MODERN PHYSICS OP-MIII-P-1

LESSON 17
MODERN PHYSICS

Science has come a long way. From the invention of wheel to the
cryogenic engines it has crossed the limits which even the most optimistic
would have thought. The term modern Physics refers to the most recent part
of the evolution of Physics. The concepts which we learn here can serve as
stimulent to develop a genuine interest in really advanced Physics.

We have divided the entire chapter in three sections depending upon the
chronological importance of topics given in IIT-JEE syllabus. In the first section
we study Bohr’s theory for hydrogen atom which was postulated in early 20th
century but still considered scared despite by atomic physicists. In the section
II we have covered photoelectric effect and X-rays just to initiate the students
into the world of quantum theory of electromagnetic radiation and matter.
We have also covered wave particle duality as postulated by de-Broglie. In the
last section that is section III we have covered the Physics of nucleus as per the
syllabus of IIT-JEE.

IITJEE Syllabus: Atomic nucleus; Alpha, beta and gamma radiations; Law of
radioactive decay; Decay constant; Half-life and mean life; Binding energy and
its calculation; Fission and fusion processes; Energy calculation in these
processes.

Photoelectric effect; Bohr’s theory of hydrogen-like atoms; Characteristic

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 MODERN PHYSICS OP-MIII-P-2

SECTION  I

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1. THE HYDROGEN ATOM

By the end of nineteenth century most of the efforts of Physicists were directed towards the
analysis of the discrete spectrum of radiation emitted when electrical discharges were passed in gases. The
hydrogen atom being composed of a nucleus and one electron has the simplest spectrum of all the
elements. It was found that various lines in optical and nonoptical regions were systematically spaced in
various series. Interestingly it turned out that all the wavelengths of atomic hydrogen were given by a
single empirical relation, the Rydberg formula.

1  1 1
 R  2  2  , where R = 1.0967758 × 107 m–1
  n1 n2 

where n1 = 1 and n2 = 2, 3, 4, … gives the Lyman series (ultraviolet region)

n1 = 2 and n2 = 3, 4, 5 … gives the Balmer series (optical region)

n1 = 3 and n2 = 4, 5 6, … gives the Paschen series (infrared region)

n1 = 4 and n2 = 5, 6, 7, … gives the Bracket series (for infrared region)

and so on for other series lying in farthest infrared.

The Bohrs theory of hydrogen atom: In 1913 Niels Bohr developed a physical theory of atomic
hydrogen from which the Rydberg formula could be derived. Bohr’s model for atomic hydrogen is based on
certain assumptions, which are as follows:

(i) In the hydrogen atom electron revolves around the nucleus in circular orbits.

(ii) Electron revolves only in those orbits around nucleus where the angular momentum of electron
h
is an integral multiple of . These orbits are called stationary orbits. This assumption is called Bohr’s
2
quantization rule.

(iii) The energy of electron can take only definite values in a given stationary orbit. The electron can
jump from one stationary orbit to other. If it jumps from an orbit of higher energy to an orbit of lower
energy it emits a photon of radiation. Similarly an electron can take energy from a source and jumps from a
lower energy orbit to a higher energy orbit.

In both the cases energy of radiation involved is given by the Einstein-Planck equation.

hc
E =


Energy of a hydrogen atom: Let the mass of electron be m and it is revolving in an orbit of radius r,
then using the quantization rule we get

h
mvr = n , where n is a positive integer … (i)
2

Also, from the equation of motion of electron we have

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Ze 2 mv 2
 … (ii)
40 r 2 r

Though Z = 1 for hydrogen, however generally we leave Z in the equation, as the theory is equally
applicable to other atoms with all but one of their electrons are removed.

Solving (i) & (ii) we get

Ze 2
v= … (iii)
2 0 hn

0h 2n 2
and r= … (iv)
mZe2

0h2
So allowed radii are proportional to n2. Putting Z = 1 and n = 1 the quantity = 0.53 Å is
me 2
called Bohr’s radius and is radius of smallest circle allowed to the electron. Using equation (iii) we write
kinetic energy of the electron in nth orbit is

1 mZ 2 e 4
K= mv2 = … (v)
2 8 02 h 2 n 2

The potential energy of the atom is

Ze 2 mZ 2 e 4
U=– =–
40 r 4 02 h 2 n 2

So total energy of the atom is

E=K+U

mZ 2 e 4
E=– … (vi)
8 02 h 2 n 2

In deriving the energy of an atom we have considered kinetic energy of electron and potential
energy of the electron nucleus pair.

mZe4
From (vi), the total energy of the atom in the state n = 1 is E1 = –
8 02 h 2

For hydrogen atom Z = 1 and we get

E1 = –13.6 eV, this is the energy of electron when it moves in the smallest allowed orbit. It
1
is also evident from equation (vi) that energy of the atom in the nth energy state is proportional to 2 . So
n
we can write.

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13 .6
En = – eV
n2

So we get energy in the state n = 2 is – 3.4 eV. In the state n = 3 it is – 1.5 eV etc. The state of an
atom with the lowest energy is called its ground state and states with higher energies are called excited
states.

Important results for a hydrogen like atom are

Ze 2 C Z
V=  m/s … (1)
2 0 hn 137 n

0h2n 2 0.53n 2
r=  Å … (2)
mZe 2 Z

mZ 2 e 4 13.6Z 2
E =–  eV … (3)
80 h 2 n 2 n2

Hydrogen spectra: Now on the basis of Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom it is possible to explain the
spectra of hydrogen. If an electron jumps from mth orbit to the nth orbit, the energy of the atom changes
from Em to En. The extra energy Em – En is emitted as a photon of electromagnetic radiation. The
corresponding wavelength  is given by

1 Em  En mZ 2 e 4  1 1   1 1 
  2  2  = RZ  2 2
2
= … (4)
 hc 8 0 h c  n
2 3
m  n m 

me4
where R = is called the Rydberg constant. Putting the values of different constant, the
8 02 h 3 c
Rydberg constant R comes out to be 1.0973 × 107 m–1.

