and aerodynamic power. E. Supervisory
Pitch regulated machines vary the aerodynamic power The turbine’s internal supervisory controls consist of the
and rotor speed by changing the pitch of the turbine’s logic and hardware necessary to operate the turbine
blades through electrical or mechanical linkages. Blades autonomously from one operational state to another. These
can be pitched collectively, independently, or individually. operational states consist of start-up, power production,
Collectively pitched systems move all of the blades at the shut-down, and stopped when faulted. Other functions of
same time to the same pitch angle. Independent pitch the turbine internal supervisory controls include operation
systems use separate (non-linked) systems for each blade of cooling equipment (gearbox, generator and power
although the blade angles are set to the same pitch angle. converter’s fans and pumps), heaters (for cold weather
Individual systems, similar to independent systems, use
applications), and lubrication pumps (gearbox oil pumps
separate systems for each blade although the pitch angle of
and bearing grease pumps).
each blade can be varied individually which will reduce
aerodynamic loads. F. Safety
B. Yaw The safety system is a highly reliable, independent, and
The yaw system rotates the turbine into or out of the hardwired system separate from the microprocessor
wind using drive motors. The yaw action is essential to controlled system that is designed to shutdown the turbine
mitigate the turbine fatigue loads and maintain an optimal during a serious problem. The control system is designed
energy production. The turbine control system monitors the to operate the turbine in normal shutdown situations; the
time-averaged difference between the turbine yaw angle safety system is a backup to the turbine controller and
and the wind direction and will adjust the turbine yaw functions as a fail-safe in the event the controller fails.
angle into the wind once the difference becomes great Events that may trip the safety system include:
enough over a set period of time. The yaw system also • Rotor overspeed;
unwinds the power and control cabling that is run between • Vibration sensor trip;
the nacelle and equipment located at the base of the tower • Controller watchdog trip;
such as transformers and controllers. Different components • Emergency stop button pressed by operator;
of the yaw system can be placed in the tower, as well as and
inside and outside of the nacelle. • Pitch system failure, i.e. stuck blade or large
pitch angle difference.
C. Generator
Variable speed turbines are capable of controlling the The turbine control system is a complex system
generator torque, which effectively controls the rotational consisting of several subsystems and components. Using
speed of the turbine. Variable speed generators have different digital communication systems and hardwired
several different topologies including full converter inputs/outputs the wind turbine is controlled safely and
systems, Doubly-Fed Asynchronous Generators (DFAG), reliably. Although not common there have been instances
or variable slip induction generators. For a more detailed of external electromagnetic interference (radar systems)
description of variable speed turbines, please see [4]. creating problems with control systems, specifically pitch
The turbine controller monitors the rotor speed and control systems.
regulates the generator torque to maximize the power
output and maintain the rotor speed below its rated III. PLANT SCADA
rotational speed. Additionally, the generator torque control The SCADA system in a WPP provides real-time
can be used to actively dampen drive train torsional visibility of the plant operations and also provides the
vibrations by applying a small ripple torque close to the ability to control the WPP assets centrally and remotely.
Typically, a SCADA system is provided by the turbine

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original equipment manufacturer (OEM). For fleet wide constraints will typically dictate the type of fibre optic
monitoring and control across different OEM’s turbines, a implementation. Examples of design considerations
third-party SCADA solution can be implemented. include:
• Distances: Multimode has shorter distance
A. OEM SCADA
capabilities than single mode, splices may be
The SCADA system provided by the turbine necessary,
manufacturers is typically a fully integrated system. OEM • Costs: Single mode cable cost less than
SCADA systems have variable functionality depending on multimode, but single mode transmitters cost
the manufacturer. Some of the potential advantages of an more,
OEM SCADA system include: • Mixed Mode—using single mode for long
• Tightly integrated with the turbine control home runs and multimode inter-turbine: This
system; increases inventory and construction
• Turbine specific monitoring and control complexity.
interface; Additional information on network, SCADA, and
• Advanced turbine details and diagnostics; control design considerations is available in [5].
• Robust and integrated security model;
• Advanced troubleshooting and data analysis; Information Management
• Preconfigured displays and reports; The SCADA system typically provides the ability to
• Flexible and open system for data access manage the wind plant remotely and locally. The
• Verification of contractual obligations robustness of the security model is extremely critical to
(production, availability guarantees, wind provide the appropriate level of access control. To avoid
distribution, loss of production, power curves, unintentional start or stop of the wind turbines, the SCADA
etc); system is generally equipped with hardware token based or
• Service and error correction; username-password based authentication.
• Data collection for statistical analysis – both The SCADA system also consists of databases to
long-term for product improvement and short- manage both real-time and historical information. The
term for prediction of potential errors; real-time data update from the turbine is typically done
• Reducing downtime and improving reliability once every second, while the SCADA system aggregates
and availability; and compiles the raw data into meaningful information.
The real-time data server also feeds the graphical interfaces
• Ability to monitor practically all WPP
and displays, referred to as “mimics,” to provide visibility
equipment placed inside the substation;
into wind plant operation. Turbine status and performance
• Compliance with grid codes; and
metrics such as production, wind speed, availability,
• Reducing the number of service inspections.
capacity factor, and fault notifications are examples of key
information that the user would typically visualize via the
System Overview
graphical interface. Mimics can also be used for control
A SCADA system interfaces with the different devices
purposes, for example manually stopping or starting
such as turbines, meteorological (met) masts, substations,
individual turbines or a group of turbines, opening and
and other IEDs within the wind plant to acquire data and
closing circuit breakers, changing transformer tap position,
provide an aggregated view of the plant operation.
and various other functions. The graphical interface
Typically, the SCADA system architecture is designed to
module typically provides preconfigured displays, which
be scalable, to address different sizes of wind plants, as the
may include a plant level view, turbine specific details,
constraints and needs are different. Also, the SCADA
control user interface, and auxiliary device user interface.
system should be capable of accepting additional
Most mimics are standard mimics and appear in all WPPs.
monitoring control points to assist in troubleshooting and
A small number of mimics might be implemented for
remediation of faults, errors, and other issues that may
specific projects.
arise.
The turbine data is normally sufficient for detailed
The site network, which forms the backbone of the
reporting but sometimes data is insufficient or missing, for
SCADA system, is a very critical component of the system
example when turbines are without power, or when turbine
architecture. The internal SCADA network connecting all
computer is shut down. In such cases, the SCADA system
wind plant assets typically uses fibre optics for speed and
makes use of complex methods to estimate loss of
high bandwidth. Possible network configurations include
production based on the data available from neighbouring
bus, star, and ring. To enable high availability and high
turbines or meteorological stations.
data integrity the network is typically designed to have
The historical database typically retains the ten-minute
redundancy. The wind plant size, layout, and cost
average data from all turbines, high voltage substations,

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meteorology stations, and the event/fault data for at least plant which has assets (turbines) from different OEMs, or
12 months. The ten-minute data is gathered from more to have an enterprise level view of many wind plants. The
than 100 sensors and counters on each wind turbine. Older SCADA system commonly provides standard monitoring
data are usually archived and stored in external hardware and control capabilities. Some of the potential advantages
such as tape. The historical database, along with a of a third-party SCADA system are listed below.
reporting module, is used for generating reports and data • Consolidated view of all assets;
analysis. Typically, the reporting module of the SCADA • Common monitoring interface across various
systems consists of pre-configured reports, which may OEMs;
include standard reports such as performance, power curve, • Common control interface across OEMs;
fault analysis, and wind rose. • Platform to have consolidated and standard
Typically, SCADA systems offered by the turbine OEM reporting module;
are divided into two categories: The first solution is • Single interface for communication with
intended for small WPPs in range of 10-20 MW, whereas system operators; and
the second solution allows the operator to utilize the WPP • Flexibility in incorporating substation SCADA.
in the same fashion as a conventional power plant in terms
of meeting the grid code requirements. The turbine itself IV. PLANT CONTROL
can meet some of the grid code requirements, but more
stringent requirements often necessitate the use of an In general, WPPs will have a SCADA system for
additional centralized intelligence. A SCADA system can control and acquisition of data from each of the individual
be used for this purpose. wind turbines. To enable the wind plant to behave like a
Both solutions are designed as a server-client system conventional power plant and meet the specific electric
and generally utilize the same software platform but with grid requirements, advanced plant controls are typically
different level of capability. The main options included in required at the point of interconnection (POI). The
the second solution are remote monitoring of advanced plant controls may include the provisions that
meteorological data, grid monitoring system, and power general plant information be provided in a format
plant controller. The metrological data gathered include compatible with the interconnecting utility’s or system
wind speed, wind direction, ambient temperature, operator’s SCADA system. The information allows the
atmospheric pressure, relative humidity, rain direction, and balancing authority to communicate system and stability
other meteorological information. The grid monitoring information and make necessary adjustments between
system measures quantities, such as, harmonics and entities. It is important to coordinate the turbine operation
flickers, grid voltages and currents, and grid frequency and and provide a stable response to the grid requirements.
power factor at the point of common coupling. The power Some of the advanced plant control features are listed
plant controller is employed to control the output of the below.
WPP, and generally utilized in counties with stringent grid A. Voltage and Power Factor Regulation
code requirements. Its commands are generated by site
specific control algorithms depending on the particular grid Voltage and power factor regulation can be
code requirements. To achieve a very fast response the accomplished by closed loop control of the reactive power
power plant controller is normally run on dedicated capability of the individual wind turbines, through a plant
hardware instead of the SCADA server. control system. This allows the wind plant to provide
regulation services much like a conventional generating
System Interface of Plant SCADA plant. The plant control system is an integral part of the
The SCADA system typically uses a controller specific voltage regulation strategy within a WPP, in order to
protocol to communicate with the turbine controller and transmit all needed decision making data between
uses an industry standard protocol, such as, Modbus for controllers within a given time period, typically in the
data exchange with auxiliary devices. Besides the internal millisecond range. More coarse voltage regulation can be
communication interface, the SCADA system is designed accomplished using static capacitor and reactor banks
typically to support data exchange with external systems located at the substation or individual wind turbines.
such as enterprise SCADA, weather forecasting system, Regulation to a remote point such as an interconnection
and historian systems. The list of such interfaces may switchyard connected to the WPP requires input from
include OPC, web services, and XML. remote instruments or interface to remote switchyard
SCADA systems.
B. Third-Party SCADA
A third-part SCADA system is often implemented for B. Capacitor/Reactor Banks and Dynamic Var Devices
manufacturers that do not offer OEM SCADA, to overlay Reactive compensation equipment such as capacitor
or supplement the OEM SCADA, to manage operation in a banks, reactor banks, switched static reactive

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compensators, and dynamic reactive compensation System Interface of Plant Control
equipment are typically located at the wind plant The plant control system is typically integrated with the
substation(s), switchyard(s), and wind turbine generator(s). wind plant SCADA system to provide real-time visibility
The plant control system will coordinate the operation of and the ability to provide control set points. The plant
these BOP (Balance of plant) equipment, in order to control system can accept set-points from multiple systems
achieve the desired reactive power behaviour at the POI. via different methods. For example, system operators can
Further discussion of WPP reactive power compensation is provide control set-points as an analog signal using a RTU
presented in companion paper [6]. or a user can provide set-points via plant control user
interface. The plant control system can interface with other
C. Ramp Rate Control auxiliary devices in the substation and also inputs from
System operators increasingly require the ability to CTs/PTs at the POI.
control the power removed or inserted at any given point of
time, in both up and down directions. The plant control
system’s ability to enforce a MW per minute ramp rate V. SECURITY AND RELIABILITY COMPLIANCE
maximum is required for the wind plant to accomplish this. Implementation of SCADA and control systems in a
Often referred to as the PRR (power ramp rate), PRR is WPP is not just prudent engineering. WPPs must comply
typically calculated in ten minute or less intervals. Power with contractual obligation under an IA, which often has
fluctuations, which are caused by variations in wind speed, specific SCADA and control provisions necessary for
can be compensated quickly by adjusting the power output maintaining the security and reliability of the grid. Failure
of the individual turbines in order to provide a wind plant to comply with IA requirements can result in default and
level ramp rate control. termination. IA provisions vary regionally, and are
dependent on project specific parameters such as size,
D. Frequency Droop Control interconnection point, and expected impact to the grid.
Conventional power plants typically have frequency Articles 7, 8, and 9 of the Federal Energy Regulatory
droop capability (i.e. varying power output as a function of Commission (FERC) Standard Large Generator
grid frequency). Depending on the turbine manufacturer, a Interconnection Agreement (LGIA), used by many electric
WPP’s plant control system may be able to provide similar reliability entities, contain common requirements
governor response capability by adjusting turbine power governing metering, communications, and operational
output in response to grid frequency variation. capabilities, such as those discussed in Plant Controls
above. Following are other common IA requirements,
E. Power Curtailment standards, and considerations, which influence WPP
System operators often require the ability to control the SCADA and control system capabilities.
power output of a WPP at any given point of time to deal
with grid stability and transmission constraints. The power A. Remedial Action Scheme (RAS)
curtailment feature of the plant control system ensures that An RAS, also known as a Special Protection Scheme
the WPP power output is capped to the desired limit. The (SPS), is an automatic protection system specifically
SCADA system may utilize a simple turbine shutdown designed to detect abnormal or in some cases,
curtailment algorithm, offer global turbine power setpoint predetermined system conditions to take corrective actions.
curtailment, or utilize combined algorithms to optimize The corrective actions from an RAS would take place, in
efficiency and consider other turbine constraints. place of or in addition to the isolation of faulted
Curtailment rotation may be employed to balance components, to maintain system stability and reliability.
curtailment time across the WPP. The actions of an RAS can include changes in:
• Demand;
F. Auxiliary (i.e. battery banks, alarms etc)
• Generation (MW and Mvar);
There are many auxiliary SCADA points that provide • System configuration to maintain system
normal and critical alarms for the wind plant and stability;
interconnecting substations. These alarms are for • Acceptable voltage;
equipment such as: wind turbines (over speed safety • Power flows; or
system, controllers, auxiliary power, batteries, battery • Frequency or rate of change of frequency.
chargers, protection, reactive equipment) and substation
(battery chargers, batteries, system over/under voltage The use of SPS is generally justified for loss of network
alarms, protection lockout alarms, trip coil failure alarms, integrity characterized by one or more of the following
low SF6 gas pressure, transformer alarms, substation entry). phenomena [7]:
• Transient angle instability;
• Small signal angle instability;

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• Frequency instability; C. Data Telemetry
• Short-term voltage instability, IAs typically requires WPPs to provide a variety of data
• Long-term voltage instability, and to external sources such as a Utility, ISO, and/or balancing
• Cascaded tripping. authority control centers. In order to better manage the
schedule and generation of the grid, interconnecting
Some of the most commonly used RAS implemented in entities will often require ongoing forecasts for availability
conventional power systems include [7]: of power (net output) from the generator. The balancing
• Under frequency or under voltage load authority may place restrictions on output from the
shedding; generator depending on forecasted system loads and the
• Generator rejection and fast valving of steam expected availability of other generating resources.
turbines; WPPs commonly have meteorological towers onsite
• Automatic Generation Control (AGC); which require connection to the site communications
• Dynamic braking or braking resistor; network or SCADA system to transmit data to the other
• HVDC fast power change; systems or entities to help with forecasting. Increasingly,
• Tap changers blocking; transmission owners and service providers are requiring
• Controlled opening of an interconnection; live meteorological SCADA points to optimize wind power
• Automatic shunt reactor/capacitor switching; forecasting. Accurate wind forecasting is critical to
and reliable and economic system operation, especially as wind
• Fast increase in the generator voltage set-point. penetration increases in certain regions.
D. NERC Reliability Standards
An RAS does not typically include the functions needed
In 1998, Presidential Decision Directive (PDD) 63 was
for the following:
issued with the intent of protecting critical infrastructure in
• Fault conditions that must be isolated or
the U.S. PDD 63 was general and applied to a wide range
• Out-of-step relaying (not designed as an
of industries including electric generators. Compliance
integral part of RAS).
with PDD 63 was explicitly required for electric generators
under Appendix D of the standard LGIA, which lacked
The entity responsible for regional system impact,
specifics.
stability, and reliability generally develops standards for
The North American Electric Reliability Corporation
the remedial action schemes and their design, operation,
(NERC), whose mission is to insure the reliability of the
and testing.
bulk power system within North America, eventually
B. Protection System Relaying (PSR) established a specific series of reliability standards
The protective scheme needs to be interoperable with covering such areas as communications, transmission,
existing systems and technology in the immediate critical infrastructure protection (CIP), and protection and
interconnection area. Given the need to interact with a control (PRC). The standards are enforced after approval
system greater than the generator (beyond the by FERC under provisions of the 2005 Energy Policy Act.
interconnection point) it will be necessary to provide the Specifically, NERC CIP, governing cyber security, was
interconnecting entity with balance control capabilities. approved by the FERC under Order 706 in January 2008,
Allowing this control will improve safety and help protect thus making the standard mandatory in the U.S., and
equipment at the generator and within the interconnecting applied at a regional level with monitoring and
entity’s system. enforcement by the local reliability councils, corporations,
The PSR control scheme will be governed by the and organizations. Consequently, WPP SCADA and
interconnection agreement executed between the control system are required to comply with cyber security
interconnecting entities and the WPP. Parties to the provisions of NERC CIP, as well as, many other standards
agreement may also include third party entities like a such as PRC-012-0 regarding RAS/SPS procedures. The
system balancing authority. The control process is need for further improvements in communications between
generally facilitated through the provision of SCADA
wind plants and balancing area operators was identified in
summary information to the interconnecting entity. The
[8].
information requested may include current and forecasted
In addition to the NERC CIP requirements, the Smart
WPP output. The information is then used to perform
dynamic system analysis and provide feedback to the WPP Grid efforts have produced NISTIR-7628 V1.0 that
about the ability of the utility to accept the energy addresses Smart Grid cyber security strategy and
produced and any limitations that must be placed upon it. requirements.
Signals are transmitted through the WPP SCADA system
to each individual unit for total system adjustments to
minimize impacts caused by system disturbances.

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E. IEC Standards Beyond meeting requirements and obligations,
The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) sophisticated developers and owners recognize the solid
Standard 61400-25 (communications for monitoring and return on investment that proper SCADA implementation
control of wind power plants) provides uniform provides. More and more data isn’t the whole answer. The
information exchange for monitoring and control of wind right data must be acted on to implement operational,
power plants. It deals with communications between wind maintenance or other changes.
power plant components such as wind turbines and actors The publication of this paper was the result of two years
such as SCADA systems. It is designed for a of concerted effort by the authors and the IEEE PES Wind
communication environment supported by a client-server and Solar Plant Collector System Design working group.
model. The application area of IEC 61400-25 covers all The authors sincerely hope that this and other working
components required for the operation of wind power group papers are found to be valuable to those who will
plants, not only the wind turbine, but also the plan, design, analyze, construct, and operate wind power
meteorological system, the electrical system, and the wind plants. Recognition is given to the authors and their
power plant management system. employers for contributing the resources for the
IEC 61400-25 extends the technology of the IEC 61850 preparation of this work.
utility automation standard to address needs particular to For more information on available materials, or to find
wind power. The core of IEC 61850 is an abstract data out how to participate in this working group’s activities,
model that includes data objects that describe power please see: http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/td/wind
system equipment and services that provide data
communications functions. Examples of the services
include report-by-exception and definition/management of
VII. REFERENCES
device logs. The data model is mapped onto
communications technologies by specifying how particular
data types and services are to be communicated using the
technology. There is also an XML-based language for [1] T. Burton, D. Sharpe, N. Jenkins, E. Bossanyi, Wind
Energy Handbook, West Sussex, UK: John Wiley &
defining the configuration of the facility and setting the
Sons Ltd, 2001.
values of pre-defined parameters.
[2] G. Smith, Development of a Generic Wind Farm
IEC 61400-25 provides two major areas of extension. SCADA System, DTI Publishing 2001.
One is an extension to the data model to cover equipment [3] Wotruba, Bill. “The Essentials of Ethernet Equipment
found in wind plants. For equipment such as switches, in SCADA Systems.” North American Windpower,
breakers, protective relays, and transformers, the 61850 June 2010.
objects can be used. The other extension area is mapping [4] Wind Plant Collector Design WG, “Characteristics of
to additional communications technologies beyond those Wind Turbine Generators for Wind Power Plants,”
found in 61850. For example, 61400-25 adds XML-based Proceedings of 2009 IEEE Power and Energy Society
web services communications that offers improved General Meeting, Calgary, Canada, July 2009.
compatibility with communications in enterprise systems. [5] IEEE Std. C37.1-2007, IEEE Standard for SCADA
The data objects in 61850 and 61400-25 are named and Automation Systems.
rather than numbered. Part of the name is defined in the [6] Wind Plant Collector Design WG, “Reactive Power
standard and part is defined by the using organization. Compensation for Wind Power Plants,” Proceedings
Object naming removes any limit on the number and scope of 2009 IEEE Power and Energy Society General
of objects that can be handled thus, new power system Meeting, Calgary, Canada, July 2009.
equipment technologies or data requirements can be [7] System Protection Schemes in Power Networks,
accommodated by simply adding the relevant objects to the CIGRE Technical Brochure 187, Task Force 38.02.19,
data model. This approach is being used by Smart Grid June 2001.
efforts focused on ensuring that 61400-25 can support wind [8] North American Electric Reliability Corporation
(NERC), Special Report on Accommodating High
power data needs particular to North American practices.
Levels of Variable Generation, 2009
VI. CONCLUSIONS
In the past SCADA systems were almost or literally
afterthoughts, put in as needed to get the job done.
SCADA in modern WPPs is recognized as integral to
optimize WPP performance and financial return, and
necessary to meet contractual obligations including strict
security requirements.

