663

Guidelines for the procurement and testing of

STATCOMS

Working Group
B4.53

August 2016
GUIDELINES FOR THE
PROCUREMENT AND TESTING
OF STATCOMS
WG B4.53

Members
Dan Kell, Convenor (CA)

Regular Members
Georg Pilz (DE), Tony Siebert (US), Fernando Issouribehere (AR), Araud Galtier (FR),
Steven Murray (IE), Xu Shukai (CN), John Gleadow (NZ), Thomas Magg (SA), Marcio Oliveira (SE),
Juha Turunen (FI), Willie Otto (NZ) , Ricardo Tenorio (BR)

Corresponding Members
Gabriel Olguín (CL), Behdad Biglar (CA), Marta Molinas (NO), Murray Bennett (CA)

Copyright © 2016

“All rights to this Technical Brochure are retained by CIGRE. It is strictly prohibited to reproduce or provide this publication
in any form or by any means to any third party. Only CIGRE Collective Members companies are allowed to store their copy
on their internal intranet or other company network provided access is restricted to their own employees. No part of this
publication may be reproduced or utilized without permission from CIGRE”.

Disclaimer notice

“CIGRE gives no warranty or assurance about the contents of this publication, nor does it accept any responsibility, as to the
accuracy or exhaustiveness of the information. All implied warranties and conditions are excluded to the maximum extent
permitted by law”.

ISBN: 978-2-85873-366-8
 Guidelines for The
PROCUREMENT AND
TESTING OF STATCOMS WG B4-53

Table of Contents
GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SPECIAL TERMS ........................................................... VII
1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 0
1.1 Background .............................................................................................................................. 0
1.2 Technical Brochure (TB) Scope ............................................................................................... 0
2 SHUNT REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION ......................................................................... 1
2.1 Basic operating principle .......................................................................................................... 1
2.1.1 SVC ..................................................................................................................................... 1
2.1.2 STATCOM........................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Advantages/Disadvantages of STATCOMs ............................................................................. 8
2.3 References ............................................................................................................................ 10
3 STAGES LEADING TO DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIFICATION OF STATCOM ...................... 11
3.1 Planning Specification ........................................................................................................... 11
3.1.1 Studies .............................................................................................................................. 11
3.1.2 Information to be Included in the Planning Specification .................................................. 12
3.1.3 Connection Requirements................................................................................................. 16
3.2 Feasibility Studies .................................................................................................................. 18
3.2.1 Layout ............................................................................................................................... 18
3.2.2 Interface to the ac system ................................................................................................. 19
3.2.3 Auxiliary AC supply ........................................................................................................... 19
3.2.4 Audible noise..................................................................................................................... 19
3.2.5 Losses ............................................................................................................................... 20
3.2.6 Other Items ....................................................................................................................... 20
3.3 Internal Procurement Team ................................................................................................... 20
3.3.1 Network Planning/System Development ........................................................................... 20
3.3.2 Technical Design............................................................................................................... 21
3.3.3 Engineering Design ........................................................................................................... 21
3.3.4 Network Operations .......................................................................................................... 22
3.3.5 Project Management ......................................................................................................... 22
3.3.6 Finance and Legal............................................................................................................. 22
3.3.7 Asset Management ........................................................................................................... 23
3.4 Data/Requirements after Planning Specification ................................................................... 23

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 3.4.1 Site and environmental conditions .................................................................................... 23
3.4.2 General design requirements ............................................................................................ 24
3.4.3 Primary plant equipment requirements ............................................................................. 24
3.4.4 Control, protection and monitoring system requirements .................................................. 25
3.4.5 Auxiliary systems requirements ........................................................................................ 25
3.4.6 Other requirements ........................................................................................................... 26
3.4.7 Civil and building works requirements............................................................................... 26
3.4.8 Spares, special tools and maintenance requirements ...................................................... 26
3.4.9 Safety, health and environmental requirements ................................................................ 26
3.4.10 Training requirements ..................................................................................................... 27
3.4.11 Site Security.................................................................................................................... 27
3.4.12 Interference Requirements ............................................................................................. 27
3.5 Scope of Work ....................................................................................................................... 41
3.6 EPC Vs EP ............................................................................................................................ 43
4 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION .................................................................................................. 45
4.1 Preliminary Specification/RFI ................................................................................................. 45
4.2 Performance vs Equipment Specification .............................................................................. 45
4.3 ................................................................................................................................................... 45
4.2.1 Contents ............................................................................................................................ 46
4.3 Form of Tender ...................................................................................................................... 49
4.3.1 General STATCOM ........................................................................................................... 49
5 EVALUATION OF BIDS ............................................................................................................. 53
5.1 Technical Evaluation .............................................................................................................. 53
5.2 Technical Evaluation – Ranking System................................................................................ 55
5.3 Evaluation of Bid Documents ................................................................................................. 59
5.4 Environmental Evaluation ...................................................................................................... 59
5.5 Q/A with Bidders .................................................................................................................... 60
6 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION ................................................................................................. 61
6.1 Kick-Off Meeting .................................................................................................................... 61
6.2 Design Review Process ......................................................................................................... 61
6.2.1 Purpose ............................................................................................................................. 61
6.2.2 Process and Planning ....................................................................................................... 61
6.2.3 Scope of Design Review ................................................................................................... 62
6.3 Component Specification ....................................................................................................... 64
6.4 Testing ................................................................................................................................... 66
6.4.1 Valves ............................................................................................................................... 66
6.4.2 Power Transformers.......................................................................................................... 66
6.4.3 DC Capacitors ................................................................................................................... 67
6.4.4 Phase Reactors................................................................................................................. 67
6.4.5 Other Type Tests .............................................................................................................. 67
6.5 Control and Protection Factory Acceptance Tests................................................................. 67
6.6 Pre-commissioning and subsystem tests............................................................................... 67
6.7 Commissioning tests .............................................................................................................. 69
6.8 System tests .......................................................................................................................... 70
6.8.1 Startup and shutdown test ................................................................................................ 71

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 6.8.2 Constant reactive power control test ................................................................................. 71
6.8.3 Voltage control mode test ................................................................................................. 71
6.8.4 Dynamic performance test ................................................................................................ 72
6.8.5 STATCOM operating range test ........................................................................................ 72
6.8.6 STATCOM redundancy test .............................................................................................. 72
6.8.7 STATCOM overload test ................................................................................................... 72
6.8.8 AC system fault test .......................................................................................................... 73
6.8.9 STATCOM control under Power Dispatching Center ........................................................ 73
6.8.10 Trial Operation ................................................................................................................ 73
6.9 Training .................................................................................................................................. 73
6.10 Computer Models ................................................................................................................ 75
7 PROJECT CLOSE ..................................................................................................................... 76
7.1 Punch List .............................................................................................................................. 76
7.2 Documentation ....................................................................................................................... 77
7.2.1 STATCOM simulation models ........................................................................................... 78
7.2.2 STATCOM Simulation Models References ....................................................................... 85
7.3 Spare parts strategy/Obsolescence Management ................................................................. 85
7.4 Monitoring of Performance .................................................................................................... 86
7.5 After-market Support ............................................................................................................. 86
7.6 Maintenance .......................................................................................................................... 87
8 LESSONS LEARNED ................................................................................................................ 88

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GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SPECIAL TERMS
The table below lists the abbreviations used throughout this brochure.

Abbreviation  Full Text 
CPF Cumulative Probability Function
DC Direct Current
EMC electromagnetic compatibility
EMF Electromagnetic Fields
EPC Engineer, Procure and Construct
EP Engineer, Procure
FAT Factory Acceptance Tests
HMI Human Machine Interface
I/O Input/Output
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
IGBT insulated-gate bipolar transistor
IGCT integrated gate-commutated thyristor
MSC Mechanically switched capacitor
MSR Mechanically switched reactors
MVAr Mega Volt-ampere reactive
OEM Original equipment manufacturer
PCBs polychlorinated biphenyls
PCC Point of Common Coupling
Plt long term flicker severity
Pst short term flicker severity
RAM reliability, availability and maintainability
RFI Request For Information
RI Radio and Television Interface
SCADA Supervisory control and Data Acquisition
STATCOM static synchronous compensator
SVC Static Var Compensator
SVS Static Var System
T Tesla
TCR Thyristor controlled reactors
TSC Thyristor switched capacitors
TSR Thyristor switched reactors
UIE International Union for Electricity Applications
VSC Voltage Sourced Converter
WG Working Group
ZS(h) system impedance

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1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
A static synchronous compensator (STATCOM) is a reactive power regulating device based on the
voltage sourced converter (VSC) used to maintain ac system voltages and enhance the stability of the ac
system. As these power electronic devices are becoming more and more prevalent in the power-system,
it is becoming more important than ever to have a set of guidelines in place to enable the industry to
adequately procure and test these devices to ensure safe, efficient and reliable operation, while
maintaining the capability to allow the “future-proofing” of the system for future upgrades.

1.2 Technical Brochure (TB) Scope

This TB’s scope is to gather the knowledge of technical people concerning the procurement and testing
of STATCOMs and produce a report that will allow the planners/engineers of the utility to specify and test
the STATCOM such that it will offer safe, efficient and reliable operation. This WG plans to incorporate
the best practices as determined by a panel of experts which will include representatives from utilities
with STATCOMs presently in operation in their system, manufacturers of STATCOMs and consultants.

Chapter 2 begins with an overview of shunt reactive power compensation techniques and discusses the
main types of reactive compensation available (SVC and STATCOM). The chapter then discusses the
major components of each device and the advantages/disadvantages of a STATCOM.

Chapter 3 focuses on the stages leading to the development of the planning specification for the
STATCOM. The chapter starts by discussing the inputs required for the development of the planning
specification. It also compares the various types of specifications and guides the reader through the pros
and cons.

Chapter 4 builds on Chapter 3 and develops the technical specification from the planning specification.
This looks at whether one should develop an equipment specification or a performance specification and
develops items such as the form of tender, list of required tests, drawings, etc.

Chapter 5 discusses how to evaluate the bids submitted by the various vendors using a clear set of
evaluation criteria and process.

Chapter 6 looks at, after selecting the successful bidder, how to implement the projet and the various
stages involved. It also discusses the various tests that need to be applied, specifically in regards to the
valves and on-site testing.

Chapter 7 discusses the closure of the project and how to transition from the construct/testing phase into
commercial operation

Finally chapter 8 attempts to summarize some lessons learned from the various contributors to this
working group, based on their experiences.
2 SHUNT REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION

This chapter briefly presents the basic operating principles of shunt connected reactive power
compensators which are based on the utilization of semiconductor components.

It also compares the operation of SVC versus STATCOMs to allow one to decide what
technology is the most suitable. For more detailed information of each technology please refer
to CIGRÉ publications, SC 38 WG 38.05.04 Analysis and optimisation of SVC use in
transmission systems and SC 14 WG 14.19 Static synchronous compensator (STATCOM).

2.1 Basic operating principle

The basic operating principle of shunt connected reactive power compensators is shown in
Figure 2.1. It contains a power supply which supplies current isup, a reactive power compensator
which draws current icomp and a feeder for a load which draws current iload.

isup iload

icomp

Comp

Figure 2.1 Example of Shunt compensation operating principle.

The basic purpose of the reactive power compensator is to provide dynamic reactive support in
order to help control the voltage at the connection point.

2.1.1 SVC
This chapter briefly describes Static Var Compensators (SVCs), typical applications in power
systems and the components they are comprised of.

SVCs are shunt connected static generators/absorbers of reactive power whose outputs are
varied so as to maintain or control specific parameters (ac voltage, reactive power) of the
electric power system. The term ‘static’ is used to indicate that SVCs, unlike synchronous
compensators, have no moving or rotating main components. Thus SVCs consist of static var
generator and/or absorber devices capable of drawing capacitive and/or inductive current from
an electrical system, and a suitable control device. A static var system (SVS) is defined as a
combination of different static and mechanically switched var compensators whose outputs are
coordinated [1].

By generating or absorbing reactive power in a power system, SVCs are used to control system
voltages. As the output of the SVC can be varied relatively fast, SVCs can be used as dynamic
compensation devices.

2.1.1.1 Typical applications in power systems

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SVCs with particular characteristics and controls are applied to power systems to solve a variety
of problems, namely:

a) to achieve effective voltage control

b) to provide/absorb reactive power

c) to increase the active power transfer capacity of both existing and new transmission
systems

d) to increase transient stability margins

e) to increase dynamic reactive reserve margins

f) to improve fault recovery

g) to reduce temporary overvoltages

h) to facilitate integration of renewable generation

i) to increase damping of power oscillations

j) to damp subsynchronous oscillations

k) to balance voltages (load balancing) of individual phases i.e. asymmetrical loads

l) to provide flicker mitigation

m)

In some of these applications, in order to achieve the desired control, the reactive power can be
varied slowly using mechanical switching of shunt reactors and capacitors, while in others fast
variation is required which can be achieved by static var compensators.

2.1.1.2 Components of SVCs

SVCs can be comprised of the following components, typically connected through a power
transformer:

a) Mechanically Switched Capacitors and Reactors (MSC and MSR).

b) Saturable reactors.

c) Thyristor Controlled reactors (TCR).

d) Thyristor Switched Reactors (TSR).

e) Thyristor Switched Capacitors (TSC).

f) Capacitor harmonic filter banks.

The above combination of devices can be used alone or in combination depending on whether
slow (MSC, MSR, saturated reactor) or fast varying (TCR, TSC, TSR) compensation is required,

Page 2
and whether stepwise (switched solution) or continuous control (TCR and filter) of reactive
power is required. The speed and type of compensation required will depend on the particular
power system application.

Saturated
MSR MSC TCR & TSR TSC Filter
Reactor

Figure 2.2 Basic components of SVC’s.

Figure 2.3 Operating characteristic for an SVC.

Mechanically switched capacitors and reactors provide slow step-wise control of reactive power
due to circuit-breaker operating time. Thyristor controlled reactors (TCRs) consist of a reactor/s
in series with a bidirectional pair of thyristor valves. Continuously variable fast control of
inductive reactive power is possible with TCRs. The switching actions of TCRs produce
harmonics which need to be filtered by capacitor harmonic filter banks which also normally
provide capacitive reactive power. Thyristor switched capacitors (TSCs) consist of a capacitor
in series with a bidirectional thyristor pair and a small reactor. TSCs can be used for fast
stepwise control of capacitive reactive power. Thyristor controlled or switched devices are
usually connected to a high voltage system via a step-down transformer.

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2.1.2 STATCOM
The basic components of the STATCOM are presented in Figure 2.4. As is shown in the figure,
generally a STATCOM consists of a Voltage Source Converter (VSC), which is connected to a
point of coupling. A DC-capacitor is connected on the DC-side of the VSC.

usup
icomp

ucomp

Figure 2.4 STATCOM.

The purpose of the VSC is to produce a desired output voltage ucomp. Since the compensator
current icomp is dependent on the voltage difference between the supply voltage usup and
compensator voltage ucomp in addition to the phase reactance, the compensation current icomp
can be controlled as desired by controlling the VSC output voltage ucomp.

For more details on the layout and operation of a STATCOM, please refer to TB 144 1999 SC
14 WG 14.19 Static synchronous compensator (STATCOM).

2.1.2.1 Typical applications in power systems

STATCOMs with particular characteristics and controls are applied to power systems in order to
solve a variety of problems, namely:

a) to achieve effective voltage control

b) to provide/absorb dynamic reactive power support

c) to increase the active power transfer capacity of both existing and new transmission
systems

d) to increase transient stability margins

e) to increase dynamic reactive reserve margins

f) to improve fault recovery

g) to reduce temporary overvoltages

h) to facilitate integration of renewable generation

i) to increase damping of power oscillations

Page 4
 j) to damp subsynchronous oscillations

k) to balance voltages (load balancing) of individual phases i.e. asymmetrical loads

l) to provide flicker mitigation

m) to provide active filtering

The following sections describe some of the more typical applications of the STATCOM

2.1.2.2 Reactive power compensation

The first category of applications where STATCOMs are used is reactive power compensation
and dynamic voltage regulation at fundamental frequency. In this type of application the
STATCOM runs in steady-state operation with almost constant output for most of the time.

The most common use for a STATCOM is for voltage regulation. In the cases where the supply
network is weak, i.e. it’s short-circuit level is relatively low, the changes in reactive power taken
by the load result in variations or even dips in the voltage of the supply network. These reactive
power changes may be initiated by the switching of electric grid components such as capacitor
banks. Another reason for voltage variation are faults in the supply network. In these cases the
voltage dips may be mitigated and the supply voltage supported by rapidly injecting reactive
power to the network using the STATCOM.

In this category the device could also be called a “utility STATCOM” because its ultimate
purpose is to regulate the voltage of the supply network by controlling the reactive power flow.
These kinds of STATCOMs may be used in weak power networks, where variable renewable
generation, such as wind farms are connected. Especially, in the case of wind farm applications
it is important to avoid voltage disturbances because of the sensitivity of wind turbines and so
utilities usually require fault ride through capability for wind turbines.

2.1.2.3 Active filtering

STATCOMs can also be used for active filtering application. These kinds of STATCOMs have
continuously changing output which includes harmonic frequencies in addition to fundamental.

The basic task in this category is harmonic filtering. The purpose of the STATCOM is to produce
harmonic current components with the same amplitude and opposite phase as are present in
the current taken by the load. The harmonic current components are reduced at the point of
coupling, therefore resulting in sinusoidal current taken from the supply network. This is a
function provided by the STATCOM, since there are a variety of loads which are producing
harmonics to the supply, such as adjustable speed drives, welding machines and arc furnaces.

2.1.2.4 Current Balancing/Flicker Mitigation

Another task accomplished by the STATCOM is current balancing. Some loads, such as single-
phase loads and loads connected between two phases draw unsymmetrical currents from the

Page 5
supply, i.e. their three-phase currents are not equal in amplitude and the difference between
phase angles is not 120°. Also three-phase loads, such as arc or ladle furnaces, may draw
unsymmetrical currents. In these cases the currents can be balanced using the STATCOM,
which is able to control the phase currents individually.

Some loads, such as welding machines or rolling mills are also sources of flicker. Flicker is a
phenomenon present in the supply network as it can be sensed as an annoying flickering of
lights. The origins of flicker are voltage dips, which are generated because of the finite supply
network impedance and the current peaks drawn by the source of flicker. These voltage dips
can be mitigated using the STATCOM in the same manner as is done in the case of voltage
regulation. Please refer to TB 237 2003 SC B4 WG B4.19 Static synchronous compensator
(STATCOM) for arc furnace and flicker compensation.