So on the basis of energy levels involved in the transition we can divide the entire hydrogen
spectrum in various series.

Lyman series: When an electron jumps from any of the higher states to the ground state
(n = 1), the series of spectral lines emitted fall in uv region and is called as Lyman series. The wavelength 
of any line of the series can be given by

1 1 1 
 RZ 2  2  2  , n = 2, 3, 4, …
 1 n 

Balmer series: When an electron makes a transition from any of the higher states to the state with
n = 2 (first excited state), the series of spectral lines emitted fall in visible region and is called Balmer series.
The wavelength of any of Balmer lines is given by

1  1 1 
 RZ 2  2  2  , n = 3, 4, 5, …
 2 n 

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Paschen series: When an electron jumps from any of the higher states to the state with
n = 3 (2nd excited state), the series of spectral lines emitted fall in near infra-red region and is called
Paschen series. The wavelength  for any of the line of Paschen series is given by

1  1 1 
 RZ 2  2  2 , n = 4, 5, 6, …
 3 n 

Bracket Series: When an electron jumps from any of the higher states to the state with
n = 4, (3rd excited state) the series of spectral lines emitted fall in far infrared region and constitute Bracket
series. The wavelength  of any spectral lines of Bracket series is given by

1  1 1
 RZ 2  2  2  , n = 4, 5, 6, 7, …
 4 n 

Pfund series: Pfund series is constituted by spectral lines emitted when electron jumps from any of
the higher energy states to the state with n = 5 (4th excited state).

1  1 1
 RZ 2  2  2  , n = 6, 7, 8, …
 5 n 

Figure below shows schematically the allowed orbits together with the energies of the hydrogen
atom. It also shows the allowed energies separately.

n= E = 0 eV

E3 = E1/9
E4 = E1/16

n=4 E4 = – 0.85 eV
E2 = E1/4
n=3 E3 = – 1.5 eV
E1 Paschen
Energy eV

+ series
r1 E2 = –3.4 eV
n=2 Balmer
r2 = 4r1 series

r1 = 53 pm r3 = 9r1
E1 = 13.6 eV n=1 E1 = –13.6 eV
(a) Lyman series
(b)

Ionization potential: Negative total energy of hydrogen atom mean that hydrogen nucleus and
electron constitute a bounded system. Therefore a positive or zero energy of hydrogen atom would mean
that electron is not bound to the nucleus i.e., atom is ionised. The minimum energy needed to ionise an
atom is called ionisation energy, and the potential difference through which an electron should be
accelerated to acquire this energy is called ionisation potential. The ionisation energy of hydrogen atom in
ground state is 13.6 eV and ionization potential is 13.6 V.

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Binding Energy: Binding energy of a system is defined as energy liberated when its constituents are
brought from infinity to form the system. For hydrogen atom binding energy is same as its ionization
energy.

Excitation potential: The energy required to take an atom from its ground state to an excited state
is called excitation energy of that excited state, and the potential through which the electron should be
accelerated to acquire this, is called excitation potential.

Illustration 1

Question: The longest wavelength in the Lyman series for hydrogen is 1215Å. Calculate the Rydberg
–6 –1
constant in a unit where 1 unit = 10 Å .

1  1 1 
Solution: R  
  n2 n2 
 l u 

For the Lyman series nl = 1 ; the longest wavelength will correspond to the value nu = 2.

1  1 1 
R 2  2
1215 Å 1 2 

or R = 1097  106 Å1 = 1097 unit

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Illustration 2

Question: How many different photons can be emitted by hydrogen atom that undergo transition to the
ground state from the n = 5 state?

Solution: Consider the problem for arbitrary n. If nu > nl is any pair of unequal integers in the range
1 to n, it is clear that there is at least one route from state n down to the ground state that includes
the transition nu  nl. Thus, the number of photons is equal to the number of such pairs, which is

n (n  1)
n
C2 
2
For n = 5, there are 5(4)/2 = 10 photons.

The above reasoning fails if there is “degeneracy,” i.e., if two different pairs of quantum numbers
correspond to the same energy difference. In that case the number of distinct photons is smaller
than n(n  1)/2.

Illustration 3

Question: In a transition to a state of excitation energy 10.19 eV, a hydrogen atom emits a 4890Å photon.
Determine the binding energy of the initial state in milli electron volt (meV).

Solution: The energy of the emitted photon is

hc 12.40  103 eV.Å

h    2.536 eV = 2536 meV
 4.89  103 Å
The excitation energy (Ex) is the energy to excite the atom to a level above the ground state.
Therefore, the energy of the level is

En = E1 + Ex = 13.6 eV + 10.19 eV = 3.41 eV = –3410 meV

The photon arises from the transition between energy states such that Eu  El = hv ; hence

Eu  (–3410 meV) = 2536 meV or Eu = 874 meV

Therefore, the binding energy of an electron in the state is 874 meV.

Note that the transition corresponds to

E1 13.6 eV
nu    4 and
Eu 0.874 eV
E1 13.6 eV
nl   2
El 3.41 eV

Balmer series was observed and analysed before the other series. What could have
been the possible reasons.

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 MODERN PHYSICS OP-MIII-P-10

PROFICIENCY TEST I

The following questions deal with the basic concepts of this section. Answer the following
briefly. Go to the next section only if your score is at least 80%. Do not consult the Study
Material while attempting these questions.

1. The energy of an electron in an excited hydrogen atom is – 3.4 eV. Calculate the angular
momentum of the electron (in a unit where 1 unit = 10–36J-s) according to Bohr’s theory. Planck’s
constant h = 6.626 × 10– 34 J-s

2. If the series limit of Balmer series for hydrogen is 3646 Ǻ, calculate the atomic number of the
element which gives K-series wavelengths down to 0.1 nm.

