FACTS IN POWER SYSTEMS

AN INTRODUCTION

Dr.S.VASANTHARATHNA

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Coimbatore Institute of Technology
Coimbatore 641 014
email: vasantharathna@cit.edu.in
1

Long Ago

Spiritual Torture Power Sanction

Past Era

Physical Torture Effective Utilisation / Profit

This Era

Mental Torture

-- Power Reliability

ELECTRICITY
The BIG Player

THE POWER SYSTEM

Peculiarities of Regional Grids in India

Deficit Region delhi

REGIONAL
GRIDS

Snow fed run-of the river

hydro
Highly weather sensitive load

CHICKEN-NECK
NORTHERN
REGION

NORTHEASTERN
REGION

EASTERN
REGION

WESTER
NREGION

Adverse weather conditions: Fog

& Dust Storm
Very low load Shillong
High hydro potential
Evacuation problems
Low load Kolkata
High coal reserves

SOUTHERN
REGION

Pit head base load plants

Industrial load Mumbai
Heavy load Bangaluru
Monsoon dependent hydro
5

MAJOR INTER REGIONAL LINKS-8000 MW

220k
CAPACITY
220k
Sahupuri
Dehri
V
Birpara

Norther
n
Auraiya

220kV

Malanpur

Malda

Gorakhpu
Singrauli
r/Luckno
w

500M
W

400k
V

Easter
n

500MW
W
220 kV

1000MW
220kV

Ramagundam

400k
V

Rourkela
Jeypor
e

500M
W

Gazuwaka

Southern

NEW is a
major grid

Budhipadar

Vindhyachal Korba

Weste Raipur
rn Chandrapur
Kolhapur

Belgaum

NorthEastern
Bongaigaon

Sasaram

Allahabad

Salakati

Talcher

Balimel
a

2500M
W

220kV

Kolar Upper
Sileru

INDIAN TRANSMISSION
NETWORK 2008
VOLTAGE

UNDER
CENTRAL

UNDER STATE

TOTAL CKM

+500KV HVDC

5668

1504

7172

765 KV

2709

409

3118

400KV

61800

27696

89496

22OKV

10066

112894

122960

TOTAL

80243

142503

222746

3708 CKM 1950

5.7 million circuit km - 2011

ENERGY IN INDIA - FACTS

SWOT ANALYSIS
Demand and Supply gap

5.8% June 2012

Per capita consumption

818.9 KWh (by 2011)

GDP growth rate

9-11% per annum

Installed Capacity

2,05,340.26 MW

Proposed capacity addition

200,000 MW by 2012
9

Maximum Customer Satisfaction

How To Achieve it ??????????

Power for All

10

GOAL: A Power System That Will

Not Fail Consumers
Eliminate service interruptions
Meet individualized consumer needs
Enable DG and energy smart appliances
Achieve universal demand response
Minimize the cost of smart electric service

11

EYEING THE SILVER LINING

Increasing the Generation Capacity

Improving The Power Quality
Metering
Restructuring
Deregulation
Distributed Generation
Energy Conservation
Automation
12

INCREASE IN GENERATION
Thermal Power - installed 24,000
MW
Target 66000 MW by 2017
NLC Tamilnadu Power Ltd.
1000 MW coal based plant at
Tuticorin by 2011
SAIL 1000 MW coal fired
plant

Hydro installed 1,48,700 MW

Target 6000 MW

Nuclear 2720 MW
Target 20,000 MW by 2020
13

CONGESTION
While load growth has
occurred,
Even
with
increased
generating capacity
still the same prevails

One-way congestion

Two-way congestion

14

EYEING THE SILVER LINING

Increasing the Generation Capacity

Improving The Power Quality
Metering
Restructuring
Deregulation
Distributed Generation
Energy Conservation
Automation
15

POWER QUALITY
a serious issue that touches almost all
industrial,
commercial and
residential
customers in some way.

16

POWER QUALITY
In view of an equipment designer or manufacturer might be that
power quality is a perfect sinusoidal wave, with no variations in the
voltage, and no noise present on the grounding system.
In view of an electrical utility engineer might be that power quality is
simply voltage availability or outage minutes.
In view of an end-user, is that power quality or quality power is
simply the power that works for whatever equipment the end-user is
applying.

While each hypothetical point of view has a clear difference, it is

clear that none is properly focused.
17

Challenges to Secure Operation of

Today's Power Systems

18

Mechanical Analogy
Balls Generators
Strings- Interconnection lines

Fill a glass with the water to quarter of its capacity. The dropping of the marble is
akin to a disturbance in the power system. In this situation no water from the glass
will splash out, indicating the system is stable.
Now fill the glass with water close to its brim and drop the same marble into the
glass. In this case, water will splash out, indicating the system is unstable

Limitations for Loading Capacity

of Transmission Systems
The ability of the transmission system to transmit
power becomes impaired by one or more of the
following steady state and dynamic limitations:
(a) angular stability,
(b) voltage magnitude,
(c) thermal limits f{temperature,wind, conductor, ground
clearance}
(d) transient stability,
(e) dynamic stability.