2.1.2.5 Power Oscillation Damping

A STATCOM can provide power oscillation damping and help maintain system stability. After
detailed studies have been completed to determine the most suitable location and
measurement points for the STATCOM and the damping controls developed, the STATCOM
can improve system stability and increase real power transfer.

2.1.2.6 Energy Storage

A STATCOM can also inject/absorb active power into/from a network if combined with an
energy storage device can also act as an energy storage device. Some power quality
enhancement tasks may be done more efficiently, if the STATCOM is able to control both active
and reactive powers. However, it is not possible for the STATCOM to output continuous active
power unless some kind of energy storage device is connected to its DC-side.

In this case if active power is needed in the ac network, the STATCOM can produce it by taking
energy from the storage device on the DC-side and converting it to the ac-side. Similarly, the
direction of the active power flow can also be from the ac-side to the DC-side, therefore the
STATCOM is able to reload energy to the energy storage device from the ac-network. However,
currently the energy capacity of the storage devices available is rather small compared to
energies required by the power network: therefore the STATCOM can only provide short-term
active power support.

Typical applications where the use of an energy storage device with the STATCOM is
advantageous are related to supply network security or angular stability: compensation of
voltage sags, damping of power system oscillations, flicker reduction etc. These are needed
especially in weak networks where plenty of renewable energy sources are installed.

Basically the energy storage device can be any equipment used for short-term electric energy
storage such as a flywheel or battery. In the future, fuel cells or superconducting magnets may
also be used for this purpose.

Please note the type of STATCOM topology used may limit the capability to provide energy
storage.

Page 6
2.1.2.7 Components of a STATCOM

STATCOMs can be comprised of the following components:

a) Voltage Sourced Converter

b) Coupling transformer and/or phase reactors

c) Capacitors and/or Reactors banks (fixed or switched)

d) Filter bank (if required)

The core of a STATCOM is the Voltage Sourced Converter. The main components are one or
more DC capacitors and number of forced-commutated power electronic switches. The task of
the switches is to connect the DC voltage of the capacitor to the terminals of the Voltage
Sourced Converter and to form a nearly sinusoidal voltage waveform. Examples of different
types of topologies are shown in Figure 2.5. The Voltage Sourced Converter provides
continuous high speed reactive power capability as shown in Figure 2.7. To extend the
operating range of the Voltage Sourced Converter a fixed or switched capacitor/reactor bank
can be connected. Independent of the response time of the STATCOM the switched solution
can be based on mechanical switched breakers (slower response time) or power electronic
switches like a thyristor (faster response time). To fulfill the Grid Code connection criteria
regarding harmonic performance a capacitive filter in parallel to the Voltage Sourced Converter
may be necessary. Please note the type of STATCOM topology may have a decisive impact
regarding harmonic performance of the converter. A transformer or/and an additional reactor
may be necessary in the Voltage Sourced Converter path to connect the network which can
assist in harmonic performance.

Modul #1 Modul #8

Modul #2 Modul #7

Modul #3 Modul #6

Modul #4 Modul #5

+ + +

- - -

Figure 2.5 Topologies of Voltage Sourced Converters (Courtesy of Siemens)

Page 7
 Figure 2.6 Basic components of a STATCOM

Figure 2.7 Operating characteristic for an STATCOM

2.2 Advantages/Disadvantages of STATCOMs

This brochure’s ultimate goal is to help the reader develop a specification for the procurement of
a STATCOM. The preceding chapters gave a high overview of the two types of static
compensation. In order to determine what type of device is required, detailed studies are
required and will be discussed later.

When looking at what type of shunt device to use (whether it be a STATCOM, SVC or even a
shunt capacitor), one needs to consider steady-state and dynamic performance requirements in
order to achieve a solution with best cost-benefit ratio.

The main advantage of the STATCOM over the SVC is the ability to provide rated capacitive
reactive current when the voltage is low, compared to an ordinary SVC, which once the voltage
is low, behaves as fixed device whose output current varies with the square of the voltage. The
STATCOM also has a faster response as it has almost no time delay associated with firing.

Page 8
As the STATCOM typically does not require filters or additional shunt banks, the overall footprint
is smaller in STATCOM systems, taking up approximately 30%-40% the area of a similarly rated SVC.

The main drawbacks when comparing a STATCOM against an SVC would foremost be the
cost, with the STATCOM typically costing about 15% to 20% more for similiar ratings. Of
course, cost will also be dependent of several factors outside the main components; civil,
available footprint, losses, noise, etc.

The capacitive/inductive output of a STATCOM is symmetrical unless combined with another

compensation device. By providing fixed reactive compensation and harmonic filters an SVC
can be designed to have different capacitive/inductive outputs.

One other drawback would be the inherent overload of the STATCOM compared to the SVC.
This is because typical STATCOM IGBT devices do not have the same inherent overload
capacity as Thyristors and so any excess capacity must be designed into the STATCOM valve
as explained below.

In an SVC TCR valve the design is made so that the thyristors are running at a maximum
allowed temperature at maximum steady state system voltage. A margin to destructive
temperatures is reserved in order to handle fault cases, which can be substatial.

In a STATCOM, the maximum output current is given by the difference in the voltage between
the converter terminal voltage and the power system voltage. A typical design for the converter
will allow for a maximum current corresponding to about 10–15% voltage difference across the
phase reactance. Accordingly the control system must ensure that the converter terminal
voltage is kept high enough not to overload the plant. At full current (rated power) the converter
semiconductors, work at their maximum allowed steady state temperature. A margin to
destructive temperature must be left for uncertainties and for fault cases. There is also a
maximum instantaneous current that the semiconductors can turn off. The same principle is
used here; a margin must be left for uncertainties and for fault cases. The design outcome is
that a STATCOM does not have short time overload capacity unless its power rating is de-rated
initially. Using the above mentioned margins for planned short time operation would jeopardize
the plant security.
It should be mentioned that STATCOMs and SVCs can be combined to form a hybrid dynamic compensation
device.

Page 9
2.3 References
[1] CIGRE Working Group 38-01, “Static var compensators”. CIGRE Brochure No. 25, 1986.

[2] CIGRE Technical Brochure No 269, VSC Transmission. CIGRE WG B4.37, 2005.

[3] CIGRE Technical Brochure No 492, Voltage Source Converter (VSC) HVDC for Power
Transmission – Economic Aspects and Comparison with other AC and DC Technologies.
CIGRE Working Group B4.46, 2012.

[4] Gustafsson, A., Saltzer, M., Farkas, A., Ghorbani, H., Quist, T., Jeroense, M. The new
525 kV extruded HVDC cable system. ABB Grid Systems, Technical Paper Aug 2014.

[5] Mahimkar, N., Persson, G., Westerlind, C. HVDC Technology for Large Scale Offshore
Wind Connections. Proc. of Smartelec 2013, Vadodara, India, April, 2013, 5 pp.

[6] Callavik, E. M., Lundberg, P., Bahrman, M. P., Rosenqvist, R. P. HVDC technologies for
the future onshore and offshore grid. Proc. of CIGRE Symposium “Grid of the future”,
Kansas City, USA, October, 2012, 6 pp.

[7] Y. Phulpin, "Communication-Free Inertia and Frequency Control of Wind Gen Erators
connected by an HVDC-Link", IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy, 27(2), May
2012, pp. 1136-1137.

[8] T. Haileselassie, "Control, Dynamics and operation of Multi-terminal VSC-HVDC

Transmission Systems", Ph.D. Thesis, NTNU Trondheim, Norway, 2012.

[9] R. Sharma, "Electrical Structure of Future Off-Shore Wind Power Plants with a High-
Voltage Direct Current Power Transmission", Ph.D. Thesis, Technical University of
Denmark, Lyngby, 2011.

[10] Offshore Grid Development Plan 2013, first draft. German TSOs. 2013.
http://www.netzentwicklungsplan.de/content/offshore-netzentwicklungsplan-2013-erster-
entwurf

[11] CIGRE WG B3-36 report, "Special considerations for AC collector systems and
substations associated with HVDC connected wind power plants".

Page 10
3 STAGES LEADING TO DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIFICATION OF STATCOM
This section deals with the various stages involved in developing a specification for a
STATCOM. These stages may include the following:

• Planning Specification
• Feasibility studies
• Internal Procurement
• Data Requirements
• Scope of Work

It should be mentioned that these stages are typically used to define the requirements for the
reactive power device and may show that an SVC, synchronous condensers or switched
devices may give a better technical and economic solutions than a STATCOM for specific
applications. In saying this, this document focuses on the procurement of a STATCOM. The
stages listed above are defined below.

3.1 Planning Specification

The planning specification is a high level document defining the main functional and
performance requirements of the STATCOM. This document also provides system information
that enables manufacturers to design the STATCOM. The planning specification is typically
developed once the need for the reactive device has been determined. In this chapter a list of
items that should be addressed in the planning specification is presented.

3.1.1 Studies

The studies required to create the planning studies are usually carried out by the utility planning
group or consultant and a typical scope of the studies are:

• Steady-state loadflow analysis

• Short-circuit analysis
• Steady-state voltage analysis
• Dynamic analysis
• Step change voltage analysis
• Voltage stability margin analysis (using PV or QV curve)
• Load rejection analysis

Some more detailed studies that may be required after the above studies have been completed
include:
• Harmonic analysis
• Voltage phase unbalance analysis
• Voltage flicker analysis
• Overload/Overvoltage studies
• Secondary voltage range

From this type of analysis the general area requiring the STATCOM (i.e. location of required
voltage stability support) will be established.

The planning group will be required to run some kind of comparative analysis in order to find an
optimum location (nodal location, voltage level) for the required dynamic reactive power device.

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This analysis should take account of future system requirements such as the changing location
of critical generating plant as well as new sources of generation (wind, solar etc.) and their
unique characteristics.

This group will also be required to develop the base case model and define the critical
contingencies that will determine the need for the STATCOM to be provided to the Vendors with
the tender documents.

At this stage the choice of a STATCOM, SVC or other dynamic compensation device may not
have been made, but the need for some type of dynamic reactive power control device will be
established.

3.1.2 Information to be Included in the Planning Specification

The following information should be included in the planning specification:

3.1.2.1 General overview and background information

An overview of the project explains the nature of the problem and outlines what is expected
from the STATCOM. Normally in this section of the planning specification, suitable future
location or locations of the STATCOM are given.

Environmental data should also be given since some of them are decisive for the design and
may impact costs, e.g. sensitive seismic zones, very high or low ambient temperatures and
extremely high pollution levels.

It is very important to consider the existence of other dynamic reactive power devices (e.g. other
FACTS devices, synchronous generators/compensators etc) electrically close to the STATCOM
to be installed to determine if any possible interactions may exist.

3.1.2.2 System characteristics

- The following system characteristics at the point of connection should clearly be

identified. These will define the following:
- The conditions for which the STATCOM will be required to meet the performance
requirements

The most onerous conditions are for which the STATCOM equipment must be rated to survive
without damage or tripping.

If operation occurs outside of the specified conditions, the STATCOM may be allowed to trip.

Supply voltage:

- Nominal, minimum, and maximum continuous voltages

- Temporary over-voltage and short term under-voltage levels and durations
- Voltage unbalance
- Basic insulation level
- Low voltage ride through capability

Page 12
Supply frequency:

- Nominal, minimum, and maximum frequencies levels and durations

- Maximum rate of change of frequency (Hz/Sec)

Fault level:

- Minimum and maximum performance fault levels (single and three phase)
- Specific Equipment design fault levels
- X/R ratios
- Fault clearing time and characteristics (main and backup, auto-reclose, etc.)

Harmonics:

- Harmonic performance requirements, including applicable standards

At this stage, the following could also be determined, but is not required at this stage. The only
reason to include this now is the timeframe required to perform this work and it is a good idea to
start it early. More details can be found in section 3.4.12.

- Existing network harmonic levels (background harmonics)

- Network harmonic impedances seen from the STATCOM connection point

3.1.2.3 STATCOM continuous and short-term rating

The planning specification shall specify the reactive power output of the STATCOM, and clearly
indicate the voltage and the operating points this rating must be guaranteed. It should also
specify the required short-term rating or overload cycle of the STATCOM if required. Moreover,
Owners should provide reasoning for short-term rating requirement.

3.1.2.4 Losses

The planning specification should provide a typical operating profile (e.g. 80% at 5MVAr, 20% at
20MVAr) and $/kW figure for loss evaluation purposes. However, this figure must be
accompanied by the most common mode or modes of operation and expected duration at each
operating point/region. This way, the manufacturer would be able to offer a cost effective
design. Figure 3.1 depicts a generic loss curves of a small STATCOM. As shown in this figure,
impact of transformer load-losses at zero MVAR output is insignificant. On the contrary, it
appears load-losses can have a meaningful impact at full output.

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 Losses [%]
STATCOM losses Without Transformer
STATCOM losses With Transformer

0
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100
Load Factor [%]
Inductive
Capacitive

Figure 3.1 Typical STATCOM loss vs. reactive power output curves

3.1.2.5 Reliability, Availability and Maintainability (RAM)

The planning specification should specify the reliability, availability and maintainability (RAM) of
the STATCOM. Unfortunately it is often difficult to define a RAM figure that correctly reflects the
importance of the STATCOM to the network without over-emphasizing. Requesting high RAM
figures will impact the price greatly and the Owner must pay careful attention when specifying
this figure. It is prudent to first investigate inherent RAM figures for a typical STATCOM with
similar rating. If the target is quite high, a high degree of redundancy will be required and in the
worst case multiple STATCOMs become the optimal solution depending on partial availiability
may be required. It should be pointed out that use of multiple STATCOMs not necessarily imply
on higher reliability of the plant.

Talking to other owners of STATCOMs can also help greatly in determining what to specify.
An availability of 98% is inherently achievable for a STATCOM. If a higher availability is
required, further engineering of the STATCOM (and associated costs) will be required.

Typical number of forced outages for SVC and STATCOM in transmission system applications
is 2-3 stops per year. Higher reliability will require hot standby equipment/branches.

The vendor should also provide the basis for the calculations of their RAM figures and specify
the spare parts included in their quotation.

The STATCOM Vendor should also recommend a maintenance plan to be followed by the
Owner so that the calculated and expected RAM figures can be achieved after finalization of the
project.

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It is normal for utilities to request a guarantee on the RAM requirements for a few years after the
commercial in-service date. In this case, after the grace period when all the first energization
issues are resolved, the Owner will monitor the RAM of the STATCOM and if the STATCOM
does not meet the guaranteed RAM, the Owner may extend the guarantee period (moving
window) or receive financial compensation.

The reader is encouraged to review IEEE 493 - Recommended Practice for the Design of
Reliable Industrial and Commercial Power Systems for more details.

3.1.2.6 Control system

The planning specification shall specify the required control modes of the STATCOM. Typical
control modes are as follows:

- Voltage Control Mode: It is a closed loop controlling function which maintains the voltage
at the point of connection near an adjustable reference voltage set by the operator. The
specification shall define the upper and lower limits and also the adjusting increment (e.g.
voltage control in small steps). It shall also specify the minimum and maximum limits and
adjusting increment for the slope/droop. Normally in the voltage control mode, the
controller controls all three phases equally. However, for systems with large unbalanced
voltage, the Owner can specify a single phase voltage controller. This function allows the
STATCOM to control each phase of the convertor independently, reducing/mitigating the
voltage unbalance condition. Planning specification should clearly indicate whether a
single phase voltage controller is required.

- Q Control Mode; This mode will allow one to set the reactive power output of the
STATCOM to a predetermined MVAr level.

- Adjustable Q (reserving Q): In this mode, the STATCOM is controlled by two closed loop
controllers. One loop has a smaller time constant, which operates like a voltage regulator
and only responds to sudden voltage transients in the system. The reference voltage for
this closed loop is the same as the system steady-state voltage prior to the transient. The
other loop has a much longer time constant which slowly, after the transients have
subsided, brings the STATCOM output to a predetermined MVAR output (reference Q).
Normally the Q is set in order to reserve the STATCOM’s maximum capacity for
responding to voltage transients. When specifying this mode, the Owner shall determine
the upper and lower limits and adjusting increments for Q reference. Requesting
adjustable time constant for the slow control loop is also beneficial. Care must be taken
when operating in this mode to ensure that the STATCOM does not take the ac system
to its voltage limits.

These control modes are for the STATCOM control only and there may be a requirement for the
STATCOM to be integrated into an overall reactive power management scheme.

3.1.2.6.1 Supplementary Controls

STATCOMs can also be equipped with supplementary controls to help stabilize the power
system. These controls can look at the ac bus voltage, powerflow on a specific line, etc.
Detailed studies will be required in order to develop and tune the supplementary controller.

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3.1.2.6.2 Human Machine Interface

Planning specification should clearly determine the parameters that can be enabled or disabled,
set, and monitored from remote terminals and/or the dispatch centre. The following parameters
are normally required to be enabled/disabled and adjusted on the remote terminal(s):

• Activation of various modes

• Set points. Access must be restricted for some set points, e.g. slope, time constants,
etc., by means of Engineering password
• Monitoring of system voltage, branch currents and reactive power
• Start- and stop-sequences
• Alarms list and status
• Emergency trip

Any remote access to fault recorders and alarm list/statuses should be defined here.

3.1.2.6.3 Redundancy

Depending on the importance of the system and maintenance requirements that the STATCOM
is connected to, the planning specification should identify whether required redundant
equipment (main circuit, auxiliaries, control and protection) is needed, regardless of the
manufacturers RAM calculations.

3.1.2.6.4 STATCOM step response

The planning specification should specify the step response of the STATCOM by defining the
maximum acceptable response time, settling time, and overshoot. The planning specification
must clearly identify the system short circuit level that these parameters must be determined at.
To avoid future confusion it is recommended to use an already established definition of the
above-mentioned parameters such as the IEEE 1031”IEEE Guide for the functional
specification for Static Var Compensators.

3.1.3 Connection Requirements

It is beneficial to determine the connection requirements of the STATCOM in the planning

specification as some circuit breakers may not be in the scope of delivery of the STATCOM
vendor but are part of an existing switchgear.

Large STATCOMs connected to transmission substations can be connected to the system the
same way as a line is connected. For example in a breaker and a half scheme STATCOM’s
means of connection can be two breakers as shown in figure 3.2. In this case, a coordination

Page 16
study must be carried out as any trip initiated by the STATCOM may result in tripping the other
line(s) connected to that bay.

To avoid complication, the Owner can request or provide a dedicated circuit breaker for the
STATCOM. In any case it is prudent to identify the method of switching at the planning stage
and plan ahead for coordination between the substation protection and STATCOM protection.