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 1

Reactive Power Compensation for Wind Power

Plants
IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group

Contributing Members: E.H. Camm, M. R. Behnke, O. Bolado, M. Bollen, M. Bradt, C. Brooks, W. Dilling,
M. Edds, W. J. Hejdak, D. Houseman, S. Klein, F. Li, J. Li, P. Maibach, T. Nicolai, J. Patiño, S. V. Pasupulati,
N. Samaan, S. Saylors, T. Siebert, T. Smith, M. Starke, R. Walling

Abstract—This technical paper provides the basic guidelines II. REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION
for the application of reactive compensation systems to be used as
The requirements and type of reactive power compensation
part of a wind power plant. A brief history of wind plant reactive
compensation system is discussed, then the fundamental needs of in conjunction with the collector system are key to having a
why reactive compensation is required. The paper will then compliant wind plant system.
provide some alternatives for reactive compensation, how to size
A. Requirements
the reactive compensation, and finally some of the principles on
how different compensation devices work. There are multiple areas for consideration when deciding
on the reactive power compensation system within the WPP
Index Terms— voltage ride-through, induction generator, collector design. Most WPPs have an interconnection
reactive power, wind power generation agreement that may define the parameters of what is required.
In the United States the Large Generator Interconnection
Agreement (LGIA) for WPPs rated 20 MW or more defines
I. INTRODUCTION
the requirements associated with reactive power

T he application of wind plants has grown dramatically in

the recent past. Historically wind power plants (WPPs)
have been smaller in size (less megawatts) per plant. The
compensation. These requirements could refer to certain
standards issued by FERC/NERC, local ISO requirements
such as ERCOT and WECC, or local utility requirements.
amount of wind penetration was not an issue for almost all Some requirements could be the result of a system impact
applications. With the continued growth/increase in the study that may have been performed. FERC Order 661-A [1]
individual turbine size and the number of turbines connected defines the minimum power factor and VRT requirements for
to the grid at a single connection point, wind plants can easily the interconnection of WPPs to transmission providers under
be in the hundreds of megawatts. The traditional turbine was FERC jurisdiction. A wind power plant designer should be
usually a simple induction generator with little capability for aware that a reactive power compensator alone may not
voltage ride through (VRT) or power factor (PF) control. ensure low voltage ride- through for the wind power plant.
During systems disturbances the plant would most likely trip Rather, it is the interaction with the grid of the reactive power
off-line. In addition, the wind plant did not have to supply any compensator with the particular wind turbine generators in the
ancillary services such as voltage control, variable power WPP as a system that influences compliance with these
factor, dynamic system support, etc. In general, older wind requirements.
plants did not require reactive compensation systems. The Once the main requirements are known there is a
recent generation of turbines has far greater capability. Wind secondary listing that may further define items such as the
power plant centralized control systems can provide the response time, voltage control requirements, power factor
ancillary services required by the interconnection agreements. control requirements, constant susceptance requirements, low
In addition, more requirements are being applied to have the voltage ride-through, high voltage ride-through, post fault
wind plants respond like traditional synchronous machine contingency requirements, and voltage recovery requirements
generation plants during fault conditions, and to have dynamic as part of the wind power plant and reactive compensation
response and control capability. All of these factors require system.
the wind plant to have a collector system design that can
accommodate these conditions. 1) Power Factor Requirement
FERC Order 661-A requires WPP to operate at power
factors from 0.95 leading through 0.95 lagging if the
Transmission Provider’s System Impact Study shows that
such a requirement is necessary to insure operational security

978-1-4244-4241-6/09/$25.00 ©2009 IEEE 38

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of the system. It is typically stated that the power factor (PF) 4) High Voltage Ride-Through Requirements
compliance of the WPP must be met at the POI (Point of WPPs are subject to high voltages that can occur in the
Interconnection). The WPP is allowed to meet power factor transmission system following fault clearance, loss of large
requirement through the capabilities of the WTG (Wind loads, or other system transients. There is no HVRT
Turbine Generator), fixed and switched shunt requirement in FERC Order 661-A. Some ISO/RTOs, NERC,
capacitors/reactors or a combination of the two. The WPP is and Hydro Quebec are in the process of implementing or have
usually required to follow the voltage schedule (static voltage) implemented such requirements. In many European countries
imposed by the Transmission Provider which consequently WPPs are required not to trip for a high voltage level up to
determines the WPP operating PF required at any given time. 110% of the nominal voltage at the POI. WPPs are also
It is recognized that the WPP may not be able to meet the required not to trip for higher voltage level if it lasts less than
power factor range requirement under all possible operating a pre-specified time period.
scenarios. For instance, when there is near zero power
B. Wind Plant Details
generation and only a couple of turbines may be online at low
power levels, some transmission providers and grid codes With the requirements known the actual design and sizing
of the reactive compensation can begin. The details of the
allow a lower amount of power factor control [9].
wind plant will need to include the following items:
2) Dynamic Voltage Support Requirements • Point of interconnection (POI).
FERC Order 661-A states that WPPs shall be able to • Minimum and maximum short-circuit levels with
provide sufficient dynamic voltage support (as opposed to associated X/R ratios at the POI.
static) in lieu of power system stabilizer and automatic • Make, model, MW rating and number of wind turbine
voltage regulation of conventional generating units. Such generators (WTGs).
requirements are imposed only if the Transmission Provider's • Control mode(s) at the POI; (i.e. voltage control,
System Impact Study concludes that the dynamic capability of power factor control, constant susceptance control)
the WPP is necessary for operational security of the system. along with the acceptable tolerances, dead bands,
Some ISOs/RTOs further define the response time for slopes, or other measures of dynamic response for
reactive support. these items.
• Location of turbines relative to the POI.
3) Low Voltage Ride-Through Requirements
• WTG power factor capability, control modes available
WPPs are required to demonstrate low voltage ride-
(i.e., power factor, voltage, or reactive power).
through capability to interconnect to the transmission system.
• WTG and wind power plant SCADA dynamic
FERC Order 661-A states that the WPPs are required to
response times, WTG VRT capability.
remain in-service during three-phase faults with clearing time
• WTG step-up transformer details (MVA, percent
between 4 to 9 cycles. In other words, the WTGs should not impedance, X/R ratio, and available taps).
trip for zero voltage at the high voltage side of the WPP
• Collector cable schedules, including cable types, sizes,
substation transformer lasting up to 0.15 seconds. The WPP and lengths.
should also remain in-service during single-line-to-ground • If applicable, details of collector substation
faults with delayed clearing, and subsequent post-fault voltage transformer(s) (MVA, percent impedance, X/R ratio,
recovery to pre-fault voltage. The LVRT requirements do not and available taps)
apply for faults between the WTG terminals and the high • If applicable, transmission line data (R, L, C) and
voltage side of the WPP. The WPP may meet the LVRT distance from the collector substation transformer to
requirements of this standard by the performance of the the POI.
generators or by installing additional equipment or both
The LVRT requirements in the FERC order represents the C. Wind Plant Analysis
minimum requirements. Some ISOs/RTOs have adopted these As mentioned previously, a system impact study may have
requirements, and others such as WECC have proposed been completed already to provide the requirements of the
additional requirements. The WECC has a proposal [2] that is reactive power compensation system for the wind power
currently out for comment and balloting which applies to all plant. It will be necessary to perform more detailed studies to
generating units, including WTGs. In this proposal, beside the further define the actual components of the reactive power
previously mentioned LVRT requirements, the generator's compensation system. Some of the standard studies that are
protection system is required not to trip the generator for the done in conjunction with the reactive compensation system
low voltage deviations of 20% for 40 cycles (post-disturbance are steady-state load flow, dynamic (or voltage stability), and
undervoltage) at the high voltage side of the WPP substation harmonic analyses.
transformer. It is also required that the owner of the WPP The studies will incorporate the wind plant requirements
have evidence that their protection systems for WTG do not and the actual details of the wind plant. The type of reactive
trip the generator during three-phase faults with normal compensation could be from any combination of the WTGs,
clearing (for a maximum of 9 cycles). mechanically-switched devices (i.e., shunt capacitor or reactor
banks), STATCOMS, SVCs, etc. The actual devices chosen

39
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will have to comply with the requirements of the wind plant. Some ISO’s require that the WPP responds similarly to that of
Further items for consideration may include voltage conventional synchronous generators and that power factor
limitations during switching of shunt capacitors, power quality targets are met within a short duration (i.e. 1 second). This
requirements such as flicker during start up or cut-in, may be equivalent to traditional excitation systems on
harmonics, etc. generators.
Studies which involve the reactive power compensation 3) Harmonic and Flicker Analysis
system are discussed next. Other wind power plant studies Harmonic analysis will require the same inputs as used for
are discussed in a companion Working Group paper. the load flow studies with the addition of a few items. Any
1) Load Flow Studies harmonics generation sources within the wind farm shall be
Load flow studies typically require a detailed model of the included. This typically includes the WTGs and, if applicable,
collector grid with the actual cables and routing taken into the reactive compensation devices. All types of turbines can
account. The POI should be clearly defined and in accordance create resonance conditions, due to passive elements in their
with the interconnection requirements. This may be on the design. In addition Type 3 and 4 [10] WTGs can create
high side or low side of the main substation transformer, or resonance due to their control design. The short-circuit level
even located miles away if an additional transmission line was range at the POI with associated X/R ratios will also be
added for the wind power plant. needed. Care should be taken to insure frequency dependent
Some wind power plants have on-load tap changers elements are modeled correctly. It is also sometimes required
(OLTCs) on the main substation transformer. The turbine PF to include any background/existing “ambient” harmonics and
range capability shall be taken into account. Note some local reactive compensation devices. Typically the
turbines have the ability to vary power factor while others background harmonics are not known at the time of the
maintain a constant power factor. The reactive compensation studies, but may be required if analysis reveals resonance
needs to be modeled also. The types of reactive compensation conditions at characteristic harmonic frequencies.
are discussed in section III.B. The harmonic analysis should cover all reasonable
Typically the power factor range is required at nominal operating scenarios. Different combinations of generation
voltage, but it may also be required if the POI voltage is output, components of the reactive compensation, short-
varied (i.e. +/-5%) while maintaining required power factor circuit levels, etc will need to be modeled. Resonance
range. The reactive compensation system usually is required conditions can occur due to substation switched capacitor
to be operational between +/-10% voltage at the POI, but the banks and power factor correction capacitors (PFCCs) in
available range may have a reduced range during this WTGs. Detuning of the capacitor banks may be required in
condition. The power factor requirement may also change as a some cases, to ensure potential impacts do not negatively
function of the generation level [9]. The WPP does have affect the collector system and equipment. It may not be
auxiliary load that should be included in the analysis. possible to avoid all resonance conditions, but it should be
2) Dynamic Analysis avoided in the most common operating scenarios.
Dynamic analysis is performed to varying degrees between The harmonic generation level requirements may be
projects. This analysis may be provided by the transmission defined in the generation interconnection details. In the
provider/ISO or by the WPP. If the interconnecting utility can United States IEEE Std. 519 [11] is commonly used as a
supply the actual phasor (or rms) model with the base cases guideline for these requirements.
and contingencies this will yield the best results. Some Power quality of the WPP may be limited to the harmonic
utilities do not provide their system details, thus it may be analysis, but may also include flicker calculations. The main
required to build an equivalent utility system model (less concern for flicker is the voltage change that may occur when
preferred) from the known data. In addition to this model a SSD is switched or during WTG startup and cut-in. Large
provided by the interconnecting utility or equivalent system, steps in voltage, 1% to 5% depending upon the turbine
models of all other devices should be added as mentioned manufacturer, may have an adverse effect on the WTG, in
above for the load flow. The turbine dynamic model with particular the gear box. Other flicker concerns due to
actual settings is important. Refer to section IV on voltage continuous or switching operations (such as startup and cut-
ride-through for more detail. in) are usually limited to small wind power plants connected
Dynamic analysis has a base requirement per FERC Order to distribution systems that other customers may be directly
661-A. This requires zero voltage ride through for 3-phase connected to. To analyze this detail of flicker the turbine
faults on the high side of the main power transformer cleared manufacturer needs to provide the associated flicker test data
in 4-9 cycles (depending on the fault clearing times of the of their units.
circuit breakers involved and further definition provided by
the local transmission provider) and single line-ground faults III. REACTIVE POWER FLOW DURING NORMAL OPERATION
with delayed clearing. Typically single line-ground fault The reactive power flow from the grid to the wind plant at
clearing times are provided by the transmission provider. the POI is given, simplified, by the following expression:
The studies may also include the response time of the
complete system to meet the reactive power requirements.
Q poi = Qgen + 3I 2 X − V 2ωC − Qcomp (1)

40
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where Qgen is the leading (inductive) reactive power power compensation equipment and some general principles
consumption of the turbines (which is negative when WTG is of operation.
operating at a lagging (capacitive) power factor), X the
1) Mechanically-Switched Shunt Capacitors
equivalent series reactance of cables, lines and transformers,
Capacitors banks typically consist of a grouping of
C the equivalent shunt reactance of (especially) cables, and
individual capacitor units. The bank is then either considered
Qcomp the reactive-power injected by any centralized reactive
fixed or it can be switched using appropriately rated devices.
power compensation system. For simple induction generators
These banks can either be “metal enclosed” or “open rack”
the reactive power consumption depends on the loading and
design. It is important that special attention be paid to the
on the terminal voltage according to the following
switches. They should be rated for capacitor switching [4]. It
approximation:
is only possible to control slow variations in reactive power.
V2 The capacitive VAr output is a function of the voltage such
Qgen = + 3I 2 X l (2)
Xm that the VArs decrease with the square of the voltage (i.e.
90% voltage will provide 81% VAr capability) Using a
Where Xm and Xl are the magnetizing and leakage
number of capacitor banks of different size, the reactive
reactance, respectively. For DFIG and full-power-converter
power exchange can be kept within a range. Capacitor banks
machines the reactive power can be controlled on the
typically require a 5 minute discharge time before they can be
terminals of the machine or at the grid side of the turbine
re-energized, but there are also designs that allow for shorter
transformer within the WTG capability.
durations on a limited basis.
Without any reactive power compensation, the reactive-
power exchange consists of a term proportional to the square 2) Mechanically-Switched Shunt and Regulated Reactors
of the voltage and a term proportional to the square of the Reactors are typically mechanically switched devices.
current. As the voltage variations are much less than the Again, it is only possible to control slow variations in reactive
current variations, it is the latter term that requires the main power. The inductive VAr output is a function of the voltage
compensation. such that the VArs decrease with the square of the voltage
(i.e. 90% voltage will provide 81% VAr capability).
A. Example
Regulated shunt reactors are shunt reactors equipped with
The generation and consumption range of reactive power a tap-changer as used for voltage control with a transformer.
for 200 MW WPP is summarized in Table I. The WPP Using such a ”regulated shunt-reactor”, a more smooth
consists of 100 2-MW Type 3 WTG with PF capabilities from control of reactive power can be achieved [6]. A study
0.98 leading to 0.98 lagging. A total of 72 MVAR (6 steps, 12 presented in [5] shows the feasibility of this tool for reactive
MVAR each) of reactive power compensation is installed on
power control with large wind power plants.
the substation MV bus. The reactive power generated by the
cables is given for rated voltage. The variations in collector 3) Static Var Compensator
cable reactive-power generation are small during normal An SVC is typically a fixed shunt capacitance in parallel
operation. The reactive power consumed by the series with reactance that is controlled using thyristors. This type of
reactance of the cables and transformers is given for rated controller is made using static components. When the
current. The reactive-power consumption varies with the thyristors are used in the control process, then the controller is
square of the current. It is this variation that requires considered dynamic. These allow for a control of reactive
compensation to meet the requirements at the POI. power at time scales down to the order of a 100 milliseconds.
Additional filters must be used to avoid harmonics which are
TABLE I
REACTIVE POWER FLOWS FOR A CERTAIN OPERATING SCENARIO IN A 200 MW
created when the current wave shape distorts from the
WPP thyristor switching. Further details on SVC can be found in
Elements of WPP Reactive power Reactive power IEEE Std.1031.
generated at rated consumed at rated
voltage current Transmission Voltage
Substation transformer (235 ------ 38 Mvar
MVA, 345/34.5 kV) POI
Substation based reactive 0 to 72 Mvar ------
compensation
Collector 38 kV cables/OH lines 11 Mvar 7 Mvar
WTG Transformers ------ 23 Mvar
WTGs (Type 3, PF range from 0 to 40 Mvar 0 to 40 Mvar Medium Voltage
0.98 leading to 0.98 lagging)
Total 11 to 123 Mvar 68 to 108 Mvar

B. Types of Reactive Power Compensation Collector Feeder Circuit SVC

The following is a listing of the main types of reactive Figure 1. Typical configuration of SVC for WPPs.

41
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MVAR from WTG’s, assuming WTG’s have the

4) Static Synchronous Compensator capability. This solution should be able to hit a specific
A STATCOM is a voltage-source converter. It does not power factor or voltage target under all conditions.
use thyristors for switching, but instead uses IGBT (Insulated- Qty 1 – -50 to +100 Mvar SVC. This solution will be
Gate Bipolar Transistor) or IGCT (Integrated Gate able to hit a specific power factor or voltage target
Commutated Thyristor) switching devices to either source or under all conditions.
sink reactive power to the electric network. Some STATCOM Qty 1 – -50 to +100 Mvar STATCOM. This solution
units may have short-time overload capabilities for 2 to 4 will be able to hit a specific power factor or voltage
seconds. The VAr output is a linear function of the voltage, target under all conditions.
VArs decrease linearly with the voltage (i.e. 90% voltage will The choice of reactive power compensation system is an
provide 90% VAr capability) since they are constant current economic decision considering initial investment and life-
controllers. cycle cost, where the requirements set by the network
operator act as an important boundary condition.
Transmission Voltage

POI IV. VOLTAGE RIDE-THROUGH

Transmission system operators often put strict
Medium Voltage requirements on the voltage ride-through of wind power
plants. The details of the requirements differ between network
operators and this paper does not aim at covering all possible
requirements. There are however some common elements in
Collector Feeder Circuit ~ most of the requirements on voltage ride-through.
STATCOM =
• A worst-case voltage dip is defined for which the wind
Figure 2. Typical configuration of STATCOM for WPPs. power plant should remain connected to the grid. In
many cases a fault at the POI is assumed with a given
duration. After the fault a slow voltage recovery is
5) WTGs assumed.
WTGs can provide or consume reactive power, depending • The wind power plant production should recover to its
on the type. Simple induction generators typically employ pre-fault value within a certain time after fault clearing.
PFCCs to correct the power factor at the terminals of the • Some network operators also put requirements on
machine to unity of near unity. DFIG and full converter-based active and/or reactive power flows during the fault.
WTGs can operate dynamically over a defined power factor Not all network operators have such requirements in place,
range (e.g. 0.95 inductive to 0.95 capacitive). A specific but it is to be expected that with the growing penetration of
turbine may have different steady state vs. dynamic capability. wind power, soon all transmission network operators will
Refer to a companion WG paper for more details on WTG enforce rather strict requirements on voltage ride-through.
reactive power capabilities.
A. Design requirements
C. Choice of reactive power compensation Different solutions for voltage ride-through have been
The reactive power compensation for a wind plant typically developed and are under development by different wind
consists of a combination of different technologies. Assume turbine manufacturers. Voltage ride-through may be obtained
that the reactive power required to be generated by the wind by making the turbine immune against the worst-case voltage
power plant, is between inductive 50 Mvar to capacitive 100 dips or in combination with certain measures in the collection
Mvar. Some of the possible solutions could be: grid. It is possible that the WTG does have VRT capability
Qty 2 – 25 Mvar switched shunt reactors and Qty 4- and still fails to comply with the interconnect VRT
25 Mvar switched shunt capacitors. This solution will requirements.
not be able to hit a specific power factor or voltage In this section we will discuss some of the aspects of
target under all conditions. voltage-ride-through, without being able to go into details.
Qty 4 – 12.5 Mvar switched shunt reactors and Qty 8- The requirements on voltage-ride-through also have their
12.5 Mvar switched shunt capacitors. This solution will consequences on the protection and coordination of the
be able to hit more specific power factor or voltage WTGs.
targets, but still not all under all conditions. 1) During-fault behavior
Qty 1 – 25 Mvar switched shunt reactor, Qty 1- 25 A fault at the POI will put severe restrictions on the
Mvar regulated reactor and Qty 4 – 25 Mvar switched amount of active power that can be produced by the turbines.
shunt capacitors. This solution should be able to come Consider a simple model with one aggregated turbine
close to a specific power factor or voltage target under connected to the POI through an impedance Z = R + jX. For a
all conditions. three-phase fault at the POI, the active and reactive power
Qty 2 – 25 Mvar switched shunt capacitors and +/-50 flows from the turbines towards the grid are:

42
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V2 stringent than this so that additional measures are needed.

P= R (3)
Z2
V2
Q= 2 X (4)
Z
where V is the terminal voltage of the turbines. Note that
the power flowing into the grid is zero since the voltage at the
POI is zero. This may result in the turbines accelerating and in
power electronic converters either tripping or reaching their
current limit. It is important to ensure that no dangerous
overspeed is reached and that the converters remain
connected or are reconnected quickly once the voltage has
recovered
2) Post-fault recovery
The behavior after the fault depends strongly on the type of
machine. With type 1 and 2 WTG’s, sufficient reactive power
should be available to bring the machines back to their Fig. 3. Voltage ride-through of a wind power plant with induction machines
nominal speed. A design rule, for industrial systems with large without any additional ride-through measures as a function of the short circuit
ratio.
amounts of induction machines, is that the grid should be able
to supply six times the rated power of the machines as
reactive power, without the voltage at the machine terminals C. Simulations
dropping below 0.7 pu. Additional sources of reactive power Once a preliminary design for the wind plant has been
may be needed for this in wind power plants due to the large chosen, a dynamic simulation of the complete wind plant is
distances between the individual turbines. Sometimes a needed to verify if it fulfills the requirements on voltage ride-
collector based solution (not within the turbine) is used. through. Such a simulation should contain a detailed model of
An additional problem with DFIG machines is that the the turbines, including their control system, and of the
controller should be able to detect the transition from fault to complete collection grid. Any control equipment (like SVC or
post-fault. The response is dependent on the pre-fault switched capacitor banks) present in the collection grid should
operating state of the WTG (e.g., supersynchronous vs. also be included in the model.
subsynchronous speed), the nature of the fault (balanced or It is strongly recommended to use a time-domain model
unbalanced), and the specific measures taken by the WTG (also known as “electromagnetic transient model”) instead of
manufacturer to limit the converter DC link voltage during just a phasor model (also known as “rms model”).
these events. If the WTG does not crowbar during VRT it To fulfill the voltage ride-through requirements it is also
typically can supply reactive power during this time, if it does needed to obtain information from the turbine manufacturer
crowbar it will consume reactive power similar to a Type 1 about the behavior of the turbines during low voltage
WTG. The voltage at the turbine terminals needs to have situations. In many cases it will be needed to obtain black-box
recovered sufficiently for the DFIG controller to be able to models of the turbines and their control system.
switch back to normal operation. This may require some Various studies have shown that aggregated or simplified
central source of reactive power as well. The details of this models may not give accurate results of the voltage ride
depend on the design of the turbine and its controller. through. Such models may still be used to illustrate the impact
The recovery of turbines with a full power converter is of different parameters and to study different improvement
easier as they do not require any reactive power. Once the methods. However to illustrate the fault-ride-through of a real
voltage at the POI recovers, the voltage at the terminals of the wind power plant against a real grid, a complete and detailed
converters recovers and their controllers can switch back to model is needed.
normal operation.
V. REFERENCES
B. Example
[1] FERC Order No. 661-A, Interconnection for Wind Energy, Docket No.
Wind plants have a certain voltage ride-through capability RM05-4-001, December 2005.
even without additional measures. This depends among others [2] WECC PRC-024-WECC-1, Generator Low Voltage Ride-Through
on the voltage-sag immunity of the turbines. As mentioned Criterion, Post Draft, September 2008.
[3] Y. Lei, A. Mullane, and G. Lightbody, “Modeling of the wind turbine with
before, for induction generators the source impedance at the a doubly fed induction generator for grid integration study,” IEEE Trans.
generator terminals is an important factor as well. The Energy Conversion, vol. 21, pp. 257-264, Mar. 2006.
voltage-ride-through of such a wind power plant is shown in [4] IEEE Standard for Requirements for Capacitor Switches for AC Systems
(1 kV to 38 kV), IEEE Std. C37.66-2005.
Fig. 3 for two values of the short-circuit ratio (SCR) [7]. The
requirements set by the network operator are typically more

43
 7

[5] M. Bollen, C. Bengtsson, L.H. Nielsen, P.H. Larsen, S.D. Mikkelsen,

“Application of regulated shunt reactor for off-shore wind farms,” in
CIGRE Symposium, Brugge, Belgium, October 2007.
[6] G. Bertagnolli, A. Babare, F. Iliceto, F.M. Gatta, “Design and application
of variable Mvar output shunt reactors with on load tap-changer, Operation
experience in Africa,” in CIGRE Sessions 1998, Paris, France, paper 12-
308.
[7] Cuong Le, results from the MSc project at Chalmers University of
Technology, report under preparation.
[8] T. Petru, T. Thiringer, “Modeling of wind turbines for power system
studies,” IEEE Trans. Power Systems, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 1132-1139,
November 2002.
[9] The Grid Code, UK issued by National Grid Electricity Transmission plc,
Electricity codes regulatory Frameworks.
[10] Wind Plant Collector Design WG, “Characteristics of Wind Turbine
Generators for Wind Power Plants,” in Proc. 2009 IEEE Power and
Energy Society General Meeting, Calgary, Canada, July 2009.
[11] IEEE Std. 519-1992, IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements
for Harmonic Control in Electric Power Systems.