These limits define the maximum electrical power to

be transmitted without causing damage to
transmission lines and electrical equipment.
In principle, limitations on power transfer can
always be relieved by the addition of new
transmission lines and generation facilities.

Steady-State Power Transfer Limit

Voltage Stability Limit

Dynamic Voltage Limit
Transient Stability Limit
Power System Oscillation Damping Limit
Inadvertent Loop Flow Limit
Thermal Limit
Short-Circuit Current Limit

21

Causes of Blackout

Apart from natural disturbances,

Lightning, Fog, Storm etc

Whether individually or in combination with one another, such as:

Unavailability of individual generators or transmission lines
High power flows across the region
Low voltages earlier in the day or on prior days
System frequency variations
Low reactive power output from independent power producers
(IPPs).

The outage must conform to these criteria:

The outage must not be planned by the service provider.
The outage must affect at least 1,000 people and last at least one
hour.
There must be at least 1,000,000 person/customer hours of
disruption.
22

Blackout due to decrease in

power factor

I increases
Heat Increases
Length increases
Sag increases
Flashover on trees
Crosses the safe limit
Transients increase
23

Power Angle Curve

X =XG + XL + XM

EG = EM + jXI

24

Example
A Generator having Xd=0.7 pu delivers
rated load at a pf of 0.8 lag
i) find Pe,Qe,E and
V=1+j0

I=1(cos j sin ) = 1(0.8 j0.6)

V+jXdL21.5

25

 ii) The steam valve of the prime mover is

opened further so that Pe increases by
20%. Find new values of Pe,Qe,E and .
( 20% increase)
Pe=0.8 x 1.2 = 0.96
E=1.53 No change

Qe=0.535 pu

26

 Iii) The steam valve is restored to the original

position. The exciter is adjusted to raise E by
20%. Find new values of Pe,Qe,E and
Pe=0.8
E=1.53x1.2 (20% increase) = 1.84

Qe=1.07 pu

27

A 100 MVA synchronous generator operates on full

load at a frequency of 50Hz. The load is suddenly
reduced to 50 MW. Due to time lag in governor
system, the steam valve begins to close after 0.4
sec. Determine the change in frequency that occurs
on this time. given Kinetic Energy 5 x 105 kWs.

Excess energy input to rotaing parts in 0.4 sec

is 50 x 0.4 = 20, 000 kWs.
Stored Kinetic Energy square of frequency.
Therefore frequency at the end of 0.4 sec
=

51 Hz

28

 Low Frequency
N Magnetic Induction Harmonic Effects
Overheat of Machines B Core Loss
Efficiency Fault Current Machine
Saturates Motor Burnsout
High Frequency
N B heat pf
29

Frequency in %

Two generators rated 200 MW and 400 MW

are operating in parallel. The droop
characteristics of their governors are 4%
and 5% respectively from no load to full
load. Assuming that the generators are
operating at 50Hz at no load, how would a
load of 600 MW be shared between them?
What will be the system frequency at this
load?
At
100 % load
60 % load
% load

30

 As the generates run in parallel, they operate at same

frequency.
Let load on G 1 ( 200MW) = x MW
Load on G2 (400MW)= (600 x) MW
Reduction in frequency = f

Equating f we get x=231 MW

Therefore load on
G1 is 231 MW and that of G2 is 369MW
31

 As the droop characteristics is of different,

G1 is overloaded and G2 is underloaded.
If both the governors are of droop 4% then
they will share the load as 200 MW and
600 MW respectively.

32

Equal Area Criterion

33

Transient Stability Limit

34

35

Objectives of FACTS controllers

1. Regulation of power flows in prescribed transmission routes.
2. Secure loading of transmission lines nearer to their thermal limits.
3. Prevention of cascading outages by contributing to emergency control.
4. Damping of oscillations that can threaten security or limit the usable line capacity.

The implementation of the above objectives requires the development of high power
compensators and controllers.
The technology needed for this is high power electronics with real time operating
control.
The realization of such an overall system optimization control can be considered as
an additional objective of FACTS controllers

Sequence of Events

12:15 p.m. Incorrect telemetry data renders inoperative the state estimator, a power flow monitoring tool operated by the
Indiana-based Midwest Independent Transmission System Operator (MISO). An operator corrects the telemetry problem but forgets to
restart the monitoring tool.

1:31 p.m. The Eastlake, Ohio generating plant shuts down. The plant is owned by FirstEnergy, an Akron, Ohio-based
company that had experienced extensive recent maintenance problems

2:02 p.m. The first of several 345 kV overhead transmission lines in northeast Ohio fails due to contact with a tree in Walton
Hills, Ohio.

2:14 p.m. An

3:05 p.m. A 345 kV transmission line known as the Chamberlain-Harding line fails in Parma, south of Cleveland, due to a tree.