3. Find the quantum number n corresponding to the excited state He+ ion if on transition to the
ground state that ion emits two photons in succession with wavelengths 108.5 nm and 30.4 nm.
The ionisation energy of the hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV.

4. The wavelength of the first line of Lyman series for hydrogen is identical to that of the second line
of Balmer series for some hydrogen-like ion X. Calculate energy required in eV for transition from
n = 1 to n = 2 in ion X. (Given: Ground state binding energy of hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV).

5. A hydrogen atom moving at speed v collides with another hydrogen atom kept at rest. Find the
minimum value of v in km/s for which one of the atoms may get ionized. The mass of a hydrogen
atom = 1.67 × 10–27 kg.

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 MODERN PHYSICS OP-MIII-P-11

ANSWERS TO PROFICIENCY TEST I

1. 211 unit

2. 31

3. n=5

4. 41 eV

5. 72 km/s

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 MODERN PHYSICS OP-MIII-P-12

SECTION  II

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2. WAVE PARTICLE DUALITY

Nearly two decades after the 1905 discovery of the particle properties of wave, Louis
de-Broglie proposed that moving object have wave as well as particle characteristics. de-Broglie ideas
soon received respectful attention despite a complete lack of experimental mandate. The existence of de-
Broglie waves was experimentally demonstrated by 1927 and the duality principle they represent
provided the starting point for successful development of quantum mechanics.

de-Broglie suggested that a moving body behaves in certain ways as though it has a wave nature.
A photon of light of frequency  has a momentum

h h
p=  … (5)
C 

The wavelength of a photon is therefore specified by its momentum as

h
 … (6)
p

de-Broglie suggested that equation (6) is a completely general one that applied to material
particles as well as photons. The momentum of a particle of mass m and velocity v is p = mv, and its de-
Broglie wavelength is accordingly.

h
 … (7)
mv

The greater the particle’s momentum; the shorter is its wavelength. In equation (7) m is the
relativistic mass, which is given by

m0
m= where m0 is the rest mass of the particle.
v2
1
c2

The wave and particle aspects of moving bodies can never be observed at the same time. So one
can not ask which is the correct description. All that can be said is that in certain situations a moving body
resembles a wave and in others it resembles a particle. Which set of properties is most conspicuous
depends on how its de-Broglie wavelength compares with its dimensions and the dimensions of whatever
it interacts with.

Illustration 4

Question: Find the de Broglie wavelengths of (a) a 46-g golf ball with a velocity of 30 m/s (in a unit where
1 unit = 10–36 m) and (b) an electron with a velocity of 107 m/s (in a unit where 1 unit = 10–12 m).

Solution: (a) since v << c, we can let m = m0.

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 MODERN PHYSICS OP-MIII-P-14

h 6.63 10 34 Js

Hence = 
mv (0.046 kg) (30 m/s)

= 4.80 × 10-34 m
= 480 unit
The wavelength of the golf ball is so small compared with its dimensions that we
would not except to find any wave aspects in its behavior.
(b) Again v << c, so with m = m0 = 9.1 × 10-31 kg,
h 6.63  10 34 J.s
we have = 
mv (9.1 10 31kg) (10 7 m/s)

= 7.28 × 10-11 m = 728 unit

The dimensions of atoms are comparable with this figure – the radius of the hydrogen
atom, for instance is 5.3 × 10-11 m. It is therefore not surprising that the wave character of
moving electrons is the key to understanding atomic structure and behaviour.

3. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

When light of sufficiently small wavelength is incident on a metal surface, electrons are ejected
from the metal. This phenomenon is called photoelectric effect and the electrons ejected are called
photoelectrons. An experimental setup was arranged to study photoelectric effect, and the results
obtained from the experiment are

(i) When light of sufficiently small wavelength falls a metal surface, the metal emits
photoelectrons. This emission of photoelectrons is instantaneous.

(ii) The photoelectric current i.e., the number of photoelectrons emitted per second depends on
the intensity of the incident light.

(iii) The maximum kinetic energy with which electrons come out of the metal depends only on
frequency of incident light and is independent of intensity of light.

(iv) There is a threshold wavelength for a given metal such that if the wavelength of incident light is
greater than the threshold, there will be no emission of photoelectrons.

Einstein’s theory of photoelectric effect: Soon after the publication of results of photoelectric
effect, efforts were made to explain the result. Wave theory which considered light as wave failed on all
counts to explain photoelectric effect. The main cause for this failure was inability of wave theory to
consider the energy of light quantised and not distributed continuously. In 1900 Planck proposed that
radiation from a hot body consists of small packets of energy called ‘quantas’. The energy of a quanta is
given by h ( being frequency of radiation). Einstein getting a hint from this proposed theory that light
wave also consists of packets of energy or quantas whose energy is also given by ‘h’. He called these
quantas as photons.

Einstein postulated that a photon of incident light interacts with a metal electron and transfers its
energy to electron in two ways. A part of the energy of the incident photon is used up in liberating the
metal electron against the attractive forces of surrounding ions inside the metal; the remaining energy is

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spent in giving kinetic energy to ejected photoelectrons. If  be the frequency of incident light W0 be the
minimum energy required to liberate an electron from the surface and EK be the maximum kinetic energy
of the emitted free electrons, then

h = W0 + EK … (8)

W0 is called the work function and it obviously depends on the nature of metal. Equation (8) is
called Einstein photoelectric equation.

Stopping potential: This is the smallest magnitude of anode potential which just stops the electron
with maximum kinetic energy from reaching the anode.

As K.Emax. = h – W0

So, if stopping potential for a given photoelectric

emission is V0 then eV0 = KEmax = h – W0 V0
metal A
metal B
h W
V0 =     0 … (9)
e e  

If we plot a curve between V0 and  we can get the h 

tan =
value of Planck’s constant by measuring slope. e

Illustration 5

Question: The emitter in a photoelectric tube has a threshold wavelength of 6000Å. Determine the
wavelength of the light in Å incident on the tube if the stopping potential for this light is 2.5V.