For a smaller STATCOM or DSTATCOM, it is possible to use a combination of a switch and

fuse. However, it must be noted that in the case of a single phase operation of fuse, the
coupling transformer will be energized by only two phases, and since the secondary of the
coupling transformers are mainly delta connected, the loss of one phase may not be reflected to
the low side of the transformer. It is prudent to inform the manufacturer, if a switch/ fuse is being
used for the STATCOM.

STATCOM

STATCOM

STATCOM

Figure 3.2 Examples of STATCOM connection types in transmission (top) and distribution systems
(bottom)

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3.2 Feasibility Studies

In order to select a suitable location for the STATCOM (once the planning study has been
completed as shown in section 3.1) and to define the physical, electrical, performance and
environmental requirements in the STATCOM specification, a feasibility study should be carried
out in the early stage of the project. In this chapter, major items that need to be studied are
discussed. These items can be used as a check list to facilitate the feasibility study.

3.2.1 Layout

Size of the following items may be considered in the physical layout in order to estimate the
space requirements:

- Coupling transformer(s) and/or phase reactors (including spare if required)

- STATCOM (inverter) housing
- Filters
- Fixed capacitor banks, if applicable
- Cooling system
- Switchgear
- Metering (Instrument transformers)
- Auxiliary transformer(s)
- Services building (including control and protection room, battery room, cooling,
workshop, spares storage etc.)
- Access road to the station
- Maintenance access around the equipment
- Applicable clearances (magnetic, electrical and environmental)

The actual foot print mainly depends on the MVA rating, voltage level, utility standards, reliability
requirements and manufacturers’ technology. At this stage manufacturers can provide some
guidance on the expected layout and size. The required footprint of a 35Mvar Statcom can be
assumed with 60m x 37m, a 100Mvar STATCOM with 72m x 34m. Figure 3.3 shows a typical
STATCOM layout.

Figure 3.3 Typical +/-100 Mvar (courtesy ABB)

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3.2.2 Interface to the ac system

The interface to the ac system needs to be considered as this will drive the following:

• Voltage level of STATCOM

• Connection to the ac system
• Communication/SCADA requirements
• Enabling working in existing substations (if applicable)
• Ground grid
• Lightning protection
• Insulation coordination
• Protection coordination

3.2.3 Auxiliary AC supply

It is important to know the approximate ac load of the STATCOM auxiliary equipment (such as
cooling pumps, fans, heating, air conditioning, lighting, etc.). Knowing the required load will help
to determine if any existing nearby station service transformers or a tap-off of a nearby
distribution are adequate.

If there is adequate extra capacity in a nearby station’s auxiliary ac supply, it is necessary to

specify the STATCOM’s ac auxiliary supply rated voltage in the specification to be the same as
station service rated voltage of the nearby station.

This should be optimized to consider the distance of the existing station service supply versus
providing local station services.

If the STATCOM is to be installed as part of a new station, then the new station service shall
need to be sized to accommodate the STATCOM.

The fault ride through capability of the auxiliaries and their normal and temporary voltage
variations must also be considered as this will determine the design basis for the auxiliaries.

The following provides some of the typical auxiliary loads for a STATCOM. Actual loading
depends on the manufacturers’ technology.

• Converter (Valve) Cooling

• Transformer cooling
• Heating and Cooling
• Protection and controls
• Station lighting
• DC battery chargers
• etc.

3.2.4 Audible noise

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Audible noise emitted by STATCOM equipment needs to meet the local environmental laws. It
is prudent to first identify the noise requirements of the potential location(s). The Owner should
indicate their noise requirement in the STATCOM specification. The Owner should identify the
nearest point of receptions (the nearest residential or commercial buildings) along with
maximum allowable audible noise at that point (sound pressure). In some jurisdictions there is a
penalty for tonal (humming) noise, which may be caused by specific harmonics from the
STATCOM.

3.2.5 Losses

For a optimized design regarding losses the specification should be carefully interpreted
regarding the evaluation of the different operating ranges of the STATCOM (as recommended
in section 3.1.2.4).

The specification should provide a $/kW figure for loss evaluation purposes. However, this
figure must be accompanied by the most common mode or modes of operation and time at
operating point.

Losses should be considered at early stage as they may drive the justification and the design of
the STATCOM. The Owner must state how losses are considered at tender evaluation.

3.2.6 Other Items

Other items to be considered when selecting the locations are:

1. Accessibility
2. Location of nearby auxiliary power sources
3. Transportation limitations

3.3 Internal Procurement Team

When setting up the team in order to procure, specify and test a STATCOM installation, there
are typically seven distinct areas of responsibility required.

These are:

1. Network Planning/System Development

2. Technical Design
3. Engineering Design
4. Network Operations
5. Project Management
6. Finance & Legal
7. Asset Management

The role and responsibilities of each of these areas is explained in the following sections.

3.3.1 Network Planning/System Development

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The network planning task is to perform the studies that first identify the need for the
STATCOM. These are likely to consist of power system security studies but are not likely to
extend to power quality or in depth technical performance studies. These technical performance
studies are more suitably performed by a specialized technical design group.

3.3.2 Technical Design

The technical design task will identify the choice of STATCOM technology as the appropriate
design solution to meet the functional and performance requirements. This may be from
knowledge of the market or through consultation with Owners who can advise on the cost of
appropriate offerings to meet the technical requirements through the development of a request
for information (RFI) or mini-draft specification.

This task will probably be required to produce the functional specification for the STATCOM and
to evaluate the allowed technical parameters of operation from a system performance
perspective. Grid Code compliance will also be a major concern of this group.

The output of the technical design task should also include a list of functional requirements that
will constitute the inputs for engineering design.

3.3.3 Engineering Design

The engineering design task will develop the equipment design and specification. Their
responsibility will be to translate functional design from Network Planning and Technical Design
areas (system needs plus performance parameters) into equipment design while taking account
of the following issues:

• Interface issues (electrical, communications, etc.)

• onstructionConstruction and commissioning
• Maintenance issues
• Required standards (IEC, IEEE, internal standards)

The engineering design group will review the data provided by the planning and technical group
and ensure that the new device can be successfully integrated into the ac system.

Engineering design will necessarily involve cross-over with operational planning in the
facilitation of outages to build and commission the STATCOM as well as the frequency and
duration of required maintenance schedules offered by varying technologies or Owners.

This group will also determine the additional spares and/or spare strategy that may be required
(in addition to any spares determined by the Vendors reliability calculations) and for long term
operation, potentially beyond the support time period of the existing controls, which tend to have
a shorter life than the main circuit equipment. In addition to this, this group will also determine
whether redundancy is required and where, irrespective of the Vendor’s Reliability, Availability
and Maintenance (RAM) calculations.

The issue of securing future replacement parts will also be a concern for engineering designers
since STATCOM technology is developing quickly and there is the risk that constituent parts

Page 21
may become obsolete or the concern manufacture by a particular Owner of certain parts could
cease their production. A strategic spares policy may be applied in this regard.

This group may also manage the Owner interface and fulfill the key witnessing requirements.
Factory Acceptance Tests (FATs) as well as commissioning tests witnessing may be performed
by this group to ensure the equipment is built and can be operated as specified in the contract.

3.3.4 Network Operations

Network Operations involvement will be required in the following areas:

• Operational Planning – securing outages for maintenance and construction

• Control/SCADA requirements
• Cyber Security requirements

To integrate the STATCOM successfully into system operation requires input at the design and
specification stage so that equipment with a sufficient range of operational capability or flexibility
is purchased.

Acceptance of the STATCOM specification/requirements from system operators is therefore

crucial in the procurement process.

3.3.5 Project Management

The Project Management task is necessary as an integrative function tying together all of the
other inputs such as:

• Schedule
• Contract compliance
• Planning consents
• Stakeholder consultation
• Environmental constraints/consents
• Progress reporting

This group will lead the implementation of the STATCOM by managing the planning consents
process and leading the stakeholder consultation required.

Feasibility studies to investigate any environmental constraints that may be necessary as part of
the footprint planning will be managed by this group.

This group will also manage the contract and schedule after the successful bidder has been
selected.

3.3.6 Finance and Legal

The project manager will require legal and specialist financial advice to efficiently manage the
procurement process and to choose the best procurement strategy that ensures value for
money for the Utility or Owner.

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The finance and legal group will also provide the commercial requirements.

This group will also obtain financial approval if required.

3.3.7 Asset Management

The asset management team is the group that has final acceptance of the equipment. It is
critical to engage this group early in order to ensure that it meets the required standards and
service specifications and meets all maintenance requirements.

The asset management group may also define preferred Vendors for certain components (i.e.
batteries, test switches) in order to standardize certain equipment across the owner’s complete
system (Fleet management).

They also need to be satisfied that the equipment will meet the long term performance goals.

3.4 Data/Requirements after Planning Specification

After the planning specification has been completed, further data and requirements need to be
compiled to define requirements such as site and environmental conditions, equipment
specifications, maintenance and spares requirements, interfaces and limits of supply etc. This
section outlines the type of data that should be included in the specification and in some cases,
how the data are obtained.

3.4.1 Site and environmental conditions

The following data should be provided:

Site data:

• Description of the geographical location of the site

• Space available and footprint restrictions
• General arrangement drawing of the ac substation where the STATCOM will be
installed
• Single line diagram of the ac substation where the STATCOM will be installed
• Description of interfaces to the ac substation, these should include primary plant
interfaces, protection, telecommunication and control interfaces, SCADA interfaces,
auxiliary supply interfaces
• Geotechnical data of the site

Environmental data:

• Minimum, maximum and average ambient temperatures

• Range of humidity
• Altitude

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 • Rainfall, snow and ice conditions
• Solar radiation levels
• Keraunic levels or Flash Density maps
• Types and levels of pollution
• Wind speeds
• Seismic conditions
• Distance to sea coast (if applicable)

Emission limits (as required):

• Harmonics
• Electromagnetic field limitations
• Audible noise
• Telephone interference restrictions
• Radio interference restrictions
• Television interference
• PLC interference

3.4.2 General design requirements

General design requirements should include items such as:

• Use of equipment whose reliability has already been proven in other similar projects
• Use of component and equipment redundancy
• Use of fail safe and self-checking design features
• Provision of adequate facilities for testing, alarms, fault indication and monitoring
• Use of equipment which does not require special operating and maintenance
environments
• Use of modular construction to permit rapid replacement of modules containing failed
components or sub-assemblies or a design that has a short mean time to repair
• Standardization of components for different locations utilizing the same type of
STATCOM where practical

3.4.3 Primary plant equipment requirements

The primary plant equipment requirements should list all the applicable standards that are to be
complied with and also define general and specific requirements for the following items of plant.
This list may include internal standards.

• AC circuit breakers
• AC disconnectors
• AC instrument transformers
• Surge arresters
• Power transformers
• Reactors
• Semi-conductor valves (IGBT, IGCT, etc.)
• Valve cooling system

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 • Capacitors
• Filters
• Insulation requirements
• Steelwork, busbars, clamps and connectors
• Station earthing and lightning protection

3.4.4 Control, protection and monitoring system requirements

The control, protection and monitoring system requirements should list all the applicable
standards that are to be complied with and also define general and specific requirements for the
following systems. List of possible requirements for the control, protection and monitoring
systems are:

Control systems:

• Redundancy
• Human machine interface requirements
• I/O that may be required for external inputs

Protection systems:

• Types of protection functions required and adopted redundancy philosophy (if

applicable)

Monitoring system requirements:

Define requirements for systems such as:

• Sequence of events recorder

• Transient fault recorders
• Dynamic performance recorders
• Power quality recorder
• Remote access/control requirements

3.4.5 Auxiliary systems requirements

Define requirements for the following systems:

• AC auxiliary supplies
• DC systems
• Heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems
• Site security system
• Fire protection
• Any special requirements (UMD/UPS)
•

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3.4.6 Other requirements

Miscellaneous items:

• Junction boxes, terminal boxes and marshalling kiosks

• Nameplates and labels
• Outdoor lighting

3.4.7 Civil and building works requirements

The civil requirements are driven by:

 Geotechnical data
 Space requirements
 Seismic requirements

It is highly recommended that the owner performs their own geotechnical analysis prior to
releasing the specification in order to ensure there are no surprises during project
implementation. This can be shared with the Vendors to allow for a more complete bid.

3.4.8 Spares, special tools and maintenance requirements

The spares required for the STATCOM may be specified in such a way that a sufficient number
of spares are provided for a certain number of years based on the failure rates of equipment
and components. This typically applies to semi-conductor valves, capacitor cans and electronic
cards. Spares consumption should then be monitored in the first years of operation to ensure
sufficient spares have been provided. Spares should be stored in such a way that they are
easily accessible and kept on an environment recommended by the components manufacturer.
Requirements for the storage of outdoor equipment should also be specified.

3.4.9 Safety, health and environmental requirements

These will be dependent on the specific utility and their requirements should be applied. Any
required safety systems (i.e. interlocking) should be specified.

Specific requirements to allow for safe maintenance must also be defined and may not
specifically fall into this section. An example is the valve hall temperature; the Vendor may
typically allow the valve hall to run at a high temperature, beyond what the owner deems as
safe working conditions. Therefore, the HVAC system should be specified to bring the Valve hall
temperature down to a safe working level in a prescribed time.

Safety maintenance systems for grounding also need to be considered and the typical Owner
grounding standards may not be sufficient due to the unique nature of the STATCOM (i.e.
grounding of capacitors in the valve hall)

Another environmental hazard to be taken into account in the case of the STATCOM is liquid
materials. There are two kinds of liquids in the STATCOM.

Page 26
The first one is the oil of the step-down transformer. Nowadays, non-toxic oils, such as mineral
oil, are used instead of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) which were used until they were found
to be harmful in the 1970’s. However, although non-toxic oils are used, the transformer of the
STATCOM may contain thousands of liters of oil and precautions must be taken in order to
manage the risk of oil leakage, taking into account the local regulations.

The second liquid in the STATCOM is the cooling liquid, which is used to transfer the heat from
semiconductor switches, LCL-filter reactors etc. to the heat exchanger. In STATCOM
applications with no risk of freezing, plain water is used as a coolant. De-ionized water is
typically used in order to make the cooling water electrically non-conductive. On the other hand,
if the coolant has to be cold resistant, generally ethylene glycol is added to it. Ethylene glycol is
widely used in cooling systems, e.g. in cars. However, it is a toxic compound and may cause
death if consumed, therefore it has to be ensured that it is treated properly and there are no
leakages in the cooling system.

3.4.10 Training requirements

Any training requirements should be specified. Please refer to section 6.10 for more details.

3.4.11 Site Security

Site security is required during all stages of implementation. During construction, prior to
energization, there is a lot of equipment being stored waiting to be installed and needs to be
stored securely. After energization, as with any sub-station, due diligence needs to be taken to
ensure safety of the plant and public.

3.4.12 Interference Requirements

The following sections are provide as a reference to look at some of the main items mentioned
above and is provided to help provide some guidance in specifying these items.

3.4.12.1 Harmonics

Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or current components with frequencies which are integer
multiples of the fundamental frequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz) at which the electric power systems
operate. Distortion of the fundamental frequency voltage or current waveform, called harmonic
distortion, occurs from the normal operation of equipment and loads with non-linear
characteristics connected to the system. In order to mitigate the undesirable effects of
harmonics such as overheating of generators and capacitors, limiting the power transfer of
transmission lines and telecommunication system interference, design measures are taken to
limit the amount of harmonics generated by equipment with non-linear characteristics.

Equipment utilizing switching converter technology such as a STATCOM generates harmonics.

The level and the order of harmonics generated by such equipment are dependent upon the
design and the configuration [1].

Problems related to harmonics fall into two basic categories:

Page 27
 • Harmonic currents are injected into the supply network by converters and other
harmonic sources. Both harmonic currents and resulting voltages can be considered
as conducted phenomena. The harmonic voltages in supply systems should be
limited to levels that will not result in adverse effects on sensitive equipment. Since
the harmonic voltages result from harmonic currents and impedances, this involves
limiting the harmonic currents injected into the system.
• Harmonic currents in the range between 50 Hz to 5 kHz may induce interference into
communication systems. This phenomenon is more pronounced at higher order
harmonic frequencies because of increased coupling between the circuits and
because of the higher sensitivity of the communication circuits in the audible range.

In order to coordinate the necessary measures for controlling the level of harmonics generated
by a STATCOM in line with the harmonic distortion limits of the utility system, it is essential to
have knowledge of the utility system impedance ZS(h) as a function of frequency at the PCC.

Figure 3.4 Network equivalent model for harmonic studies.

Harmonic performance of the STATCOM installation should be evaluated to determine

compliance with design specifications. Prior to the STATCOM being installed the background
harmonics should be measured. These levels should be compared with the harmonics
measured with the STATCOM operating at various levels of output.
Harmonic measurements need to be taken over a specific period, generally of at least one
week, to yield meaningful results.

When determing the impact of harmonics, not only does one need to determine the impact of
the generated harmonics on the ac system, but also the impact of the existing harmonics,
usually called background harmonics, plus the STATCOM generated harmonics on the rating of
the STATCOM components.

In order to define performance and rating requirements, please refer to IEC 61000-3-6 “Part 3:
Limits – Section 6: Assessment of emission limits for distorting loads in MV and HV power
systems – Basic EMC publication and/or IEEE 519 “IEEE Recommended Practice and
Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electric Power Systems”

3.4.12.1.1 Harmonic performance studies

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The purpose of utility harmonic studies related to STATCOMs are to:

• Ensure acceptable levels of system voltage and current distortions, and telephone
interference factors, taking into account existing harmonic levels at the point of
connection
• Ensure acceptable voltage and current harmonic emissions from the STATCOM and
immunity to system harmonic levels by the STATCOM
• Evaluate the harmonic interactions of the STATCOM with the power system under
balanced and unbalanced operating conditions
• Evaluate filter design

In terms of harmonic performance, the STATCOM behaves as a high-order harmonic voltage

source, in contrast to an SVC which, with a TCR branch, can be considered as a low-order
harmonic current source. To analyze the harmonic performance of the STATCOM, the
configuration shown in Figure 3.4 is generally employed.

The “synthesized” ac voltage generated by the converters of the STATCOM is modeled as a

harmonic voltage source, and the magnitude of this harmonic voltage should take into account
the appropriate ranges of system imbalance, voltage and frequency. Depending on the
converter switching frequency and algorithm, interharmonic voltages can be generated. For
harmonic analysis, these voltages should be suitably grouped according to international
standards [8]."

The system harmonic impedance should cover the range of potential equivalent impedances at
the point of connection, which would generally be most influenced by local changes in operating
condition, but must include all power system contingencies and component tolerances which
may affect system harmonic impedance. Particular attention should be given to possible
resonance conditions that may arise due to parallel capacitor installation.