3:17 p.m.

3:32 p.m. Power shifted by the first failure onto another 345 kV power line, the Hanna-Juniper interconnection, causes it to sag into a
tree, bringing it offline as well. While MISO and FirstEnergy controllers concentrate on understanding the failures, they fail to inform
system controllers in nearby states.

3:39 p.m. A FirstEnergy 138 kV line fails in northern Ohio

3:41 p.m. A circuit breaker connecting FirstEnergy's grid with that of American Electric Power is tripped as a 345 kV power line (Star-

alarm system fails at FirstEnergy's control room and is not repaired.

Voltage dips temporarily on the Ohio portion of the grid. Controllers take no action.

South Canton interconnection) and fifteen

138 kV lines fail in rapid succession in northern Ohio.

3:46 p.m. A fifth 345 kV line, the Tidd-Canton Central line, trips offline.

37

345 kV line trips due to undervoltage and overcurrent interpreted as a short circuit.
4:064:08 p.m. A sustained power surge north toward Cleveland overloads three 138 kV lines.
4:05:57 p.m. The Sammis-Star

4:09:02 p.m. Voltage sags deeply as Ohio draws 2 GW of power from Michigan, creating simultaneous undervoltage and overcurrent conditions as power
attempts to flow in such a way as to rebalance the system's voltage.

4:10:34 p.m. Many transmission lines trip out, first in Michigan and then in Ohio, blocking the eastward flow of power around the south shore of Lake Erie.
Suddenly bereft of demand, generating stations go offline, creating a huge power deficit. In seconds, power surges in from the east, overloading east-coast
power plants whose

generators go offline as a protective measure, and the blackout is on.

4:10:37 p.m. The eastern and western Michigan power grids disconnect from each other. Two 345 kV lines in Michigan trip. A line that runs from Grand
Ledge to Ann Arbor known as the Oneida-Majestic interconnection trips. A short time later, a line running from Bay City south to Flint in Consumers Energy's
system known as the Hampton-Thetford line also trips.
4:10:38 p.m. Cleveland separates from the Pennsylvania grid.
4:10:39 p.m. 3.7 GW power flows from the east along the north shore of Lake Erie, through Ontario to southern Michigan and northern Ohio, a flow more
than ten times greater than the condition 30 seconds earlier, causing a voltage drop across the system.
4:10:40 p.m. Flow flips to 2 GW eastward from Michigan through Ontario (a net reversal of 5.7 GW of power), then reverses back westward again within a
half second.
4:10:43 p.m. International connections between the United States and Canada begin failing.
4:10:45 p.m. Northwestern Ontario separates from the east when the Wawa-Marathon 230 kV line north of Lake Superior disconnects. The first Ontario
power plants go offline in response to the unstable voltage and current demand on the system.
4:10:46 p.m. New York separates from the New England grid. 4:10:50 p.m. Ontario separates from the western New York grid.
4:11:57 p.m. The Keith-Waterman, Bunce Creek-Scott 230 kV lines and the St. Clair-Lambton #1 230 kV line and #2 345 kV line between Michigan and
Ontario fail. 4:12:03 p.m. Windsor, Ontario and surrounding areas drop off the grid.
4:12:58 p.m. Northern New Jersey separates its power-grids from New York and the Philadelphia area, causing a cascade of failing secondary generator
plants along the Jersey coast and throughout the inland west.

4:13 p.m. End of cascading failure. 256 power plants are off-line, 85% of which went offline after the grid
separations occurred, most due to the action of automatic protective controls.

38

In India

On 2nd January 2010, Northern Region experienced a partial grid disturbance on the
night of 2nd January, 2010 at 03:01 hrs. in which power supply in Punjab, North Haryana,
Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir and UT Chandigarh sub-system were affected.
with 14 x 400 kV lines and 79 x 220 kV lines out.
Load affected in this area was about 7,500 MW and there was about 4,000 MW loss of
generation.
Dense fog mixed with pollution reduces the breakdown strength of insulators and increases the
conductivity along the surface of insulators causing the flash over across insulators and tripping
of lines on earth fault.
It has been observed that whenever temperature is low i.e. below 9 degree and humidity is high,
more than 90 degree, formation of sufficient smog takes place causing flash over across
insulators strings.
Evening peak hours of 1st Jan 2010 were normal, however low ambient temperature (below
100 C) and high relative humidity (above 90 %) were observed in the region. Such atmospheric
condition was witnessed for the first time during this winter season. Situation was under alert
condition as it has been experienced in the past that such atmospheric conditions are favorable
for fog / smog formation and tripping of transmission lines may occur.
This was followed by another partial disturbance almost on the same pattern, during the late
evening hours on the same day i.e. 2nd January, 2010 at 21:54 hrs.
39

40

Power Factor
Problems due to Power Factor

Increased line losses- I2R

Wasted generation capacity
Wasted distribution/transformer capacity
Wasted system capacity
VA
Reduced system efficiency
Increased maximum demand and related
charges
Possible power factor charges
Increased maintenance of equipment and
machinery
Wasted energy/High electric bill
Wasted investment and operating capital

Watts

Power factor is the ratio of

watts
to
VA:
apparent power to
41
real power.