Solution: The work function is

hc 12.4  10 3 eV.Å
W0  h th    2.07 eV
 th 6000 Å

The photoelectric equation then gives

hc
eVs  h  W0   W0


12 .4  10 3 eV.Å
or 2.5 eV =  2.07 eV


Solving ,  = 2713 Å.

Can the electron involved in the photo electric effect be a free electron.

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 MODERN PHYSICS OP-MIII-P-16

4. X-RAYS

PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS

When highly energetic electrons are made to strike a metal target, electromagnetic radiation
comes out. A large part of this radiation has wavelength of the order of 1Å and is called X-rays. The device
which is used to produce X-rays is called Coolidge tube as shown below.
V
glass
chamber anode
C
Water
T

W target
filament
window X-ray
A filament F and a metallic target T are fixed in an evacuated glass chamber C. The
filament is heated electrically and emits electrons by thermionic emission. A constant potential
difference of several kilovolts is maintained between the filament and the target using a DC power
supply so that the target is at a higher potential than the filament. The electrons emitted by the
filament are, therefore, accelerated by the electric field set up between the filament and the target
and hit the target with a very high speed. These electrons are stopped by the target and in the
process X-rays are emitted. These X-rays are brought out of the tube through a window W made
of thin mica or mylar or some such material which does not absorb X-rays appreciably. In process,
large amount of heat is developed, and thus an arrangement is provided to cool down the tube
continuously by running water.

4.1 CONTINUOUS AND CHARACTERISTIC X-RAYS

When X-rays coming from a Coolidge tube are investigated for the wavelength present. We find
that X-rays can be divided in two categories based on the mechanism of their generation. These X-rays are
called continuous and characteristic X-rays. These X-rays have their origin in the manner in which the
highly energetic electron loses its kinetic energy. As the fast moving electrons enter metal target, they
starts losing their energy by collisions with the atoms of metal target. At each such collision either of the
following two processes take place.

(i) Electron loses its kinetic energy and a part of this lost kinetic energy is converted into a photon
of electromagnetic radiation and the increases the kinetic energy of the target atoms, which ultimately
heats up the target. This electromagnetic radiation is nothing but continuous X-rays. The fraction of kinetic
energy converting into energy of photon varies from one collision to the other and the energy of such
photon will be maximum when electron converts all its energy into a photon in the first collision itself.

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If electron are accelerated through a potential difference V, then maximum energy of emitted
photon could be

Emax = eV

hc
= eV
min

hc
min = … (10)
eV

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min is also called cut off wavelength. Since electron may loose very small energy in a given
collision, the upper value of  will approach to infinity. However both the cases e.g. electron converting all
its energy in one go and loosing very small energy will have very small probability. That explains the origin
of continuous X-ray. We can also see from the discussion, which we have had on continuous X-rays that
min depends only on accelerating voltage applied on the electron and not on the material of the target.

(ii) The electron knocks out an inner shell electron of the atom with which it collides. Let us take a
hypothetical case of a target atom whose K- shell electron has been knocked out as shown.

        
    Incident  
      
  electron
     h
–       
e K- electron
                  k X-ray

     
    
      
 
      
 
This will create a vacancy in K-shell. Sensing this vacancy an electron from a higher energy state
may make a transition to this vacant state. When such a transition takes place the difference of energy is
converted into photon of electromagnetic radiation, which is called characteristic X-rays. Now depending
upon which shell electron makes a transition to K-shell we may have different K X-rays e.g. if electron from
L shell jumps to K shell we have K, if electron from M shell jumps to K shell we have K X-ray and so on.
Similarly if vacancy has been caused in L shell we may have L, L X-ray etc depending upon, whether we
have transition of electron from M shell or N shell. Since emission of characteristic X-ray involves the inner
material energy levels of target atom, hence the wavelength of characteristic X-ray will depend on the
target. If we plot curve between intensity of different wavelength component of X-ray coming out of a
Coolidge tube, and, wavelength, it is like figure given below

K
K
Intensity

min wavelength

As we can see from the curve, at certain clearly defined wavelengths the intensity of X-rays is very
large. These X-rays are known as characteristic X-rays. It is also clear from the curve that K is less than
K, however intensity of K transition is more as compared to the intensity of K transition, it is primarily
because transition probability of K is more as compared to transition probability of K. At other
wavelengths intensity varies gradually and these are called continuous X-rays.

Can a photon be deflected by magnetic field? By an electric field?

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Moseley’s law: Moseley conducted many experiments on characteristic X-rays, the findings of
which played an important role in developing the concept of atomic number. Moseley’s observations can
be expressed as

 = a (Z – b) … (11)

where a and b are constants. Z is the atomic number of target atom and  is the frequency of
characteristic X-rays. Moseley’s law can be easily understood on the basis of Bohr’s atomic model. Let us
consider an atom from which an electron from K–shell has been knocked out, an L shell electron which is
about to make transition to the vacant site will find the charge of nucleus is screeened by the spherical
cloud of remaining one electron in the K shell. If the effect of outer electrons and other L-electrons are
neglected then electron making the transition will find a charge
(Z-1)e at the centre. Hence we may expect Bohr’s model to give expected result if we replace Z by (Z-1).

According to Bohr’s model, the energy released during a transition from n = 2 to n = 1 is given by

1 1
E = Rhc (Z–1)2  2
 2
1 2 

3
h = Rhc   (Z – 1)2
4

3Rc
= (Z – 1)
4

3Rc
Which is same as Moseley’s equation with b = 1 & a = .
4

Can L X-ray of one material have shorter wavelength then K X-ray of another?

4.2 PROPERTIES OF X-RAYS

(i) X-rays being an electromagnetic wave travel with a speed equal to the speed of light.