In order to derive the range of potential network equivalent impedance, appropriate frequency
dependent models of the network components are required. The following representations are
typically employed [1]-[6]:

Table 3.1 Network component representation for harmonic studies

Network Component Model Representation

Transmission line and Detailed geometric line data which allows for the correct frequency
cables representation being accurate up to 2 kHz.

Transformers Series impedance

Generation plant Appropriate shunt reactance (e.g. subtransient) or fault infeed

Loads Accurate load representation near the point of connection (i.e. inductive,
capacitive and resistive components)

Other shunt Appropriate shunt reactance

compensation

Filter Discrete components details

Page 29
For the particular steady-state harmonic under investigation, the appropriate sequence
impedance is used:

Table 3.2 Sequence network impedance

Harmonic under study Network impedance

1, 4, 7, 10, ….. Positive sequence

2, 5, 8, 11,…… Negative sequence

3, 6, 9, 12, ….. Zero sequence

Please note the table above is not applicable to transient conditions. Harmonic performance
studies are performed in the frequency domain and are generally carried out by means of digital
computer programs on a linear, stationary and balanced representation of the system.

Time domain simulations can be used in cases where interaction between the STATCOM and
other power system components may occur leading to possible harmonic magnification, high
inrush currents, control interaction and non-characteristic harmonics. Thus, appropriate
modeling of the STATCOM controls is of importance.

3.4.12.1.2 Harmonic References

[1] “Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)”. Cigré. Prepared by Working Group 14.19.
Edited by I. Arslan Erinmez & A. M. Foss. August 1999.
[2] “Power System Harmonics”. Jos Arrillaga and Neville R. Watson. John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Second Edition. 2003.
[3] CCITT (1963) Directives Concerning the Protection of Telecommunication Lines against
Harmful Effects from Electricity Lines, International Telecommunications Union, Geneva.
[4] Engineering Reports of the Joint Subcommittee on Development and Research of the
Edisson Electric Institute and the Bell Telephone System, New York, 5 volumes, July 1926 to
January 1943.
[5] IEEE Std. 519: 2014-IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control
in Electrical Power Systems.
[6] IEEE Power Engineering Society. “Tutorial on Harmonics Modeling and Simulation”. TP-125-
0. 1998.
[7] “Power Quality Indices and Objectives”, Joint Working Group Cigré C4.07/Cired (formerly
Cigré WG 36.07). Final WG Report. January 2004. Rev. March 2004.
[8] IEC 61000-4-30 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-30: Testing and measurement
techniques - Power quality measurement methods
[9] IEC/TR 61000-3-6 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 3-6: Limits - Assessment of
emission limits for the connection of unbalanced installations to MV, HV and EHV power
systems

Page 30
3.4.12.2 Flicker

Many loads connected to electric power systems can cause power quality problems at all
voltage levels and for very different power ratings due to their unbalanced and non-linear
behavior characteristics. However, the main sources of power quality problems affecting large
numbers of Owners are the high power industrial loads. The large and rapid variations in active
and reactive power required by such loads, cause voltage variations with appreciable voltage
distortion. The residential and other commercial Owners who are supplied by the same ac
network are then subjected to the impact of these voltage variations [1].

The main industrial loads that can cause disturbance to other Owners are:
• Resistance welding machines
• Rolling mills
• Mine winders
• Large motors with varying loads
• Large variable speed drives
• Arc furnaces
• Rock/mineral crushing equipment
• Wood chipping mills
• Arc welding plants
• Power factor correction capacitor switching

3.4.12.2.1 The need to compensate flicker

Repetitive voltage fluctuations in power systems need to be controlled to reasonable low levels
to reduce their impact on domestic and commercial Owners to an acceptable level.

The main reason for such a control action is the effect of the voltage fluctuations on the light
output of incandescent electric lighting i.e. flicker, that can cause uneasiness, eye irritation,
migraine and headaches.

The voltage fluctuations lead not only to light flicker but also to the malfunction of other sensitive
loads. Some loads are adversely affected by fast variations/fluctuations in the voltage
amplitude. Here are some examples:
• Control action for control systems acting on the voltage angle.
• Braking or accelerating moments for motors (In general will affect the torque
capability of a motor).
• Impairment of electronic equipment where the fluctuation of the supply voltage
passes through electronics parts, for example, computers, printers, copiers and
components for telecommunication.

Usually, in the most sensitive frequency range of the human eye (i.e. 8.8 Hz), repetitive voltage
variations of a few percent (0.3 %) are sufficient to produce annoyance. On the other hand, the
variations that have very low level compared to other disturbances like voltage dips, do not
usually cause any impact on the operation of domestic electric equipment.

Page 31
The most effective way to control voltage fluctuations and therefore flicker, is to compensate the
reactive power variations of the fluctuating loads, at least at the medium/high voltage levels.
Improved damping performance can also be obtained by compensating the negative sequence
component of active power and harmonics.

It should also be stressed that the voltage stabilization provided by reactive compensation, can
improve the productivity of certain types of loads such as arc furnaces.

3.4.12.2.2 Limits of acceptable flicker and repetitive voltage fluctuations in power

systems

The method of flicker measurement included in IEC standards are mainly based on International
Union for Electricity Applications (UIE) work [2]. These standards provide two indicators for
flicker assessment:
1. Pst “short term flicker severity”, evaluated by an average over a ten-minute
observation period.
2. Plt “long term flicker severity”, evaluated over an observation period of two hours from
twelve Pst values.
Plt is evaluated by means of the following formula:
Pst3
12
Plt  3
i 1 12

The two basic flicker indicators are normally used with a probabilistic approach, by means of the
so-called Cumulative Probability Function (CPF), over the total observation period (e.g. a
measurement period of one week in accordance with EN50160 [3] and IEC 61000-3-7 [4]. For
example, Pst99% means the value of the Pst with a 99 % probability not to be exceeded over the
total measurement period. The value of these indicators is shown in Table 3.3.

These indicators have been derived on the basis of study results for 230 V, 50 Hz incandescent
lamps and in particular those rated at 60 W. Countries outside Europe adopt different types of
lamps, e.g. 120 V in North America and 100 V in Eastern Asia. In particular these lamps are
less prone to cause flicker due to their thicker filament construction resulting in higher thermal
inertia. Recently the IEEE has developed a new standard IEEE Std 1453-2004 [5] which adopts
the IEC 61400-4-15 Edition 1.1 2003 [6] which includes the 120 V, 60 W lamps.

3.4.12.2.3 IEC Standards and Recommendations

Electromagnetic Environment and Compatibility levels:

It is the responsibility of utilities and/or power system operators to ensure the electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC) of the whole system and the equipment connected to it. In this respect the
compatibility levels have to be considered as reference values for the coordination of emission
and immunity of equipment connected to the power network. The compatibility levels have to be
considered on a statistical basis, generally adopting the principle that the adopted levels will not
be exceeded both in time and space with a 95 % or 99 % probability.

IEC standards 61000-2-1 [8] and 61000-2-2 [9] are the general standards which respectively
define the different types of disturbance appearing on power systems and the relevant
compatibility levels for low voltage (LV) public networks. However, the existing IEC 61000-2-2

Page 32
does not give any indication for flicker. It only deals with voltage fluctuations in terms of
maximum acceptable rectangular (square wave) voltage changes at different repetition rates.

Flicker compatibility levels for LV public networks, in terms of Pst and Plt, are given in the second
edition of the IEC standard IEC 61000-2-2. The values included in this standard are shown in
Table 3.3.

Table 3.3 Compatibility levels for LV public networks

Compatibility levels for LV public networks

Pst 1.0

Plt 0.8

General compatibility levels for medium voltage (MV) public networks are given in the IEC
standard IEC 61000-2-12 [10].

Emission Limits:

The emission limit is the admitted disturbance level caused by a particular Owner alone, i.e., the
flicker level for an arc furnace plant.

Low voltage systems:

IEC standard 61000-3-3 [11] and 61000-3-11 [12] cover respectively the acceptable emission
limits for appliances having a phase current less than 16 A and less than 75 A, in the later case
subjected to conditional connection.

The limits specified by IEC 61000-3-3 for flicker severity are Pst< 1 and Plt< 0.65. The
appliances must comply with these limits, as evaluated by standardized IEC flickermeter,
against reference low voltage impedance (for single phase 0.4 + j0.25 Ω, for three phase 0.24 +
j0.15 Ω for the phase conductor).

Medium/High voltage systems:

IEC 61000-3-7 [4] provides the appropriate guidelines and recommendations for connection of
disturbing loads to electric power systems.

In this document the concept of “planning levels” is introduced. Such limits should be
considered by the electric power utilities/system operators as part of their internal quality
objectives, and are supposed to be equal to or lower than the recommended compatibility
levels, in order to assess the impact on the supply system of all consumer loads. Indicative
planning levels proposed are shown in Table 3.4.

Table 3.4 Compatibility levels for LV public networks

Page 33
 Indicative values of planning levels from IEC 61000-3-7

MV HV-EHV

Pst 0.9 0.8

Plt 0.7 0.6

The above values were proposed with the assumption that the transfer coefficient from HV to
LV systems is unity.

IEC 61000-3-7 states that the measurements on the power system enabling flicker
assessments to be made, should be carried out with a minimum duration of one week,
comparing the obtained results, in terms of percentiles Pst99% and Plt99% with the planning
levels.

Considering the 95 % values instead of 99 %, on the basis of the results of several

measurements periods, the following relationship is suggested:

Pst99% = 1.25 Pst95%

Plt95% = 0.84 Pst95%

In practice, the problem that generally arises is the separation of the background disturbance
from the one caused by the specific fluctuating load. The IEC document proposes a procedure
for achieving this when the background noise is low (Pst ≤ 0.5), subtracting the measurement
results without the specific fluctuating load (including any compensating equipment) to the ones
obtained with the specific fluctuating load connected. A cubic summation law is proposed. In
case of higher background levels a more refined approach should be utilized [13].

Some years ago, the Institution of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) developed a new
standard for flicker measurement. IEC 61000-4-15 was adopted and approved for being used
as IEEE Std. 1453. IEC 61000-4-15 was incorporated directly into this document as normative
Annex D.

IEEE Std. 1453 defines the following flicker levels for public networks. A summary is presented
in Table 3.5 and Table 3.6.

Table 3.5 Planning levels for Pst and Plt in MV, HV and EHV power systems
Planning levels

MV HV-EHV

Pst 0.9 0.8

Plt 0.7 0.6

Table 3.6 Compatibility levels for Pst and Plt in LV and MV power systems
Compatibility levels

Page 34
 Pst 1.0

Plt 0.8

Table 3.7 summarizes the objectives relevant to flicker among different standards and reference
documents. This Table was extracted from a more complete one included in [14]. The
mentioned document [14] is an excellent reference for Power Quality Indices and Objectives.

Table 3.7 Flicker Objectives and indices

Flicker indices International Standards
or guidelines

Standard/document IEC 61000-3-7

Status International Standard

Where it applies International

Purpose Indicative planning levels

for emission limits

Short term Pst

Indices/ (10 min) 99 % weekly

assessment Long term Plt

(2 hour) 99 % weekly

Period for statistical One week minimum

assessment

Measurement method 61000-4-15

Flicker Objectives Defines planning levels for

controlling emissions

Objectives Pst 0.9

at MV
Plt 0.7

Objectives Pst 0.8*

at HV-EHV
Plt 0.6*

Remarks Covers MV to EHV

*(assuming an attenuation
factor of 1 between HV-
EHV to MV-LV)

3.6.13.3 Flicker References

Page 35
[1] “Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) for Arc Furnace and Flicker Compensation”.
Cigré. Prepared by Working Group B4.19. Cigré Study Committee B4. Edited by I. Arslan
Erinmez. September 2003.
[2] “Guide to Quality of Electrical Supply for Industrial Installations – Part 5: Flicker and Voltage
Fluctuations”, UIE Power Quality WG 2, 1999.
[3] CENELEC EN 50160: Voltage Characteristics of Electricity Supplied by public distributions
systems. European standard.
[4] “IEC 61000-3-7: 1996- Assessment of Emission Limits for Distorting Loads in MV and HV
Power Systems. Basic EMC publication.
[5] “IEEE Std. 1453: 2004-IEEE Recommended Practice for Measurement and Limits of Voltage
Fluctuations and Associated Light Flicker on AC Power Systems.
[6] “IEC 61000-4-15: 1997 and Ed. 1.1 2003-02. Testing and measurement techniques- Section
15: Flickermeter- Functional and design specifications.
[7] A. Robert and M. Couvreur “Arc Furnace Flicker Assessment and Prediction”. Paper 2.02,
Cired 1993 Conference.
[8] IEC 61000-2-1: Electromagnetic Compatibility, Part 2: Environment, Section 1: Description of
the Environment- Electromagnetic Environment for Low-Frequency Conducted Disturbances
and Signalling in Public Power Supply Systems, May 1990.
[9] IEC 61000-2-2: Electromagnetic Compatibility, Part 2: Environment, Section 2: Compatibility
Levels for Low-Frequency Conducted Disturbances and Signaling in Public Low-Voltage Power
Supply Systems. September 2000.
[10] IEC 61000-2-12: Electromagnetic Compatibility, Part 2-12: Environment, Section 2:
Compatibility Levels for Low-Frequency Conducted Disturbances and Signaling in Public
Medium-Voltage Power Supply Systems. August 2000.
[11] IEC 61000-3-3: Electromagnetic Compatibility, Part 3-11: Limits: Limitation of Voltage
Changes, Voltage Fluctuations and Voltage Flicker in Public Low-Voltage Supply Systems-
Equipment with Rated Current ≤ 16 A. August 2000.
[12] IEC 61000-3-11: Electromagnetic Compatibility, Part 3-11: Limits: Limitation of Voltage
Changes, Voltage Fluctuations and Voltage Flicker in Public Low-Voltage Supply Systems-
Equipment with Rated Current ≤ 75 A. August 2000.
[13] “Medición de la Emisión de Flicker por cargas perturbadoras mediante un simulador de red
normalizada”. Daniel Esteban, Pedro Issouribehere. ANDESCON 1999.
[14] “Power Quality Indices and Objectives”, Joint Working Group Cigré C4.07/Cired (formerly
Cigré WG 36.07). Final WG Report. January 2004. Rev. March 2004.

3.4.12.3 Unbalance

Unbalance is a condition in a 3-phase system in which the rms values of the line voltages
(fundamental component), and/or phase angles between consecutive line voltages, are not
equal. For a three-phase system, the degree of the inequality should be expressed as the ratios
of the negative-sequence component (NPS) to the positive-sequence component (PPS).
V
vn  
V 

Only the fundamental components shall be used: all harmonic components should be
eliminated e.g. by using a digital fourier transform algorithm. The whole measurement and
evaluation procedure is defined in detail in Standard IEC 61000-4-30 [1].

Page 36
It is recommended that the Owner specify different values of unbalance for performance and
rating requirements which is utility specific and depends also on the voltage level at STATCOM
connecting point.

3.4.12.4 Unbalance References

[1] IEC 61000-4-30: Power Quality measurements methods. 2003.

[2] CENELEC EN 50160: 1999- Voltage Characteristics of Electricity Supplied by public
distributions systems. European standard.
[3] Cigré 1992 Paper 36-203. A Robert, J. Marquet on behalf of WG 36.05, 1992: Assessing
voltage quality in relation to harmonics, flicker and unbalance.
[4] “Power Quality Indices and Objectives”, Joint Working Group Cigré C4.07/Cired (formerly
Cigré WG 36.07). Final WG Report. January 2004. Rev. March 2004.

3.4.12.5 Electromagnetic Fields (EMF)

When voltage is applied to an object such as an electrical conductor, the conductor becomes
charged and surrounded by an electric field. If charges flow along the conductor and thus form a
current, a magnetic field is also created. All alternating electric and magnetic fields induce
currents in electrically conductive objects, including living organisms [1].

Electric fields are usually measured in volts per meter (V/m) or a multiple, for example, kilovolts
per meter (kV/m).

Ground-level electric fields near an overhead line are mainly determined by the voltage of the
line and how far away one is from the line. The conductor-to-ground clearance and the
conductor arrangement are also important factors which have an effect on the electric field.
Likewise, the conductor size and type (single or bundled) may influence the ground-level
electric fields. Finally, in the case of double circuit or multiple-circuit lines, the relative
arrangement of the three phases of each circuit is important, especially with regard to the
maximum field values found. Since the ground is a good electrical conductor, the electric field at
the ground is perpendicular to it and thus usually vertical.

When an electric current flows along a straight wire, the magnetic field lines are circles centered
on the wire. The field strength is proportional to the magnitude of the current and inversely
proportional to the distance from the wire. If the current in amperes is divided by 2π times the
distance away in meters, the field strength is given in amperes per meter (A/m). However
magnetic fields are often expressed in terms of a quantity called the magnetic flux density for
which the modern unit is the tesla (T), since this is a large unit, submultiples of it such as the
microtesla (μT) are more convenient. An older unit is the gauss (G). The relation between these
units (in non-magnetic materials) is:

1T  10mG in the air B0  1T  H 0  0.796 A / m

3.4.12.6 Magnetic Field Measurements

In the case of overhead transmission lines, the magnetic field should be measured in
transversal profiles, 1 meter above the ground.

Page 37
In the case of substations, like the one associated with the STATCOM, the magnetic field
should be measured in the perimeter of the substation, 1 meter above the ground. The
maximum value, independently of the direction, should be recorded.

The magnetic field should be measured also inside the office building.

The presence of non-permanent vehicles or metal objects must be avoided.

Prior to the measurement, the presence of non-industrial frequency magnetic fields should be
verified.

The magnetic field measuring equipment accuracy must be 5 % or less.

In Figure 3.9 a typical STATCOM substation is presented. The substation perimeter is marked
in red and is the place where the electric and magnetic fields should be measured.

Figure 3.9 Overall layout diagram of Essex +133/-41 MVA, 115 kV STATCOM system. (1 = VELCO 115
kV yard, 2 = FACTS yard, 3 = FACTS building, 4 = VELCO building, 5 = Heat exchangers).
The International Standards and documents related to the measurement of electric and
magnetic fields are listed in the following section [2]-[5]. A summary of limits and recommended
values are described in Table 3.8. Please note, these values will have to be determined by the
Owner.

Table 3.8 EMF Limits and recommended values.