Active and Reactive Power

The lower the load power factor, the more reactive power is consumed by the load.
For example,
a 100 MW load with a load power factor of 0.92 consumes 43 MVAr of reactive
power, while
the same 100 MW of load with a load power factor of 0.88 consumes 54 MVAr
of reactive power.
Under depressed voltage conditions, the induction motors used in air-conditioning
units and refrigerators, which are used more heavily on hot and humid days, draw
even more reactive power than under normal voltage conditions.

2
2
kVA
kVA==(KW)
(KW)2++(KVAR)
(KVAR)2

42

42

The power factor impact can be quite largefor example, for a metropolitan
area of 5million people,
the shift from winter peak to summer peak demand
can
shift peak load
from 9,200 MW in winter to 10,000 MW in summer
that change to summer electric loads
can
shift the load power factor
from 0.92 in winter down to 0.88 in summer
and this will increase
the MVAr load demand from 3,950 in winter up to 5,400 in summer

43

Power Factor Correlation

44

44

Loss Reduction through var

compensation
Power Losses due to current transmission can
be reduced with power factor improvement
%loss reduction = 1 [100 x (original pf /
improved pf)2]
Assume a pf improvement from 0.7 to 0.95
% loss reduction = 1- (0.7/0.95)2 x100= 45.7%

Load Compensation
Management of Reactive Power to improve
Power Quality
Installing Shunt Compensating devices

Line Compensation
Ferranti effect is minimised
Underexcited operation of synchronous
generators is not required
The power transfer capability of the line is
enhanced.

Compensating Devices
Capacitors
Capacitors and Inductors
Active Voltage Source (Synchronous
generator)
Controlling the sending and receiving end
voltages
Controlling the angle between sending and
receiving end voltages
Controlling the series reactance

Conventional Equipment For Enhancing Power System Control

Series Capacitor
-Controls impedance
Switched Shunt-Capacitor and Reactor
-Controls voltage
Transformer LTC
-Controls voltage
Phase Shifting Transformer
-Controls angle
Synchronous Condenser
-Controls voltage
Special Stability Controls
-Typically focuses on voltage control but can often include direct control
of power
Others (When Thermal Limits are Involved)
-Can included reconductoring, raising conductors, dynamic line
monitoring, adding new
lines, etc.
49

FACTS Controllers for Enhancing Power System Control

Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)
-Controls voltage
Static Var Compensator (SVC)
-Controls voltage
Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)
Convertible Series Compensator (CSC)
Inter-phase Power Flow Controller (IPFC)
Static Synchronous Series Controller (SSSC)
- impact voltage, impedance, and/or angle (and power)
Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator (TCSC)
-Controls impedance
Thyristor Controlled Phase Shifting Transformer (TCPST)
-Controls angle
Super Conducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)
-Controls voltage and power
50

Classification of FACTS devices

GUPFC

Generalized unified power flow

controller

IPC

Interphase power controller

IPFC

SSSC

TCSC

Thyristor controlled series capacitor

TCSR

Thyristor controlled series reactor

TCVL

Thyristor controlled voltage limiter

TCVR

Thyristor controlled voltage regulator

TSC

Thyristor switched capacitor

TSR

Thyristor switched reactor

Interline power flow controller

Static synchronous series compensator

STATCOM Static synchronous compensator

SVC

Static var compensator

TCBR

Thyristor controlled braking resistor

TSSC

Thyristor switched series capacitor

TCPAR

Thyristor controlled phase angle

regulator

TCPST

Thyristor controlled phase shifting

transformer

TSSR

Thyristor switched series reactor

TCR

Thyristor controlled reactor

UPFC

Unified power flow controller

51

52

53

54

Series Controller
V

FC
Storage

Series controllers include

SSSC, IPFC,
TCSC, TSSC,
TCSR, and TSSR.

Variable
Impedancecapacitor/ Reactor/ Power
Electronics based variable
source of main frequency,
subsynchronous
and
harmonic frequencies (or a
combination) to serve the
desired load
It injects voltage in series with
the line
If the voltage is in phase
quadrature with the line
current, the series controller
only supplies or consumes
variable reactive power
Any other phase relationship
will involve handling of real
power as well.

Shunt Controller

variable impedance, variable source, or

a combination of these.
In principle, all shunt controllers inject
current into the system at the point of
connection.

I
F
C

As long as the injected current is in

phase quadrature with the line voltage,
the shunt controller only supplies or
consumes reactive power.
Any other phase relationship will involve
handling of real power as well.
Shunt controllers include STATCOM,
TCR, TSR, TSC, and TCBR.