(ii) X-rays are not responsive to electric or magnetic field.

(iii) X-rays when pass through gases, produce ionisation.

(iv) X-rays affect photographic plates and exhibit the phenomenon of fluorescence.

Illustration 6

Question: An experiment measuring the K lines for various elements yields the following data:

Fe : 1.94Å Co : 1.79Å Ni : 1.66Å Cu : 1.54Å

Determine the atomic number of each of the elements from these data.

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Solution: The Moseley relation gives

= (4.97  10 Hz ) (Z  1)
1/2 7 1/2
v

v 1/ 2
or Z  1
4.97  10 7 Hz 1/ 2

and using v = c/ we obtain

c 1/ 2  1  34.85
Z  1    1  1/ 2 ( in Å )
1/ 2
 4.97  10 Hz 
7 1/ 2


The results are given in Table.

Element ,Å Z

Fe 1.94 26.02  26

Co 1.79 27.04  27

Ni 1.66 28.04  28

Cu 1.54 29.08  29

Before Moseley’s work, Ni whose atomic weight is 58.69, was listed in the periodic table before Co,
whose atomic weight is 58.94, and it was believed that the atomic numbers for Ni and Co were 27
and 28, respectively. By using the above experimental data, Moseley showed that this ordering and
the corresponding atomic numbers should be reversed.

Illustration 7

Question: When 50Å X-rays strike a material, the photoelectrons from the K shell are observed to move in a
circle of radius 23 mm in a magnetic field of 2  103 T. What is the binding energy of K-shell
electrons?

Solution: The velocity of the photoelectrons is found from F = ma :

v2
evB  m
R

e
or v  BR
m
The kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is then

1 1 e 2B 2R 2
K mv 2 
2 2 m

1 (1.6  10 19 C) 2 (2  10 3 T) 2 (23  10 3 m) 2

 31
 2.97  10 17 J
2 (9.11  10 kg)

1 eV
or K  (2.97  10 17 J)  186 eV
1.6  10 -19 J

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The energy of the incident photon is

hc 12400 eV.Å
Ev    248 eV
 50Å

The binding energy is the difference between these two values:

BE = Ev  K = 248 eV  186 eV = 62 eV

Illustration 8

Question: Stopping potentials of 24, 100, 110 and 115 kV are measured for photoelectrons emitted from a
certain element when it is irradiated with monochromatic Xray. If this element is used as a
–13
target in an X-ray tube, what will be the wavelength of the K line (in a unit where 1 unit = 10
m)?

Solution: The stopping potential energy, eVs, is equal to the difference between the energy of the incident
photon and the binding energy of the electron in a particular shell:

eVs = Ep  EB

The different stopping potentials arise from electrons being emitted from different shells, with the
smallest value (24 kV) corresponding to ejection of a K-shell electron. Subtracting the expression for
the two smallest stopping potentials, we obtain

eV sL  eV sK  (E p  E BL )  (E p  E BK )  E BK  E BL

or 100 keV  24 keV = EBK  EBL

The difference, 76 keV, is the energy of the K line. The corresponding wavelength is

hc 12 .4 keV.Å
 
EBK  EBL 76 keV

= 0.163 Å
–13
= 163 × 10 m

= 163 unit

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PROFICIENCY TEST II

The following questions deal with the basic concepts of this section. Answer the following
briefly. Go to the next section only if your score is at least 80%. Do not consult the Study
Material while attempting these questions.

1. The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons emitted from a certain metallic surface is
30 eV when monochromatic radiation of wavelength  falls on it. When the same surface is
illuminated with light of wavelength 2, the maximum kinetic energy of photo-electrons is
observed to be 10 eV. Calculate the wavelength  (h = 6.62  1034 J-s, c = 3 × 108 m/s).

2. The photoelectric work function of potassium is 2.0 eV. If light having a wavelength 3600Å falls on
potassium, find (i) the stopping potential in milli volt (mV), (ii) the kinetic energy in milli electron
volt (meV) of the most energetic electrons ejected. (c = 3  108 m/s)

3. A metallic surface is illuminated alternatively with light of wavelengths 3000 Å and 6000 Å. It is
observed that the maximum speed of the photoelectrons under these illuminations are in the ratio
3 : 1. Calculate the work function of the metal in meV.

4. The stopping potential for the photoelectrons emitted from a metal surface of work-function 1.7
eV is 10.4 volt. Find the wavelength of radiations used.

5. When the voltage applied to an X-ray tube is increased from V1 = 10 kV to V2 = 20 kV , the

wavelength interval between the K line and the short wave cut off of the continuous X-ray
spectrum increases by a factor of 3. Find the element of which target of the tube is made. (R = 107
m–1)

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ANSWERS TO PROFICIENCY TEST II

1. 310 Å

2. 1440 mV, 1440 meV

3. 1808 meV

4. 1026 Å

5. 29

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SECTION  III

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5. NUCLEAR PHYSICS

So far the only knowledge of nucleus we have as a tiny positively charged object whose primary
contributions are to provide the atom with most of its mass and to hold its electrons in captivity. The chief
properties of atoms, molecules, solids and liquids can all be traced to the behaviour of atomic electrons not
to the behaviour of nuclei. However, the nucleus turns out to be of paramount importance in the grand
scheme of things. To start with the very existence of the various elements is due to the ability of nuclei to
possess multiple electric charge. Furthermore, the energy involved in almost all natural processes can be
traced to nuclear reactions and transformations. In the following sections we will study about the nucleus
and phenomenon associated with nucleus.

5.1 NUCLEAR CHARACTERISTICS

(i) Nuclear mass: It was observed in Rutherford’s -particle scattering experiment that mass
of an atom is concentrated within a very small positively charged region at the centre
called nucleus. The total mass of nucleons in the nucleus is called as nuclear mass.