44
 1

Wind Power Plant Grounding, Overvoltage

Protection, and Insulation Coordination
IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group

Contributing Members: E.H. Camm, M. R. Behnke, O. Bolado, M. Bollen, M. Bradt, C. Brooks, W. Dilling,
M. Edds, W. J. Hejdak, D. Houseman, S. Klein, F. Li, J. Li, P. Maibach, T. Nicolai, J. Patiño, S. V. Pasupulati,
N. Samaan, S. Saylors, T. Siebert, T. Smith, M. Starke, R. Walling

or more phases and ground. The severity of temporary

Abstract-- Proper insulation coordination is critical to overvoltages during faults is closely associated with the
achieving expected life from wind plant equipment. The collector degree of system grounding provided to a circuit, and thus
systems of large wind plants require the application of surge system grounding is the term relevant to the insulation
arresters to protect the equipment insulation from transient
coordination process.
overvoltages. The application of surge arresters is constrained by
maximum operating and temporary overvoltage levels. This In this paper, system grounding will be addressed first, as an
paper provides a tutorial description of the process of selecting inherent part of the insulation coordination process. For
and applying surge arresters to wind plant medium voltage completeness, the subject of equipment grounding, or
collector systems, with emphasis on the peculiar properties of this bonding, is addressed at the end of the paper.
application.
II. WIND PLANT VOLTAGE ENVIRONMENT
Index Terms-- Overvoltage protection, arresters, wind power
generation. A. Continuous Operating Voltage
I. INTRODUCTION Wind plant collector systems tend to operate over a wide
voltage range. In addition to the voltage range of the
P ROPER grounding, overvoltage protection, and insulation
coordination are essential to protecting valuable wind
power plant equipment from damaging overvoltages and to
transmission system to which the wind plant is
interconnected, there is additional voltage range caused by the
real and reactive power flows within the plant. The MV
facilitate cost-effective collection system design. This paper cables tend to have a large resistive component of impedance,
has been developed by the Wind Plant Collector System resulting in significant voltage rise with increasing real power
Design Working Group as a summary of technical output from the wind turbine generators. Thus, the remote
considerations related to these subjects. ends of wind plant feeders may tend to operate with a high
The word “grounding” is used in two very different voltage when grid voltage is high and the wind plant power
technical terms, and this has been the source of considerable output is high. Detailed load flow studies are needed to
misunderstanding. One usage is “equipment grounding”, or determine worst-case voltages on the collector system. These
bonding. The purpose of equipment grounding is to provide a voltages establish a constraint on the minimum arrester
low impedance path between the exposed parts and casing of MCOV that can be selected.
equipment, including the wind turbine tower itself, and other
equipment not normally electrified (e.g., blades, turbine gear B. Temporary Overvoltages
trains, etc.), and local ground. Equipment grounding is There are situations that can occur in wind plants that
primarily concerned with personnel safety and the protection produce far more severe TOV than is normally encountered in
of equipment from external sources of electrification. typical MV utility distribution systems. These TOVs are a
The other usage is the term “system grounding” which has critical factor in wind plant insulation coordination. There are
a purpose quite different from apparatus grounding [1]. several causes for these overvoltages.
System grounding pertains to providing a reference point for 1) Ground Faults
the voltages on the three electrical phases with respect to In a three-phase system, a ground fault on one phase will
ground. Stated differently, system grounding provides a zero- cause the unfaulted phase voltages to rise if the X0/X1 ratio at
sequence source impedance sufficiently low to meet system the fault location is greater than one. Typical practice is to
design objectives. System grounding defines the currents and provide effective grounding (X0/X1 < +3) within the collector
voltages obtained in case of a fault (short-circuit) between one system. Attention needs to be given to ensure that this ratio
threshold is achieved throughout the collector system,

978-1-4244-4241-6/09/$25.00 ©2009 IEEE 45

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including remote ends of feeders. With effective grounding, Another consequence of the “capacitive grounding” of a
TOV from ground faults tends to be within the capability of nominally ungrounded feeder is the fact that the fault arc can
arresters selected based on the MCOV. However, some clear itself, due to the very low fault current present once the
plants have been designed with impedance grounding that feeder is isolated, and then restrike. The restrike triggers a
intentionally results in a higher X0/X1 ratio. Maximum voltage oscillation and the arc may again interrupt at a current
unfaulted phase voltages need to be calculated at each arrester zero, trapping an even higher voltage. This process can
location for any ground fault, as well as expected duration of repeat, escalating the voltage to higher and higher levels.
the fault. This establishes a constraint on the minimum TOV To avoid these TOVs, many wind plants are constructed
capability of the applied arresters. with dedicated grounding transformers on each wind plant
2) Loss of Ground Reference feeder. This eliminates the possibility of ungrounded
Typically, neither wind turbine generators (WTGs), nor operation due to feeder isolation. The sizing of the grounding
their unit step-up transformers, provide neutral grounding for transformers must consider the rating of the WTGs connected
the wind plant MV system. The wind plant substation to the feeder, the WTG characteristics, and the amount of
provides the normal source of grounding for the collector cable charging capacitance. In some cases, the WTG
feeders. If a ground fault should occur, and a collector feeder behavior for such a feeder isolation condition is sufficiently
is tripped but the wind turbine generators continue to operate, complex to preclude simple calculation of grounding
the feeder becomes isolated without a ground source but with transformer impedance requirements. In such a case, detailed
one phase connected to ground. As a result, unfaulted phase simulations are necessary.
voltages will rise greatly, typically to 1.73 times pre-fault
voltage or more as shown in Figure 1.
3
Field experience has shown that WTGs may continue to

Unfaulted phase-to-ground voltage

2.8
energize an isolated feeder for seconds. The probability that
2.6
WTGs will not trip in response to the fault, but keep
2.4
operating, is greatly enhanced by recent low-voltage ride 2.2
through requirements that have been imposed on wind plants
(p.u.)

2
by grid operators. 1.8
1.6
C B 1.4
1.2
1
N
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000
Feet of 500 kcmil 34.5 kV cable per MVA of WTG

1 p.u.
1 p.u. Figure 2 – Increase of TOV due to feeder capacitance for an isolated feeder
1.73 p.u.
cable with a ground fault applied.

A 3) Self-Excitation
WTGs, when isolated from the grid, can produce
temporary overvoltages due to various phenomena, including
Figure 1 – Illustration of TOV due to a single-phase fault in an ungrounded
system. the phenomenon known as self-excitation. Induction
generators, which have no direct means of voltage control,
The actual TOV can be significantly more severe than the can interact with system capacitance to create high voltages
173% value, due to the capacitance of the isolated feeder. [2]. This occurs when there is capacitive compensation in
The “ungrounded” feeder is not actually ungrounded, but is excess of the magnetizing VARs required by the generator.
grounded via the capacitance of the feeder cables. The Excess compensation can occur when all but one turbine trips
negative reactance of the capacitance results in a negative on a feeder that becomes isolated, and the feeder has a large
X0/X1 ratio, that will further increase unfaulted phase voltage. amount of cable footage, resulting in a high ratio of capacitive
Figure 2 relates TOV to the amount of feeder capacitance, susceptance relative to generator rating.
assuming the WTG is a synchronous source. Note that a fault 4) Transformer Saturation Interaction
may cause some WTGs to trip and not others, allowing the Transformers may become saturated during TOV.
ratio of total cable charging capacitance to the connected However, in contrast to common expectation, saturation does
wind turbine capacity to become much greater than that of the not always limit overvoltage peaks. Peak voltages can be
feeder with all WTGs connected. Because the series increased because saturated transformers inject large amounts
impedance of the collector cable is very small compared to of harmonic current into the system. The system, dominated
the shunt impedance of the cable capacitance, the voltages by generator and transformer inductances and cable
shown in Figure 2 are insensitive to location on the feeder. capacitances, are often resonant near the low-order harmonic
frequencies at which transformer exciting current is injected.

46
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The interaction of the injected harmonic currents, and the padmounted unit transformers. Some collector systems have
high harmonic impedance caused by resonance, can result in a mix of overhead and underground line sections. In these
very large harmonic voltage superimposed on the voltage systems, lightning can enter the MV system by direct strikes
waveform. Sometimes this is called “ferroresonance”, but to the overhead line.
this is not an appropriate use of this term. Lightning is generally considered to be a current source,
5) Ferroresonance and the lightning current rise time can be less than one
True ferroresonance involves a capacitance in series with a microsecond. The fast rise of the current, and the resulting
nonlinear inductance, such as the excitation impedance of an voltage, imposes arrester location considerations due to the
unloaded transformer. Ferroresonance typically occurs as the traveling wave effects.
result of having one or two phases open. A stuck pole on a
collector feeder breaker (open or closed) can result in III. INSULATION COORDINATION
ferroresonance that produces voltage several times normal IEEE Standard 1313.1 defines insulation coordination as
magnitude on the open phases. This overvoltage is due to the “The selection of insulation strength consistent with expected
interaction between the feeder cable capacitance and the overvoltages to obtain an acceptable risk of failure.”[3]
magnetic cores of WTG unit transformers, particularly when Overvoltage protective devices, invariably metal-oxide surge
the WTGs are not connected. Switching unloaded WTG unit arresters, are applied to constrain transient overvoltages, but
transformers phase-by-phase by operating load break elbows these same devices are vulnerable to failure from extended-
or single-phase disconnect switches can also result in duration temporary overvoltages. System grounding plays an
ferroresonance. In this case, the winding capacitance of the important role in minimizing temporary overvoltages. Thus,
unit transformers may alone be sufficient, particularly when the selection of surge arrester, equipment insulation, and
combined with delta-primary transformers or transformers system grounding requirements are inexorably intertwined.
with low core loss.
Ferroresonance is dealt with by avoiding the conditions A. Surge Arrester Characteristics
creating the phenomenon. Breaker failure protection schemes Virtually all surge arresters for MV system application use
avoid continued energization of feeders with one or two metal-oxide varistor (MOV) technology. The MOV is a
phases open. Use of three-phase switches (e.g., internal highly nonlinear resistance, with the current through the MOV
transformer under-oil switches) to energize or deenergize a function of the voltage raised to a very high exponent.
WTG unit transformers, or performing switching operations Under normal operating voltages, the MOV conducts only a
with the feeder deenergized, avoids single-unit very small current, on the order of microamps. This current
ferroresonance. has no significance to the system, but it does have
significance to the arrester because this current causes
C. Switching Transients
heating. One key rating parameter of an arrester is the
Switching of system elements such as cables, lines, and maximum continuous operating voltage (MCOV), and this
capacitor banks, can create transient overvoltages. In a wind relates to the allowable steady-state temperature rise of the
plant, most switching transients are of inadequate severity to arrester.
be either a concern for equipment insulation protection, or a At voltages on the order of twice the maximum peak
concern for surge arrester duty. Typically, the only type of operating voltage, the arrester conducts significant current,
switching event that may be significant is restrike of a sufficient to effectively “clamp” the overvoltage condition. It
capacitor bank switch or breaker during deenergization. is this clamping effect that is employed to protect equipment.
Modern switchgear is designed to make such an event a very A key parameter of the arrester is its voltage protective level,
infrequent occurrence. If a restrike should occur, the which is defined at a specified current, typically 5 kA or
resulting energy duty may exceed the capability of a surge 10 kA. However, for current variations over a considerable
arrester. Transient studies are necessary to determine the range around these current levels, the voltage protective level
energy duty produced by restriking. However, it is not does not change greatly. For the same peak current level, the
common to consider this event as a MV collector system peak discharge voltage of the arrester varies according to the
design constraint. rise time of the applied surge, with higher discharge voltages
D. Lightning Transients for faster rise times.
The dominant risk to equipment insulation is impulsive At currents of this magnitude, the arrester conducts enough
transients due to lightning. Even if a collector system has no current to heat the arrester very rapidly. Another application
overhead lines, it is prudent to consider lightning surge characteristic of an arrester is its energy rating, which defines
protection for equipment. Lightning transients may enter the its ability to withstand transient current discharges without
MV system by various means, including coupling through the excessive overheating or otherwise damaging the MOV
substation power transformer from exposed HV lines, direct elements.
strikes to open-air substation equipment, and from the wind Between the MCOV, and the voltage levels where arrester
turbines via ground potential rise and coupling through the current is sufficient to clamp the voltage, is a range of
voltages where the arrester discharges too much current to

47
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withstand the situation for an extended period, but not so overhead line.
much current that the interaction of the current with the 2) Separation Effects
system impedance causes the applied voltage to be modified. Voltage changes propagate as traveling waves, at near the
These overvoltages can be withstood for a period that is a speed of light in overhead lines and bus work, and at
function of the applied voltage magnitude. Thus, the ability approximately 40% of the speed of light in underground
of surge arresters to withstand voltages in this range is defined cable. For lower frequency phenomena, such as TOV and
as the “temporary overvoltage” (TOV) rating. It is important capacitor switching surges in a collector system, the traveling
to emphasize that, except in very specialized applications, a wave effects are not significant because the propagation time
surge arrester cannot be considered as a means to reduce is a small fraction of the voltage rise time. For lightning
TOV, but rather the arrester must be able to survive the TOV transients, however, the propagation times even within a
to which it is subjected. Thus, TOV conditions in a system substation can be significant compared to the rise time of the
establish a constraint on the minimum arrester voltage rating current. As a result, the lightning transient voltages at an
that can be applied. Sometimes, other means allow the TOV arrester are not the same as that at a piece of equipment that is
to be avoided or minimized, so the unmitigated TOV is not some distance away. Voltages at the equipment can be
always a firm constraint to the overall insulation coordination considerably greater due to the separation effect. In a wind
process. plant substation, arresters are typically installed adjacent to
Surge arrester manufacturers provide a TOV curve that the terminals of the most critical and vulnerable piece of
defines as a function of the duration of exposure the equipment, the substation transformer. Separation effects are
magnitude of sinusoidal fundamental-frequency voltage that considered to coordinate the overvoltage protection of other
can be applied to the arrester without causing failure. This equipment in the substation such as breakers, PTs, etc.
TOV capability is defined in terms of a root-mean-square Reference [4] provides simplified methods for calculating
(rms) voltage magnitude, as a matter of documenting the test separation effects. Alternatively, transient simulations, with
conditions applied. However, it must be emphasized that the the substation bus work modeled as “transmission lines”, can
rms magnitude of a distorted voltage waveform should not be be performed.
used as the basis for comparing the ability of an arrester to 3) Open End Reflection Voltages
survive the distorted TOV. Metal-oxide surge arrester When voltage waves reach the open end of a line, they
conduction is a function of the voltage raised to a very high reflect causing a doubling of the voltage at the end.
exponent, thus thermal duty is overwhelmingly dominated by Reflections also occur when voltage waves reach a
the peaks of the applied voltage. A far better means to discontinuity in line surge impedance, such as a transition
evaluate a distorted TOV is to compare the recurring peak between overhead line and underground cable. Cables have a
magnitude of the distorted voltage to the equivalent peak low surge impedance, and lines have a high surge impedance.
magnitude of the arrester TOV test rms voltage documented Because of voltage doubling, surge arresters located in a
by the manufacturer (sqrt(2)×rms). It should also be noted wind plant substation do not provide good overvoltage
that the published TOV curves describe the duration that a protection for equipment along the collector feeders, even if
particular TOV magnitude can be endured, followed by a the surges only can enter the collector system via the
voltage less than or equal to the MCOV. Although the substation. For this reason, it is highly desirable to locate
arrester TOV curve plots as a voltage magnitude decreasing surge arresters at the ends of each feeder. If a feeder is
with increasing exposure duration, it is incorrect to interpret bifurcated, and thus has many ends, arresters should be
the curve as an envelope of acceptable voltage; the arrester is located at each open point.
not designed to endure a voltage of decreasing magnitude that
follows along the TOV curve line. C. Insulation Coordination Steps
B. Arrester Installation Considerations In the conventional approach described in IEEE C62.22
1) Arrester Lead Length [4], insulation coordination is performed in the following
The rate of lightning current rise (dI/dt) is very large. steps:
Arrester leads, both on the hot end and ground end, create an 1. Select the surge arrester to be used, considering the
inductance proportional to their length. The dI/dt, multiplied maximum continuous operating voltage (MCOV) and
by a few microhenries of lead inductance result in many kV of temporary overvoltage (TOV) constraints, as well as
voltage which must be added to the discharge voltage of surge the type of arrester. The duration of TOV caused by
arresters. For MV arresters, this added lead-length voltage wind plant feeder isolation is difficult to determine
can be a significant increase in the voltage protective level. with accuracy, and can extend for seconds. A common
practice is to coordinate assuming a ten second
For this reason, it is desirable to keep arrester lead lengths as
duration.
short as practical, particularly for arresters at the interface
2. Determine the protective level of this surge arrester at
between overhead and underground sections of hybrid
a “coordinating current” which is the presumed arrester
collector systems that are exposed to the high lightning
discharge current for an impulsive (lightning) transient.
current magnitudes possible from direct strikes to the

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3. Determine where the surge arrester is to be located transmission connection, but does not provide complete zero-
with respect to the protected equipment. Voltage wave sequence isolation. Some transmission operators demand that
behavior can cause voltages to be significantly greater a grounded-wye (HV) delta (MV) transformer be used to
as distance from the arrester is increased. totally isolate the grid from wind plant zero-sequence
4. Determine the voltage at the terminals of the protected currents. A separate grounding transformer is needed on the
equipment. MV bus to provide some degree of system grounding to avoid
5. Select equipment insulation level. extreme TOV. However, a very large grounding transformer
6. Evaluate voltage protection margins. A minimum 20% is necessary to provide an effectively grounded MV system.
margin is desirable. The ground source at the wind plant MV bus typically
7. If margins are inadequate, consider alternatives such as provides effective grounding for the entire MV collector
different arrester placement, higher insulation level,
system, as long as the collector feeders remain connected to
etc.
the bus. Severe TOV can potentially occur on a feeder, if the
For wind plants, a modification of this conventional
feeder should become isolated from the MV bus with the
approach is usually necessary from a practical standpoint.
WTGs remaining in operation, due to loss of ground and
Wind plant collector systems have similarity in topology and
possible self-excitation. There are several strategies
voltage level with primary distribution systems. Commodity
described below for mitigating feeder TOVs related to feeder
distribution-grade equipment is usually much less expensive
islanding.
than substation-grade equipment, and is thus favored for wind
plant collector system design. For example, WTG unit step- A. Grounding Transformer Application
up transformers are usually large three-phase padmounted Application of grounding transformers on each collector
distribution transformers. The insulation level choices feeder can reduce TOV due to the loss of ground reference
available for commodity distribution transformers are limited. phenomenon in the event that the feeder becomes isolated
Therefore, the usual insulation coordination process for wind from the substation bus, and the wind turbines continue to
plants is to select the available insulation level of commodity generate. A grounding transformer will stabilize a ground
distribution transformers, select the arresters needed to fault arc, by increasing its magnitude, and thus avoid the
protect that insulation level, and then determine amount of repetitive fault arc restriking that can lead to extremely
TOV that can be withstood. Using this knowledge, design escalated overvoltages in a system that is not intentionally
steps are taken to avoid or mitigate the TOV, such that the grounded (and thus grounded unintentionally via capacitance).
desired arrester voltage rating can be applied. In some cases, The impedance of the grounding transformer must be chosen
the designers of wind plant collector systems have chosen to so that the unfaulted phase voltages during a ground fault, and
ignore the TOV constraints, with the expectation that TOV subsequent cable isolation, are within the temporary
events are rare. However, some of these wind plants have overvoltage capability of the surge arresters. With
experienced numerous surge arrester failures, with synchronous generators, this grounding transformer
consequential generation unavailability due to the failures. impedance can be easily calculated. However, direct
There are also risks to equipment and personnel from ignoring calculation is not adequate for wind generation. This is due to
TOV, as explained later in this paper. the complexities of self-excitation, in the case of induction
wind generators, and interactions between controls, power
IV. MITIGATION OF TOV electronics, and the isolated system in the case of doubly-fed
Mitigation of TOV in wind plants allows surge arresters to and full-conversion wind generators. Detailed transient
be applied that provide adequate surge protection margins for simulations studies (using EMTP or equivalent tools), with
equipment with economically preferable insulation levels, detailed representation of any power electronic converters and
while avoiding undue risk of arrester failure. associated controls, are essential to defining the necessary
For the HV bus of the wind plant collector substation, a grounding transformer impedance and current capacity.
design that provides an effectively grounded system, under all Grounding transformers provide no mitigation in the event
circumstances, is desirable to avoid excessive TOV. While of a feeder islanding event where there is no permanent
the transmission grid might provide effective grounding to the ground fault on the feeder, and overvoltages are produced by
HV bus when the wind power plant is connected to the grid, self-excitation or interaction of the wind turbine generators
isolation (islanding) of the plant could remove this source of with the abnormal system impedance.
grounding. Therefore, the substation design should provide a Installation of a grounding transformer on a feeder
local source of grounding to the HV bus. eliminates the risk of ferroresonant overvoltages due to one or
The MV bus of the collector substation is generally two feeder breaker phases stuck open or closed.
effectively grounded as well. A substation power transformer When grounding transformers are located on the feeder
winding configuration providing ground sources to both the side of the breaker, the reverse ground current contribution to
HV and MV buses is the grounded-wye grounded-wye, with adjacent feeder faults should be considered. This may require
delta tertiary, connection. This winding configuration reduces directionality of the feeder breaker ground relay due to
zero-sequence coupling between the collector system and the coordination issues with adjacent feeders.