Unified
Series - Series
Controller
F
C
Dc link

ac lines

This could be a combination of separate

series controllers, which are controlled in a
coordinated
manner,
in
a
multiline
transmission system.

Or it could be a unified controller in which

series controllers provide independent
series reactive compensation for each line
but also transfer real power among the lines via
the proper link.

The real power transfer capability of the unified

series-series controller, referred to as IPFC,
makes it possible to balance both real and
reactive power flow in the lines and thereby
maximize the utilization of the transmission
system.

The term unified here means that the dc

terminals of all controller converters are all
connected together for real power transfer

FC

Coordinated
Series and Shunt
Controller
V
FC
I

FC

Lin
e
Coordinat
ed Control

Combined series-shunt controllers. This

could be a combination of separate shunt
and series controllers, which are controlled
in a coordinated manner or a UPFC with
series and shunt elements.
In principle, combined shunt and series
controllers inject current into the system
with the shunt part of the controller and
voltage in series in the line with the
series part of the controller.
However, when the shunt and series
controllers are unified, there can be a real
power exchange between the series and
shunt controllers via the proper link.
Combined series-shunt controllers include
UPFC, TCPST, and TCPAR.

Generalized Unified Power Flow Controller

GUPFC can effectively control the power system parameters such

as bus voltage, and real and reactive power flows in the lines

A simple scheme of GUPFC consists of three converters, one

connected in shunt and two connected in series with two
transmission lines terminating at a common bus in a substation.

It can control five quantities, i.e., a bus voltage and

independent active and reactive power flows in the two lines.

The real power is exchanged among shunt and series converters

via a common dc link.

59

Interphase Power Controller

IPC is a series-connected controller of active and reactive

power consisting, in each phase, of inductive and capacitive
branches subjected to separately phase-shifted voltages.

The active and reactive power can be set independently by

adjusting the phase shifts and/or the branch impedances, using
mechanical or electronic switches.

In the particular case where the inductive and capacitive impedance

form a conjugate pair, each terminal of the IPC is a passive current
source dependent on the voltage at the other terminal.

60

Thyristor Controlled Braking Resistor

TCBR is a
shunt-connected
thyristorswitched
resistor,
which is controlled to aid stabilization of a
power system
or
to minimize power acceleration of a
generating unit during a disturbance
61

THYRISTOR-CONTROLLED REACTOR

reactance which is connected in series with a

bidirectional thyristor valve. The thyristor valve is phase-controlled.
A

Often the main TCR reactor is split into two halves, with the thyristor valve
connected between the two halves. This protects the vulnerable thyristor valve
from damage due to flashovers, lightning strikes etc.

series connection of the

reactance and the thyristor valve, there may be an opposite
In parallel with the circuit consisting of the

reactance, usually consisting of a permanently connected, mechanically

switched or thyristor switched capacitor.

phase-controlled switching of the thyristor valve, the

value of delivered reactive power can be set.

By

Thyristor-controlled reactors can also be used for limiting voltage rises when
circuits are open.

A TCR is usually a three-phase assembly, normally connected in a delta

arrangement to provide partial cancellation of Harmonics.

This is often the optimum solution for sub transmission

and distribution networks supplying industrial loads such
as electric arc furnaces, rolling mills and mining
processes.

The characteristics of a TSC/TCR combination are:

Continuous control
No transients
Elimination of harmonics by tuning the capacitors
Compact design

Thyristor Switched Capacitor

TSC is a
shunt-connected
thyristor-switched capacitor
whose effective reactance is varied
in a stepwise manner
by full- or zero-conduction operation of the
thyristor valve

Static Var Compensator

load compensation of fast

changing loads such as steel mills and arc furnaces.
Here the objective is to provide dynamic power factor
improvement and also balance the currents on the
source side whenever required
The application of SVC was initially for

In seventies only it is used in power systems

Increase power transfer in long lines
Improve stability with fast acting voltage regulation
Damp low frequency oscillations due to swing (rotor) modes
Damp subsynchronous frequency oscillations due to torsional modes
Control dynamic overvoltages
64

Static Var Compensator

SVC is a
shunt-connected static var generator or
absorber
whose output is adjusted to exchange
capacitive or inductive current
so as to maintain or
control specific parameters of the
electrical power system (typically bus
voltage).

65

SVC

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

STATCOM - A VSC interfaced in

shunt to a transmission line

STATCOM is a static synchronous

generator operated as a shunt-connected
static var compensator whose capacitive or
inductive output current can be controlled
independent of the ac system voltage.