Country/Origi Standard/Documen Applies to B limit E limit Observations
n t [µT] [kV/m]
ICNIRP 2010 General public 200 5 ---

Page 38
 exposure
Occupational exposure 1000 10
IEEE C95.6-2002 General public 904 5 10 kV/m in power line rig
exposure
Occupational exposure 2710 20
Europe Council of the General public 100 5 Frequencies covered: 50
European Union exposure
Occupational exposure 500 10
Argentina Res. SE 77/1998 General public 25 3 Edge of right-of-way and
exposure substation perimeter
Occupational exposure --- ---
United NRBP vol. 15 General public 100 5 ---
Kingdom Nº2/2004 exposure
Occupational exposure 500 10
Brasil ANEEL RS Nº General public 83.33 4.17 Frequencies covered: 60
398/2010 exposure
Occupational exposure 416.67 ----

3.6.16.1 Electromagnetic Fields References

[1] TB 074. Electric Power Transmission and the Environment: Fields, Noise and
Interference. Cigré. Working Group 36.01 (Corona and Field Effects).
[2] ICNIRP Guidelines. - “IEEE Standard Procedures for Measurement of Power Frequency
Electric and Magnetic Fields from AC Power Lines”.
[3] ANSI/IEEE 644-1994. - “IEEE Standard Procedures for Measurement of Power
Frequency Electric and Magnetic Fields from AC Power Lines”.
[4] IEC 61786-1998. - “Measurement of low-frequency magnetic and electric fields with
regard to exposure of human beings - Special requirements for instruments and guidance for
measurements”.
[5] IEC 833-1987.- “Measurement of power-frequency electric fields”.

3.4.12.7 Audible noise (AN)

Noise associated with a STATCOM can be an issue and if not dealt with at the beginning of the
project, may be difficult and expensive to resolve once it is in service. In order to ensure one
meets the requirements, which are typically driven by local requirements, it is highly
recommended to include the requirements in the technical specification.

The Owner should define an acceptable noise limit at the defined boundary and working
locations (such as control rooms, workshops, etc).

The areas of concern are the station boundary (typically 1 metre from the station fence) and
areas where on may be working inside the station. Furthermore, one can specify points of
reception where noise can be an issue (i.e. a house close to the STATCOM).

Using this information, the Vendor can layout his station to ensure the requiements are met in
the areas of concern. This could include building noise abetment or installing noiser equipment
away from areas of concern.

Page 39
The equipment that is typically the most likely to produce high levels of noise are:

 Valves and Valve cooling

 Transformers
 Ac filters
 Diesel generators (if installed)

3.4.12.7.1 Example Audible Noise Requirements

Control buildings (excluding mechanical work area) and workshop 60 dBA

At the substation property boundary 55 dBA

3.6.18.3 Audible Noise References

[1] IEC 60076-10-1 Standard: “Power transformers – Part 10-1: Determination of transformer
and reactor sound levels- Owner guide.
[2] “Transformer Noise: Determination of Sound Power Level using the Sound Intensity
Measurement Method”. Report by CIGRÉ Working Group 12 of Study Committee 12. Electra Nº
144. October 1992.

3.4.12.8 Radio and Television Interference (RI)

Radio interference is any effect on the reception of a radio signal due to an unwanted
disturbance within the radio frequency spectrum. Television interference is a special case of
radio interference for disturbances affecting the frequency ranges used for television
broadcasting. Radio interference is primarily of concern for amplitude-modulated systems (AM
radio and television video signals) since other form of modulation (frequency modulation (FM)
used for VHF radio broadcasting and television audio signals) are generally much less affected
by disturbances [1].

According to [1]-[3] the interference is characterized by different frequency spectra, different

modes of propagation (guided along the conductors or directly radiated) and different statistical
variations (because of varying ambient conditions).

Depending on the design of the STATCOM, consideration of RI must be taken into account.
This could include screening of the valve hall and application of specific RI filters. In general, it
is usually enough to specify that the STATCOM should not interfere with any existing radio,
television or communication mediums. A list of applicable frequencies should be provided.

RI aspects must also be considered in the design of the HV installation -substations and lines -
used to link STATCOMs with the grid.

Other such sources of RI are:

• Corona
• Discharging on insulators

Page 40
 • Sparking of bad contacts

It should be noted that corona and discharge are very hard to simulate and measured values
from actual installations should be considered sufficient. For more information, please refer to
the IEC 61000-6 EMC standards.

3.4.6.7 Radio and Television Interference References

[1] TB 074. Electric Power Transmission and the Environment: Fields, Noise and Interference.
Cigré. Working Group 36.01 (Corona and Field Effects).
[2] “Radio Interference Characteristics of Overhead Power Lines and High-Voltage Equipment”,
C.I.S.P.R. Publication 16; Publication 18: Part 1 1982, Parts 2and 3 1986. CISPR, Geneva.
[3] CIGRE/CIRED Joint Working Group JWG C4.202. UIDE FOR MEASUREMENT OF RI
FROM HV AND MV SUBSTATIONS.

3.5 Scope of Work

Defining the scope of work is very important to ensure that Owner knows exactly what they are
to provide. In addition to the scope of work, it is also very important to define what the Owner
will provide and the interface points.

Depending on what is required, the Owner could be provided as a minimum a area of land and
they would be responsible for fully developing the site including supplying their own power to be
used during construction. Typically though, a rough graded site is provided with very clear
interfaces defined. These interfaces are at a minimum:
1. Auxiliary power
2. Communication interface
3. High-voltage connection point

Care must be taken when defining the scope of work as asking the manufacturer to provide it all
could be costly. On the other side, if one takes items under their own scope that would be
usually supplied by the vendor (i.e. transformers, circuit breakers), then this could lead to
contractual issues down the road if a failure occurs and equipment is damaged outside of the
Owner’s scope of work. A balance between risk and cost savings needs to be achieved. This
will depend on the purchaser’s/owner’s level of expertise and ability to manage interfaces if
equipment/systems are procured individually. If performance and functional requirements for a
complete STATCOM installation are specified it is generally adviseable to include all major
STATCOM equipment and systems in the vendors scope of supply.

An example scope of work is given below:

SCOPE of supply

This specification is for the supply, installation, testing and commissioning of a

STATCOM with a minimum control range XX Mvar that is to be connected to the XXkV
HV bus. The continuous output must not be less than XX Mvar (XX to be consistent)
capacitive or inductive over the specified voltage range.
The scope of work includes, but is not limited to, the engineering studies, design,
manufacture, testing at works, supply, delivery to site, site supervision, construction,

Page 41
 installation, erection, site testing, commissioning, painting, all related Plant drawings,
documentation, operating and maintenance training, and operating and maintenance
manuals, warranty.

The scope of work includes all Plant necessary for the +/- XX Mvar STATCOM and the
specified overload requirements that includes, but is not limited to, the following:

• Coupling transformers
• Water – or air cooled power electronic valves with forced turn-off capability
• Valve cooling system and associated instrumentation
• Valve fire and smoke detection system
• Control and protection of the STATCOM and associated plant
• Transient fault recorder
• Sequence of events recorder
• Measuring devices as required
• Harmonic and RI filters as required
• Surge arresters as required by the design
• LV switchgear with interlocking
• Obtaining and/or uplifting all permits, consents, approvals and certificates required for
construction as specified
• Site preparation, drainage, earth grid installation, crushed rock aggregate insulating
surface layer, fencing, equipment earthing, cable troughs and ducts, lighting and
lightning protection systems
• Provision of Temporary Works including site security fencing
• Civil works for all equipment
• Civil works associated with buildings or containers as per Vendor design including
structural systems, architectural systems, building electrical, plumbing and drainage
services, fire services, climate control, earthing systems and any other items
necessary
• All drainage requirements of the STATCOM
• Supply and installation of one auxiliary supply transformer
• Supply and installation of a switchover scheme to do a changeover between the
Vendor supplied low voltage system and the Employer’s supplied low voltage system
• DC power supply
• An HMI system
• All necessary cabling within the STATCOM and between the STATCOM and the
Employer’s interface points.
• Supply of spare parts and special maintenance tools
• Digital Simulation Models
• Outdoor lighting.

Owner supplied items

• At least one redundant auxiliary power supply at the STATCOM location

• Voltage measurement signals
• System models and parameters of the power system

Interface Points

• Primary Plant Interface

• Auxiliary power supply
• Breaker tripping logic

Page 42
 • SCADA
• Earth grid
• Drainage
• Signals and cabling for Breaker Fail protections
• Outdoor lighting

3.6 EPC Vs EP
When procuring a STATCOM the client has two practical contracting options. The first is to
require a turnkey “Engineering, Procurement and Construction” (EPC) Contract. The second is
just to contract for “Engineering and Procurement” (EP). While theoretically other options such
as contracting for design or manufacture only (to another’s design) are possible, these are not
recommended in practice.

The first option (EPC) requires that, in addition to designing the STATCOM and shipping the
required components from the factory, the vendor takes responsibility for providing the buildings
and civil infrastructure at site as well as installing the equipment and commissioning it.

This is now the most prevalent form of contract and enables the vendor to be given overall
responsibility for the delivery and commissioning of a functioning system. For a project
successful execution the vendor needs to have adequate project management capability and
the ability to coordinate work with subvendors or subsidiaries in a number of different countries.

The second option (EP) was more prevalent historically for electrical equipment and is still the
most common option for conventional AC equipment such as air insulated circuit breakers and
power transformers. Some Owners have their own construction work forces and are easily able
to arrange installation and commissioning along with other work. It is still advisable for the
vendor to supervise installation and commissioning.

Where onsite interfaces are relatively simple and the STATCOM is part of an overall larger
installation or substation, the Owner may still prefer the EP approach. STATCOM designs that
are shipped pre-tested in standardized shipping containers may also better suit this form of
procurement.

Table 3.9 provides a summary of the two different approaches.

Table 3.9 EPC compared with EP

Activity Engineer Procure Construct

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Description Design, including type Make or buy Install and
or design testing. components, commission at site
assemble and test at
factory

EPC contract Yes Yes Yes

EP contract Yes Yes No

For both options the Owner needs to provide a specification document. For the EPC approach
this can be more focused on performance outcomes. For the EP approach, interface and
installation details also need to be provided.

When considering the procurement of a STATCOM, the Owner needs to consider which
approach is best suited to their specific circumstances and develop the purchase specification
accordingly. Where an EP approach is used the Owner needs to ensure that the building
requirements and interface details are well specified and details carefully coordinated both in
the initial specification and at the appropriate time through design review processes with the
vendor. Table 3.10 provides a comparison of EPC and the EP approach.

Table 3.10 Advantages and disadvantages - EPC compared with EP

EPC Advantages EPC EP Advantages EP
Disadvantages Disadvantages

Engineer Specification can Vendor has to Design details are Design may not
focus on performance coordinate design made explicit to provide adequate
requirements interfaces and Owner detail in time for
activities with Owner’s site
diverse sub- works.
Vendors

Procure EPC ensures that the Vendor has to EP also ensures that Manufactured
design is constructible provide adequate the design is equipment
and able to be factory internal project constructible and able requirements not
tested as well as management to be factory tested easily
commissioned at site coordinated with
Owner work

Construct All interfaces and Owner may have EP enables Owner to Project timeline
timing are internally better capability have full control of site may be extended
coordinated, leading at site for erection works according to
to a potentially faster and existing practices
project. commissioning

The procurement strategy may also include a maintenance contract agreed with the Owner at
the time of purchase to cover the defined period.

Sometimes utilities may constrain orders to one vendor over a period to achieve standardization
within the network as a fleet management strategy. This allows a common approach to spare
parts, training, operation and maintenance practices.

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4 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION
Based on the information defined in section 3, the technical specification can be developed. This section
will discuss the steps for the technical specification.

4.1 Preliminary Specification/RFI

Prior to releasing the complete technical specification, it may be a good idea to release a preliminary
specification or Request For Information (RFI) to the vendors in order to determine the budgetary costs,
any technical issues that may not be obvious to the bidders, or any improvements that could be
suggested to how the STATCOM is to be bid. This document is usually a sub-set of the full specification
and contains only the high level requirements such as what the STATCOM is expected to do and basic
environmental data.

4.2 Performance vs Equipment Specification

This section is intended to provide guidance on the different types of specifications and their applicability
under different circumstances. The level of pre-studies (done prior to specification) and Owner familiarity
with STATCOM equipment will influence what type or portion of performance or equipment’s
specifications are applicable.

Performance specifications outline the critical metrics required for the STATCOM. The metrics may
consider system outages, system protections, contingencies, load flows, losses and power quality. The
Owner would need to provide the key system models, network protection settings and criteria for
compliance. The Vendor would then need to use the information provided in the specification and
perform studies, during the bid process, to define the solution. The duration of a bid process is typically
takes more time since the Vendor is required to define the solution that meets the performance criteria.
This allows each Vendor to optimize the solution based upon the characteristics of their equipment and
ideally provides the most competitive package from each Vendor. The performance specification does
mitigate some risk from the Owner since the equipment is not definitively defined, hence resulting in a
performance issue not foreseen by the specifying Owner. A performance specification may contain
equipment specifications for the more common components such as breakers, disconnectors, etc.

Equipment specifications define in detail the actual ratings required. The main ratings include the volts,
amperes, vars and response time required. Prior to issuance of the specification it will be required that
the Owner perform studies to determine the main ratings. This will require a Owner that is proficient in
the planning area when applying STATCOM equipment. Owners with high amounts of STATCOM
equipment experience will have a lower risk when applying this methodology, compared to less
experienced Owners. The equipment specification will provide a more uniform response from the
Vendors although the specification may not realistically match each Vendor’s equipment performance
capability or allow for the most cost beneficial system.

Both types of specifications can be practical or even something between the two. The type of
specification that is the most feasible will depend upon the knowledge base of the Owner and the
amount of studies done prior to the bid process.

4.3 Sample Specification

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The following gives a sample table of contents for a STATCOM specification. This example contains
both elements of a performance and equipment specification and elements can be omitted as required.

4.2.1 Contents
1. Overview

1.1 Scope

1.2 Purpose

1.3 Application

2. Standards and Specifcations

3. Definitions, acronyms, and abbreviations

3.1 Definitions

3.2 Acronyms and abbreviations

4. STATCOM project description

5. Scope of supply and schedule

5.1 Scope of supply

5.2 Equipment, materials, and services furnished by the Owner

5.3 Schedule

6. Site and environmental data

7. Power system characteristics

8. Main STATCOM characteristics

8.1 STATCOM rating

8.1.1 Over Voltage (OV) ride through capability

8.1.2 Under Voltage (UV) ride through capability

8.2 Control objectives

8.2.1 STATCOM functions, with priority

8.2.2 Expected response at small disturbances and at under- and overvoltages)

8.3 Harmonic performance and rating

8.3.1 Design and criteria performance

8.3.2 Component rating

8.4 Telephone and radio interference

8.4.1 Telephone Interference (Refer to Clause 6.9 of IEEE519) for additional details.

8.4.2 Broad band interference

8.5 Audible noise

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8.6 Loss evaluation

8.6.1 Valve losses

8.6.2 Transformer losses

8.6.3 Reactor losses (if applicable)

8.6.4 DC capacitor losses

8.6.5 Filter losses

8.6.6 Auxiliary system

8.6.7 Total loss evaluation

8.7 STATCOM availability and reliability

8.7.1 Definitions

8.7.2 Required availability and reliability

9. Main components—required functions and features

9.1 Power electronic converter

9.1.1 Overall performance

9.1.2 Valve access

9.1.3 Design robustness

9.1.4 Maintenance

9.1.5 Valve protection

9.1.6 Testing

9.2 Converter cooling system

9.2.1 Liquid cooling (If applicable)

9.2.2 Air cooling (if applicable)

9.2.3 Cooling system protection

9.3 Control equipment and operator interface

9.3.1 Control equipment

9.3.2 Operator interface

9.4 Monitoring and protection

9.4.1 Monitoring

9.4.2 Protection

9.4.3 Component protection

9.5 Reactors

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9.6 AC and DC Capacitors

9.7 Power transformers

9.8 Circuit breaker(s)

Disconnectors and grounding switches

9.9 Auxiliary power supplies

10. Spares

10.1 Spares strategy

10.2 Spare parts storage

10.3 Spare parts accounting

11. Engineering Studies

11.1 Information Submitted with Bid

11.2 Pre-manufacturing Engineering and Design Verification Studies

11.2.1 System Dynamic Performance Studies

Valve Design Report11.2.2 Harmonic Performance and Component Ratings Studies

11.2.3 Electromagnetic Transients, Control Performance and Overvoltage Studies

11.2.4 Insulation Coordination Study

Loss Evaluation

RAM Calculations11.2.5 Siesmic

11.2.6 Other Studies

11.2.7 Software Simulation Models

11.3 Post-commissioning Studies

12. Testing and Commissioning

12.1 Factory tests of valves

12.2 Factory tests of controls

12.3 Tests of other Components

12.4 Field tests and Commissioning

13. Documentation

14. Training

15. Balance of plant

15.1 Buildings and structures

15.2 Fire protection

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15.3 Site requirements and conditions

15.3.1 Construction surveys

15.3.2 Site conditions

15.3.3 Safety and health

One of the main sections of the STATCOM specification is chapter 8 as shown in the sample table of
contents above.

4.3 Form of Tender

The form of tender is a document submitted by the bidders to present their offers to the Owner. In order
to make a quick and precise comparison between the various bids and the specification, Owners
normally provide a template for the form of tender. This template instructs the bidders to provide specific
information that is important to tender evaluation.

In this chapter a list of items that the vendor should be asked to provide, as a minimum, in the form of
tender is provided.

The items listed are examples of information to be provided by vendors and not all may be applicable for
all STATCOM projects.

4.3.1 General STATCOM

4.3.1.1 Ratings

• Maximum continuous capacitive/ reactive MVAr measured at the point of connection and
specified voltage at the highest ambient temperature

• Overload capability (MVAr and duration)

• Rated continuous voltage

• Rated BIL

• Nominal, maximum, and minimum frequencies

• Temporary over-voltage and duration, while absorbing reactive power

• Temporary over-voltage and duration, with no reactive power contribution

• Temporary under-voltage and duration, while injecting reactive power

• Temporary under-voltage and duration, with no reactive power contribution

• Maximum and minimum system fault level that STATCOM is designed for

• Number of regular maintenance periods and duration

• RAM Requirements

• Design life expectancy

• Type and rating of converter breaker

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4.3.1.2 Converter

• Type of converter (multi-level, 3-level, etc.)