49
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A grounding transformer is rated the neutral or ground 3) Wye-Broken Delta Grounding Transformers
current that the transformer is designed to carry under fault A variation of the grounded-wye delta grounding
conditions for a specified time, and the normal line-to-neutral transformer is one where the delta secondary is “broken” to
voltage. A one-minute-duration current rating is often used for allow insertion of an external impedance (typically
grounding transformers, though other ratings can be specified resistance). This allows the zero-sequence impedance to be
depending upon the probable duty to be imposed on the unit increased above the leakage impedance of the transformer
in service. The grounding transformer is continuously rated without inserting a resistor between the neutral of the wye
for a specific current at rated phase-neutral voltage, without primary and ground. This approach has application where it
exceeding the temperature rise of the insulation class as is desired to make a direct connection from the wye point to
specified in ANSI/IEEE Std. 32 [5]. For example, the ground, while increasing the zero-sequence impedance (such
standard requires, for a 1-minute rated unit, a continuous as to limit the magnitude of ground fault current). The
rating of 7% of maximum thermal current. resistance in the broken delta has a lower voltage rating and
For the same short circuit level, the zig-zag transformer will cost less than the higher voltage grounding resistance in
will have a smaller physical size in comparison to the wye- the wye-delta grounding transformer.
delta transformer. The zig-zag transformer is a custom-made
transformer. As a result, the procurement lead time for a B. Transfer Tripping
zig-zag transformer is usually much longer than the lead time Wind turbine generator tripping to remove all sources of
for procurement of a wye-delta grounding transformer. A generation from an isolated collector cable is a means to avoid
brief explanation of different types of grounding transformers overvoltages on islanded collector feeders. Because
is given in the next subsections [6-9]. overvoltages can be severe, and the ability of normally-rated
surge arresters to survive these overvoltages is very limited, it
1) Zig-Zag Grounding Transformer is important that the generators cease to energize the isolated
Each core leg of the zig-zag transformer has two coils
system by the time that the circuit breaker at the substation
wound on it. One coil is the outer coil and the other is the
interrupts. Thus, it is generally not a feasible solution to
inner coil. Each coil has the same number of windings turns
detect the isolation at each wind turbine through local voltage
but they are wound in opposite directions. Each phase has two
or current measurements, such as in an anti-islanding relay,
coils, which are wound on different core legs. Each of the
and then execute generator tripping. To do so exposes the
inner coils are connected together at one end to form the
system to a potentially severe overvoltage condition for the
neutral which is tied to ground either directly or through a
entire detection time plus the time to effect the deenergization
grounding resistor. A zig-zag grounding transformer can
(e.g., wind turbine generator breaker interruption time).
either be dry type or oil-filled.
A transfer trip scheme, with high-speed communications
Under normal system operation, with only positive
between the substation protection system and the individual
sequence voltage applied, the outer and inner coil windings’
wind turbine generators, is usually necessary to implement a
magnetic flux will cancel each other and only negligible
tripping solution. The transfer trip signal needs to be initiated
current will flow in the neutral of the zig–zag transformer.
by the protective relays causing the collector cable circuit
Application of zero sequence voltage, as during a ground
breaker to trip. The communication delay, plus the time
fault, the zig-zag transformer’s coils magnetic fluxes are no
needed to interrupt energization by the generators must be
longer in balance allowing zero sequence current to flow.
less than or equal to the interruption time of the collector
2) Wye-Delta Grounding Transformer cable circuit breaker to avoid isolation prior to deenergization.
A grounded-wye delta transformer will provide grounding In many cases, the trip signal to the collector cable circuit
functionally equivalent to a zig-zag transformer. The breakers at the substation may need to be intentionally
grounding function is independent of whether any load is delayed in order to coordinate generator tripping with
applied to the delta. Therefore, in a pure grounding collector cable isolation. The communication means used to
application, the delta winding need not have connection implement transfer tripping is typically fiber optic or radio,
terminals. but also power line carrier and hard-wired communication is
The neutral terminal of the wye winding is connected to also used.
ground either directly or through a neutral grounding resistor
C. High-Speed Grounding Switches
or reactor (i.e., impedance grounded).
An unloaded wye-delta grounding transformer provides A means to avoid TOV on an islanded feeder is to simply
high impedance to positive or negative sequence voltage apply a three-phase fault to the feeder with a high-speed
excitation, with only a small magnetizing current flow. grounding switch. This switch can be located at the
Application of zero-sequence voltage causes a current to substation and operated whenever the feeder breaker opens.
circulate in the delta, thus allowing current flow in the Reliable synchronization of the feeder breaker interruption
grounded wye winding. and the grounding switch closing is essential to minimize the
duration of any TOV due to islanding. Poor synchronization,
where the grounding switch closes before the breaker

50
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interrupts, exposes the WTGs on other feeders, and the grid, the failed metal-oxide varistor disks out of the circuit.
to unnecessary fault transients and can expose the crowbar This can leave the protected equipment exposed to
switch to very high momentary currents. Interlocking of the future overvoltage events, and may leave the
breaker and grounding switch actions is desirable. On the equipment exposed to the TOV event causing the
other hand, any delay in closing of the grounding switch arrester failure if the short-circuit current available
exposes arresters and other equipment to overvoltages, and during feeder isolation is sufficiently small such that
thus the time between feeder interruption and ground switch the arrester failure fault self-extinguishes.
closing needs to be coordinated with surge arrester TOV Surge arresters failing due to TOV often do not
withstand capability. present readily visible evidence of failure, particularly
If the grounding switch is located within a bus differential prior to re-energization of the feeder from a strong
zone, to avoid misoperation of the differential protection short-circuit source (i.e., substation). After an
when the feeder breaker is open, current transformers will be isolation event of a feeder without TOV mitigation
needed for subtraction of grounding switch currents from the means, all arresters should be removed from service
differential current circuits. Otherwise, if these crowbar and tested, or alternatively all arresters should be
switch currents cannot be subtracted from the differential, the replaced.
differential current transformers will need to be located on the
bus side of this type of feeder breaker. This can significantly V. SYSTEM GROUNDING AT THE SUBSTATION
extend the feeder breaker failure clearing time, typically from The prior discussions of system grounding pertain to the
nine to fifteen cycles. collector feeders, with the assumption that the normal source
Closing a grounding switch on an islanded feeder does not grounding in the MV collection system is provided from the
make a significant step in real power, and thus does not substation bus. The selection of the wind plant’s main power
introduce a significant torque transient to the wind turbine transformer(s) winding configuration is critical to system
generator mechanical systems. Torque is associated with real neutral grounding. Assuming the utility transmission system
power and the only real power delivered by the WTGs after is effectively grounded, a grounded-wye-wye transformer will
ground switch closing is to supply I2R losses in the generator pass through the grid’s ground source to the MV level. If,
windings, transformers, and cables. The fault current is however, the wind plant becomes disconnected from the grid,
primarily limited by the inductive reactance (X) of the the source of grounding is lost. A delta (HV) grounded-wye
generators and transformers, and the resistive component of (MV) power transformer provides good system grounding for
total impedance is small. Thus, the positive torque step the MV system. However, in the event of separation from the
caused by applying the grounding switch is much smaller than grid, the HV side is not grounded. The solution used in most
the negative step caused by isolating the feeder. current wind power plants is to use a grounded-wye-wye
D. Do Nothing – Accept Failures transformer with a delta tertiary. The delta tertiary provides a
ground source to both the MV and HV levels.
A strategy used by some wind plant designers is to
Some utilities demand that wind plants use a grounded-wye
purposely do nothing about the TOV caused by feeder
(HV) delta (MV) transformer, identical to the connection
isolation and to accept the equipment failures that may result.
typically used for conventional power plants. This connection
Surge arresters are the most equipment most vulnerable to
provides no grounding for the MV system. If grounding
TOV, and the expected failure mode of arresters is to become
transformers are connected to the individual feeders, these
a low shunt impedance or short circuit, thus sacrificially
transformers together will provide some degree of grounding
protecting other equipment. Distribution-class surge arresters
for the MV bus, only to the degree that the feeders are
are relatively low-cost equipment, particularly when
connected. If all feeders are disconnected, the MV bus will
compared to the costs of the various options for limiting
not be grounded at all. If the feeder grounding transformers
TOV.
are sized for the purpose of providing grounding to control
There are some potential pitfalls with this strategy,
TOV during feeder isolation events, their zero-sequence
however:
admittance will be much too small to provide effective
Surge arresters are designed and tested to fail in a
grounding when the power transformer is connected to the
manner specified by IEEE Standard C62.11 [10]. The
strong short-circuit source of the grid. Therefore, where a
conditions of the standard test do not reflect all the
grounded-wye delta power transformer is mandated by the
conditions of TOV failure that may occur in the field.
utility, a very large and expensive grounding transformer is
Failure of arresters, particularly delayed failure that
needed on the MV bus if effective grounding is desired. It
may occur after an islanded feeder is reconnected to
may be possible to design the MV system to have acceptable
the substation, can be eventful and is not without risks
insulation coordination with a high-impedance ground using a
of personal injury and consequential damage.
smaller grounding transformer. This can be very challenging
A surge arrester, particularly a distribution class
where a 34.5 kV collector voltage is used because of the
arrester, may fail to an open circuit condition due to
unavailability of distribution-grade equipment that has
excess TOV that causes the housing to fail and drop

51
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sufficient insulation levels (BIL). step potentials around the WTG tower base, due to lightning
and MV ground fault currents.
VI. APPARATUS GROUNDING WTG grounding systems typically consist of a perimeter
ring of bare copper with driven rods that serve as the
A. Collector Substation grounding electrode. A specified maximum resistance to earth
The grounding, or earth bonding, of the collector is typically specified by WTG manufacturers, usually 1 to 10
substation is essential for control of step and touch potentials ohms.
resulting from ground faults, due to the very high fault current A new approach to grounding design eliminates the WTG
capacity present. Substation grounding design for a wind grounding ring, replacing it with designs that utilize the
plant is identical to the practices used for utility and industrial turbine’s foundation metal and concrete as a grounding
substations. electrode. To ensure mechanical and electrical continuity
connections between the foundation ground conductor require
B. Wind Turbine Generator
specific clamps that are rated for grounding purposes; and any
Providing an adequate equipment grounding, or bonding, place where the conductor crosses rebar in the foundation it is
system within the design of the WTGs is critical for secured with wire ties to make sure it does not shift when the
protection of personnel, equipment and buildings, as well as concrete is poured.
the reduction of electrical noise, proper operation of electrical Some grounding designs also include bare ground
and electronic communication and control equipment, and conductors interconnecting the WTGs in the wind plant. If
protective circuit breakers and fuses. Apparatus grounding these interconnecting cables share a common trench with the
within a WTG is part of the WTG design and installation, and power cables, voltages across the cable jacket are reduced.
is not a collector system design issue. Otherwise, these interconnections provide limited benefit for
The apparatus grounding issue germane to collector design lightning surges, due to surge propagation effects.
is the bonding of the WTG to the earth. A good earth
electrode design provides a path for lightning current, and a VII. REFERENCE
path for MV-system ground fault currents. (The LV system at
[1] IEEE Guide for the Application of Neutral Grounding in Electrical
the wind turbine generator is typically a “locally derived” Utility Systems—Part I: Introduction, IEEE Standard C62.92.1-2000,
system using a delta (MV) grounded-wye (LV) unit April 4, 2001.
transformer winding connection. Any LV ground fault [2] W. E. Feero and W. B. Gish, “Overvoltages Caused by DSG Operation:
Synchronous and Induction Generators,” IEEE Trans. Power Delivery,
currents stay locally within the confines of the WTG and vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 258 - 264 Jan. 1986.
transformer.) Large earth electrode impedance will cause [3] IEEE Standard for Insulation Coordination—Definitions, Principles, and
elevation of the potential of the electrode, and the WTG Rules, IEEE Standard 1313.1-1996, Oct. 2, 1996.
[4] Guide for the Application of Metal-Oxide Surge Arresters for
structure bonded to it, in the event of a lighting strike to the Alternating-Current Systems, IEEE Standard C62.22-1997, July 17, 1998.
WTG. The earth connection impedance, however, has little [5] IEEE Standard Requirements, Terminology, and Test Procedure for
impact on voltage differences at the WTG, and thus does not Neutral Grounding Devices, ANSI/IEEE Standard 32-1972 (Reaffirmed
directly affect insulation levels or surge arrester requirements. 1990).
[6] E. W. Bogins, Industrial Power Systems GER-2659 Grounding
Some manufacturers, however, tie LV surge arrester Transformers.
requirements to the resistance of the WTG earth electrode. [7] Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference Book, ABB, 1997.
A poor earth electrode, however, will cause large surge [8] E. R. Detjen and K. R. Shah, “Grounding Transformer Applications and
Associated Protection Schemes,” IEEE Trans. Industrial Applications,
currents to pass through the concentric neutral conductors of vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 788-796, Jul.-Aug. 1992.
the MV collector cables. Insulated-jacket cable is commonly [9] iGard, Neutral Grounding Resistors Technical Information Application
used, and these surges can cause large potential differences Guide, available online at: http://www.i-gard.com/appguides.htm
[10] IEEE Standard for Metal-Oxide Surge Arresters for AC Power Circuits
between the cable neutral and local ground at locations (> 1 kV), IEEE Standard C62.11-2005.
remote from the WTG where a lightning strike occurs. This
can cause breakdown of the jacket insulation, and a flashover
from the neutral to the local soil. Compromise of the cable
jacket does not have an immediate impact on operation of the
cable. The piercing of the jacket, however, can allow a path
for moisture ingress, possibly leading to long-term breakdown
of the cable’s major insulation (core to neutral) and corrosion
of the neutral strands. A poor earth connection will also cause
surge currents to propagate over any metallic communication
wires connecting the WTG to remote facilities. This can
cause damaging voltage surges at the remote facilities. For
this reason, the use of fiber communication links to WTGs is
common.
A poor earth electrode design can also result in increased

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Arc-Flash Hazard in Wind Power Plants

IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group

Contributing Members: M. Bradt, M. R. Behnke, T.A. Bellei, W. G. Bloethe, C. Brooks, E.H. Camm,
W. Dilling, B. Goltz, J. Li, J. Niemira, K. Nuckles, J. Patiño, M. Reza, B. Richardson, N. Samaan, J. Schoene,
T. Smith, I. Snyder, M. Starke, K. Tay, R. Walling, G. Zahalka

Abstract— The topic of this paper is the arc-flash hazard in • Overvoltage conditions
Wind Power Plants (WPP). A brief introduction of the concept • A combination of the above.
of arc flash is followed by the presentation of a methodology to
perform an arc-flash hazard analysis on a WPP collector system. In power systems the path of the arc can be between two
Issues such as faults being fed by multiple sources, as well as the phases, multiple phases, single phase and ground, and multiple
modeling of the fault current of the wind turbine generator are phases and ground. The arc flash is surrounded by a conduc-
addressed. The paper concludes with two examples using the tive plasma cloud and often vaporized conductive material,
presented methodology.
which increases the likelihood of a single-phase fault making
Index Terms— Arc-flash hazard, shock hazard, wind power contact with nearby phases and escalating into a three-phase
plants. fault. This is more likely to happen on systems with low insu-
lation level and at locations with small clearance between
I. INTRODUCTION conductors, such as low-voltage systems and switchgear
equipment. For these cases a single-phase fault often escalates
This paper investigates and discusses the arc-flash hazard
into a three-phase fault within a few milliseconds (Schau and
in a Wind Power Plant (WPP) collector system. It will define
Stade, 1995).
an arc-flash calculation methodology for multiple sources and
A large amount of energy is released during an arc flash,
provide two examples of the methodology.
primarily in the form of heat. The burn hazard during an arc
The approach this paper will be as follows: Section II dis-
flash is the main concern for worker safety (e.g. Lee, 1982).
cusses the arc-flash hazard in general – the causes of arcs, the
Additionally, the energy released in the form of pressure is of
available models to calculate incident energy levels and cer-
concern for worker safety since the pressure wave can directly
tain concerns, which are specific to wind power plants. Sec-
injure the worker or can destroy objects resulting in shrapnel
tion III describes the possible mitigation strategies – defining
that can injure the worker (Lee, 1987). The part of the arc
an arc-flash protection boundary, the types of personal protec-
flash that is associated with the release of a pressure wave is
tive equipment (PPE) available, and possible means of reduc-
commonly referred to as the ‘arc blast’ (Dugan, 2007).
ing incident energy levels through various technologies. Sec-
The arc-flash fault current is generally smaller than the
tion IV presents a detailed, structured method to calculate arc-
bolted fault current of the system due to the impedance of the
flash incident energy levels in a WPP. Section V concludes
arc. The incident energy is the energy impressed on a surface
the paper with two examples.
at a certain distance from the arc and is used as a measure to
II. ARC-FLASH HAZARD quantify the burn hazard from an arc-flash.
Arc-flash energy is transferred to the surroundings by con-
A. General Description of Arc-flash Hazard duction, convection, and radiation energies (Wilkins et al.,
An electric arc is the result of the electrical breakdown of 2004). For enclosed equipment, a substantial part of the
an insulator (typically air) resulting in current flowing through arc-flash energy is also converted to pressure. Figure 1 illu-
the insulator. An arc-flash fault is often caused by: strates the energy dissipation for open-space and enclosed-
• Human mistake (e.g., dropping a tool, accidental con- space configuration. For arcs in open spaces, the geometry of
tact with live parts) the energy emission is spherical and consequently the fraction
• Environment (e.g., contamination, water vapor) of the total arc energy that is emitted as radiant energy is pro-
• Equipment failure (e.g., insufficient insulation, deteri- portional to 1/D2. On the other hand, there is a focusing effect
orated insulation, corrosion) for the enclosed-space configuration, which increases the
energy emitted in the direction of the opening. Consequently,
the radiation emitted from the box is less divergent than for
the spherical geometry resulting in a distance relationship of
1/Dx with the distance exponential x being smaller than 2.

978-1-4244-6547-7/10/$26.00 © 2010 IEEE 53

 2

faults in enclosed spaces using adjustment factors. Note that

most arc faults start as single-phase faults and escalate to
three-phase faults within a few milliseconds. A complete de-
scription of the theory behind the Duke Power model and the
ARCPRO model is not publicly available and consequently it
is difficult to evaluate the physical soundness of the model.
The ARCPRO model was internally verified for part of the
accepted range of input parameters (Kinectrics, 2004) – inde-
pendent verification for the completed range of input parame-
ters is lacking. IEEE 1584 recommends using a theoretical
model for system voltages of 15 kV and above. This model is
based on the very conservative maximum power transfer as-
sumption (Lee, 1983). Lee does not present equations for the
incident energy calculations in his paper and there is an inter-
pretation of Lee’s work for calculating incident energies that is
different than the IEEE 1584 interpretation (Martin and Beat-
tie, 2005). These Lee-based models are different from all oth-
er models presented in this paper in that the incident energies
calculated with the Lee-based models are proportional to the
system voltage; all other models show no or very little direct
dependence of incident energy and system voltage above 5
kV. The proportionality of incident energy and system vol-
tages in the Lee-based models results in apparently unrealisti-
cally large incident energy levels for large system voltages.
Figure 1: Distance dependence of incident energy for open-space and Input parameters for all arc-flash models are the available
enclosed-space configurations.
bolted fault current and the arc duration. The bolted fault cur-
rent can be determined in a short-circuit analysis and the arc
B. Arc-Flash Models duration is typically determined by the time it takes for the
Arc-flash models estimate the incident heat energies a per- protection device (typically fuses and/or protective relays) to
son near an arc fault is exposed to. The incident energy levels clear the fault. The incident energy is also sensitive to the
calculated in an arc-flash hazard analysis determines arc-flash working distance and the arc length1. An arc-flash hazard
hazard categories, which in turn guide the decision regarding analysis is often performed with arc lengths and working dis-
the appropriate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) for a tances from IEEE 1584 which gives typical values for given
person that works near energized equipment. The calculated system voltages and equipment types (open air, switchgear,
incident energies are vastly model dependent (e.g., Ammer- etc.).
man et al., 2008) and there is currently no consensus on which Note that none of the models discussed here seems to prop-
model to employ in an arc-flash hazard analysis. erly account for the arc-flash energy balance. Arc-flash ener-
Models that are based on empirical data include the IEEE gy in the form of convective heating inside the plasma cloud is
1584 model for system voltages below 15 kV, the Doughty ignored in the IEEE 1584 theoretical model used for system
model, sometimes referred to the NFPA 70E model, (Doughty voltages of 15 kV and above, which results in an overestima-
et al., 2000), and the Wilkins model (Wilkins et al., 2005). tion of the incident energy for working distances outside the
The IEEE 1584 and Doughty models are purely empirical plasma cloud. The effect of the plasma cloud is also ignored
while the Wilkins model is based both on empirical data and in the calorimetric measurements from which the IEEE 1584
circuit theory making it a semi-empirical or behavioral model. data were obtained since the sensors were located outside the
In general, empirical and semi-empirical models are fitted to plasma cloud, where the arc-flash energy is primarily radiative
test data and consequently are only applicable for the tested (Wilkins et al., 2005). This should not affect the accuracy of
range of the relevant parameters and for conditions that re- the IEEE 1584 empirical model for working distances outside
semble the test conditions. the plasma cloud, but will likely result in an underestimation
Models that are based on theory include the Duke Power of the incident energies predicted by the IEEE 1584 empirical
model, which is available in the public domain, the commer- model if the working distance is inside the plasma cloud
cially available ARCPRO model, and models that are based on boundary. This is a concern if the plasma cloud expands far
theory published by Lee (1982). The Duke Power model and enough to reach the worker thereby exposing the worker to
the ARCPRO models are the models integrated into the Heat
Flux calculator software and the ARCPRO software, respec- 1
The arc is often assumed to be straight and under this assumption the arc
tively. The models were developed for single-phase arc faults length is equal to the distance between bus bars. However, for long arcs that
in open air. The single-phase, open-air incident energies can can develop in systems with high voltages and large bus-bar spacing, this
be converted to incident energies during three-phase faults and assumption is not accurate since the arc is often warped and therefore consi-
derably longer than the bus bar distance.