SSSC - A VSC interfaced in series

to a transmission line

Static Synchronous Series Compensator

Generator operated without an external electric energy source as a
series compensator whose output voltage is in quadrature with, and
controllable independently of, the line current for the purpose of
increasing or decreasing the overall reactive voltage drop across the line
and thereby controlling the transmitted electric power.
The SSSC may include transiently rated energy storage or energy absorbing
devices to enhance the dynamic behavior of the power system by
additional temporary real power compensation, to increase or decrease
momentarily, the overall real (resistive) voltage drop across the line

UPFC - Coupling of converters' DC terminals offers a fundamentally

different range of control options
UPFC is a combination of STATCOM and a
SSSC which are coupled via a common dc
link to allow bidirectional flow of real power
between the series output terminals of the
SSSC and the shunt output terminals of the
STATCOM
controlled to provide concurrent real and
reactive series line compensation without an
external electric energy source.
The UPFC, by means of angularly
unconstrained series voltage injection, is
able to control, concurrently or selectively,
the transmission line voltage, impedance,
and angle or, alternatively, the real and
reactive power flow in the line.
The UPFC may also provide independently
controllable shunt reactive compensation.

TCSC is a capacitive reactance compensator, which consists of a

series capacitor bank shunted by a thyristor-controlled reactor in
order to provide a smoothly variable series capacitive reactance.

HVDC LIGHT TECHNOLOGY

Unified Power Flow Controller

The unified power flow controller is a second
generation
FACTS
device,
which
enables
independent control of active and reactive power
with the unique capability of controlling power flow
among multi-lines.
It is a multifunction power flow controller with
capabilities of terminal voltage regulation, series line
compensation and phase angle regulation.
The UPFC primarily injects a voltage in series with the
line whose phase angle can vary between 0 to 2 with
respect to the terminal voltage and whose magnitude
can be varied from 0 to a defined maximum value
(depending on the rating of the device).
Hence, the device must be capable of generating and
absorbing both real and reactive power.
This controller can be realized by using two Voltage
Source Converters (VSCs) employing GTOs

The signal washout is the high pass filter that prevents steady changes in
the speed from modifying the IPFC input parameter.
The value of the washout time constant w T should be high enough to allow
signals associated with oscillations in rotor speed to pass unchanged.
From the viewpoint of the washout function, the value of w T is not critical
and may be in the range of 1s to 20s.

Interline Power Flow Controller

Thyristor Controlled Phase

Shifting Transformer
CPST is a phase-shifting transformer
adjusted by thyristor switches to provide a
rapidly variable phase angle

Thyristor Controlled Voltage Regulator

The basic concept of voltage regulation is the addition of an appropriate inphase or a quadrature component to the prevailing terminal voltage in order to
change (increase or decrease) its magnitude to a desired value.
In thyristor based approach of voltage regulation, the insertion of voltage is
obtained by selection of appropriate tap of a regulating transformer (insertion
transformer), in series with the line.

TCVR. TCVR is a thyristor-controlled transformer that

can provide variable in-phase voltage with continuous
control

The power circuit scheme of a thyristor tap

changer with a RL load arrangement can give
continuous voltage magnitude control by
initiating the onset of thyristor valve
conduction.

The voltage obtainable at the upper tap and lower

tap are V2 and V1 respectively.

The gating of the thyristor valves is controlled by

the delay angle , with respect to the voltage zero
crossing of these voltages.

At = 1, valve sw2 is gated on, which

commutates the current from the conducting
thyristor valve sw1 by forcing a negative anode to
cathode voltage across it and connecting the
output to the upper tap with voltage V2.
Valve sw2 continues conducting until the next
current zero is reached.
Thus, by delaying the turn-on of sw2 from zero to
, any output voltage between V2 and V1 can be
attained, as shown in Fig.

Self-tuning Controller for

Damping of Power System Oscillations
with FACTS Devices

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF THE PQ SIGNALS

104

Impulsive transient-medium

2.5

capacitor switching

1.5

2
1

1.5

amplitude in pu

0.5

0.5

-0.5

-1

-0.5

-1.5

-2

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05
time in ms

0.06

0.07

0.08

0.09

0.1

-1

50

100

150

200
250
time in ms

300

350

400

450

Capacitor Switching

Impulsive Transients

Sag-short duration

1
0.8
0.6
0.4

amplitude in pu

amplitude in pu

0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1

Momentary Interruptions

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1
time in min

0.12

Voltage Sag

0.14

0.16

0.18

105

0.2

momentary interruptions along with sag

1
0.8
0.6

a m p lit u d e in p u

0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1
time in m

0.12

0.14

0.16

0.18

Momentary Interruption with Sag

Harmonics with Swell

500

VC

0.2

500

0.02

0.04

bus voltage

0.06

0.08

0.1

ti

Harmonics

Voltage Imbalance

106

Fault Simulation Model

107

Harmonic Simulation Model

108

Circuit Breaker Operation Model

109

3-machine 9-bus system

110

COMPLETE CLASSICAL SYSTEM MODEL FOR

TRANSIENT STABILITY STUDY IN SIMULINK

111

COMPUTATION OF ELECTRICAL POWER

OUTPUT BY G1(SIMULINK MODEL)