Nuclear mass = mass of protons + mass of neutrons

(ii) Size and shape of the nucleus: The nucleus is nearly spherical. Hence its size is usually
given in terms of radius. The radius of nucleus was measured by Rutherford and it was
found to have following relation

R = R0 A1/3

where R0 = 1.1 fm = 1.1  1015 m and A is mass number of particular element.

(iii) Nuclear charge: Nucleus is made of protons and neutrons. Protons have positive charge of
magnitude equal to that of electron and neutrons are uncharged.
So, nuclear charge = Ze

(iv) Nuclear density: The ratio of the mass of the nucleus to its volume is called nuclear
density. As the masses of proton and neutron are roughly equal, the mass of a nucleus is
roughly proportional to A.

As volume of a nucleus is

4 4
V R 3  R03 A
3 3

V A

density within a nucleus is independent of A.

5.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF NUCLEI

There are different types of nuclei depending upon the number of protons or the total number of
nucleons in them.

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(a) Isotopes: The atoms of an element having same atomic number but different mass number are
called isotopes of that element i.e. different isotopes of the same element have same number of protons
inside the nucleus but different number of neutrons inside the nucleus. Though isotopes have same
chemical properties but their nuclear properties are highly different. Examples of isotopes are 1H1, 1H2, 1H3
and 8O16, 8O17, 8O18 etc.

(b) Isotones: Atoms whose nuclei have same number of neutrons are called isotones. For them,
both the atomic number Z and atomic mass A are different but the value of difference
(A  Z) is same. Examples of isotones are 1H3, and 2He4, 1H2, and 2He3 etc.

(c) Isobars: Atoms of same mass number but different atomic number are called isobars examples
of isobars are 1H3 and 2He3, 6C14 and 7N14 etc.

5.3 NUCLEAR FORCES

The strong forces of attraction, which firmly hold the nucleons in the nucleus, are known as nuclear
forces. Though the exact theory of nuclear forces is still to be understood completely, yet it is undoubtedly
established that these forces exist between the nucleons i.e. between a neutron and a proton, between
two protons and between two neutrons. The stability of nucleus is due to the presence of these forces.
Nuclear forces have following important characteristics.

(i) They are attractive i.e. nucleons exert attractive force on each other hence they are also
called cohesive forces.

(ii) They are extremely strong. These forces are strongest possible force in nature.

(iii) They are charge independent.

(iv) They are short-range forces i.e. they act only over a short range of distances.

(v) They are spin dependent i.e. nuclear forces acting between two nucleons depend on the
mutual orientation of the spins of the nucleons.

(vi) They are saturated i.e. their magnitude does not increase with the increase in the number
of nucleons, beyond a certain number.

If neutrons exert only attractive force, why don’t we have a nucleus containing neutrons
only?

5.4 EINSTEIN’S MASS ENERGY EQUIVALENCE PRINCIPLE

Before the discovery of Einstein’s mass energy equivalence principle, mass and energy were
considered independent physical quantities. Einstein on the basis of theory of relativity showed that mass
of a body is not independent of energy but they are inter convertible. According to Einstein if a substance
loses an amount m of its mass, an equivalent amount E of energy is produced, where E = (m) c2

where c is the speed of light. This is called Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence principle. In nuclear
physics mass is usually represented in terms of energy according to the conversion formula E = mc2. For
example the mass of an electron is 9.1  1031 kg and the equivalent energy is 511 KeV/c2. Similarly, the

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mass of a proton is 938 MeV/c2, and the mass of a neutron is

2
939 MeV/c . The energy corresponding to the mass of a particle when it is at rest is called its rest mass
energy. Another useful unit of mass in nuclear physics is unified atomic mass unit, denoted by the symbol
u. It is (1/12)th of the mass of a neutral carbon atom in its lowest energy state which has six protons, six
neutrons and six electrons. We have

1u = 1.67  1027 kg = 931.478 MeV/c2

5.5 BINDING ENERGY OF NUCLEUS

(i) The total energy required to liberate all the nucleons from the nucleus (i.e., the disintegrate the
nucleus completely into its constituent particles) is called binding energy of the nucleus. Clearly, this is the
same energy with which the nucleons are held together within the nucleus. The origin of binding energy
results from strong nuclear exchange forces. In other words, we may think of existence of binding energy in
other useful way also. A nucleus is made by the coming together of various nucleons. It has been observed
experimentally that the mass of the nucleus is always less than the sum of the masses of its constituents
when measured in free state. For example, deutron (1H2) is composed of one proton and 1 neutron. The
question arises where the difference in mass has gone? The answer is that this decrease in mass has been
converted into energy binding the nucleons together according to the following relation:

E = mc2

where, E = binding energy of nucleus, m = decrease in mass, called mass defect and
c = velocity of light.

Hence in the formation of stable nucleus, the following equation holds good.

Mass of protons + Mass of neutrons = Mass of nucleus + Binding energy

Example: Consider a deutron (1H2) nucleus. It is the nucleus of heavy hydrogen or deuterium (1H2).
It contains 1 proton and 1 neutron. We shall compare the mass of one free proton and one free neutron
with their mass when combined to form deutron and thus find out mass defect and binding energy of
deutron.

Mass one free neutron = 1.675  1027 kg = 1.008665 a.m.u

Mass of one free proton = 1.673  1027 kg = 1.007825 a.m.u.

Their total = 3.348  1027 = 2.01649 a.m.u.

Mass of deutron = 3.348  1027 = 2.014103 a.m.u.

 Mass defect, m = 0.002387 a.m.u.

It shows that when a proton and a neutron come together to form a deutron, a small mass of
0.002387 disappears. In fact, this mass is converted into binding energy according to the following relation:

0.002387  1.66  10 27  (3  10 8 )2

E  mc 2   2.22  10 6 eV  2.22 MeV
1.6  10 19

Binding energy curve

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(i) Expression for binding energy per nucleon: In order to compare the stability of various nuclei,
we calculate binding energy per nucleon. Higher is the binding energy per nucleon more stable is the
nucleus.