54
 3

energy levels that are potentially much higher than predicted III. ARC-FLASH HAZARD PROTECTION
by any of the models discussed here. There is no consensus in
A. Protection Boundary
the literature about the dimension of the plasma cloud. Lee
(1982) assumed a spherical dimension for the plasma cloud IEEE 1584 defines the arc-flash protection boundary to be
and predicted for one configuration an arc plasma diameter of the area around an energized object in which a person without
170 mm. On the other hand, for the same configuration, PPE is at risk of receiving at least second degree burns from
Stokes and Sweeting (2005) experimentally determined a an arc-flash originating from the energized object. Skin expo-
much larger plasma expansion – they measured an arc plasma sure to energy levels that exceed 1.2 cal/cm2 can cause
dimension of 3m x 1.5m from a photograph. Also, for en- second-degree burns. Persons within this area are required to
closed space configurations the plasma cloud is likely to ex- wear PPE. The flash protection boundary is determined in an
pand farther in the direction of the worker due to the focusing arc-flash analysis.
effect (see Section IIA) B. Protection Equipment
C. Arc-flash Concerns specific to Wind Plants NFPA 70E (2004) classifies the arc-flash hazard according
Typically, during wind plant commissioning, the equip- to maximum incident energy a person can be exposed to. The
ment inside the wind turbine tower has to be approached in an NFPA 70E hazard categories are listed in Table 1. Protection
energized state. This is a problem if the arc-flash analysis requirements, such as Personal Protective Equipment (PPE),
predicts large incident energies at locations inside the turbine. are selected based on the hazard category. The PPE should
Temporary protection settings (e.g., relays set on instantane- limit the energy exposure of the chest and face during an arc-
ous trip) may be applied to reduce the incident energy at loca- ing fault to curable burn energies (below 1.2 cal/cm2 accord-
tions with excessively high incident energy levels. ing to IEEE 1584). In some cases the maximum incident
In particular, the arc-flash hazard inside the wind turbine energy level may exceed 40 cal/cm2. For these cases, risk
tower may be more severe than predicted by the arc-flash ha- consideration will play a major role. There is PPE available
zard analysis because of the following concerns: above 40 cal/cm2, however the preferred approach is to always
work such high levels de-energized.
• Convective heat transfer that is not properly accounted
for in models used for the arc-flash hazard analysis in-
TABLE 1: NFPA 70E HAZARD CATEGORIES
creases the incident energy if the worker is inside the
Energy
plasma cloud (see Section IIB). A worker location inside
Category Level Protective Clothing/PPE
the plasma cloud is likely due to (1) the focusing effect of
(cal/cm2)
the arc-flash in the enclosed space configuration, which
Long-sleeve shirt and long pants
directs the plasma towards the worker and (2) the tight
0 <1.2 composed of non-melting or un-
space inside the turbine tower, which may result in a re-
treated natural fiber, safety glasses
duced working distance.
FR long-sleeve shirt, FR pants, hard
• The arc-blast hazard (the hazard due to the pressure 1 1.2-4
hat, safety glasses
from the arc fault) is potentially more severe inside the
Category 1 protection + arc-rated
turbine tower because of (1) the focusing effect of the
2 4-8 face shield, hearing protection,
blast in the enclosed-space configuration, which increases
leather gloves, leather work shoes
the pressure exerted on the worker, (2) the inability of the
Category 2 protection + FR cove-
worker to move away from the blast, and (3) the fall ha-
3 8-25 rall, FR hard hat liner, flash suit
zard inside the turbine tower. Note that the arc-flash ha-
hood
zard analysis does typically not assess the blast hazard.
Category 3 protection + flash suit
• The two-second rule in IEEE 1584 (i.e., using two 4 25-40
jacket, flash suit pants
seconds as the maximum time a person is exposed to an
arc-flash because the person will be able to move to safety
within that time) does not necessarily apply due to the re- 1) Protection Devices
stricted ability to move inside the turbine tower. Protection devices, such as Overcurrent Protection Devices
• The duration of the arcing fault current contribution (OCPDs) are used for fault clearing. OCPDs and other protec-
from the turbine may depend on the turbine protection on- tion devices are:
ly (i.e., there may not be any fuses/relay protection be- Fuses: Fuses are reliable OCPDs which do not require pe-
tween the turbine and the arc fault location that discon- riodic maintenance. A Fuse clears a permanent fault by re-
nects the turbine from the fault). Consequently, to prop- moving the faulted segment from the circuit. The fusible ele-
erly account for the fault current contribution from the ment is heated and melted by the overcurrent. The behavior of
turbines, some insight into the protection mechanism of the fuse is characterized by a time-current plot, which shows
the turbine is required, which may not be always available two curves – (1) the minimum melting curve and (2) the total
to the person performing the arc-flash analysis. clearing curve. The minimum melting curve gives the melting
time of the fusible element for any given current. After the
fusible element melts, the circuit is not immediately inter-
rupted due to arcing between the fuse terminals. The sum of
maximum melting time and the duration the fuse arc is sus-

55
 4

tained (i.e., the fuse arcing time) represents the total clearing Ground Fault Sensors: Ground fault sensors detect the
time. The fuse clearing time increases with decreasing current current imbalance during a phase-to-ground fault (most arcing
magnitude and consequently arc flashes during low-current faults start as a phase-to-ground fault and may develop into a
faults may have larger energies than arc flashes during high- multiphase fault). They have the advantage over overcurrent
current faults. sensors in that they are more sensitive and can therefore trip
faster. Ground fault sensors should be installed in multiple
places to allow low settings resulting in faster clearing times.
(Dugan, 2007).

IV. ARC-FLASH INCIDENT ENERGY CALCULATIONS

A. Introduction
This section will present a structured method for perform-
ing an arc-flash hazard study in a WPP’s collector system.
IEEE 1584-2002/2004a is referenced in this section and the
reader is encouraged to study the IEEE 1584 standard for
greater understanding of arc-flash incident energy calcula-
tions.
Many different equipment setups exist in WTGs. Equip-
Figure 2: Person wearing an arc-flash hazard suit during the instal- ment locations may play a significant role in the overall harm
lation of power quality equipment at an energized wind turbine of the arc-flash incident. Some common layouts of wind tur-
(photograph by Gene Porter).
bines are shown in Figure 3. For instance, if an arc occurs
while a worker is at a piece of equipment outside the wind
turbine, he will be able to quickly escape and limit his expo-
Circuit Breakers: Circuit breakers are mechanically- dri-
sure to an arc and its harmful products. On the other hand, if a
ven interrupting devices which are capable of breaking and
worker is at the same type of equipment inside the tower or
possibly reclosing on a faulted and non-faulted circuit. The
nacelle, which has a confining workspace the harm will likely
primary task of the circuit breaker is to extinguish the arc that
be greater. See Section IIC.
develops when the breaker contacts separate. Depending on
For this paper, the WTG equipment setup on the extreme
the type of breaker, the arc is extinguished in air, oil, vacuum,
left in Figure 3 and shown as a block diagram in Figure 4 will
or SF6 gas. Reclosers are circuit breakers with a mechanism
be the one exemplified here. In this setup, the wind turbine
that automatically closes the breaker after it has opened due to
tower base contains the low-voltage power system control
a fault to avoid unnecessary system outages caused by tempo-
equipment and the step-up transformer is located just outside
rary faults. However, in wind power plants there are no loca-
the tower. The scope of this paper will range from the
tions where any reclosing operations are to be used. It is dan-
low-voltage circuit breaker (LVCB) to the medium-voltage
gerous and damaging to equipment to reclose, since synchro-
circuit breaker (MVCB) at the substation.
nization will be lost during the interruption between the source
and the multiple generation sites and synchronization is lost
when any break in connection occurs. Normal restart proce-
dures must then be followed to bring back affected WTGs and
circuits.
Protective Relays: A relay calculates the operating condi-
tions on an electrical circuit and trips the circuit breaker when
a fault is detected. During a fault the primary relay operates
first. If available a backup relay will operate if the primary
relay fails to operate as desired.
Protective relays may be either overcurrent or differential.
Overcurrent relays trip if they sense that the current levels are
too high.
Differential relays work in a group and calculate the differ-
ence between the input and output currents. By Kirchoff’s
Current Law, both the sum of input currents and the sum of
output currents must be equal. A difference would imply that
a fault has occurred within the differential relay group’s zone
of protection, causing all of them to respond instantaneously. Figure 3: Various wind turbine generic layouts with possible fault lo-
On the substation bus of the WPP, the differentials relays will cations.
provide the fastest clearing of an arc fault and thus the smal-
lest arc-flash duration and incident energy.

56
 5

Using the IEEE 1584 empirical model for the low-voltage

electrical equipment, only three-phase fault currents are neces-
Low Voltage
Generator sary to calculate arcing-fault currents or other standard percen-
(LV) equip- tages can be used. For software such as ARCPRO and the
ment located Duke Heat Flux calculator use SLG fault currents instead of
in or near the three-phase fault currents in their theoretical models. The
Low-Voltage wind turbine impact of a three-phase event using ARCPRO can then be
Circuit Break- tower accomplished with the suggested multipliers to adjust the out-
er put results to the three-phase open-air or cabinet (in-a-box)
conditions.
3) Fault currents fed from multiple sources
In WPP, a fault almost anywhere will result in the fault be-
ing fed by two or more sources (e.g. a single generator, a
Step Up
group of WTGs, and/or the external utility system). In such
Transformer scenarios, fault current contributions from various sources
Medium Vol-
need to be considered separately based on their protecting
tage (MV) device for use in the next subsection.
equipment
located on the C. Coordination Study
Medium Voltage 1) Determine the fault clearing times
feeders and in
Circuit Breaker Using the time-current characteristic (TCC) curves and the
the Substation
(MVCB) arcing-fault current, it becomes straightforward to determine
the time taken for a protecting overcurrent protective device to
clear a fault. This can be determined by drawing a vertical
line representing the arcing fault current and then determining
where it intersects with the maximum clearing time TCC
: Possible fault locations curve for the protecting device. For fuses this would be the
total clearing curve, because it represent the maximum time to
Figure 4: Scope of paper.
complete the open. For the LVCB, this could be on the manu-
factures overcurrent clearing curve in either direction or from
The dynamics of the generator’s behavior creates asyn-
a signal from the WTG control module to trip, which will have
chronous fault values and how that impacts quantification of
a different time delay than the overcurrent. Such LVCB time
an arc-flash energy and on the response of the LVCB and its
delays could include logic responding to the low voltage ride-
trip logic is beyond the scope of this paper, which is focusing
through (LVRT) or other generator abnormal conditions. For
on the collector system. Instead, a constant conservative fault
the MVCB relays at the collector feeder exits this will be the
current from the WTG is assumed for the examples in Section
selected TCC curve, which must include the maximum break-
V.
er opening/clearing times and any intentional coordination
B. Short-Circuit Study delays.
1) Collect the system and installation data At most WPP substations, there are differential protective
It is imperative that the component data used for the schemes which will detect faults within the differential zones.
short-circuit study be accurate. The study must consider all The respective clearing devices within those zones will define
sources (e.g. utilities, generators, and motors) as well as the the clearing times for fault and arc-flash events within their
impedances of the connecting system, transformers, and reach with the maximum time decay being associated with the
cables. A single-line diagram is essential in finding the avail- slowest breaker.
able fault currents at each WTG site and the WPP substation 2) Clearing times for faults with multiple sources
bus. For faults being fed from multiple sources, clearing times
2) Calculate arcing fault currents for each source will need to be determined. For each fault
Bolted fault currents can be calculated using any commercial- current calculated from subsection IV.B, a clearing time can
ly available power engineering software that is capable of per- be found using the method discussed in IV.C.(1). The fault
forming a short-circuit analysis. The reader must consider all current and its associated clearing time will be used to com-
possible scenarios during operation and then utilize the com- pute the incident energy in the next section.
ponent data, along with the single-line diagram to obtain the
bolted fault current at each piece of equipment. Also all three D. Arc-Flash Hazard Study
initial short-circuit conditions must be calculated, which are The method presented here is a simplified approach and
commonly called: momentary, interrupting, and time-delayed should provide a conservative value for the total incident
(or steady-state). For the example below the momentary will energy from an arc-flash event. The steps are:
be estimated at five time steady-state and interrupting will be 1) Determine locations where the arc-flash is to be esti-
estimated at three times the steady-state. mated, such as the generic ones indicated in Figure 5.

57
 6

2) Determine and/or establish the parameters and assump- V. EXAMPLES

tions at each location, such as open air or cabinet situation,
likely working distance and arc gap distance. Use actual val- Example 1 – A fault and arc-flash occur at a 34.5kV
ues for the distances or typical values from IEEE 1584. MVCB breaker exit on the collector-side of a collector feeder
The next three steps will be iterated at each selected fault with two turbines generating at an LV of 600V. Each WTG is
location based on how the multiple sources of fault current rated 2 MW, uses a 2500 kVA step-up transformer, and has a
contribute to the total fault current at that location through rated current of about 33A at 34.5 kV. See Figure 5.
time. The only step that may be skipped may be step 3, which
is the need to rerun the fault calculation after each device SYSTEM

Wind Turbine 1 Wind Turbine 2

clears. Engineering judgment regarding the impact on values
after each loop may be small enough to allow working only HV

with each of the separate fault flows that would be contribut- Collector Crow Bar
WT Tower
Crow Bar
WT Tower

ing to the event. The initial fault calculation run may be ade-
Top Top
Sub Sub Transf

quate. WT Tower WT Tower

3) Perform a short circuit fault calculation run on a particu-

Middle Middle

lar location to obtain its fault flows for the momentary, inter- MV CB LV CB
WT Tower
Base LVCB
WT Tower
Base

Flow 1 LV LV
rupting, and steady-state conditions from all sources and de-
termine how much is flowing through the protecting devices to MV

the fault location. WT Transf

Outside
Tower
Step-up
WT Transf
Outside
Tower
Step-up

4) Determine the total clearing times for all the protecting Flow 2 C.L. Fuse
Transformer
Tank C.L. Fuse
Transformer
Tank

devices that are allowing fault flow to the fault location, such Exp. Fuse Exp. Fuse

as: Feed Thru w/ Sw.

MV
Feed Thru w/ Sw.

a) At the collector feeder breaker relay – use the TCC curve <----------- Collector Circuit ------------> : Possible fault location
and find the respective time for the fault flow passing through
it (taking into account a faster trip of the breaker due to a Figure 5: Example of fault and arc-flash in air at MV feeder.
higher momentary current) from the substation and external
power system, or
b) In the LV secondary cabinet of a wind turbine step-up There are three sources contributing to the fault: the system
transformer use the transformer fuses, the LVCB TCC, or the and each of the two turbines. Since this is an open-air loca-
control logic to the LVCB to estimate the time depending on tion, the NESC default values from Table 410-1 offer a good
the fault flow direction – use either the transformer fuses or baseline. Fault flows to this location will determine the loops,
the control logic to trip and clear the LVCB to estimate the which are two in this case, Flow 1 and 2. The fault flow from
time. the substation bus (Flow 1) will be seen by the MVCB relay
5) Determine the amount of incident energy occurring at and it will clear its portion of the fault flow first. For this ex-
this location by using an arc-flash model (such as the IEEE ample (Figure 5), a fault flow for Flow 1 will be 5 kA and the
1584 model, the ARCPRO model, or another model) with all clearing time, which was obtained from reading the TCC plot
the respective contributing fault current sources (step 3) and for the collector feeder relay at 5 kA, will be 0.10 seconds.
the clearing time of the next fastest clearing device (step 4). However, there is a second delayed fault flow (Flow 2)
For instance: that continues from the two turbines. At the wind turbines the
a) At a 34.5kV substation collector feeder exit - use clearing devices are the LVCBs at 600 V and the two internal
ARCPRO with the parameters from step 2, such as the open- transformer fuses on the 34.5-kV side. If the contributing cur-
air three-phase case at 15-inch working distance and a 6-inch rent from any one turbine is not large enough to trip the LVCB
arc gap (NESC Table 410-1), or on overcurrent, then the control scheme for the LVCB will
b) in a 600V secondary cabinet of a step-up transformer – respond to a low-voltage condition and wait a predefined
use IEEE 1584 with the parameters from step 2, such as the amount of time based on the actual voltage that each turbine
under-1000V and in-a-box options that will provide a 24-inch sees against the predetermined low voltage ride-through
working distance and an 1.25-inch arc gap (IEEE 1584 Tables (LVRT) envelope. Note that the LVRT time delay is depen-
2 and 3). dent on how low the voltage drops. Typically, if it goes below
6) Loop steps 3 though 5 for each successively slower pro- 15% of nominal it will be at its shortest delay, which will be
tecting device as it removes its respective amount of contribut- 0.15 seconds in this example. However, the delay could be
ing fault flow from this location from the quickest device to longer if the voltage during the fault is higher than 15%. For
slowest device, until all the fault flow is eliminated. this example, the assumption will be that the control schemes
7) Sum the arc-flash incident energy from each of the suc- on all WT LVCBs on the collector feeder will simultaneously
cessively passes for this location. This sum will be the total see a sustained zero voltage to initiate a trip to their LVCB at
incident energy for this location. the minimum time delay. The total time delay for Flow 2 will
8) Finally, repeat the steps 3 through 7 for all selected loca- be 0.35 seconds. In this example, the 0.35 seconds consists of
tions. 0.15 seconds delay from the LVRT envelope and 0.10 seconds

58
 7

for the control circuit and LVCB clearing time to respond to Since the fault currents are much higher on the 600 V side, the
an external trip signal, as well as the initial 0.1 seconds for the arc-flash values are certain to be larger as well.
feeder circuit breaker to clear. As mentioned, it will be as- Assuming the MVCB feeder relay, the transformer fuses
sumed that both turbines will respond identically and at the and the LVCB are all coordinated, then the sequence of clear-
same time. However, this methodology is flexible enough to ing can be determined from the TCC plot that was used in
allow for multiple delayed devices clearing at different times. their coordination. That coordination would have the trans-
It is understood that the fault current from the WTG for the former fuses clearing before the feeder breaker to keep the
initial few cycles will be obtained from the momentary condi- feeder energized while the generator is taken off-line. There-
tion of the short circuit, or around five times the rated current, fore the clearing sequence for this location will be between the
and then drop off very quickly as the turbine responds electri- LVCB and the fuses, with the fuses generally taking the longer
cally. However, fault current from the WTG, before it drops time and the LVCB tripping first to clear the local generator.
off as seen on the 34.5-kV system at the MVCB will be small The LVCB’s clearing time will be defined the same way here
compared to the contribution from the substation and external as it was in the first example by the LVRT with a total time of
system. By the time the MVCB clears, the WTG contribu- 0.35 seconds. The clearing time will be shorter if the overcur-
tions will either be at the interrupting or steady-state condi- rent mechanism responds before the LVRT trip.
tion. For our example, the interrupting condition will be used,
or about 99 Amps (three times the rated current of 33 A).
Since both turbines are contributing to the fault flow, the de-
layed contribution is approximately 198 Amps. With these
values the incident energy is calculated with the respective
calculator, which is this case for both loops of the method
produced the values in Figure 6 for a total of 8.4 cal/cm2.

Fault
Current Total 8.4 cal/cm
2
at the
Site of
the Arc-
flash
Event
0.10 sec

5kA 2 0.25 sec

7.8 cal/cm Figure 7: Example of fault and arc-flash in an LV cabinet.
2
0.21kA
0.6 cal/cm
0.0 0.10 0.35

Time Duration of Arc-flash (sec) The fault flow from the wind turbine generator, Flow 3, in
Figure 7, will be the momentary condition fault current value
Figure 6: Arc-flash results for a fault in air at MV feeder ((not-to- which could be nearly five times the rated current, or about
scale). 10,000 Amp plus the steady state fault flow from the collector
feeder, Flow 4, of 35 kA. The momentary condition is used
because it represents a conservative value. Thus, a total fault
Example 2 – Using the same WPP setup, the fault and arc- flow of about 45 kA will result for 0.35 seconds. After the
flash now occurs in the LV (600 V) cabinet of the first wind LVCB clears the fault flow (Flow 3) from the local WTG, the
turbine step-up transformer. See Figure 7. fault flow from the collector (Flow 4) will still be contributing.
At this location there are also three sources, but two fault The total clearing time for this portion is found by locating
flows. One flow is from the generator associated with this this fault flow of 35 kA on the TCC of the transformer fuse set
transformer (Flow 3), and the other is from the collector feeder and finding where it crosses the total clear curve of the first
(Flow 4), which represents the contributions from the other fuse in the transformer to open. For this example 0.55 seconds
turbine, the substation and the external power system. Since will be used. However, this delayed clearing will have its arc-
this location is in a cabinet (a.k.a. in-a-box) and is on the low- flash contribution bounded by the duration of the difference
voltage side, the assumptions and equations from IEEE 1584 between the fuse total clearing time and the LVCB clearing
empirically will be the best choice and will provide a good time of 0.35 seconds, which will provide a final interval of 0.2
baseline. Therefore, the working distance, gap size, and de- seconds of fault flow from the collector feeder, before the
fault values will come from their respective tables in the IEEE transformer fuse opens. Figure 8 shows both intervals and
1584 document. Because this fault is at 600 V, the Ampere their respective incident energy contributions with the total
level of the fault flows (Flows 3 and 4) will be much higher being about 34.2 cal/cm2.
compared to a similar power level on the 34.5-kV system.

59
 8

[8] Lee, R.H., “The Other Electrical Hazard: Electric Arc Blast Burns,”
IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. 1A-18, No.3,
May/June 1982.
[9] Lee, R.H., “Pressures Developed by Arcs,” IEEE Transactions on Indus-
45kA 2 try Applications, Vol. 1A-23, No.4, July/August 1987.
Total 34.2 cal/cm
[10] Martin, L., J. Beattie, “Arc Protection Recommendations for SaskPower
Transmission and Distribution,”, TS&R Report Number 05-345, 2005.
0.35 sec [11] Schau, H. and D. Stade, “Requirements to be met by protection and
35kA
switching devices from the arcing protection point of view,” 5th Interna-
tional Conference on Electric Fuses and their Application, September
Fault 1995.
Current 0.20 sec
[12] Reilly, J.P., H. Antoni, M.A. Chilbert, “Applied Biolectricity,” ISBN
at the
0387984070, Springer, 1998.
Site of 23.6 cal/cm
2
the Arc- 2 [13] Wallace, K., L. Garrett, and S. Patel, “Protective Grounding Methods
10.6 cal/cm and Requirements on Distribution Line Wood Pole Construction,” Pro-
flash
Event ceedings of the 11th International Conference on Transmission & Distri-
bution Construction, 15-19 October 2006.
[14] Wilkins, R., M. Allison, and M. Lang, “Improved Method for Arc-flash
Hazard Analysis,” IEEE Industrial and Commercial Power Systems
0.0 0.35 0.55 Technical Conference, pp. 55-62, 2-6 May 2004.
Time Duration of Arc-flash (sec)

Figure 8: Arc-flash results for a fault in an LV cabinet (not-to-

scale).