112

COMPUTATION OF ELECTRICAL POWER

OUTPUT BY G2 (SIMULINK MODEL)

113

COMPUTATION OF ELECTRICAL POWER

OUTPUT BY G3(SIMULINK MODEL)

114

Phases of power system studies

for FACTS installation project

Phase 1
Initial Feasibility Studies to Determine System
Constraints and Reinforcement Needs
Phase 1 type studies are typically performed by
the transmission owner or its consultant. The
main study tools and FACTS model requirements
for Phase 1 type studies are:

Load Flow Programs

Stability Programs
Positive Sequence Modeling Only
Full Scale Model of the Power System

Simple Device Models are Adequate for Study

Phase 1
116

 Identify Characteristics of the Power System

Identify System Performance Problems
-Transient instability
-Oscillatory instability
-Dynamic voltage instability
-Voltage collapse
-Thermal ratings (power flow)

Identify which Transmission Constraints that can be Examined

Independently and which Require a Coordinated Analysis
Identify the Reinforcement Needs (Shunt vs. Series and Fast vs. Slow)

Phase 2
Studies to Determine Type of Equipment,
Location, and Ratings
Phase 2 type studies are typically
performed by the transmission owner or its
consultant.

118

key objectives for Phase 2 type

Identify Solution Options, both Conventional and FACTS and
Combinations Thereof
Evaluate Performance of Solution Options (Consider Other Issues )
-Location
-Economics of the solution options
-Losses
-Interaction with other devices

Evaluate Economics of Each Options Costs vs. Value of Power

System Benefits
The main study tools and FACTS model requirements for Phase 2 type
studies are:

Load Flow Programs

Stability Programs
Positive Sequence Modeling Only
Full Scale Model of the Power System
Device Models
-Load flow models
-Stability models
-Control models

Electromagnetic transients analysis is typically not required at this

stage.

If the analysis of Phase 1 indicates that the system has a

problem with voltage, then in Phase 2 it is necessary to
identify solution options for system voltage control. These
include:
For Dynamic (fast) Voltage Instability, Consider:
-Shunt capacitor banks
-Static shunt compensators (e.g., STATCOM, SVC)
-Combination
For Voltage Collapse (slow), Consider:
-Shunt capacitor banks
-Series capacitors
-Static shunt compensators (e.g., STATCOM, SVC)
-Static series compensators (e.g., SSSC)
-Combination

 If the analysis of Phase 1 indicates that the

system has a problem with rotor angle
stability, then in Phase 2 it is necessary to
identify solution options for this type of
problem.
For Transient Instability, Consider:
-Series capacitors
-Static shunt compensators (e.g., STATCOM, SVC)
-Static series compensators (e.g., SSSC)
-Combination

For Oscillatory Instability, Consider:

-Power system stabilizers (PSS)
-Damping controls added to static shunt or series
compensators

The end results (deliverables) of Phase 2 type

studies are:
Identification of Viable Solution Options
-Consider both conventional and FACTS and
combinations thereof
-Rank all viable solutions in terms of system benefits

Identification of Suitable Location to Install the

Solution Options
-Choice may be obvious or depend on the solution to be
implemented
-Site work and permitting etc. may be a key factor

Evaluation of Economics of Each Options

Overall Costs vs. Value of Power System
Benefits
-Rank all viable solutions in terms of overall
economics

Phase 3
Pre- Specification Studies for Defining
Equipment Requirements
To be Able to Write a Technical
Specification and RFP to
Submit to
Potential Bidders
Phase 3 type studies are typically
performed by the transmission owner or its
consultant.
123

The key objectives for Phase 3 :

There are a variety of technical items to be determined apriori by system studies.
These include, but are not limited to, the following:
Device Type, Rating, and Location (From Phase 2 Studies)
System Descriptions
-Minimum and maximum operating voltage for steadystate and transient
conditions (MCOV, BSL, BIL, etc)
-Minimum, maximum, emergency, and ultimate system
strength and corresponding X/R ratios
-Minimum and maximum frequency excursions
-Maximum unbalance (negative and zero sequence)
System Dynamic Performance Requirements
To develop strategies for system steady-state and transient performance
Harmonic Limits and System Characteristics
-Maximum individual harmonic distortion (Dn)
-Maximum total harmonic distortion (D)
-Telephone interference limit (TIF)
-Impedance envelopes for normal and contingency
conditions

High-frequency Interference Issues and Limits

-To determine maximum acceptable limits on power line carrier
(PLC) noise and radio interference (RI) noise

Other Items to Prepare

-System one-line diagram and impedance map
-Load flow and stability data sets
-Equipment performance requirements
--Control objectives (steady state and transient)
--Response times
--Voltage imbalance
--Availability/Reliability criteria
--Acceptable Failure Rate of components
-Loss evaluation criteria, formula, and associated cost/penalty
-List of required system studies by vendor (See Phase 4 type studies)

125

Phase 4
Pre-Manufacturing and Equipment Design
and Verification Studies
Phase 4 type studies are typically
performed by the vendor after an award of
a contract for the FACTS installation.