We have seen that the mass defect during the formation of a nucleus:

m = Zmp + (A  Z) mn  m, where mp, mn and m are masses of proton, neutron and nucleus
respectively.

 Total binding energy of nucleus

E = mc2 = [Zmp + (A  Z) mn  m]  c2

 Mean binding energy per nucleon

E mc 2  Z m
=    ( m p  mn )  mn    c 2
A A A A

If the mass m of the nucleas is found experimentally, we can find mean binding energy per nucleon
since all other factors are known to us.

(ii) Binding energy curve: A graph between the binding energy per nucleon and the mass number
of nuclei is called as the binding energy curve.

10
Average binding energy per nucleon (MeV)

9
8
Maximum 8.8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260

Mass Number (A)

The following points may be noted from the biding energy curve:

(a) The binding energy per nucleon is maximum ( 8.8 MeV) for the nucleus having mass
number 56. So, this nucleus is most stable i.e. iron is the most stable element of periodic
table.

(b) The light nuclei with A < 20 are least stable.

4 12 16
(c) The curve has certain peaks indicating that certain nuclei like 2 He , 6C and 8O are
much more stable than the nuclei in their vicinity.

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(d) For atomic number Z > 56, the curve takes a downside turn indicating lesser stability of
these nuclei.

(e) Nuclei of intermediate mass are most stable. This means maximum energy is needed to
break them into their nucleons.

(f) The binding energy per nucleon has a low value for both very light and very heavy nuclei.
Hence, if we break a very heavy nucleus (like uranium) into comparatively lighter nuclei
then the binding energy per nucleon will increase. Hence a large quantity of energy will be
liberated in this process. This phenomenon is called nuclear fission.

(g) Similarly, if we combine two or more very light nuclei (e.g. nucleus of heavy hydrogen 1H2)
into a relatively heavier nucleus (e.g. 2He4), then also the binding energy per nucleon will
increase i.e., again energy will be liberated. This phenomenon is called nuclear fusion.

5.6 NUCLEAR FISSION

The phenomenon of breaking a heavy nucleus into two light nuclei of almost equal masses along
with the release of huge amount of energy is called nuclear fission. The process of nuclear fission was first
discovered by German Scientists Otto Hahn and Strassman is 1939. They bombared uranium nucleus
(92U235) with slow neutrons and found that 92U236 was split into two medium weight parts with the release
of enormous energy. These fragments has atomic numbers far less than the target nucleus (92U235). The
nuclear fission of 92U235 is given by the following nuclear reaction:

92U
235
+ 0n1  [92U236]  56Ba
144
+ 36Kr89 + 30n1 + energy.

The fission of 92U235 nucleus when bombarded with a neutron takes place in following manner.
When a neutron strikes 92U235 nucleus, it is absorbed by it, producing a highly unstable 92U236 nucleus.
Instead of emitting  or  particles or  rays, this unstable nucleus is split into two middle weight parts viz
144
56Ba and krypton (36Kr89). During this fission, three neutrons are given out and a small mass defect occurs
which is converted into enormous amount of energy. The following points are worth noting about nuclear
fission process:

(a) The energy released in the fission of uranium is about 200 MeV per nucleus. This can be
easily verified. If we obtain atomic mass unit values of reactants and products in the fission
of 92U235 nucleus, we find that there occurs a mass defect of 0.214 a.m.u. Which is
converted into energy. Energy released per fission of 92U235 nucleus = 0.214  931.

 200 MeV

(b) The products of uranium fission are not always barium and krypton. Sometimes, they are
Strontium and Xenon. There are other pairs as well. However, in each case, neutrons are
emitted and tremendous amount of energy is released.

(c) Energy is released in the form of kinetic energy of fission fragments. Some of the energy is
also released in the form of -rays, heat energy sound energy and light energy.

(d) The pressure and temperature is very high in fission process.

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5.7 NUCLEAR FUSION

The process of combining two light nuclei to form a heavy nucleus is known as nuclear fusion. An
important feature of nuclear fusion is that there is a release of huge amount of energy in the process. This
can be easily understood. When two light nuclei are combined to form a heavy nucleus there occurs a
small mass defect. This small mass defect results in the release of huge amount of energy according to the
relation E = mc2. For example by the fusion of two nuclei of heavy hydrogen, the following reaction is
possible.

1H
2
+ 1H2  1H3 + 1H1 + E1

The nucleus of tritium 13 H so formed can again fuse with a deuterium nucleus.

4
3
1H 12 H  2 He 10 n  E 2

Nuclear fusion is a very difficult process to achieve. This is because when positively charged nuclei
come close to each other for fusion they required very high energy to counter repulsive force between
them. So a high temperature is required for fusion. Though the energy output in the process of nuclear
fission is much more than in a nuclear fusion the energy liberated by the fusion of a certain mass of heavy
hydrogen is much more than the energy liberated by the fission of equal mass of uranium.

6. RADIOACTIVITY

The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of radiations from radioactive substances is known as

Radioactivity. This is exhibited naturally by certain heavy elements like uranium, radium, thorium, etc is
called natural radioactivity. However it was later established that it can be induced in lighter elements as
well using modern techniques and this is called induced radioactivity.

Rutherford analysed the radiations coming from radioactive sources and showed that this consists
of three types of rays namely ,  and  rays. The prime reason for the emission of these rays is that
nucleus can have excited states; these excited states can decay by the emission of high-energy photons (
rays) to the ground states, directly or via lower energy states. In addition nuclei in both excited and ground
states can spontaneously emit other particles (and ) to reach lower energy configuration.