VI. CONCLUSION
This paper has investigated and discussed the arc-flash ha-
zard on a WPP collector system. A brief discussion of the arc-
flash hazard and its causes were presented along with a me-
thodology and two examples for tallying the total incident
energy from multiple sources.
The use of the various conditions of fault current in the me-
thodology, are presented as a conservative measure for esti-
mating the arc-flash incident energy, but it must be understood
that the real behavior of the fault current from the WTG is
very unpredictable and situation dependent. From these two
brief examples it can be seen that one of the highest levels of
the arc-flash hazard in a WPP collector system can be on the
LV cable and inclusive cabinets between the LVCB and the
step-up transformer. However, these results could be very
different if another arc-flash calculator were used, such as the
IEEE 1584 theoretical model, which has a dependence on vol-
tage.
VII. REFERENCES
[1] Ammerman, R.F., T. Gammon, P.K. Sen, and J.P. Nelson, “Comparative
Study of Arc Modeling and Arc-flash Incident Energy Exposures,” Pe-
troleum and Chemical Industry Technical Conference, pp. 1-12, Cincin-
nati, OH, 22-24 Sept. 2008.
[2] Dalziel, Charles F., “The effects of electric shock on man,” IRE Trans-
actions on Medical Electronics (PGME-5), May 1956.
[3] Doughty, R.L., T.E. Neal, T.A. Dear, and A.H. Bingham, “Testing up-
date on protective clothing & equipment for electric arc exposure,”
Conf. Rec. IEEE PCIC, pp. 323-336, Sept. 1997.
[4] Doughty, R.L., T.E. Neal, H.L. Floyd II, “Predicting Incident Energy to
Better Manage the Electric Arc Hazard on 600-V Power Distribution
Systems,” IEEE Trans. On Industry Applications, Vol. 36, No.1, Janu-
ary/February 2000.
[5] Dugan, T.B., “Reducing the flash hazard,” IEEE Industry Applications
Magazine, May/June 2007.
[6] Kinectrics, “User’s Guide for ArcPro,” 2004.
[7] King, Clayton, “Maintaining line worker safety through maintenance
and testing of protective grounding equipment,” T&D construction, op-
eration & live-line maintenance proceedings, pp. 101-107, 26-30 April
1998.

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Wind Plant Collector System Fault Protection

and Coordination
IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group

Contributing Members: M. Bradt, M. R. Behnke, W. G. Bloethe, C. Brooks, E.H. Camm, W. Dilling, B. Goltz,
J. Li, J. Niemira, K. Nuckles, J. Patiño, M. Reza, B. Richardson, N. Samaan, J. Schoene, T. Smith, I. Snyder,
M. Starke, R. Walling, G. Zahalka

Abstract- This paper presents a summary of the most im- II. WIND POWER PLANT SHORT-CIRCUIT MODELING
portant protection and coordination considerations for The WPP short-circuit model and associated fault plot is an
wind power plants. Short-circuit characteristics of both initial step in any protection and coordination study. There
aggregate wind plant and individual wind turbine genera- are three main types of short-circuit contributions within a
tors, as well as general interconnection protection re- WPP: (1) the utility, (2) WPP aggregated or individual WTG,
quirements are discussed. Many factors such as security, and (3) any dynamic reactive compensation equipment contri-
reliability, and safety are considered for proper conserva- butions. There are many guidelines and standards available
tive protection of the wind power plant and individual for modeling of generators, transformers, lines, cables, bus
turbines. work, and reactive compensation equipment for all voltage
systems.

I. INTRODUCTION 1) Short-Circuit Contributions of WTGs

The selection of proper protective devices and settings of Today most models for determining the short-circuit contri-
protective relays for wind power plants (WPPs) present butions of WTGs consist of basic induction generator models
unique challenges for protection engineers. Due to the differ- defined by existing standards for contributions from induction
ing types of wind turbine generators (WTGs) and their beha- motors. Due to the complex nature of some types of WTGs,
vior during short-circuit conditions, the determination of fault significant gaps still exist in the availability of suitable analy-
current levels within the WPP needs special attention. Efforts sis models. The IEEE PSRC C17 Working Group is address-
are currently underway to clearly define the behavior of dif- ing issues related to WTG short circuit contribution characte-
ferent types of WTGs during short-circuits in the WPP, as ristics for guidance to utilities and protection engineers.
well as on the transmission or subtransmission system, Generally, Type 1 and Type 2 WTGs, as shown in Figure 1
through the IEEE PSRC C17 Working Group. and Figure 2, are modeled as basic induction generators. The
Fault coordination for a WPP involves considerations for short-circuit model for a Type 1 WTG is usually a voltage
normal overcurrent, differential, and line protection, as well as source with series equivalent impedance. A fault at the ter-
voltage and frequency protection associated with the voltage minals of this type of machine can result in first peak currents
and frequency ride-through requirements for the WPP. The well above rated and as much as eight times rated for the
zones of protection of the WPP start at the point of intercon- symmetrical faults. The fault current rate of decay is a func-
nect (POI) and include any transmission lines from the POI to tion of the electrical time constant of the induction generator
the WPP collector substation, the collector substation (includ- [3, 5]. Type 2 machines have an external variable rotor resis-
ing reactive power compensation equipment), the medium- tor, which will reduce the calculated fault contribution. It is
voltage collector system, and the low-voltage side of the usually ignored in order to obtain the maximum fault current.
WTG. Each of these zones of protection has specific protec- In Type 3 machines, also known as the doubly-fed asyn-
tion requirements that will be discussed in detail in this pa- chronous induction generator (DFAIG), the stator connects to
per. the grid directly, while the rotor connects to the grid through a
back-to-back converter. When a fault occurs in the grid, the
stator and rotor currents will increase. The increased rotor
currents may damage the converter. To protect the converter,
a shorting switch (crowbar) is typically connected in the rotor
circuit. Type 3 machines have two states that are known: one
state having a controlled current and the other state is similar
to a normal induction generator due to the crowbar activation
as shown in Figure 3. When in the limited state, the current
output is typically between one and two times normal rated

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current. The fault contribution and response of this type of

WTG is limited either by the power conversion controller and
its programmed settings or by the generator impedance (dur-
ing times when the power converter crowbar is active).

Figure 3. Type 3 Short Circuit Representation Type 3

Figure 1. Type 1 Short Circuit Representation Type 1

Figure 4. Type 4 Short Circuit Representation Type 4

2) Wind Plant Modeling

Figure 2. Type 2 Short Circuit Representation Type 2 Typically, a transmission or distribution connected WTG or
WPP electrical model will consist of an equivalent utility
source, a WPP substation step-up transformer, overhead or
Short circuit contributions from the Type 4 machine is typi- underground medium-voltage collector system with associated
cally limited to slightly more than rated current, and may con- breakers, WTG step-up transformers, WTG equivalent model,
tain either positive and/or negative sequence fault current and any associated dynamic reactive compensation equipment.
components, depending on the implementation of the power The wind plant short circuit model is typically created with
converter controls. This is shown in Figure 4. modern short circuit software programs like ASPEN, CAPE,
Contributions from Type 5 machines could be considered SKM, PSAF, EasyPower, EMTP, ATP, MicroTran, WindMil,
similar to that of a conventional synchronous generator. Other etc. These models will be used to calculate fault currents for
emerging wind turbine technologies include: WTGs that in- generally every protected electrical bus or connection between
corporate two electrical generators for covering different wind sources, lines, cables, buses, transformers, generators, and
speed ranges and WTGs that directly connect to MV network both dynamic and static reactive compensation equipment.
without the need for a wind turbine step-up transformer. The results from a short-circuit study for various contingen-
cies are usually added to a fault plot of the wind plant and
interconnected utility and associated loads. This plot will al-

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low a protection engineer to analyze the contingencies that system. Some of this communication will be in the form of
result in the minimum and maximum fault currents to develop interconnection agreements, interconnection standards, and
the protective relay settings for the WPP. providing for special protection scheme integration with the
utility power system. There are many standards, such as IEEE-
III. WIND POWER PLANT ZONES OF PROTECTION 1547, FERC-661, as well as NESC and NEC standards, which
There are several potential zones of protection within a address interconnected generation. For a transmission con-
wind power plant. These protection zones are outlined below nected WPP, the protection scheme requirements are often
and generally consist of utility interconnection, wind plant dictated by utility requirements for integration into the exist-
substation, wind plant collection system, and wind turbine ing power system protection schemes. These schemes are part
generator. The interconnected utility zone will consist of of a larger transmission network and need significant consid-
connections to a transmission network, a radial sub- eration when adding new generation to these systems. For
transmission circuit, or a medium or low voltage distribution example older line distance relay schemes may have one zone
circuit. For the transmission network interconnection, protec- of line protection with individual phase and ground distance
tion schemes typically consist of high speed communications electromechanical relays. These schemes often employed
assisted power line carrier blocking or unblocking schemes, backup protection in the form of individual time overcurrent
permissive over or under reaching transfer trip, line current relays, which will require significant coordination considera-
differentials, as well as overcurrent, breaker failure, voltage, tion when adding a wind power plant and its contribution to
and frequency protection schemes. The radial sub- the network line.
transmission circuit interconnection will typically employ For interconnecting transmission lines it is sometimes ne-
radial distance, overcurrent, voltage, frequency and breaker cessary to use high speed clearing schemes incorporating
failure protection located at the utility interconnection substa- power line carrier blocking and unblocking schemes, and
tion which will have a protection zone overlapping reach into transfer trip schemes which will have backup distance and
the high side winding of the main WPP substation transfor- overcurrent relays. For sub-transmission connected WPP,
mer. The distribution interconnection for a WTG or WPP will radial lines are common and the utility line protection is coor-
typically consist of utility feeder circuit overcurrents, reclos- dinated with the WPP main transformer high side backup
ers, circuit fuses, breaker failure, voltage, and frequency pro- overcurrent relays and utility distance relays reach into the
tection. The WPP substation can consist of high side bus, high voltage winding of the WPP main transformer. Other
low side bus, transformer, static and dynamic reactive com- schemes may simply incorporate bus differential relays which
pensation equipment, and effective grounding transformers. wrap the high voltage bus of the WPP with the adjacent inter-
The main transformer is protected with differential and back- connection transmission substation high voltage bus, in this
up overcurrent relay schemes. Substation bus protection will instance coordination is fairly simple. Distribution connected
consist of high-impedance, low-impedance, or current diffe- WPP or WTG installations often require coordination with
rential schemes and associated overcurrent relaying. Effective reclosers, inline circuit fuses, and utility feeder overcurrent
grounding equipment is usually protected by differential and relays. For all of the above interconnection configurations,
negative sequence overcurrent schemes. Reactive compensa- it is also important to coordinate the PCC voltage, frequency,
tion equipment, such as capacitor or reactor banks, are typical- breaker failure, and excitation relays with the utility, which
ly equipped with overcurrent, voltage, and breaker failure are incorporated within the utility interconnection agreement
protection schemes. The WPP collector system zone consists for the specific wind plant. For distribution connected WTG
of substation circuit breaker and associated overcurrent, vol- or WPP, there are other protection schemes which are some-
tage, frequency, and breaker failure protection scheme. Some times required such as reverse power relaying, special sectio-
collection system circuits consist of grounding transformers or nalizing, and throw-over schemes to maintain system security
ground switches, which protect the circuit during unbalance and reliability.
and temporary overvoltage conditions, these devices can pro-
vide a significant zero sequence current contribution during V. WPP PROTECTION
unbalance conditions and should be considered for protection
A. WPP Substation Transformer
coordination. The WTG zone consists of a WTG step-up
transformer with high side fuse or protective relay, current The design of the WPP substation main transformer will
limiting fuse, WTG protective overcurrent trip unit and asso- vary, depending on the design requirements and availability.
ciated WTG voltage and frequency protection. Main transformer winding configurations that have been im-
plemented on wind plants primarily consist of wye/wye/delta,
IV. WPP INTERCONNECTION COORDINATION delta/wye, and wye/delta connections [11].
Protection coordination of a wind power plant with the in- The WPP main substation transformer banks will typically
terconnected utility is achieved at the PCC (point of common be equipped with high-speed primary and secondary differen-
coupling). During the engineering phase of any wind plant tial relays. The transformer high-side protection will also in-
development, the protection coordination is achieved, at the corporate instantaneous and backup overcurrent elements. If
PCC, by specific communication between the utility protec- available, the high and/or low side neutrals of each of these
tion engineer and wind plant developer. This communication main transformers will typically incorporate a ground time
assures that proper protection scheme requirements are met overcurrent and sometimes even restricted earth fault protec-
within the guidance of the existing transmission or distribution tion [1,2,4,10]. The primary function of the transformer

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ground relay is to protect the transformer and provide backup tective relay targets indicate location of faults that may have
to the bus, collectors, bus tie breakers, and capacitor banks occurred on the transformer or on one of the buses or bus tie
[6]. For cases when the transformers have neutral ground breakers. With modern differential relays it is important to
connections, fault current-limiting resistors or reactors are select the proper current transformer to avoid mismatch and
sometimes used and a zero sequence voltage relay becomes saturation affects. The current transformers used are usually
necessary for protection of the resistor or reactor [1, 2, 5, tapped to the highest ratio in order avoid saturation. Harmonic
10]. restraints are often set to avoid false tripping under certain
For substations equipped with wye/delta type main trans- conditions [1, 2, 3]
formers, there is often a requirement for effective grounding Medium-voltage bus differentials are most often current or
where X1/X0 < 3 [1, 7]. To reduce the effective ground im- high-impedance differential relays. The high impedance diffe-
pedance, grounding transformers, usually in zig-zag or rential senses the differential voltage of the bus connections,
wye/delta configurations as shown in Figure 5, are used and and therefore requires that all of the current transformer knee
require separate differential protection as well as negative voltages and lead cables be considered in the calculation of
sequence overcurrent protection. Since the transformer is not the differential trip point. Since there will be a small operating
a source of ground current, the negative sequence elements are voltage at the relay terminal due to the voltage drop of current
deployed for internal faults. transformer lead cables, the trip point must be set to avoid
tripping for this steady state bias [8]. Other considerations for
high impedance differentials are to de-sensitize any phases
which have station service transformers within the differential
zone [1, 2].
C. WPP Collector Protection
Wind plant collector systems have primary protection for
the overhead or underground collection system and are inter-
rupted via circuit breaker in the WPP substation. These collec-
tor system breakers incorporate phase and ground overcur-
rents, voltage, frequency, and breaker failure protection. The
primary function of these collector circuit relays is to protect
the forward reaching cable system and backup the WTG step-
up transformer protection devices. It is important to consider
the cable or overhead line damage curves, as well as minimum
and maximum melt curves for WTG high side step-up trans-
former protection.
The collector relays and backup protection should be time-
coordinated with each WTG step-up transformer’s high-side
protection. Each of these collector relays will typically be set
Figure 5. Wye-Delta Main Transformer Configuration to have directional time overcurrent elements for fast clearing
of the collector circuits. Directionality should be used if the
reverse load or reverse fault is greater than the pickup value
For three winding transformers, differential relays are used used. Sometimes backup directional and non-directional nega-
to protect for internal transformer faults and typically incorpo- tive sequence protection for each of the generator step-up
rate one or more neutral connected ground relays, high-side transformers is incorporated. Since high current faults can
backup overcurrents, breaker failure, and sometimes low side damage the cable system, sometimes definite time overcurrent
backup overcurrent relays when there is a low-side breaker elements are implemented for main circuit protection for cases
[1,2,3,4] where there is concern that the WTG transformer may not
clear on a close-in high side fault. The zero sequence contri-
B. WPP Substation Bus bution from WTG step-up transformers will be zero but the
The WPP substation will have a high side and low side bus collector grounding transformers will contribute a significant
differential. Typically the high side bus differential is only amount of ground current. As a result, the ground elements
needed when there is more than one interconnecting line or should be set sensitive in the forward direction. Automatic
transformer terminating at the substation. In this case, current reclosing should not be used for these cable systems, unless
differentials are common for transmission level bus protec- required. [1, 2, 5, 7]
tion. Collector feeders also have timed under/over voltage and
With two bus arrangements that have bus tie breakers, there frequency tripping elements, which will backup the WTG
is a need to coordinate the transformer overcurrents to prevent generator voltage and frequency protection functions. Under-
overload conditions. It is often the case that the primary diffe- voltage elements should be set to open the collector feeder
rential relay protects the main transformer and the secondary when the source, all three phases, is gone for a few seconds.
differential relay wraps both the high side and low-sided buses These settings are typically set to approximately 70% and
and allow for bank bus protection. With these schemes, pro- 80% of the nominal bus voltage and typically have delayed

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tripping times of a few seconds. Overvoltage elements should [2] Blackburn, J. Lewis, "Protective Relaying Principles and Applications,”
second edition, 1997, Marcel Dekker Inc.
be set to approximately 110% and 115% of the nominal bus
[3] ANSI/IEEE standard 242-1986, "IEEE Recommended Practice for Pro-
voltage with delayed tripping times of 10 minutes and 10 tection and Coordination of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems,”
second delays respectfully. Elements for the five steps of un- IEEE Standards Board.
der-frequency are typically implemented. Breaker failure [4] Anderson, P.M., "Power System Protection,” 1998, IEEE Press power
relays will typically be incorporated into all WPP circuit engineering series.
[5] Blackburn, J. Lewis, "Symmetrical Components for Power Systems
breaker protective relays. A suggested breaker failure time of Engineering,” 1993, Marcel Dekker Inc.
12 to 15 cycles is often used, which is determined by looking [6] Griffin, C.H., "Principles of Ground Relaying for High Voltage and
at the operating times of the various protective and auxiliary Extra High Voltage Transmission Lines,” IEEE Transactions on Power
relays associated with the trip circuits [1, 2, and 4] Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-102, February 1983.
[7] ANSI/IEEE standard 142-2007, "IEEE Recommended Practice for
D. WPP Capacitor Banks Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems,” IEEE Stan-
dards Board.
Switched capacitor and/or reactor bank breakers are typical- [8] ANSI/IEEE standard C37-97, "IEEE Guide for Protective Relay Appli-
ly protected within the bus or main transformer differential cations to Power System Buses,” IEEE Standards Board.
zone and incorporate forward looking overcurrent, and vol- [9] ANSI/IEEE standard C37-99, "IEEE Guide for Protection of Shunt
Capacitor Banks,” IEEE Standards Board.
tage relays, which protect the reactive compensation equip- [10] ANSI/IEEE standard C37-91, "IEEE Guide IEEE Guide for Protective
ment up to the bus. The capacitor banks themselves are typi- Relay Applications to Power Transformers,” IEEE Standards Board.
cally protected by special protection schemes that sense either [11] IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group, "Power
neutral current unbalance or neutral to ground over voltage Transformer Application for Wind Plant Substations” to be presented at
the 2010 IEEE PES Transmission and Distribution Conference and Ex-
depending on the configuration. These protection schemes are position.
well defined within the IEEE capacitor bank protection stan-
dards. [1,2,9]
E. WTG Step-up Transformer
The WTG step-up transformer could be located outside the
tower, inside the tower, or inside the nacelle. These transfor-
mers incorporate high-side fuses or interrupting devices with
protective relays, and internal current-limiting fuses for low-
voltage winding faults. These transformers have suggested
winding configurations of delta/wye, but often enough
wye/wye step-up transformers are used. For delta/wye trans-
formers no zero sequence will pass for low voltage winding
faults; for wye/wye transformers there will be current contri-
bution sourced back to the collector feeder through the me-
dium-voltage wye-connected ground connections. It is also
important to note that grounding transformers will often be
added to the collector system and located close to the substa-
tion. These transformers can provide a significant ground
source and should be considered in ground relay setting calcu-
lations. The WTG step-up transformer may also have a low-
voltage protection trip unit and circuit breaker. This breaker
typically has overcurrent settings, which protect the generator
for internal faults, and offer very little backup protection for
the collection system or WTG step-up transformer since the
operating times can be in the range of 2 to 3 seconds.
F. WPP WTG
WTGs typically have a breaker/contactor with integral relay
protection unit usually located either at the base of the WTG
tower or within the nacelle. Most WTGs operate within the
range of 400 to 690 VAC. It is important to note that WTG
control systems provide trip signals to the protection circuits.
Emerging wind turbine technologies have eliminated WTG
step-up transformers and can have generator connection vol-
tages at 12 kV and higher.

VI. REFERENCES
[1] Elmore, Walter A., "Protective relay theory and applications,” 1982,
ABB Power T&D Company Inc.

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Harmonics and Resonance Issues in Wind Power Plants

IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group
Contributing Members: M. Bradt, B. Badrzadeh, E. Camm, D. Mueller, J. Schoene, T. Siebert, T. Smith, M. Starke, R. Walling

Abstract—This paper presents a summary of the most important Utility Wind Integration Group (UWIG) has documented this
issues with respect to harmonics and resonances within wind phenomenon very well [1] and it will therefore not be further
power plants. An introduction is given to provide an overview of addressed in this paper.
the various power quality related issues encountered when de- Resonance issues arise in wind power plants because wind
signing, commissioning, or operating a wind power plant, as well
as typical characteristics of the components associated with wind power plants contain both inductive source characteristics and
power plants. The many variables, which influence harmonics capacitive elements. Wind power plants typically consist of
and resonance in wind power plants, will be described with re- an interconnection substation which transforms from high to
spect to analysis methods, avoidance, mitigation, and compliance medium voltage, several medium voltage underground cable
with IEEE Std 519-1992 recommended practices. collector system circuits, reactive compensation equipment,
wind turbine transformation from medium to low voltage, and
Index Terms— Power system harmonics, wind power plants, wind
turbines, harmonic penetration, harmonic impedance scan, system wind turbine generators with internal power factor correction
resonances, harmonic compliance, harmonic filters. capacitors or dynamic power controllers which can also ab-
sorb or contribute reactive power. Wind power plants typically
List of Acronyms— have vast underground cable systems, which can result into
CP Cumulative Probability many series and parallel resonance points. Resonance condi-
CP95% CP 95% Level tions can be located using frequency domain analysis of im-
DFIG Doubly Fed Induction Generator
pedances and/or amplification factors, recognizing that peaks
EMT Electromagnetic Transients
HVDC High Voltage Direct Current and valleys of the frequency scan represent parallel and series
LGIA Large Generator Interconnection Agreement resonances, respectively.
PCC Point of Common Coupling Feeder line and cable capacitance and the substation reac-
RLC Resistor-Inductor-Capacitor tive compensation equipment, such as medium voltage
STATCOM Static Compensator switched or fixed shunt capacitor banks, can create significant
SVC Static Var Compensator
parallel resonance interaction with the main transformer and
TDD Total Demand Distortion
THD Total Harmonic Distortion any associated load tap changing apparatus. Due to the many
UWIGUtility Wind Integration Group steps of shunt capacitor steps within the substation capacitor
VSC Voltage Source Converter banks, parallel resonance between adjacent capacitors must
WTG Wind Turbine Generator not be overlooked.
WPP Wind Power Plant Harmonic sources can be comprised of power system back-
I. INTRODUCTION ground levels of harmonics and WTGs. One or both of these
sources inject harmonic currents that have to be considered
The ideal electrical system sinusoidal waveform is pure, when assessing voltage and current distortion compliance re-
continuous, and of a constant fundamental frequency. Power quirements.
quality issues are a deviation from this ideal system wave- There are two primary methods for controlling harmonics
form, and limits have been adopted through various standards impacts in wind power plants. (1) The method of avoidance
and guidelines for maintaining continuity, voltage magnitude, during the design process of the wind plant collector system
harmonic limits, and transient nature of electric power sys- allows for careful consideration of equipment to prevent re-
tems. Two of the most common power quality issues encoun- sonance problems. (2) Designing harmonic filters based on
tered within wind power plants are harmonic resonance and measurements and simulation results in order to reduce or
voltage flicker. control series resonance conditions of the wind plant. The later
Flicker is a variation in the system ac voltage, which can method is the most common mitigation approach, when capa-
result in observable changes in light output and in some cases citive compensation is required.
become annoying and objectionable. In wind farms flicker is
caused by variations in wind turbine generator (WTG) power II. RESONANCE AND FREQUENCY CONSIDERATIONS
output due to variation in wind speed, blade pitching, tower One objective of a harmonic analysis is to characterize the
shadowing, wind shear or gradient, and WTG start and stop potential of the wind collector system for series and parallel
operations. Flicker is usually a concern for interconnections resonance conditions. Series resonance problems are characte-
to “weak” systems, such as distribution interconnections in rized by series inductance and capacitance driven by back-
areas of the system where fault currents are very low. The ground harmonic voltages from the grid (see Fig. 1). Series
resonance points are identified by dips in the frequency scan
Please see reference [11] for a discussion of WTG types.