126

The key objectives for Phase 4 type

To verify to the owner that the device
described by the specification meets all system
and equipment performance requirements to
complete the detailed design for equipment
Manufacturing and Procurement for:
-Control and Protection (Hardware and Software)
-Insulation Coordination
-Inverters
-Filters
-High-voltage and low-voltage equipment
-Etc

Phase 5
Studies for post-commissioning system
operation
Studies are typically performed by the
transmission owner.

128

The key objectives and deliverables for phase 5 type

To confirm the network load flow conditions are
within benchmark limits
To confirm installed equipment is effective to
enhance network steady-state and dynamic
performance
To setup instrumentation and obtain measurements
during staged fault tests and actual faults/dynamic
events
To ensure there are no adverse interactions with
other system equipment
To measure reliability/availability of equipment
To establish operational losses algorithm

FACTS controllers

Control attribute

STATCOM

Voltage control, VAR compensation, damping oscillations, voltage stability

SVC, TCR,
TSC, TSR

Voltage control, VAR compensation, damping oscillations, transient and

dynamic stability, voltage stability

TCBR

Damping oscillations, transient and dynamic stability

SSSC, TCSC,
TSSC, TCSR,
TSSR

Current control, damping oscillations, transient and dynamic stability, voltage

stability, fault current limiting

TCPST

Active power control, damping oscillations, transient and dynamic stability,

voltage stability

UPFC, GUPFC

Active and reactive power control, voltage control, VAR compensation,

damping oscillations, transient and dynamic stability, voltage stability, fault
current limiting

TCVL

Transient and dynamic voltage limit

TCVR, IPFC

Reactive power control, voltage control, damping oscillations, transient and

dynamic stability, voltage stability

Operating problem

Corrective action

FACTS controllers

Voltage limits:
Low voltage at heavy load

Supply reactive power

STATCOM, SVC

High voltage at low load

Absorb reactive power

STATCOM, SVC, TCR

High voltage following an outage

Absorb reactive power; prevent

overload

STATCOM, SVC, TCR

Low voltage following an outage

Supply reactive power; prevent

overload

STATCOM, SVC

Thermal limits:
Transmission circuit overload

Reduce overload

TCSC, SSSC, UPFC, IPC

Tripping of parallel circuits

Limit circuit loading

TCSC, SSSC, UPFC, IPC

Loop flows:
Parallel line load sharing

Adjust series reactance

IPC, SSSC, UPFC, TCSC

Post-fault power flow sharing

Rearrange network or use thermal

limit actions

IPC, TCSC, SSSC, UPFC

Power flow direction reversal

Adjust phase angle

IPC, SSSC, UPFC

Issues Associated with Adding

Distributed Generation to Distribution Systems
Issue
1 Improper Coordination
2 Nuisance Fuse Blowing
3 Reclosing out of Synchronism
4 Transfer Trip
5 Islanding
6 Equipment Over voltage
7 Resonant Over voltage
8 Harmonics
9 Sectionalizer Miscount
10 Reverse Power Relay
Malfunctions
11 Voltage Regulation
Malfunctions
12 Line Drop Compensator Fooled
by DRs
13 LTC Regulation Affected by
DRs
14a Substation Load Monitoring
Errors
14bCold Load Pickup with &
without DRs
15 Faults within a DR zone
16 Isolate DR for Upstream Fault

Issue
17 Close-in fault Causes Voltage Dip
Trips DR
18 Switchgear Ratings
19 Self Excited Induction Generator
20 Long Feeder Steady State
Stability
21 Stability During Faults
22 Loss of Exciters Causes Low
Voltage
23 Inrush of Induction Machines Can
Cause Voltage Dips
24 Voltage Cancelled by Forced
Commutated Inverters
25 Capacitor Switching Causes
Inverter Trip
26 Flicker from Windmill Blades
27 Upstream Single Phase Fault
Causes Fuse Blowing
28 Under frequency Relaying
29 Distribution Automation Studies
132

THE ROAD MAP FOR ACHIEVING FULLEST

CUSTOMER SATISFACTION

44
33
22
11

THE ROLE OF
CUSTOMERS

THE ROLE OF
MANUFACTURERS

THE ROLE OF REGULATORY

AND STANDARDS AGENCIES

THE ROLE OF UTILITIES

133

REFERENCE
1.E.Acha, V.G.Agelidis, O.Anaya-Lara, T.J.E.Miller, Power Electronic Control in
Electrical Systems, Elsevier, 2002
2. D.P.Kothari, I.J.Nagrath, Modern Power System Analysis, McGrawHill, 2011
3. K.R.Padiyar, FACTS controllers in Power Transmission and Distribution, New
Age International Publishers, 2007.
4. www.abb.com
5. www.areva.com
6. www.epri.com

134

135