• Number of modules and rated MVAR (if applicable)

• Number of redundant modules (if applicable)

• Designed redundancy

• Maximum and minimum design steadystate voltage stress (ratio of maximum and minimum
steady-state voltage over rated continuous voltage)

• Maximum design transient voltage stress (ratio of maximum transient voltage over rated
continuous voltage)

• Maximum design transient current stress (ratio of maximum transient current over rated
continuous current)

• Valve/Module failure rate

• Mean time to repair of a valve/module

• Method to replace failed valve/module

• Reference projects

4.3.1.3 Cooling system

• A general description of cooling system

• Cooling media

• Measures to protect the modules against overheating

• Measures to protect the module against extreme cold ambient

• Redundancy level for major components

• Cooling capacity at the highest ambient temperature

• Total power consumption of the cooling system at full cooling capacity

4.3.1.4 Spare Parts

• List of reliability recommended spares

• List of mandatory spares

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4.3.1.5 Control anD Protection Systems

• Description of control system platform/hardware

• Control modes

• Redundancy

• List of adjustable parameters

• A description of the Human Machine Interface (HMI) system including all monitoring and
recording

• List of protection functions

• Control block diagrams

• Protection Block Diagram, General principles, component/branch protection.

4.3.1.6 AC/DC auxiliary supplies

• AC supply rated voltage

• DC supply rated voltage

• Maximum steady-state AC consumption of the STATCOM

• Maximum short term (inrush) AC current

• Maximum steady-state DC current of the STATCOM

• Maximum short term (inrush) DC current

4.3.1.7 Studies

Bidder shall provide a list of studies to be carried out after the award of contract.

4.3.1.8 Type tests

Bidder shall provide a list of type tests for the major components. If similar type test reports are allowed,
bidder shall provide a list of similar type tests with reference to the date of the test.

4.3.1.9 Drawings, graphs, and schematics

• Single line diagram

• Protection block diagram

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 • Plan view and outline drawings

• V-I graph

• Losses vs. Q graph, showing converter losses, transformer losses, and total losses
separately

• Audible Noise Contour plot

4.3.1.10 Harmonics and electrical noise/ radio interference

• The estimated harmonic content at the point of connection (high side of the transformer).

• Table showing that all harmonic requirements are met.

4.3.1.11 Training

Bidder shall provide a list of training programs. The list should provide the number of people for each
discipline, the duration of the training, and its location (at the factory or site).

4.3.1.12 Project execution

• Information to be included shall include but not be limited to:

• Project organization

• proposed project team with CVs

• schedule

• quality assurance

• project documentation

4.3.1.13 Table of exceptions

Form of tender must be completed with a table listing exceptions taken by the manufacturer to the
Owner’s specifications. The table should refer to the section of the specification that has been taken
exception to.

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5 EVALUATION OF BIDS

In order to ensure the bid evaluation process is transparent and defendable, a clear set of
evaluation criteria and process needs to be defined.

Bidding is typically done in three ways:

1. One stage bidding - technical and commercial bid is submitted at the same time
2. Two stage bidding - technical bid is submitted in the first stage, commercial bid is submitted after
technical bid evaluation is closed.
3. Three stage bidding - technical bid is submitted in two stages to align technical solution.
Commercial bid is submitted when second stage of technical bid evaluation is closed.

This brochure will only focus on technical evaluation.

5.1 Technical Evaluation

The selection of a Owner for a STATCOM system generally involves a commercial evaluation
and a technical evaluation of each offering. This section describes in general terms a process
that could be followed in the technical evaluation of bids received for a STATCOM system.

The goal of the evaluation is to identify the bids that meet the requirements of the technical
specification and provide a comparative ranking of each bid.

The Owner should have a plan in place to evaluate the bids prior to the issuing of the request
for proposal.

Having an organized bid evaluation process allows the Owner to efficiently carry out a
comprehensive evaluation within the time available, and the bid can stress the important
evaluation points to allow the bids to be optimized to the Owner’s requirements. To this end the
following should be incorporated prior to opening bids:

• a scoring system/evaluation criteria should be established

• checklists and check tables should be prepared

• members of the bid evaluation team who are familiar with the specification should be
identified

• each member of the team should know their responsibilities

The basic data for the bid evaluation comes from the bidder responses to the questions and
requests for information and data in the technical form of tender. Additional information may be
obtained during the bid evaluation by requesting for specific clarifications where the information
provided by a bidder is insufficient to verify compliance. Clarifications should be kept to a
minimum; if the data supplied is sufficiently complete then further clarification may not be
required at this stage of the evaluation.

During the technical evaluation, it is recommended that each bid be evaluated against the
minimum requirements of the technical specification to a level sufficient to verify compliance by

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comparing the information submitted with the bid along with any subsequent bid clarification.
Each bid should be scored based on an established scoring system such as the one presented
in Section 5.2. In general, no additional credit is allowed for equipment or performance that
exceeds the minimum requirements of the specification unless provided for in the specification;
otherwise, equipment or performance that exceeds the requirements should be noted in the
evaluation report.

To help in the evaluation, a series of checklists should be created to summarize the bidder
responses to the questions and tables in the form of tender. The technical bid evaluation
checklists should be based on key information requested in the form of tender, and do not
necessarily contain all requested information. One column should list the minimum specified
requirement for each line item in the table, and one column should be assigned to each bid and
bid alternative. Checklists prepared in this manner permit an easy comparison of each bid to the
specified requirements as well as highlight differences between bids. Comments on specific
items for future discussion during negotiations, or areas that require further clarification should
be included within the checklists. Table 5.1 shows an example for one typical checklist covering
audible noise requirements.

Technical alternatives can be analyzed against the specified requirements to establish if they
offer added technical benefits to the Owner.

It is important to assemble an evaluation team knowledgeable in the various areas of the

specification. Each member should be assigned to cover appropriate areas of the bid. Prior to
the bid opening, team members should read the portions of the technical specification relevant
to their assigned responsibilities to re familiarize themselves with the technical requirements for
the project.

After bid opening, the team will review the information, answers to questions, tables, and related
documents provided with each bid. They will identify key missing data or areas that require
clarification from each bidder and submit clarifications as required, and complete the evaluation
checklists. They will complete clarification forms as required for each bid and summarize any
issues associated that may require further consideration.

The results of the technical evaluation should be included in a technical bid evaluation report,
which documents the evaluations made and provides a list of items that should be discussed in
more depth during negotiations with the recommended Owner. The main part of the document
provides an overall description of the technical bid evaluation, while appendices to the main
report describe the detailed technical bid evaluation of each bidder. This document is a very
valuable resource during the subsequent negotiations with the recommended bidder.

Table 5.1 Example of a check sheet for audible noise

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 Example Bidder
Bid Review Item Specification
A B C
Requirements
Audible noise limits outside of station

at fence line  45 dB(A) 

(1) 

Audible noise limits in building

Mechanical equipment rooms  80 dB(A)  (1) 85

Control rooms  50 dB(A) (45)
(1) 

Relay rooms  50 dB(A) 

(1) 

(1) Not provided

5.2 Technical Evaluation – Ranking System

This section describes one approach to establish a ranking system that could be used in a
technical bid evaluation for a STATCOM system. It is important that the ranking system be
developed prior to opening the bids, to remove any appearance of bias. It is also important that
all members of the evaluation team agree to the criteria and ranking system. Management
should also be briefed on the approach that will be followed to evaluate the bids.

Before starting the detailed evaluation, each bid should be examined to ascertain that all
mandatory requirements identified in the specification have been offered. The failure of a bidder
to meet all of the mandatory requirements should result in the elimination of that bid. These
requirements will vary with each design but in general these will include rating and any critical
performance requirements.

The bid evaluation is based on the checklists which are prepared as described in Section 5.1.
The checklists are completed during the review of each section of the submitted information.

The following items should be considered in the scoring:

• Completeness of information supplied

• Does the bid meet the specified criteria? If not, is clarification required or should this
be noted for further discussion with preferred bidder at the negotiation stage?

• Check for preferred and required equipment manufacturers

For each bid, each check sheet is given a score from 0 to 10, with 10 indicating full compliance
and 0 indicating no compliance. Table 5.2 provides a guide for scoring criteria to provide a
common basis for selecting a score by all members of the evaluation team.

Please note the following tables are examples and the ranking/weighting used should be
based on the Owner’s needs.

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 Table 5.2 Example Guidelines for scoring criteria
Raw Score Definition

8 - 10 The bid submission together with any subsequent bid clarifications differs from the
specified requirements in minor details but will still result in satisfactory
performance.

6-7 The information supplied is insufficient to verify that the bid fully complies with the
specified requirements. However, in many cases the Bidder has subsequently
stated that the design will be in accordance with the specification.

4-5 The Bidder has not demonstrated that they fully comprehend the specification and
has not made a detailed assessment showing that the specified requirements can
be met.

0-3 The bid submission does not meet certain requirements of the specification, or the
indicated performance is not satisfactory.

The next step in the scoring system is to group the checklist items into categories that are
related to each other. Table 5.3 shows an example where the checklists are grouped into five
categories. Table 5.4 shows a list of checklist items for the performance category.

The checklist items for each bid in each category will be given an individual score out of 10 by
the evaluation team based on the scoring guidelines given in Table 5.2. The score for each item
is assigned a weight out of 100, which represents that item’s overall importance relative to the
other items in the category. A total weighted score out of 10 is then calculated using the
assigned weights. Table 5.4 shows example weighting factors for the checklist items in the
performance category.

Table 5.3 Technical bid evaluation categories

Category Description Recommended

Category Weight

A Performance Requirements 35
B Equipment 35
C Stations and Auxiliaries 15
D Documentation, Studies and Spares 5
E Buildings and Civil 10

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 Table 5.4 Example of checklist items for the performance category
Reference Item Item Weight

A1 Ratings 15

A2 Main Circuit Arrangements 10

A3 STATCOM System Response 15

A4 Insulation Coordination 10

A5 Low Voltage Ride-Through 10

A6 Harmonic Performance 10

A7 Interference with Communication Systems 6

A8 Audible Noise Limits 10

A9 Availability and Reliability 10

A10 Guaranteed Losses 2

A11 Guaranteed Failure Rates 2

Total = 100

The weighted scores for each of the five categories are then assigned a further weight that
represents the relative importance of each subsection to the project as shown in Table 5.3. The
category scores are combined with this second level of weighting to produce the total overall
score for that Bidder.

Figure 5.1 summarizes the weighting and scoring system as described in this section.

It is important to consider with care the interpretation of any scoring system used as basis for a
technical evaluation. Although spreadsheets and tables filled with numbers give an aura of high
accuracy, the approach is still subjective in many instances. The total weighted score should be
interpreted using Table 5.2 as a guide. Scores that differ by a percentage points should be
taken to mean that the two bids are comparable.

Table 5.5 shows an example of the scoring for a hypothetical system that has three bidders.
The results of this example evaluation indicate that bids A and C are essentially at the same
level and that they differ from the specified requirements in minor details but will still result in
satisfactory performance. The technical submission provided by Bidder B is not as complete as
those provided by bidders A and C. Bidder B has stated that the design will be in accordance
with the specification, but the information supplied is insufficient to verify that the bid fully
complies with the specified requirements.

In this ranking the Owner could begin negotiations or more detailed clarification meetings with
either bidder A or bidder C taking into consideration the results of the commercial evaluation.
Table 5.5 Example of Technical Bid Evaluation Overall Scoring

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 Category Score
Subsection
Weight A B C

A Performance Requirements 35 8.9 7.6 9.1

B Equipment 35 8.1 7.9 8.0

C Stations and Auxiliaries 15 7.8 6.5 7.6

D Documentation, Studies and Spares 5 7.6 6.3 8.4

E Buildings and Civil 10 8.2 5.5 5.7

Overall Score out of 10 = 8.3 7.2 8.1

Figure 5.1 Overview of Technical Bid Scoring

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5.3 Evaluation of Bid Documents

The vendors will be required to perform a set of studies to prove that the STATCOM meets the
specified requirements. These studies will typically include:

1. Main components rating study

2. Dynamic performance study

3. Harmonic performance/rating study

4. Insulation Coordination Study

5. Audible noise study

6. Preliminary loss study

7. RAM study

At this stage, the studies are considered preliminary and are for evaluation purposes only. In
saying this, they should not deviate much from the final design.

Other relevant documents for review at this stage are:

1. Control system description

2. Protection system description

3. Single line diagram

4. Layout / general arrangement

It should be noted that the purpose of this document review is to evaluate the bids, not a final
design for the plant if the bidder is successful.

5.4 Environmental Evaluation

The following environmental impacts are related to STATCOMs and should be evaluated by the
appropriate people to ensure compliance with the specification:

• Audible Noise

• Spill Containment

• EMC

• RFI

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 • Fire System

5.5 Q/A with Bidders

During the technical bid review, it is recommended to set up a meeting with the bidders, before the first
meeting, the bid should be reviewed and a set of questions/clarifications sent to each bidder. These
should deal with non-compliance/technical exceptions taken and clarifications. During the bidder
meetings, both bidder and Owner should have the required experts available to discuss the topics. After
the meeting, the bidder will be given time to finalize their response and officially respond. The final
weighting of the bids should be done with this taken into account, but it is important to remember in most
cases, the price should not be modified

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6 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
6.1 Kick-Off Meeting
The kick-off meeting is scheduled soon after the award is finalized. The main goal of this
meeting is to introduce the team members, determine primary contact persons, communication
channels, reporting requirements, frequency of meetings and discuss the schedule. The subject
matter experts for each team are usually introduced (in person or in name only).

During this meeting, any technical discussion is usually very limited, but as a minimum, open
technical points from the bid stage should be discussed.

6.2 Design Review Process

This chapter discusses the process of reviewing the design of the STATCOM.

6.2.1 Purpose
The purpose of the design review is as follows:

• to ensure that the STATCOM is properly designed for its intended application and
meets the functional and performance requirements

• to ensure that the STATCOM complies with the requirements specified by the
Owner/owner, these could include the following:

o legal and contractual requirements

o technical requirements

o industry codes and standards

• to identify any prototype features and evaluate their reliability and risks

• to enable the Owner/owner to understand how the STATCOM has been designed.

6.2.2 Process and Planning

Prior to the award of the contract or early on in the project implementation phase, a review may
be held to ensure that the performance and technical requirements are mutually understood by
the owner/Owner and the vendor. It is important that a good working relationship is developed
between the owner/Owners engineers and the vendors design engineers to ensure that any
issues that are unclear can be clarified.

In carrying out the design of the STATCOM, the vendor will carry out studies, perform
calculations and produce reports and drawings to demonstrate that the STATCOM meets the
specified requirements. It is strongly recommended that the studies, reports and drawings
required by the owner/Owner for review should be specified in the contract documents.

It is recommended that the owner/Owner assemble a competent team of engineers to review

the design or engage the services of consultants if they do not possess the required expertise.

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There will be several aspects of the design that need to be reviewed such as studies, layout,
equipment etc. The reviews can be carried out remotely based on reports and drawings sent by
electronically or other means, by telephone or video conference or by a face-to-face meeting.
For important and complex aspects of the design it is recommended that face-to-face meetings
be held.

Design review meetings should be properly planned with an agenda. Reports and other design
documents should be received well before the review meetings to allow sufficient time for
review. All relevant persons/experts should attend the reviews. It is important that the reviews
be properly documented in the form of minutes or review reports to ensure that issues raised
can be followed up. After the design review the vendor should update the relevant documents
and submit them to the owner/Owner for final approval/acceptance.

6.2.3 Scope of Design Review

The design review should cover the following minimum aspects:

6.2.3.1 Functional and Performance Requirements

The review of the functional and performance requirements includes:

• Verification of the nominal and overload ratings (if applicable)

• Dynamic and transient performance

• Modes of operation and control

• Harmonic performance

• Losses

• Audible noise

• Interference and electromagnetic compatibility

6.2.3.2 System Design

The review of the system design includes:

• Electrical single line diagram

• Layout and general arrangement

• Insulation coordination

• Requirements for redundancy

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 • Reliability and availability

• Maintainability and operability

• Control and protection systems

6.2.3.3 Equipment/Component Design and Sub-System Design

The review of the equipment and components and subsystems includes:

• Power transformer

• Semiconductor valves

• DC capacitors

• Valve cooling system

• Filter and phase reactors

• AC power capacitors

• Filter resistors

• Circuit breakers

• Disconnector and grounding switches

• Voltage and current transformers/transducers

• Surge-arresters

• Surge-capacitors and damping circuits

• Grounding transformer

• Control and protection system including dynamic performance monitoring, fault

recording and voltage quality recording requirements

• Human machine interface (HMI)

• Remote data access/diagnostic requirements

• Communication/SCADA system

• AC auxiliary system

• DC auxiliary and battery systems, UPS

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6.2.3.4 Interfaces

The following interfaces to the substation in which the STATCOM will be located should be
carefully reviewed:

• Primary plant interfaces such as high voltage busbar, switchgear andtransformer

connections

• Secondary plant interfaces such as AC and DC auxiliary systems if AC and DC

supplies are obtained from the substation AC and DC supplies

• Control, protection and communication/SCADA interfaces

• Grounding/earthing and lightning shielding wire interfaces

6.2.3.5 Civil Works and Building

The review of the civil works and building include:

• Civil layout, foundations

• Grounding/earthing layout

• Support structures

• Roads and access

• Drainage

• Cable trenches

• Yard lighting

• Fire protection

• Building design including heating, ventilation and air-conditioning

• Building layout design including storerooms, maintenance workshops and any office
and meeting space requirements

• Access control and security systems

• Environmental compliance

6.3 Component Specification

This chapter discusses the process of component specification by the vendor.

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In most projects, the STATCOM vendor has already asked for quotations for the different pieces
of equipment forming the STATCOM during the bid stage, at least those with higher costs.
Depending on the delivery time, the vendor might release a pre-order of critical equipment
(power transformers are a typical example) before design review so that the manufacturer(s)
can book a slot in their production line.

Major equipment are often those designed on a project basis, i.e. these equipment are usually
unique for each project, thus requiring more engineering effort. Due to this customization,
manufacturing time can be an issue to be considered early on in the project. Changes on
system data after bid stage, e.g. harmonic impedance, site conditions etc., may result in the
redesign of the plant and impact delivery time.

Major equipment:

- Power transformer

- Semiconductor valves

- DC capacitors

- Valve cooling system

- Filter and phase reactors

- AC power capacitors

- Filter resistors

Although the semiconductor valve might be modularized, the vendor still needs to consider
possible types of modules to be chosen, depending on the voltage-source converter rating and
system requirements.

Unless the STATCOM Owner has special requirements, minor equipment are usually standard
equipment although system studies are still required for some of them.

- Circuit breakers

- Disconnector and grounding switches

- Voltage and current transformers/transducers

- Surge-arresters

- Surge-capacitors and damping circuits

- Grounding transformer

- Auxiliary transformer

- Battery system

The component specification can be divided into the following categories:

• Environmental data and site conditions

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 • Electrical data (voltage and current ratings, insulation levels etc.)