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on the high side of the interconnect transformer. The relatively When dealing with parallel operation of two wind power
small impedances at the series resonance points can result in plants located within close proximity, it is necessary to also
high harmonic currents. avoid resonance conditions between the two plants and the
associated shunt capacitor banks.
A. Frequency Scan Analysis
Frequency scan analysis is a characterization of the system
equivalent impedance at a bus in the system as a function of
frequency. Figure 3 provides an example of a frequency scan
at the main 34.5 kV wind plant bus with over 50 turbines and
30 miles of underground collector cable. In the case where all
of the turbines are in operation, the parallel resonance of this
example system was near the 10th harmonic frequency (600
Hz).
Frequency Scan Result at the Main 34.5kV Bus
100

80

60

Voltage (V)
40

20

Fig. 1. Illustration of series resonance in a wind power plant 0 10 20

Frequency (H pu)
30 40 50

Parallel resonance points magnify voltages and are identi-

Fig. 3. Example graph of frequency scan results
fied by peaks in the driving point impedance on the medium
voltage side of the transformer (Fig. 2). Parallel resonance Frequency scans are performed by system modeling soft-
concerns occur when WTG harmonic current sources excite ware that injects 1 A sinusoidal currents. The frequencies of
resonant points (relatively high impedances) resulting in sig- the injected currents range from the fundamental frequency
nificant harmonic voltages. (60 Hz for this particular example) up to the largest harmonic
frequency of interest to determine the resulting system vol-
tage. In this case the output can alternatively be presented as
impedance in Ohms. Often frequency scans are done at vari-
ous grid locations or at the 34.5 kV collector bus.
An important consideration is that the magnitudes of the
frequency scans do not determine the severity of the problem
by itself. For harmonic problems, there must also be a suffi-
cient level of harmonic source voltages or currents at or near
the resonant frequency to excite the resonance. There is no
firm threshold separating impedance magnitudes that might
cause trouble, from those that do not cause trouble. A detailed
harmonic analysis using harmonic sources specified by meas-
ured data and/or turbine manufacturer-provided data is neces-
sary to quantitatively assess potential problems.
A major challenge in assessing the potential for harmonic
problems is to cover the large number of different system con-
figurations that can occur during normal operation of the wind
plant. The impedance of the system, which can vary signifi-
cantly, determines the resonance points. Impedance variations
are caused by (1) the number of wind turbines in operation, (2)
Fig. 2. Illustration of parallel resonance in a wind power plant switching of capacitor banks located at the substation, (3) tur-

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bine power factor correction capacitors (commonly used in

Type 1 and Type 2 turbines), and (4) variations in grid har-
monic impedance. In practice, one option to analyze this large
number of configurations is using automation to run a fre-
quency scan for various configurations and to display the re-
sults in a contour plot.

Fig. 4. Contour plot of the driving point series impedance for a large number
of system configurations Fig. 5. One-line diagram depicting a Type 3 (DFIG) turbine harmonic model

As an example, Fig.4 shows a contour plot of the driving Frequency Scan Results
point series impedance for a large number of system configu- Case 1a> 80 kvar Filter at Each Turbine Case 1b> 40 kvar Filter at Each Turbine

rations. The harmonic order is displayed on the Y-axis, the 150

Case 3c> No High Frequency Filters

number of turbines on line is displayed on the X-axis, and the

scale on the right displays the impedance magnitude. A low
impedance indicates a potentially hazardous series resonance
100
point. The example contour plot displays results of over 60
Impedance (Ohms)

simulation runs (one simulation for each turbine number). The

contour plot shows that the only odd harmonic frequency for
which series resonance points exist is the seventh harmonic. 50

Note that the capacitances of the substation capacitor bank and

the turbine power factor correction capacitors were fixed in all
simulation runs summarized in the contour plot. Similar con- 0
0 10 20 30 40 50
tour plots can be created for different system configurations. Harmonic Frequency
Fig. 6. Frequency scan results showing the impact of turbine HFHF
Furthermore, similar contour plots can be created to determine
parallel impedance resonance points. The typical harmonic analysis practice used in the industry
B. Source Characteristics of Wind Turbine Generators is to consider harmonic-generating devices as ideal current
sources. The current injected by an ideal current source is
The frequency scan results for a wind plant collector system invariant with the driving point impedance of the system to
are dependent on the type of wind turbine and its representa-
which it is connected, and also invariant regardless of the exis-
tion in the harmonic model. Figure 5 shows an example im-
tence of other sources of harmonic distortion in the grid.
plementation of a Type 3 (DFIG) turbine for a harmonic study.
For both Types 3 and 4 (Full Conversion) turbines, it is impor- When analyzing the influence of other sources, such as back-
tant that the high frequency harmonic filters (HFHF) are not ground grid voltage distortion, a wind turbine modeled in this
overlooked. These filters are often installed on the line side of way would be considered an open circuit.
the voltage source converter (VSC) to shunt the energy from Actual harmonic performance of wind plants can differ
the switching frequency. Even though these filters may only substantially from the performance predicted by the classical
be rated about 50 kvar per turbine, the accumulation of filters approach. This harmonic analysis practice evolved at a time
for many turbines will shift the natural resonance of the sys- when the dominant harmonic sources were load-commutated
tem. Figure 6 provides an example of the effects from these converters and diode rectifiers. For these devices, a constant
filters. current assumption has been traditionally used as a reasonable
simplification. It has been, however, reported [2] [3] that the

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 4

harmonic impedances of the current source HVDC converters impedance of the grid at harmonic frequencies.
can affect system resonances, and ignoring them can lead to
excessively high harmonic voltage distortion and ineffective 1) Ambient Voltage Distortion
harmonic filter designs. The main reason for the oversimplifi- Ambient harmonic voltage distortion is characterized in
cation is the inability of present commercial programs to mod- terms of the voltage magnitude by harmonic order. This dis-
el the effective converter impedances. tortion tends to vary over time, due to variations in the har-
Most wind turbines use a VSC, which have very low har- monic current injected by sources distributed throughout the
monic impedance, compared to a current sourced conver- grid, and also due to variations in the transmission system
ter. Despite having low harmonic impedance, representation resonant characteristics, which can amplify distortion at a par-
of the VSC by an ideal current source may have considerable ticular location. Because of the variability in ambient distor-
inaccuracy, which can lead to misleading results. This is be- tion, data used for wind plant harmonic analysis may be statis-
cause in reality the harmonic current of VSC will not remain tically characterized. This will allow the plant design to be
constant, and varies depending on the converter control. made on the basis of the appropriate degree of conservatism.
A voltage source converter is better characterized as a Nor- The interconnection utility may have records of compliance
ton equivalent source [4]. The equivalent shunt impedance with IEEE Std 519-1992 [6] and other power quality standards
has real and reactive components that vary by frequency, and in regards to power quality limits for their transmission system
phase sequence, in a complex manner defined by the conver- in general. Availability of ambient voltage distortion charac-
ter’s controls as well as the parameters of the converter’s teristics for the particular point of proposed wind plant inter-
physical components. The impact of the source shunt imped- connection, however, is typically not available. This voltage
ance can be very significant, as the magnitude can be a few distortion may be characterized with access to operational
tenths of the wind turbine’s base impedance. As a result, the utility electrical system data from planning, protection, and
harmonic current of a wind turbine can vary over a very wide system operations.
range for the typical range of driving point impedances de- More accurate characterization of ambient voltage distor-
fined by the collector system and grid characteristics. tion levels may require installation of harmonic monitoring
Typically, wind turbine generator manufacturers provide equipment at the proposed interconnection point, for an ex-
test data, defined in terms of current injection, demonstrating tended period of time.
compliance with power quality standards and assessing cha- If the ambient voltage distortion is not available and a har-
racteristics at the turbine terminals [5]. It should be noted that monic study is being performed the voltage distortion limits
it is not feasible for a manufacturer to certify compliance at contained in Table 11.1 of IEEE Std 519 can be used as a ref-
the point of grid interconnection, because the collector system erence for interconnection bus voltage ambient conditions.
and the particular grid affect the currents at that location. However, it should be realized that actual distortion might
These test data are influenced by the characteristics of the sys- exceed IEEE Std 519 limits. It should also be realized that
tem in which the tests are conducted, both in terms of imped- applying each of the individual harmonic limits collectively
ance and in terms of ambient voltage distortion. It is highly might yield unrealistic results. The value of the actual indi-
difficult to find a test location free of ambient harmonics, and vidual frequencies modeled might depend upon local condi-
it is also difficult to segregate harmonic current flow caused tions such as other harmonic sources in the area. Some utilities
by the wind turbines and flow caused by grid distortion driv- may also provide a planning limit that can be used for studies.
ing current into the wind turbines and wind plant shunt capa-
citances. Information on the equivalent source impedance of 2) Transmission System Harmonic Impedance
wind turbines is generally not available. Proper representation of the transmission system’s imped-
Modeling the source characteristics of wind turbines is ance at harmonic frequencies is important for both analysis of
more complex than was initially considered, certainly requir- harmonic currents produced by the wind plant, and interaction
ing more complexity than the harmonic current source models of the wind plant with ambient grid distortion.
used for industrial studies. Practices are still evolving to more There are grid representation practices in use for wind plant
sophisticated representations for the WTG harmonic source harmonic studies, which are often less than adequate. Some-
characteristics. Measurements continue to be an important times, the impedance of the transmission system is ignored
part of the validation process for harmonics studies, as expe- altogether by assuming the point of interconnection to be an
rience from the field provides a better understanding of what infinite bus or as an ideal voltage source representing ambient
level of detail is necessary in the system modeling. voltage distortion. While this simplification is reasonably ade-
quate when the wind plant is small, and connected to a very
C. Source Characteristics of Utility Interconnection stiff transmission system, it is not adequate in general.
The utility grid is characterized by two categories of para- Another practice is to define the grid impedance as an in-
meters: The first category is the background, or ambient, vol- ductance and resistance defined by the fundamental-frequency
tage distortion present at the point of interconnection without short-circuit impedance. This is reasonably accurate for fre-
the wind plant connected. The second is the driving-point quencies below the first resonance of the transmission system.

69
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Transmission systems, however, often have resonances in the ance. Studies to define transmission system impedance need
same range of frequencies as the harmonics of greatest interest to consider the range of normal and contingency system condi-
(i.e., 5th and 7th). tions. This may result in a large number of possible imped-
Determination of the harmonic impedance of the transmis- ance values to be considered.
sion system requires detailed modeling. The extent of the
transmission system, which must be discretely modeled, de-
pends on the frequency range of most interest, and the re-
quired degree of accuracy. Modeling in the lower order har-
monic range (e.g., 3rd, 5th, 7th) requires a more extensive
transmission model than that needed for similar accuracy in
analysis of higher-order harmonics. For a small wind plant in
a stiff transmission system, the sensitivity of results to the grid
impedance representation is less significant, and thus a less
extensive transmission model can be justified.
If a load flow model or a short circuit model, of the trans-
mission system is available, then it is often possible to convert
these large models into an electro-magnetic transient (EMT)
model or harmonics model using data conversion utilities.
The use of an EMT type or harmonic programs allows calcula-
tion of the frequency and impedance of each network reson-
ance point.
Harmonic impedance analysis requires that the frequency-
dependent characteristics of the external grid components be
Fig. 7. Range of harmonic impedance at a typical point of interconnection
accurately represented. Damping is an important determinant
of resonance severity, and proper representation of grid com- (Inductive)
ponent damping at harmonic frequencies is essential. For ex-
ample, a transformer is represented in fundamental-frequency
studies as a series inductance and resistance. Such a model, if
Reactance

used for harmonic analysis, would exhibit an X/R ratio that Resistance
would monotonically increase with increasing frequency,
without bound. In reality, a transformer reaches its maximum
X/R at a frequency of one or two hundred Hertz, and the X/R Individual
decreases continuously for higher frequencies. Thus, the sim- configuration
plified series resistance-inductance representation is clearly results
(Capacitive)
inadequate for harmonic analysis. Proper harmonic analysis Fig. 8. Harmonic impedance range defined as a sector
requires that a model which properly represents damping of
transformers and other components be used. Sufficiently ac- To make harmonic analysis manageable, boundaries of the
curate models of the network components for harmonic analy- harmonic impedance ranges can be defined as a shape, such as
sis are discussed in [7]. a pie-shaped sector or polygon, in the R-X plane. Figure 8
The harmonic impedance of a transmission system can be illustrates a pie-shaped sector, defined by a minimum and
highly dependent on the specific system configuration. Out- maximum impedance magnitude, and a minimum and maxi-
ages of lines and transformers, even ones that are moderately mum impedance angle. Critical resonance conditions will al-
distant from the point of wind plant interconnection, can sig- ways fall on the boundaries of such a shape that surrounds all
nificantly change the impedance at certain harmonics. In ad- actual harmonic impedance loci. The application of shapes to
dition to such contingencies, routine system variations such as define grid harmonic impedance range is a routine practice in
the status of capacitor banks and generating unit commitment transmission technologies where harmonic performance is
can also have a large impact. Thus, the transmission system critical (e.g., HVDC). Some European transmission system
impedance cannot be considered as a single value for each operators provide similar harmonic impedance envelopes. This
harmonic. The impedance varies over a range in the R-X is usually provided separately for the 2nd-5th harmonics and for
plane, depending on system condition. Figure 7 illustrates the the 6th and higher order harmonics. For the 2nd-5th harmonics
rather wide range of harmonic impedance and impedance an- the impedance plot is defined as a square bounded to the area
gle for an actual transmission system, over the range of ordi- between Rmin- Rmax and Xmax-Xmin. For the 6th and higher order
nary contingencies and operating conditions. Thorough har- harmonics the envelope consists of a semicircle with its radius
monic analysis of wind plant harmonic performance requires in the origin, and a square to the right of the semicircle.
consideration of every possible transmission system imped- Caution and discretion needs to be applied when using

70
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harmonic impedance ranges in studies of ambient transmission harmonic source of the grid. Series resonance from the collec-
distortion amplification within wind plants. Ambient voltage tor cable capacitance can easily result in an idle wind power
distortion, applied as a voltage source behind the transmission plant absorbing more harmonic current than prescribed by the
system impedance, is usually defined as a maximum, or a IEEE Std 519 recommended limits.
range of values, determined from monitoring. High values of Facility compliance is evaluated at the point of common
ambient distortion may be the result of resonant conditions in coupling (PCC), and although individual wind turbines may be
the transmission system, that would tend to have a high source certified as IEEE Std 519 compliant, the aggregate facility
impedance. The harmonic impedance range, however, may may not meet emission limits. Section 10 of IEEE Std 519
include low impedance values that are the result of other con- outlines the current distortion limits for individual and total
harmonics for various grid voltages as a function of a facilities
ditions. The impedance value range is usually defined by sys-
ratio of short circuit current to the maximum fundamental load
tem harmonic analysis studies that are performed independent
current. The current distortion is based upon the maximum
of monitoring used to define ambient voltage distortion mag-
demand load current (fundamental frequency). This percen-
nitude. The correlation between particular background distor- tage calculation is referred to as the Total Demand Distortion
tion values and particular impedance values is thus not gener- (TDD). It is often convenient to convert the current limits
ally known. Use of the highest magnitude ambient voltage from percentage values to Amperes, allowing direct compari-
distortion combined with a source impedance that results in a son with measured values. An example of harmonic current
worst-case resonance within the wind plant is conservative, limits at a wind power plant (WPP) is given in Table I.
but also potentially conservative to an excess degree.
TABLE I
3) Representation of Reactive Compensation Equipment HARMONIC CURRENT LIMITS AT A WPP INTERCONNECTION
The representation of the reactive compensation equipment Example Wind Power Plant

is dependent upon the actual equipment used. If mechanical- Primary Current IL

102.8 MVA
ly-switched capacitors and reactors only, these components 345 kV
172.0 Amps
would typically be represented as single lumped equivalent
capacitor or reactor for each bank and various combinations IEEE 519 (1992) Table 10-5 -- Current Distortion Limits for
General Transmission Systems >161kV
being energized considered in the resonance and distortion
<11 11=<h<17 17=<h<23 23=<h<35 35=<h TDD
analysis. If inverter-based dynamic compensators with me- Limits (Percent) 2.0% 1.0% 0.75% 0.3% 0.15% 2.5%
chanically-switched capacitors and reactors are applied, the
Limits (Primary Current Amps) 3.4 1.7 1.3 0.5 0.3 4.3
representation would be expanded to include an equivalent for
the step-up transformers and an equivalent ac filter associated The maximum current harmonics for interconnecting distri-
with the inverters. The harmonic current contribution of the buted resources with electric power systems are given in IEEE
inverter-based dynamic compensator is negligible in the range Std 1547 [8]. The limits indicated for distributed resources are
of frequencies of interest due to the high modulation frequen- the same as those for large loads specified in IEEE Std 519.
cy typically used. Furthermore, the ‘side lobes’ of the very IEC 61000-4-30 [9] prescribes a standard approach for
high modulation frequency is filtered through the ac filter at measuring harmonics, where 200 ms windows are used. The
the inverter terminals before reaching the MV system. If static data are then aggregated into 10 minute intervals. The 10
var compensators (SVCs) are used, the representation will minute average values should be used for comparison against
include the lumped equivalents of the capacitor, filter, and the recommended limits. An example trend of the 5th harmonic
reactor banks, as well as an equivalent current injection current at the point of interconnection is given in Fig. 9.
source. A STAtic COMpensator (STATCOM) is comprised of Additionally, voltage distortion limits are also set forth in
a voltage source converter, and as per the discussions made Table 11.1 of IEEE Std 519 for the corresponding intercon-
earlier, can be represented by its Norton equivalent circuit. nection bus voltage. However, some sites will have harmonic
voltage background levels that will exceed these limits, even
III. COMPLIANCE WITH POWER QUALITY STANDARDS when the WPP is not in service. The actual voltage distortion
In the United States, IEEE Std 519 is the most common in- contribution from the WPP may be difficult to assess, as the
dustry standard for power quality governing wind power background and WPP harmonic generation will vary over
plants although certain limitations apply. Article 9.7.6 of the time. The current distortion (Individual harmonics and TDD)
Standard Large Generator Interconnection Agreement (LGIA), may be the most practical measurement for compliance.
used by many electric reliability organizations, requires gene-
rating facilities to limit excessive harmonic distortion in ac-
cordance with IEEE Std 519. The application of the IEEE Std
519 limits to wind plants is an area of practice that is evolving.
Fundamentally, it is important to realize that the current limits
in the recommended practice do not apply to harmonic cur-
rents that are absorbed by the wind plant from the background

71
 7

and also data provided by equipment manufactures to prevent

harmonic issues upon commissioning. Reasonably, it is un-
derstood that such studies will not always insure compliance.
No harmonic mitigation solution is ideal for every situation
and accordingly post construction harmonics monitoring may
be need to determine a viable solution should an issue arise. It
should also be noted that post-commissioning harmonic mea-
surements might be inconclusive because it is problematic to
segregate harmonic currents caused by the wind plant from
harmonic current flow into the plant as a result of grid voltage
distortion. In the worst case, failure to comply with harmonic
limits could result in a default of the terms of an LGIA, which
could lead to termination of the agreement if the default is not
Fig. 9. Example trend showing the 5th harmonic current at a wind power plant
cured.
point of interconnection (10 minute average values)
IV. HARMONIC FILTER OVERVIEW
When limits are exceeded, they should be evaluated on a Harmonic filters are often used as a mitigation method for
statistical basis. The limits should be met by the value that preventing unwanted harmonic contributions into a wind pow-
provides a cumulative probability level of 95%. Figure 10 er plant. If the WPP includes capacitor banks for reactive
shows an example case that can be considered as compliant, as power support, frequently these provisions will introduce re-
the limit is met by more than 95% of the measured values. sonance concerns. Generally, harmonic filters will address
The data block in Fig. 11, which statistically represents the these concerns. There are many options for harmonic filter
same data as in Fig.10’s trend, shows that the cumulative designs; two of the most prevalent methods are the passive
probability 95% level (CP95%) is 1.42% VTHD, which meets notch filter and the band pass filter often called a C-Type har-
the recommended limit. monic filter. More details on design and performance of the
harmonic filters can be found in [10].
The tuned notch type filter is implemented by placing se-
ries reactors in an existing capacitor bank, tuned to a single
frequency, usually tuned below the 5th harmonic frequency.
Advantages of a single tuned filter are that it is a simple de-
sign, and multiple stages of reactive power compensation can
be designed identically. A disadvantage of the single-tuned
filter is that it can lead to sharp resonances at non-
characteristic frequencies. Figure 12 shows an example of the
effect of a single-tuned filter on a system frequency response.

Notch Filter Frequency Response

100

Fig.10. Trend of the harmonic voltage distortion at a wind power plant inter- 80
connection
Impedance (Ohms)

60

40

20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Harmonic Frequency
th
Fig. 12. Example frequency response of a single-tuned (4.7 harmonic) filter
on a wind power plant 34.5 kV main bus

Fig. 11. Statistical analysis of harmonic voltage distortion measurements A C-Type filter configuration is shown in Fig. 13. It is de-
signed so that the reactor and smaller (“c-stage”) capacitor are
In preconstruction, harmonic studies are often commis- impedance matched, so that a minimal amount of fundamental
sioned using estimates of background harmonics from the grid frequency power is dissipated across the damping resistor.