• Mechanical data (grounding connections, mounting, type of connections or

arrangements etc.)

• List of Tests according to applicable international and/or Owner’s standards

6.4 Testing
The testing of all STATCOM related primary equipment consists of Routine Tests and Type
Tests. The Factory Acceptance Test (FAT) of the Control and Protection system consists of
functional and dynamic performance testing.

All equipment must be subjected to and pass the specified routine tests in the factory of
manufacture. Routine tests are carried out on all supplied equipment as part of the quality
assurance procedure of the vendor. These tests should be discussed with the vendor.

All equipment must be subjected to and pass the specified type tests. Separate type tests may
not be required on items of equipment that are of same design, insulation class and comparable
rating. Existing type test reports may be accepted if the equipment tested was identical to the
equipment offered, the equipment is to be under the same or less stresses than the equipment
already tested and the relevant equipment standards have not changed. The Vendors would
need to provide a comprehensive report describing the past tests and how they can be applied
to the new equipment.

In saying this, it is recommended that the valves be fully type tested for each project. The valve
is a system of many components where small changes in component design or manufacturer
may affect design.

The Procurer or his representative must be allowed to witness any or all routine tests, and all
type tests performed as part of the Contract.

6.4.1 Valves
The relevant valve type testing standard for semiconductor valves should be consulted. IEC
62501 is generally applicable for electrical test of STATCOM valve unless those duties that not
applicable in STATCOM operations. IEC 62927 "Voltage-Sourced Converter (VSC) Valves for
Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) - Electrical Testing" is being developed, which
should then be used inplace of IEC 62501.

6.4.2 Power Transformers

If a power transformer is used to connect the STATCOM to the power system, this transformer
should be tested according to the relevant standard such as IEC 60076 and/or the owner’s
internal standards.

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6.4.3 DC Capacitors
All DC capacitors must be tested according the relevant standard such as IEC 61071.

6.4.4 Phase Reactors

The type test on the phase reactor must be in accordance with IEC 60076-6 Section 8.

6.4.5 Other Type Tests

Other standard equipment such as ac breakers, ac capacitors, disconnectors, arrresters should
be type tested according to the relevant standards.

Some equipment such as the inrush resistor and discharge resistor are vendor dependent and a
type test procedure should be discussed with the vendor.

6.5 Control and Protection Factory Acceptance Tests

The STATCOM control and protection systems must be factory tested before being delivered to
site. This is to ensure that the control and protection hardware and software meets all the
specified requirements.

Verification of actual control & protection hardware and software shall be performed by running
the real control systems together with a real-time simulator. The real-time simulator shall
accurately represent the steady-state and dynamic behaviour of the power electronic devices
(including any power electronic device or valve protection algorithms). A network equivalent
together with the STATCOM model must be modelled on the real-time simulator. Functional
performance tests may be done using a reduced network model.

Prior to commencing the test, the list of proposed tests must be agreed upon. These tests must
include all system events that will test the dynamic performance of the STATCOM thoroughly.

Further tests may be performed on an EMT-type model which will include an extended ac
system, provided that the EMT model of the STATCOM is accurate and has been benchmarked
against the real-time simulator tests.

6.6 Pre-commissioning and subsystem tests

Pre–commissioning and sub-system tests are completed at site following the erection and
assembly of the equipment and the installation and connection of field cabling and main circuit
connections. Pre-commissioning activities must be completed for all the items in an associated
subsystem before energization and testing of the subsystem.

With STATCOMs produced as fully assembled containers some of this activity is completed at
the factory and consequently it does not need to be repeated at site.

Each item of equipment should have manufacturer’s instructions or protocols identifying checks
and tests before energization. For example equipment should be checked for mechanical

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aspects, firstly without connecting auxiliary power, including the correct operation of limit and
status indicators. Any mechanical or local trip functions should also be tested.

Phasing needs to be checked both for primary equipment connections and also secondary
circuits. Injection tests may be required.

Each field installed cable path needs to be checked end to end for electrical continuity and
correct termination according to the circuit diagram. Where a mixture of factory and field
installed connections exists within an electrical circuit the overall circuit needs to be checked,
not just the field terminations.

Particular attention needs to be paid to earthing details for cable sheaths. Site installation may
inadvertently create magnetic loops which with main circuit operation can cause arcing and
equipment damage.

Appropriate quality system documentation should identify the required tests and provide for the
sign off by commissioning personnel that each item, circuit and sub-system has been tested.

The correct operation of each specific subsystem should be verified at site before proceeding to
undertake commissioning tests.

Typical STATCOM subsystems may include:

• Valve cooling

• Auxiliary supplies and UPS

• Circuit breakers and switchgear

• Transformer

• Harmonic filter

• Current and voltage measurement systems

• Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

• Valve firing electronics

• Protection system

• Control System

• Telecommunication

• Fire protection system

• HMI/SCADA

• Security Systems

• Measurement and monitoring equipment

• Phase testing

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 • Interface testing

6.7 Commissioning tests

Commissioning tests must be done at site and can only proceed following factory testing, pre-
commissioning and subsystem testing.

Commissioning tests will require connection to the power system and so necessary
arrangements have to be made with the affected network owners and system operators. These
tests need to be planned well in advance as they require coordination of many different entities
(system operators, switchyard operators, Vendor and Owner’s engineers). It needs also to be
understood that the final schedule may have been partially set by these online tests. A delay in
any stage up to this point may result in further delays at this stage due to the unavailability of
the ac system to support the test.

The quality system documentation should identify the required tests and provide for the sign off
by the commissioning personnel that each function has been tested.

Operation and maintenance documentation may be required by the Owner prior to the testing.

It is in the best interest of the Owner to ensure that their staff is fully integrated at this stage to
gain as much “hands-on” experience as possible.

Some of the commissioning tests (manufacturer defined) and systems tests (Owner test) will be
the same or similar, in which case they should only be performed once.

It should be mentioned, that some tests may not be able to be performed due to present power
system limitations/constraints during commissioning period.

The Inspection and Test Plan (ITP) should be agreed with the Owner. Any required acceptance
tests special Owner tests should be provided for and uniquely identified.

Critical items to test during commissioning include:

• Transformer energisation tests

• Valve energisation tests (while valves are blocked)

• Start up-sequence

• Normal shut down (stop-sequence)

• Shut down – simulated protection operation

• Step response tests - current and voltage references (including DC voltage balancing
evaluation)

• Maximum rating achievable

• Verification of control modes e.g. Q control, V control

• Check of linearity

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 • Check modulation inputs

• Check V/I characteristic

• Check response to change in system fault level

• Check impact of phase angle steps

• Transformer overload limitation

• Transformer saturation test

• HV and LV over voltage protection

• HV and LV Undervoltage detection

• Low voltage ride through checks

• Voltage unbalance protection

• Load switching

• Converter valve current supervision

• Module/device failure protections

• Loss of firing pulse detection and protection

• Heat run

• Harmonic performance

• Radio Interference test

• Audible noise

• Redundancy test

• Overload requirements

• AC voltage balancing

• Dynamic gain test

• Discharge of AC and DC capacitors at STATCOM stop

6.8 System tests

The system tests are required from the Owner to validate the operation of the STATCOM and
the impact on the ac system

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These tests are dependent on the requirements of the STATCOM and the availability of the ac
system to perform these tests. The following tests are the minimum tests that would need to be
performed and can be expanded as required.

Some tests may not be allowed due to power system conditions or limitations imposed by the
system operator

6.8.1 Startup and shutdown test

This item is to check if the startup and shutdown logic of the STATCOM is correct and the
cooling system is in normal operation. The main items to check here are the DC capacitor
voltage, the firing pulse, and the min. output reactive power is in normal condition.

After 10 minutes of operation, shutdown the STATCOM and Check the STATCOM has stopped
normally. It is also advisable to perform a valve hall walk through and ensure that there are no
issues. Any interlock system to allow acess to valve hall should be previously tested.

At this stage, the STATCOM emergency shutdown should be tested to ensure that the
STATCOM can be stopped and the AC side breaker can be opened in emergency.

6.8.2 Constant reactive power control test

Reactive power output is the basic function of the STATCOM. This item is to check if the
STATCOM can generate/absorb constant reactive power (bypassing voltage control).

6.8.3 Voltage control mode test

This test is to verify whether the STATCOM outputs reactive power in accordance with the VI
characteristic under the voltage control mode.

Prior to the test, confirm that the voltage of the primary ac busbar is within the operational limits
specified and set the STATCOM to provide the desired ac voltage. For this test, one typically
sets the voltage controller of the STATCOM such that the reactive power output is zero, but this
is not a requirement.

The next step is to switch available components (reactor, capacitor or ac lines) to vary the
busbar voltage and to vary the output values of the STATCOM. Collect groups of test data to
draw the VI curve of the STATCOM. Typically, the slope of the VI characteristic is between 3%-
5%.

At this stage, it is a good idea to also benchmark any computer models of the STATCOM to
ensure that the same performance is observed in the model. For this purpose, the owner should
provide Vendor with accurate representation of the power system configuration during the tests.
Representation of large loads electrically close to STATCOM should be accurate.

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6.8.4 Dynamic performance test
This item is to test the response time of the STATCOM, and to check whether the dynamic
performance meets the technical specifications. The dynamic performance needs to be tested
under two modes:

1. STATCOM dynamic performance under constant reactive power mode

For this test, select the constant reactive power control mode for the STATCOM, and
modify the reference reactive power of the STATCOM to test the response time as
specified. At least the dynamic response up to 60% of the total capacity should be
tested.

2. STATCOM dynamic performance under voltage control mode

For this test, select the voltage control mode for the STATCOM, and modify the
reference voltage of busbar to test the response time. The variation of the reference
voltage should make STATCOM output enough reactive power, to give a clear
response curve.

6.8.5 STATCOM operating range test

This item is to test the operating range from min output to max output capacity of the
STATCOM, which meets the technical specifications.

Startup the STATCOM, and increase the output of reactive power in steps, until the output
reaches the rated capacity.

This test may be limited by the ac system conditions and/or the system operators procedures.

6.8.6 STATCOM redundancy test

This item is to test the redundancy of the STATCOM converter and to ensure the valve/modular
redundancy is within design range.

The test procedure should be coordinated with the vendor of the STATCOM. Due to different
STATCOM designs a general test procedure can not be provided.

6.8.7 STATCOM overload test

The overload capability, if specified, plays an important role to supply large and short-term
reactive power while the power system is in fault.

This item is to test the overload capability of the STATCOM. The STATCOM should be tested
for its applicable overload for different duration times according to the design of the devices and
the cooling system. The ambient temperature should be considered.

In some situations, it may be difficult to test the STATCOM to its full capability due to ac system
constraints. If this is the case any overload tests should still be performed to the maximum
possible and used to verify any of the Owner’s computer models which can then be used to
extrapolate that the STATCOM meets all specified requirements.

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6.8.8 AC system fault test
The AC system fault test will test the transient performance of the STATCOM, therefore it is
recommended to carry out this test when the system conditions and system operator permit. If
possible, the Owner should coordinate this test with system operator and be responsible for its
execution, as also inform the Vendor in advance.

Before the test, the AC system operating mode, fault mode and the recovery after fault should
be simulated completely. Typically an instantaneous single-phase short-circuit test will be
carried out.

6.8.9 STATCOM control under Power Dispatching Center

This item is to verify whether the STATCOM can be remotely controlled by the Power
Dispatching Center and perform normally. The Power Dispatching Center should send the data
to the STATCOM including the curve of the voltage control mode and the constant reactive
power control mode.

6.8.10 Trial Operation

After all tests have been successfully completed or as agreed with the owner, the STATCOM is
usually placed in trial operation, which typically lasts 30 days. During this stage, the STATCOM
should perform as designed without any trips or loss of rating, assuming the STATCOM is
operated as per the design. It should be mentioned here that a switch-over to a redundant
control system does not necessarily constitute a failed test. If a switch-over occurs, and the
STATCOM stays online with no change in its operating point, one can say that the STATCOM is
operating as per design.

6.9 Training
A comprehensive training program is required for all levels of personnel in the Owner’s
organization to provide a solid basis for operation and maintenance over the life of the
STATCOM. The bulk of this training needs to be provided by the Contactor.

The training program needs to cover all equipment as supplied by the Vendor, including: valves,
valve cooling, control and protection, transformers, auxiliary systems, switchyard equipment,
measurement, interlocking, and safety.

The training program should include classroom instruction on the theory and operation of the
STATCOM equipment supplied by the Vendor with particular emphasis placed on valves, valve
cooling and the associated control and protection equipment. The training programs should also
include demonstrations and hands on training consisting of instruction and active participation in
testing of equipment at the Vendor's factory and at the sites as appropriate.

The Vendor should be responsible for providing the appropriate level of training to ensure that
the requirements for health and safety and environmental standards can be achieved at the site
for all equipment within its mandate covering the construction period, testing, commissioning
and maintenance.

The Vendor should supply appropriate training manuals associated with the formal courses.

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The training program provided by the Vendor needs to include formal training as well as hands-
on training and participation by Owner’s personnel in all stages of the project including, the
design stage, factory acceptance tests and commissioning.

The formal program should provide appropriate training to all levels of the Owner’s staff,
including:

a. Management and non-technical staff

This program should be designed to help the participants achieve an overview

understanding of the STATCOM including purpose, system benefits, and
operation.

b. Design engineering staff

The objective is to provide training to staff from the Owner’s design office in
obtaining a good understanding of STATCOM technology in the areas of
system studies, valves, control and protection equipment and any other
equipment special to the STATCOM. This program can include participation of
the designers in the carrying out of studies at the Vendor’s premises.

c. Staff who will participate in Factory Acceptance Tests

The Vendor should provide a program with the objective of having technical
staff sufficiently trained to participate in the valves, valve cooling, and control
factory acceptance tests. This training must be scheduled in advance of the
factory tests

d. Operating staff

The operator training program should thoroughly familiarize the operating

personnel with the characteristics and requirements of steady-state and
transient operation of the STATCOM, in the performance and operation
specifications of all equipment, the principles of control and protection, the
performance of control and protection systems, especially the operator control
and SCADA system, the operation specification given by the Vendor and other
aspects.

For the operators the training should be completed in time to allow operation
by the Owner’ operators during testing and commissioning of the STATCOM.

e. Maintenance staff

A maintenance training program is essential to completely familiarize the

maintenance personnel with the various facets of the STATCOM system.
Maintenance training should include preventive maintenance as well as trouble
shooting and safety requirements. Maintenance of valves, valve cooling,
transformers, auxiliary systems, and solid state controls and microprocessor
control systems used in the converter station is to be emphasized. The
program should train control technicians in the commissioning, operation and
maintenance of microprocessor systems for the controls.

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 The use of any special tools and test equipment should also be covered.

The program should include hands-on instructions using the supplied

equipment in the factory and/or the sites.

At the completion of the training, the maintenance personnel will be able to

completely and properly maintain the STATCOM equipment without Vendor
assistance.

f. Commissioning staff

The Vendor should provide a program and schedule with the objective of
having staff (including supervisors) nominated by the Owner sufficiently trained
to participate in the commissioning on the scheduled start dates, under the
direction of the Vendor's commissioning supervisors.

The expected duration and location of the training programs should be indicated by the Owner
in the technical specification.

6.10 Computer Models

During the life of the project, various computer models will be required for use in loadflow
analysis, dynamic stability and transient simulations. These models should be supplied by the
vendor to the STATCOM owner operator. It is very important that these models be
benchmarked throughout the various phases of the project, with a final validation being done
against the actual installed system during the system tests as defined in section 6.9. For a
proper benchmark of any model, the Owner should provide accurate power system data and
contingency scenarios.

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7 PROJECT CLOSE

Project close follows completion of the onsite system acceptance tests and is when the
STATCOM is ‘taken over’ and placed into commercial operation. Please note that this is from a
technical perspective, i.e. commercial issues are not considered.

Project responsibilities ultimately conclude at the termination of the warrantee or guarantee

period.

At the time of ‘taking over’, a punchlist of outstanding actions is usually agreed upon with the
vendor. Sometimes additional guarantees are also required if issues have arisen during
manufacture and testing.

A significant project payment is usually made when commercial operation begins, although full
payment or a bond remains until completion of the defects liability period or warrantee.

During the defect liability period, specific contract obligations are usually required for the Vendor
to provide support and sometimes maintenance. Beyond this time the client would expect to
have access to after sales services for the purchase of parts or for enquiries.

At Project Close any required spare parts are also transferred to the client.

Further Operations and Maintenance documentation including manuals and training should be
complete. As-built drawings should be delivered.

In the period following Project Close, the client needs to carefully monitor and document the
performance of the STATCOM. Most of these records will be electronic, including loading,
setpoint dispatch instructions and connected network fault conditions.

It is important that any failure to operate correctly is recorded and that any use of overload (if
provided) is monitored.

Capacitor and IGBT/module failure rates need to be recorded as these may be subject to
specific guarantees.

Vendor assistance with fault finding and remote electronic monitoring and support may also be
required.

7.1 Punch List

When completing projects in real life situations, often a number of minor activities have not been
completed by the vendor at the time when the equipment is otherwise ready for commercial
operation. Accordingly a ‘punchlist’ can be agreed between the vendor and the Owner as to
what further activities and actions are needed to conclude the purchase contract.

The equipment provided is usually substantially complete and able to meet most or all of the
specified performance requirements. At this time the Owner usually wants to bring the asset into
commercial operation. The vendor wants to demobilize and reduce the project team as well as
receive substantial payment for the equipment. Small issues which were not able to be resolved

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earlier may be outstanding and by reaching agreement on this list of outstanding points and
their time for completion (the ‘punchlist’) appropriate commercial arrangements can be made.

A significant project payment is usually made when the equipment is ‘handed over’ for
commercial operation, although full payment or a bond remains until completion of the defects
liability period or warrantee. Typically a small retention is withheld or a specific bank bond or
guarantee in the Owner favour is provided. When the punchlist items have been completed this
money is released. Sometimes additional guarantees are also required if issues have arisen
during manufacture and testing.

Table 7.1 provides an example of a punchlist. Sometimes this is longer than four items.
Table 7.1 Example punchlist
Issue Rectification (sample) Completion Time

1 Paint scratched on transformer Touch up paint Six weeks

2 Radio interference too high To Be Determined Six months

3 Bolt missing on reactor Install additional bolt Two weeks

3 High frequency interference Supply additional blocking filter Six months

4 Not enough spare modules Supply new spares One month

onsite

7.2 Documentation
Documentation should be delivered in electronic and paper formats in accordance with the
requirements of the specification.

The following maintenance documentation is required:

• Each equipment OEM manuals (characteristics, drawings, mounting instructions,

maintenance instructions, safety information, etc.)

• Scheduled maintenance program

• Detailed and illustrated maintenance procedures, for both scheduled maintenance

and forced maintenance

• Diagnosis guide (alarm list and signification, related maintenance procedure)

• Guide for protection configuration (threshold values, etc.)

• Special tools and software required for the maintenance, and their respective
manuals

• End of life disposal instructions

• Incident report template which will give a generic format for reporting faults

• Spare parts list including manufacturer reference number

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 • Control settings

The following other documentation is required:

• Test records

o Type test reports

o Routine tests

o Commissioning tests

o Equipment checks

o Etc.

• Design study documents

• Control and Protection design documents

• Operation manuals

7.2.1 STATCOM simulation models

The simulation models to be delivered are very important to long-term operation of the
STATCOM. As the ac network grows and changes and/or issues arise with the STATCOM,
having well documented and accurate models is very important. The following sections describe
in detail the various models that may be required

The STATCOM is essentially a voltage source behind a coupling reactance. The single line
diagram of the STATCOM connected to the transmission system is shown in Figure 7.1, where
U is the voltage on the busbar and Ec is the controllable output voltage [1]-[4].

Figure 7.1 STATCOM block diagram for reactive power generation.

The active and reactive power exchanged with the network is given by:
U .Ec
PSTATCOM  sin   (1)
X

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 QSTATCOM 
U
U  Ec. cos  (2)
X


If the amplitude Ec of the output voltage phasor ( Ec ) is increased above the amplitude U of the

ac voltage ( U ), then the current phasor leads the voltage phasor and current flows from the
converter to the ac system and the converter generates reactive (capacitive) power to the
system.

If the amplitude of the output voltage phasor is decreased below that of the ac system voltage
phasor, then the reactive current flows from the ac system to the converter, and the converter
absorbs reactive (inductive) power from the ac system.

This operation is illustrated in Figure 7.2.

Figure 7.2 Capacitive and Inductive behavior of STATCOM

Considering applications requiring active power exchange it is clear that the STATCOM, in
contrast with the SVC, is capable of drawing real power from an energy source (battery, large
capacitor, fuel cell, superconducting magnetic storage, etc.) at its d.c. terminals and deliver it as
ac power to provide temporary system support.

7.2.1.1 STATCOM Models for Load Flow studies

The general objective of a load flow study for a power system with a given network
configuration, demand and generation profile, is to determine the busbar voltages, the active
and reactive power flows, power losses and compensation requirements [1].

The standard load flow assumes balanced steady-state conditions in the network and utilizes a
single phase representation of the power system.

With regard to the application of a STATCOM, specific objectives of the load flow studies are:

• To determine appropriate locations and preliminary steady-state and short-term

STATCOM ratings

• To provide initial conditions for transient stability studies

• To provide information on the system active and reactive power flows under normal
and abnormal system conditions

• To identify critical system conditions, contingencies and power transfer constraints

• To identify required steady-state control operating modes, settings and limits

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Adequate modeling of a STATCOM in a load flow program requires the correct representation
of the STATCOM steady-state operating characteristics. For a STATCOM operating in voltage
control mode, the reactive current drawn by the STATCOM whilst in the controlled output range
is given by:

I L  V  Vref  / slope (3)

Where slope is the p.u. change in STATCOM terminal voltage over the reactive power output.
All values are expressed in p.u. with the target voltage Vref typically having a range between
0.95 and 1.05, and slope ranging between 1% and 10% (based on PU MVA). This is similar to a
conventional SVC.

Outside of this range, however, the STATCOM output performance is restricted by the semi-
conductorcurrent limits on the semiconductor device, giving rise to the typical steady-state
operating characteristic shown in Figure 7.3

One method for representing the STATCOM in a load flow program is through a voltage
dependent “current” or “reactive power” injection such that the STATCOM characteristic is
correctly represented. In the controlled output range, representation based on a linear
relationship between reactive power and voltage provides a good approximation.

For the purpose of positive sequence power flow analysis the STATCOM will be represented by
a synchronous voltage source with maximum and minimum voltage magnitude limits. The
synchronous voltage source represents the fundamental Fourier series component of the
switched waveform at the ac converter terminal of the STATCOM [5].

The node at which the STATCOM is connected is represented as a PV-node (i.e. a node with
Owner-specified voltage and real power generation), which may change to a PQ-node (i.e. a
node with Owner-specified real and reactive power generation) in the event of limits being
violated. In such a case, the generated or absorbed reactive power would correspond to the
violated limit. Unlike the SVC, the STATCOM is represented as a voltage source for the full
range of operation, enabling a more robust voltage support mechanism.

The STATCOM equivalent circuit shown in Figure 7.3 is used to derive the mathematical model
of the controller for inclusion in power flow algorithms.

Figure 7.3 STATCOM equivalent circuit

The power flow equations (6)-(9) for the STATCOM are derived assuming the following voltage
source representation:

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 EvR  VvR  cos  vR  j sin  vR  (4)

Based on the shunt connection shown in Figure 7.4, the following may be written:

S vR  VvR I vR
*
 VvRYvR* VvR*  Vk*  (5)

After performing some complex operations, the following active and reactive power equations
are obtained for the converter and bus k, respectively:

PvR  VvR2 GvR  VvRVk GvR cos  vR   k   BvR sin  vR   k   (6)

QvR  VvR2 BvR  VvRVk GvR sin  vR   k   BvR cos  vR   k   (7)

Pk  Vk2GvR  VkVvR GvR cos  k   vR   BvR sin  k   vR   (8)

Qk  Vk2 BvR  VkVvR GvR sin  k   vR   BvR cos  k   vR   (9)

Using these power equations, the Linearized STATCOM model is given below, where the
voltage magnitude VvR and phase angle vR are taken to be the state variables:

 Pk Pk Pk Pk 

  Vk VvR 
Vk  vR VvR 
 k   k 
 Pk   Qk Qk Qk Qk  V
 Q    Vk VvR   k 
Vk  vR VvR   Vk 
 k 
 (10)
k

 PvR   PvR PvR PvR PvR  

   Vk VvR   vR 
 QvR    k Vk  vR VvR   VvR 
 QvR QvR QvR QvR  V
 Vk VvR   vR 
  k Vk  vR VvR 

The jacobian elements in equation (10) are given in explicit form in [5].

7.2.1.2 STATCOM Models for Large Disturbance (Transient Stability) studies

Large disturbance studies involving time-domain simulations are generally used to determine
the electromechanical performance of the power system in response to a number of
contingencies over a range of operating conditions, to determine the stability and damping of
electromechanical oscillations (0.1-5 Hz) following the contingencies. For STATCOM
applications, likely specific objectives of large disturbance studies are [1]:

• To determine the appropriate locations for connection, and STATCOM ratings

• To provide information on the transient response and damping of the power system

• To provide information on the interaction of the STATCOM with other power system
components

• To identify critical system conditions and contingencies

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 • To identify enhancement to power transfer limits, transient stability and system
damping performance provided by a STATCOM

• To identify and confirm STATCOM control modes, control parameters and control
limits

• To confirm the specification and operation of a STATCOM and system protections

For transient stability studies, the power system and its components are modeled as a set of
differential and algebraic equations which describe the behavior of the system. Using the results
of a load flow study to provide initial conditions, the differential equations are solved by
numerical integration. The power system model for large disturbance studies would generally
include:

• Network series impedances and shunt admittances

• Generator models with voltage regulators, power system stabilizers and speed
governors

• Load models, including induction motor models where relevant

• Relevant power system protections

• HVDC with relevant controls

• STATCOM and other controlled reactive compensation equipment, with appropriate

controls

STATCOM models for transient stability studies need to represent the balanced positive
sequence system behavior including control action. Generally in such studies, generators are
represented as current sources modeled by Park’s equations with detailed modeling of
saturation and damper circuits. Generator control models would include adequate
representation for large disturbance behavior and load models would be represented by
constant or controlled susceptance current sources.

The basic control model of a STATCOM for transient stability studies follows the principles of
classical representation of generator and other similar controlled reactive compensation
equipment such as the SVC and synchronous compensator. The STATCOM and its control is
interfaced to the power system as a controlled current injection at the point of connection of the
power system as shown in Figure 7.4.

When the STATCOM output is within the control range, the injected current varies according to
the control characteristics as a function of the system voltage. Outside of the control range, the
inductive current is given by:

I L   I C max At capacitive output limit

I L  I L max At inductive output limit

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 V

Figure 7.4 Representation of STATCOM in transient stability studies

Description of the basic model:

A general dynamic model structure based on the physical components of the STATCOM and
which incorporates the controller structure shown in Figure 7.5, and provides the basis for the
derivation of STATCOM models for transient stability studies.

Figure 7.5 Structure of Dynamic Model based on STATCOM physical components

The components of this model are:

DC capacitor and/or Energy Store: This derives the DC Capacitor voltage Vdc based on energy
balance dynamics and can include energy storage, generation and dissipation devices. For
Transient stability models not involving long-term energy storage, the dynamics associated with
converter DC voltage (Vdc) are fast enough that it is assumed to respond instantaneously.

Converter and the converter control: The converter control determines the appropriate switching
pattern of the semiconductor device’, and includes appropriate measuring and filtering circuits. The
synthesized voltage is determined from the d.c voltage and switching pattern of the semiconductor
device’. The synthesized ac voltage phasor (E) generated by the converter is given by:

E  Vdc de j (11)

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d represents the amplitude depth term, which can be varied with an appropriate converter
control strategy, and  denotes the phase or switching pattern of the semiconductor device’. The
current to the d.c. capacitor can be calculated from an energy balance, which in the absence of
converter losses is given by:

Vdc I dc  Re  E .I *  (12)

Power system control: The power system control determines the required output of the
STATCOM, based upon the system voltage and other power system parameters, and includes
appropriate signal measuring and filter circuits. The required output is passed to the converter
control generally in the form of reactive power demand (Qref) or reactive current demand (Iref).

STATCOM system Interface: This derives the STATCOM current (I) from the synthesized
source voltage (E), the system bus voltage (V), and the impedance between them (Z):

I  V  E  / Z (13)

The impedance Z includes the impedance of the transformer, coupling magnetic or any other
linking impedance (e.g. phase reactor). It is usual to neglect the resistive part of this impedance,
so:

I L  V  E  / X (14)

Where IL is the reactive current consumed by the STATCOM, and X is the imaginary part of Z.
Per unit systems are generally adopted such that the transformer tap ratios are unity (i.e. IHV =
ILV and VLV = VHV in p.u.).

In transient stability studies where the STATCOM is utilized only as a reactive compensation
device, the STATCOM, dependent upon its control system, can be represented by either a
“controlled voltage source” or a “controlled current source” [1].

7.2.1.3 STATCOM Models for Small Disturbance (Small Signal Stability) studies
Small disturbance studies are carried out to examine the possibility of low frequency oscillations
due to lack of damping, and to evaluate various measures for providing additional damping.
Small disturbance analysis differs from large disturbance analysis in that a linear system
representation can be used, allowing the use of linear analysis techniques. This is particularly
powerful for assessing interaction between the various control devices in the system and for
optimizing their coordination [1].

Linearized versions of the models presented for transient stability analysis can be used for this
analysis. More generally, numerical linearization of the full nonlinear system would be
employed. Linear analysis can be performed in the time-domain, frequency domain or eigen-
domain. Some of the main techniques employed are:

• Eigenvalue analysis: Giving a direct indication of system damping

• Controllability, Observability and residue analysis: indicating the effect of a STATCOM

Power Oscillation Damping (POD) controller on the system damping, and the
controller phase requirements [6]

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 • Damping torque analysis: indicating the effect of a POD controller on a machine
damping torques, and can be used in combination with information on the contribution
of each generator to the low frequency mode of interest [7]

• Approximate multimodal decomposition

7.2.2 STATCOM Simulation Models References

[1] “Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM). CIGRÉ. Prepared by Working Group

14.19. Edited by I. Arslan Erinmez & A. M. Foss. August 1999.

[2] Understanding FACTS: Concepts and Technology of Flexible AC Transmission Systems.

Narain G. Hingorani, Laszlo Gyugyi. Wiley-IEEE Press 1999. ISBN-0780334558.

[3] Thyristor-Based FACTS Controllers for Electrical Transmission Systems. R. Mohan

Mathur, Rajiv K. Varma. IEEE Press and Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2002. ISBN 0-471-20643-1.

[4] Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) for Arc Furnace and Flicker
Compensation. WG B4. 19. CIGRE Publication. December 2003.

[5] FACTS Modelling and Simulation in Power Networks. Enrique Acha, Claudio R. Fuente-
Esquivel, Hugo Ambriz-Pérez, César Angeles-Camacho. Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2004. ISBN 0-470-
85271-2.

[6] CIGRÉ Technical Brochure on “Control of Power System Oscillations”, Task Force
38.01.07, 1997.

[7] Pourbeik& M J Gibbard, Damping and Synchronizing Torques induced on Generators by

FACTS stabilizers in Multimachine Power Systems”, IEEE WM 1996, 253-5 PWRS.

[8] E Larsen, J J Sanchez-Gasca & J H Chow, “Concepts for Design of FACTS Controllers
to Damp Power Swings”. IEEE Transaction on Power Systems, Vol. 10, Nº 2, May 1995, pp
948-956.

7.3 Spare parts strategy/Obsolescence Management

Obsolescence management is a key issue with such new technologies. It is necessary to ask
the manufacturer for information needed to deal with obsolescence:

Option 1: you don’t ask for anything, which can be sufficient if you have a service
contract with the manufacturer that covers obsolescence management.

Option 2: you ask for a complete part list with all the necessary information for spare
parts procurement (type and reference, manufacturer, eventually price). The
manufacturer of each component will inform you on obsolescence when you ask for
spare parts and available alternative solutions, but there is a technical risk that no
solution can be found.

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 Option 3: you order a spare parts lot with the initial installation that covers the
expected lifetime of the installation (or of each component when lifetime is significantly
different and a mid-life refurbishment of the installation is envisioned), based on
manufacturer statistical data. It is then necessary to provide adequate storage conditions
for the equipments to ensure they will still be operational when needed 20-30 years later.

The spare part lot can also be completed for availability purposes. For example, a phase reactor
has a very long lifetime but there is no redundancy for it, and in case of failure the complete
installation is unavailable for 6-8 months. Given the cost of a single phase reactor, it can be
useful to have one spare in order to be back in service quickly and then order a new one to refill
the spare parts lot.

7.4 Monitoring of Performance

Once the STATCOM enters commercial operation, the performance needs to be monitored to
ensure compliance with the commercial terms of the specification. The key items to be
monitored are:

• Performance of the STATCOM

• Number and duration of forced outages

• Number and duration of scheduled outages

• Forced unavailability

• Scheduled unavailability

• Spares usage

In order to measure the actual performance of the STATCOM, items such as availability of rated
power, response to ac system events, harmonic performance, audible noise, etc. all need to be
observed. During commissioning and system tests of the STATCOM, the ac system is usually
configured in a “test friendly” mode. Meaning that during testing of the STATCOM, the ac
system can handle the loss of the STATCOM if a test happens to go wrong. During this time,
some key performance criteria, such as step response, harmonic performance, audible noise,
etc. are measured and signed off on if they are within the specification. After this, the ac system
will be placed back into normal operation with the STATCOM hopefully performing as it should.
In order to ensure this is the case, during the STATCOM warranty period, some time should be
taken to ensure that all the performance metrics listed are at or above spec.

7.5 After-market Support

Most vendors are now offering after-market support on their FACTs installations. This support
can include all or parts of the following:

1. 24/7 3rd line support hotline, where the Owner can phone the vendor to ask questions
and receive help resolving issues with the STATCOM.

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 2. Vendor Assistance during scheduled maintenance outages

3. 1st line support where the Vendor effectively staffs and maintains the facility

This support is best set-up during the initial contract negotiations and could be part of the
purchase price. It should be mentioned that in order to ensure that the Owner is familiar with the
equipment and does not become too dependent on the vendor, they should always maintain at
least some involvement.

7.6 Maintenance
There are two main maintenance strategies: internal maintenance vs maintenance service
contract.

Internal maintenance is interesting in the fact that you do not rely on anyone to maintain the
installation, but requires well trained maintenance teams. Training can be done internally or
contracted with the manufacturer, and is only possible if the company organization is adapted.

Service contracts are usually the easiest way to perform maintenance on new equipment. It can
be contracted either with the manufacturer or with other companies possessing the required
skills. Contracting with the initial manufacturer is usually the best technical choice because its
teams are well trained and perform maintenance on many similar installations. However you are
then bound to this manufacturer which is a financial risk as you cannot effectively negotiate the
prices, and it is also a technical risk if the manufacturer stops offering maintenance service.

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8 LESSONS LEARNED
During the development of this brochure, it was thought to give the reader a list of questions to
ask themselves, both Vendors and Owners, that may help optimize the design of the STATCOM
based on the experiences of the working group participants. The questions/comments are in no
particular order

Owner Questions

1. Radio interference is a major issue that needs to be considered during the bidding stage

2. What are reasonable valve redundancy requirements?

3. What additional things can the STATCOM do for the system that hasn't been specified?

4. Based on the STATCOM requirements and location, can any optimization be done by
selecting a different voltage level?

5. What level of detail will you provide in your models for the vendors (EMT-type and
stability)?

6. If a container solution is offered, what is the lifetime?

7. Can Vendors provide historical operational information on similar installations?

8. What models can be provided prior to the specification being developed (during the
planning stage)?

9. Can the lifecycle for the major components be delivered during the planning stage and
where are we in that lifecycle?

10. What is the real-time simulator capacity for testing purposes?

11. Can full power type tests be done prior to delivery?

12. Ask the Vendors what a reasonable submission time would be for bids

Vendor

1. How should the STATCOM respond to over-voltages (overload cycles)?

2. What are the harmonic performance requirements? Are TIFF and IT requirements
required?

3. In regards to radio interference, what standard should be used?

4. The undervoltage requirement needs to be clearly defined (full capacity at XX%)

5. What is the load types/profile and dynamic response?

6. Is the STATCOM required to provide voltage balancing?

7. Clearly define loss requirements and evaluation criteria

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8. Clearly define the reason for the STATCOM

9. Should partial availablity be considered?

10. What are the valve redundancy requirements?

11. Would a mixture of/or technologies be accepted?

12. Are there any other fast acting voltage devices in the area?

13. Clearly define the cooling method (open or closed loop) or can it be defined by the
Vendor?

14. Who will be responsible for the reduced system model for system studies?

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