72
 8

VI. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The publication of this paper was the result of two years of
concerted effort by the authors and the IEEE PES Wind and
Solar Plant Collector System Design working group--
gathering information, preparing drafts, arguing amongst the
interested parties, restarting drafts, arguing some more, and
finally coming to agreement. The authors sincerely hope that
this and other working group papers are found to be valuable
to those who will plan, design, analyze, construct, and operate
wind power plants. Recognition is given to the authors and
their employers for contributing the resources for the prepara-
tion of this work.
For more information on available materials, or to find out
how to participate in this working group’s activities, please
see: http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/td/wind
Fig. 13. Oneline configuration of a C-Type harmonic filter
VII. REFERENCES
While, it presents more complications for the system design [1] T.E. McDermott, “Distributed Wind Evaluation Metho-
and protection, it does have certain advantages. (1) It provides dology,” AWEA WindPower 2009.
further system damping of unintended resonance conditions [2] J. Arrillaga, B. C. Smith, N. R. Watson, and A. R. Wood,
over a wide frequency range. (2) It is an excellent choice for Power System Harmonic Analysis. New York: Wiley,
capacitors banks installed on transmission systems, especially 1997.
where there are other banks on nearby buses. (3) It can also [3] D. L. Dickmander, S. Y. Lee, G. L. Desilets, and M.
be a good choice for 34.5 kV systems, where additional capa- Granger, “AC/DC harmonic interactions in the presence
citor banks (for reactive power) are installed without harmonic of GIC for the Quebec–New Englandphase II HV dc
filters. Figure 14 shows an example of the effect of a C-Type transmission,” IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 9, pp.
filter on a system frequency response. 68–78, Jan. 1994.
[4] R. C. Dugan, M. C. McGranaghan, S. Santoso, H. Wayne
C-Filter Frequency Response Beatty, Electrical Power System Quality, New York:
McGraw-Hill, 2004.
100

[5] IEC 61400-21 (2008) Wind turbines – Part 21: Measure-

80 ment and assessment of power quality characteristics of
grid connected wind turbines.
[6] IEEE Std 519-1992, “Recommended Practices and Re-
Impedance (Ohms)

60
quirements for Harmonic Control in Electric Power Sys-
tems”.
40
[7] IEEE Tutorial Course on Harmonic Modeling and Simu-
lation, Course text TP-125-0, February 1998.
20 [8] IEEE 1547-2003 “Standard for Interconnecting Distri-
buted Resources with Electric Power Systems”.
[9] IEC 61000-4-30 (2008) Electromagnetic compatibility
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 (EMC) - Part 4-30: Testing and measurement techniques -
Harmonic Frequency
Fig. 14. Typical frequency response of a C-Type harmonic filter at a wind Power quality measurement methods.
power plant 34.5 kV main bus [10] Guide to the specification and design evaluation of AC
filters for HVDC systems, CIGRE Technical Brochure,
V. CONCLUSION WG 14.30, 1999.
[11] Wind Plant Collector Design WG, “Characteristics of
This paper has presented harmonics and resonance issues
Wind Turbine Generators for Wind Power Plants,” Pro-
for wind power plants in an overview and summary fashion.
ceedings of 2009 IEEE Power and Energy Society Gener-
This included an introduction to series and parallel resonances,
al Meeting, Calgary, Canada, July 2009
frequency scan analysis, and the harmonic source characteris-
tics of WTGs and of utility interconnections. Further, the is-
sue of compliance with the power quality standard IEEE Std
519 was presented, as was an overview of harmonic filters.

73
 Appendix 1

Abbreviations and Terms Used in Wind Power

Plant Collector System Design and Operation
IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group

Christopher Brooks, Wayne Dilling, Charles J. Murray, Nestor Castillo, Gary Engmann, Michael Starke

Abbreviation Meaning
I. INTRODUCTION BA Balancing Area
BIL Basic Insulation Level
This paper presents a basic list of the abbreviations and BOP Balance of Plant
terms used in the papers produced by the Wind and Solar Plant BOP Balance of Plant
Collector working group, specifically for the eleven papers BWEC Bats & Wind Energy Cooperative
included in this compendium. Included are abbreviations and CAIR Clean Air Interstate Rate
terms unique to the wind industry as well as those more gener- CAMR Clean Air Mercury RLe
ally used throughout the energy industry. The paper is in two CAPX Capital Expenditures
parts. The first is a set of abbreviations that may be found CCGT Combined Cycle Gas Turbine
when researching WPP technology. CF Capacity Factor
CIP Critical Infrastructure Protection
The second part is a set of terms that have been discussed CLR Current Limiting Reactor
in the working group on WPP collector systems. The terms COD Commercial Operation Date
are listed with references to the specific paper(s) in this com- Cp Performance Coefficient (of turbine)
pendium. Rather than list the definitions here, we invite the CP Cumulative Probability
CP95% CP 95% Level
reader to look to the appropriate paper(s) for an understanding
CPC Certificate of Public Convenience
of the term, particularly within the wind collector context. CREZ Competitive Renewable Energy Zone
Note that some terms have very specific definitions pub- Ct Thrust Coefficient (of turbine)
lished by the IEEE. No attempt is made here to duplicate, CT Combustion Turbine
DEP Diurnal Energy Production
compete, or redefine any generic term that is officially pub-
DETC De-energized Tap Changer
lished by the IEEE; term references are provided for consider- DFAG Doubly Fed Asynchronous Generator
ation within the context of wind power plants. The reader is DFG or
encouraged to search, examine, review, use, and study the Doubly-Fed Induction Generator
DFIG
official IEEE published terms, which can be found at: EHV Extra High Voltage
EIR Environmental Impact Report
www.ieee.org/go/standardsdictionary
EIS Environmental Impact Study
ELCC Effective Load-Carrying Capacity
The paper hopes to help the reader to more quickly grasp EMT Electromagnetic Transients
the technology concepts in this field. It is meant to be helpful EMTP Electromagnetic Transients Program
to those beginning to understand wind power in general and EPC Engineering, Procurement and Construction
wind power plants (WPP) collector systems, specifically. EPR Ethylene Propylene Rubber
ERCOT Electric Reliability Council of Texas
II. ABBREVIATIONS FERC Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
FOTT Fiber optic transfer trip
Abbreviation Meaning XLPE-TR Cross Linked Polyethylene-Tree Retardant
ACE Area Control Error GADS Generating Availability Data System
ACSR Aluminum cable steel reinforced GOES Geostationary Operations Environmental Satellites
AEP Annual Energy Production HAWT Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine
AGC Automatic Generation Control HV High Voltage
AMT Alternative Minimum Tax HVDC High Voltage Direct Current
ANPR Advance Notice of Proposal Rulemaking HVRT High Voltage Ride-Through
ANSI American National Standards Institute I&C Instrumentation and Controls
ASI Above Sea Level IA Interconnection Agreement
ASOS Automated Surface Observing System IAV Inter-Annual Variation
ATC Available Transfer Capability ICAP Installed Capacity
AVR Automatic Voltage Regulator ICT Independent Coordinator of Transmission
IEA International Energy Agency
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
Working group document

74
 Appendix 2

Abbreviation Meaning Abbreviation Meaning

IED Intelligent Electronic Device PVC Polyvinyl chloride
IGBT Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor QF Qualifying Facility
IGCT Integrated Gate Commutated Thyristor RAS Remedial Action System
IPP Independent Power Producer RASS Radio Acoustic Sounding System
IRP Integrated Resource Planning RAWS Remote Automatic Weather System
ISO Independent System Operator RD Rotor Diameter
ISO International Organization for Standardization REC Renewable Energy Credit
JCSP Joint Coordinated System P an RES Renewable Electricity Standard
LGIA Large Generator Interconnection Agreement RLC Resistor-Inductor-Capacitor
LLDPE Linear low density polyethylene RMS Root Mean Squared
LOLP Loss of Load Probability RRO Regional Reliability Organization
LOTO Lockout-Tagout RTO Regional Transmission Organization
LTA Lost Time Accidents SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar
LV Low Voltage SCADA Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition
LVCB Low Voltage Circuit Breaker SCIG Squire-cage induction generator
LVRT Low Voltage Ride-Through SCR short-circuit ratio
MCOV Maximum continuous operating voltage SODAR Sonic Detection and Ranging
MEP Monthly Energy Production SONAR Sonic Navigation and Ranging
METAR Meteorological Aerodrome Report SOW Scope Of Work
MOU Memorandum of Understanding SPS Special Protection System
MOV Metal-oxide varistor SSTI Sub-synchronous Torsional Interaction
MTBF Mean Time between Failures ST Substation Transformer
MTSA Master Turbine Supply Agreement STATCOM Static VAR Compensator
MTTR Mean Time to Repair SVC Static VAR Compensator
MV Medium Voltage TCC Time-current characteristics
MVCB Medium Voltage Circuit Breaker TDD Total Demand Distortion
NAO North Atlantic Oscillation THD Total Harmonic Distortion
NERC North American Electric Reliability Corp. TR-XLPE Cross linked polyethylene-with Tree Retardant
NESC National Electrical Safety Code (IEEE C2) TSA Turbine Supply Agreements
NEXRAD Next Generation Weather Radar TW Trapwire
NIMBY Not-In-My-Back-Yard UCAP Unforced Capacity
NOPR Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (by the FERC) URD Underground residential distribution
OATT Open Access Transmission Tariff URL Uniform Resource Locator
OCPD Overcurrent Protection Device UTM Universal Transverse Mercator
ODS Ozone Depleting Substance UWIG Utility Wind Integration Group
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer VAR Volt Ampere Reactive
OLE Object Linking & Embedding VAWT Vertical-Axis Wind Turbine
OVRT Overvoltage Ride-Through VRT Voltage Ride-Through
OLTC On-load Tap Changers VSC Voltage Source Converter
OPC OLE for Process Control WECC Western Electricity Coordinating Council
PCC Point of Common Coupling WFMS Wind Farm Management System
PCIP Principal Controlled Insurance Program WPP Wind Power Plant
PDD Presidential Decision Directive WRA Wind Resources Area
PE Polyethylene WTG Wind Turbine Generator
PE Professional Engineer XML Extensible Markup Language
PF Power Factor
PFCC Power factor correction capacitors III. TERMINOLOGY
PIP Pic Involvement Program
PLC Programmable Logic Controller For information on each term listed, please refer to the paper
PM Periodic Maximum listed in section IV. References.
PMG Permanent Magnet Generator
PMGDD Permanent Magnet Generator Direct Drive Term Paper
POI Point of Interconnection
POT Peak over Threshold 200 A load-break elbows Paper 2
PPA Power Purchase Agreement 600 A dead-break style elbows Paper 2
PPE Personal Protective Equipment A factor (as related to transformer loss) Paper 8
PRC Protection and Control Above ground splice box Paper 7
PRR Power Ramp Rate ACCR conductor Paper 7
PSC Public Service Commission ACSR conductor Paper 7
PSD Prevention of Significant Deterioration ACSS conductor Paper 7
PSR Protection System Relaying Air switch Paper 7
PSS Preliminary Scoping Statement Ancillary services Paper 1
PTC Production Tax Credit

75
 Appendix 3

Term Paper Term Paper

ANSI/IEEE Std. 32 Paper 3 De-energized tap changer Paper 3

Arc blast Paper 6 Dielectric constant Paper 4
Arc blast hazard Paper 6 Distribution class surge arrester Paper 7
Arc duration Paper 6 Doubly Fed Asynchronous Generator Paper 3 +
Arc-flash Paper 6 Doubly Fed Induction Generator Paper 10
Arc-flash energy Paper 6 Dry type Transformer Paper 11
Arc-flash hazard Paper 6 Dynamic analysis Paper 3
Arc-flash protection boundary Paper 6 Dynamic response and control capability Paper 1
Automatic voltage regulation Paper 1 Dynamic system support Paper 1
Automatic voltage regulator Paper 4 Dynamic voltage support Paper 1
Availability Paper 8 + Earth electrode Paper 1
Paper 5 Earth electrode impedance Paper 3
B factor (as related to transformer loss) Paper 8 Effective grounding Paper 3
Backfill Paper 7 Effectively grounded Paper 9
Balance of Plant Paper 10 Elastomers Paper 8
Basic impulse level Paper 3 Elbow termination joint Paper 7
Basic insulation level Paper 8 Electromagnetic transients Paper 7
Bolted fault current Paper 6 Electromagnetic transients program Paper 11
Bonding Paper 3 Energized state Paper 3
Bus differential zone Paper 3 Energy loss software programs Paper 6
Cable connector Paper 7 Equipment grounding Paper 7
Cable reels Paper 7 Equipment grounding Paper 3
Cable splice Paper 7 Equipment insulation level Paper 3
Cable termination Paper 7 Equipment insulation protection Paper 3
Capacitive compensation Paper 3 Extensible Markup Language Paper 3
Capacitive grounding Paper 3 Extra high voltage Paper 10
Capacitor bank switch Paper 3 Failure rate Paper 8
Capacitor switching surges Paper 3 Fault current Paper 5
Clearing time Paper 6 Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Paper 3
Cold shrink Paper 7 Feeder breaker Paper 10
Cold shrink jacket Paper 7 Feeder breaker ground relay Paper 3
Cold shrink splice Paper 7 Feeder isolation event Paper 3
Collector cable schedule Paper 1 Feeder topology Paper 3
Collector circuits Paper 2 FERC Order 661–A Paper 2
Collector feeder Paper 3 Ferroresonance Paper 1
Collector substation Paper 3 Fiber Optic Transfer Trip Paper 3
Collector system Paper 2 Flashover Paper 3
Compliant wind plant system Paper 5 Flat layout (as related to cable configuration) Paper 3
Concentric grounding Paper 1 Flicker analysis Paper 7
Concentric neutral Paper 7 Geotechnical study Paper 1
Concentric shield wires Paper 7 Grid Paper 7
Concrete Foundation rebar Paper 7 Ground fault Paper 1
Conductor configuration Paper 3 Ground fault current Paper 3
Conductor material Paper 7 Ground reference Paper 3
Conductor type Paper 7 Grounding transformer impedance Paper 3
Conduit duct banks Paper 7 Grounding transformer impedance Paper 3
Constant Susceptance requirements Paper 7 Hard wired transfer trip Paper 3
Harmonic analysis Paper 3
Contingency requirements Paper 1
Harmonic voltage Paper 1
Control requirements Paper 1
Heat shrink jacket Paper 3
Coordinating current Paper 1
Heat shrink splice Paper 7
Critical Infrastructure Protection Paper 11
Cross bonding Paper 10 High speed grounding switch Paper 9
Cross Linked Polyethylene Paper 7 High temperature conductors Paper 3
High Voltage Paper 7
Cross Linked Polyolefin Paper 7
High Voltage Direct Current Paper 1
Crowbar Paper 7
High voltage ride through Paper 11
Crowbar switch Paper 4 +
High voltage ride-through requirements Paper 4
Paper 9
Hotstick Paper 1
Cumulative Probability Paper 3
Hub (as related to a wind turbine) Paper 2
Current carrying capacity Paper 11
Ice loads Paper 4
Current limiting reactor Paper 7
IEEE 738 Paper 7
Dedicated grounding transformer Paper 8

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 Appendix 4

Term Paper Term Paper

IEEE standard c62.11 Paper 7 Personnel protection equipment Paper 7

Impedance grounding Paper 3 Phasor model Paper 6
Impulsive transients Paper 3 Pitch regulated Paper 1
Incident energy level Paper 3 Plowing Paper 4
Independent System Operator Paper 6 Point of Common Coupling Paper 7
Insulation coordination Paper 10 Point of Interconnection Paper 11
Insulator size Paper 3 Point of interconnection Paper 10
Intelligent Electronic Device Paper 7 Pole ground Paper 2
Interconnect switchyard Paper 10 Pole ground resistance Paper 7
Interconnection Agreement Paper 2 Pole ground rod Paper 7
Interconnection agreements Paper 10 Polyethylene Paper 7
International Electrotechnical Commission Paper 1 Polyvinyl chloride Paper 7
Junction box Paper 10 Post fault requirements Paper 7
Large Generator Interconnection Agreement Paper 7 Post-fault recovery Paper 1
Large Generator Interconnection Agreement Paper 11 Power factor requirements Paper 1
Lightning current magnitude Paper 10 Power line carrier transfer trip Paper 1
Lightning transients Paper 3 Power Ramp Rate Paper 3
Linear low density polyethylene Paper 3 Power system stabilizer Paper 10
Load flow studies Paper 7 Presidential Decision Directive Paper 1
Load flow study Paper 1 Primary insulation material Paper 10
Loss(es) Paper 3 Programmable Logic Controller Paper 7
Loss efficiencies Paper 5 Protection and Control Paper 10
Loss factor Paper 2 Protection System Relaying Paper 10
Losses, average Paper 5 Radial feeder configuration Paper 10
Losses, collector system Paper 5 Radio transfer trip Paper 2
Losses, electrical Paper 5 Rate of lightning current rise Paper 3
Losses, energy Paper 5 Rated ampacity Paper 3
Losses, no-load Paper 5 Reactive compensation systems Paper 7
Low shunt impedance Paper 5 Reactive power compensator Paper 1
Low voltage Paper 3 Regional Transmission System Operator Paper 1
Low-voltage ride through Paper 1 Regulated shunt-reactor Paper 10
Magnetizing vars Paper 3 Remedial Action System Paper 5
Marker ball Paper 3 Repetitive fault arc restrike Paper 10
Maximum continuous operating voltage Paper 7 Resistor-Inductor-Capacitor Paper 3
Mean time between failures Paper 3 Response time requirements Paper 11
Mean time to repair Paper 5 Restrike Paper 1
Medium Voltage Paper 5 Rho value Paper 3
Medium voltage collection Paper 1 Riser pipe Paper 7
Metal oxide surge arrester Paper 3 Sectionalizing cabinet Paper 7
Metal-oxide surge arrester Paper 3 Semiconducting conductor shield Paper 7
Metal-oxide varistor Paper 3 Semiconductor insulation shield Paper 7
Metal-oxide varistor disks Paper 3 Separation effects Paper 7
Mineral filled Ethylene Propylene Rubber Paper 3
Shield sleeve Paper 3
Minimum power factor Paper 7
Shield wires Paper 7
Multi-point grounding Paper 1
Short circuit withstand Paper 7
Nacelle Paper 7
Short-circuit Paper 7
NEC Paper 9
Short-circuit ratio Paper 3
NESC Paper 7
Simple induction generator Paper 1
Neutral grounding Paper 7
Single connection point Paper 1
Neutral grounding resistor/reactor Paper 3 Single-point bonding Paper 1
North American Electric Reliability Corp. Paper 3 Soil compaction Paper 3
Object Linking & Embedding Paper 10 Soil thermal properties Paper 7
Oil filled Transformer Paper 10
Soil thermal resistivity Paper 7
OLE for Process Control Paper 3
Solid bonding Paper 7
Open end reflection Paper 10
Spacer cable Paper 7
Original Equipment Manufacturer Paper 3
Special Protection System Paper 7
Outer jacket Paper 10
Overcurrent protection devices Paper 7 Splice body Paper 10
Splicing Paper 7
Overhead ground wires Paper 6
Padmounted switches Paper 7 Stacked layout (as related to cable configuration) Paper 7
Partial discharge Paper 2 Stall regulated Paper 7

77
 Appendix 5

Term Paper Term Paper

Static Compensator Paper 4 Zero sequence source impedance Paper 3

Static Var Compensator Paper 11 Zero-sequence coupling Paper 3
Step potential Paper 11 Zig-zag transformer Paper 3
Structure type Paper 3 Zones of protection Paper 3
Substation grounding design Paper 7
Substation transformer Paper 3
IV. REFERENCES
Subsynchronous speed Paper 2 [1] IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group, “Re-
Supersynchronous speed Paper 1 active Power Compensation for Wind Power Plants”, 2009.
[2] IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group,
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition Paper 1 “Wind Power Plant Collector System Design Considerations”, 2009.
Surge arrester Paper 10 [3] IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group,
Surge arrester duty Paper 7 “Wind Power Plant Grounding, Overvoltage Protection, and Insulation
Surge propagation effects Paper 7 Coordination”, 2009.
System grounding Paper 3 [4] IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group,
“Characteristics of Wind Turbine Generators for Wind Power Plants”,
Systems disturbances Paper 3 2009.
T2 conductor Paper 1 [5] IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group,
Temperature rise Paper 7 “Wind Power Plant Substation and Collector System Redundancy, Re-
Temporary overvoltages Paper 3 liability, and Economics”, 2009.
Thermal resistance Paper 3 [6] IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group, “Arc-
Flash Hazard in Wind Power Plants”, 2010.
Thermal Resistance testing Paper 7
[7] IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group, “De-
Thermo-set compounds Paper 7 sign and Application of Cables and Overhead Lines in Wind Power
Time-current characteristics Paper 7 Plants”, 2010.
Time-domain model Paper 6 [8] IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group, “De-
Torque transient Paper 1 sign and Application of Cables and Overhead Lines in Wind Power
Plants”, 2010.
Total Demand Distortion Paper 3 + [9] IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group,
Total Harmonic Distortion Paper 11 “Power Transformer Application for Wind Plant Substations Wind
Traditional synchronous machine Paper 11 Plant Collector System Fault Protection and Coordination”, 2010.
Transfer trip scheme Paper 1 [10] IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group,
Transient overvoltages Paper 3 “Wind Power Plant SCADA and Controls”, 2011.
Transient studies Paper 3 [11] IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group,
“Harmonics and Resonance Issues in Wind Power Plants”, 2011.
Transmission provider's system impact study Paper 1
Transposing Paper 1
Trapwire Paper 7
Trefoil configuration Paper 7
Trenching Paper 7
Trip off-line Paper 7
Turbine Paper 1
Type 1, Type 2, Type 3, Type 4, Type 5 Paper 4
UL Standard 72 Paper 4
Underground residential distribution Paper 7
Unit step-up transformers Paper 7
Utility Wind Integration Group Paper 3
VAR capability Paper 11
Variable power factor Paper 1
Voltage control requirements Paper 1
Voltage recovery requirements Paper 1
Voltage ride through Paper 1
Voltage Source Converter Paper 1
VR conductor Paper 3
Wake effect Paper 7
Water trees Paper 8
Weier design Paper 7
Wind frequency distribution Paper 4
Wind loads Paper 7
Wind plant collector substation Paper 7
Wind plant collector system Paper 3
Wind plant developer Paper 3
Wind turbine generator Paper 1
Wind plant feeders Paper 1 –
Paper 11
WTG step-up transformer Paper 3
Zero sequence admittance Paper 9

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