-decay : In alpha decay an  particle is ejected from a nucleus and the parent nucleus loses two
protons and two neutrons. Therefore its atomic number z decreases by two units and its mass number A
decreases by four units, so that the daughter D and parent P, are different chemical elements. Applying
conservation of charge and nucleons we can write alpha decay symbolically as

A 4
Z P  Z 2D  24He
A

-decay: It is possible for a nuclear process to occur where the charge Ze of a nucleus changes but
the number of nucleons remains unchanged. This can happen with a nucleus emitting an electron (-
decay), emitting a positron (-decay) or capturing an inner atomic electron (electron capture). In each of
these processes either a proton is converted into a neutron or vice-versa. It is also found that in each of
these processes an extra particle called a neutrino appears as one of the decay products. The properties of

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1
a neutrino are electric charge = O, rest mass  O, intrinsic spin, , and, as with all massless particles it has
2
speed C (speed of light)

- decay: a gamma ray emission does not affect either the charge or the mass number

For size reduction nucleus takes help of -decay, why not 11 H or any other nucleus?

The statistical radioactive law: In a typical radioactive decay an initially unstable nucleus called
the parent, emits a particle and decays into a nucleus called the daughter, effectively, the birth of the
daughter arises from the death of the parent. The daughter may be either the same nucleus in a lower
energy state, as in the case of a -decay or an entirely new nucleus as arises from  and  decays. No
matter what types of particles are emitted all nuclear decays follow the same radioactive decay law. If
there are initially no unstable parents nuclei present, the number
N of parents that will be left after a time t is

N = N0e–t … (12)

The constant  is called the decay constant or disintegration constant and depends on the
particular decay process.

Equation (1) is statistical, not a deterministic, law, it gives the expected number N of parent that
survive after a time t. However for a large number of unstable nuclei, the actual number and expected
number of survivors will almost certainly differ by no more than an insignificant fraction The rapidity of
decay of a particular radioactive sample is usually measured by the half life T1/2, defined as the time
interval in which the number of parent nuclei at the beginning of the interval is reduced by a factor of one
half. The half-life is readily obtained in terms of  as

ln 2
T1/2 = … (13)


Another quantity that measures the rapidity of decay is the average or mean lifetime of a nucleus,
Tav, is given by

1 T
Tav = = 1/ 2 … (14)
 ln 2

 Average life = 1.44 times the half-life.

Activity of a radioactive substance

The activity of a radioactive substance is the rate of decay or the number of disintegrations per
second. It is denoted by A.

dN
 A … (15)
dt

d
= (N0 e t )
dt

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 MODERN PHYSICS OP-MIII-P-33

=  N0 e t

 A = N

Also, A = A0 e t … (16)

The activity of a sample is measured in unit called Curie. A Curie is defined as that quantity of
radioactive substance in which the number of disintegrations per second is 3.7  1010. This is also equal to
the activity of one gram of radium.

A0
The activity at time t is given by A  t / T1 / 2
.
2

Illustration 9

17 3
Question: Determine the approximate density of a nucleus in a unit where 1 unit = 10 kg/m .

Solution: If the nucleus is treated as a uniform sphere,

mass A  (mass of a nucleon)

Density  
volume 4
R 3
3

A (1.67  10 27 kg)


4
 (1.1 10 15 A1 / 3m )3
3

kg
 3  10 17
m3

= 3 unit

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 MODERN PHYSICS OP-MIII-P-34

Illustration 10

226 12
Question: What is the activity of one gram of 88 Ra , (in a unit where 1 unit = 10 disintegration per
second) whose half-life is 1622 years?

Solution: The number of atoms in 1g of radium is

 1g  mole   atoms 
N  (1g)    6.023  10 23   2.665  10 21
 226 g  g  mole 
The decay constant is related to the half-life by

0.693  0.693   1 y   1d  11 1

         1.355  10 s
 1622 y   365 d   8.64  10 s 
T1/ 2 4

The activity is then found from

Activity = N = (1.355  1011 s1) (2.665  10 ) = 3.61  10 disintegration/s = 361 unit

21 10

The definition of the curie is 1 Ci = 3.7  10

10
disintegration/s. This is approximately equal to the
value found above.

Illustration 11

Question: An unstable element is produced in nuclear reactor at a constant rate R. If its half-life for  decay
is T1/2, how much time, in terms of T1/2, is required to produce 50% of the equilibrium quantity?

Solution: We have

Rate of increase of element =

number of nuclei produced by reactor number of nuclei decaying

s s

dN dN
 R  N or  N  R
dt dt

The solution to this is the sum of the homogeneous solution, Nh = cet, where c is a constant, and a
R
particular solution, Np  .


R
N  N h  N p  ce t 


The constant c is obtained from the requirement that the initial number of nuclei be zero:

R R
N (0 )  0  c  or c
 

R
so that N (1  e t )


The equilibrium value is (t  ) = R/. Setting N equal to 1/2 of this value gives

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1 R R
  (1  e t )
2 

1 ln 2
e  t  t  T1/2 = 1 half life.
2 

The result is independent of R.

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 MODERN PHYSICS OP-MIII-P-36

PROFICIENCY TEST III

The following questions deal with the basic concepts of this section. Answer the following
briefly. Go to the next section only if your score is at least 80%. Do not consult the Study
Material while attempting these questions.

1. The mean lives of a radio active substance are 1620 years and 405 years for -emission & -
emission respectively. Find out the time during which three fourth of a sample will decay if it is
decaying both by -emission and -emission simultaneously. (ln 4 = 1.386)

2. If  is the decay constant of a nucleus, find the percentage of nuclei that will (a) decay in two half
life and (b) will not decay in two half life.

1
3. Calculate the age of a wooden article if its 6C14 activity is  = of the activity of a newly cut wood.
3
Half life of radio active 6C14 is 6000 yrs. (ln 3 = 1.1)

4. The mass of 17Cl35 nucleus is 34.98 amu. Calculate the binding energy per nucleon of chlorine in kilo
electron volt (keV). (Mass of proton = 1.008 u, mass of neutron = 1.009 u)

5. A uranium U235 nucleus liberates energy of 200 MeV per fission. How much energy is released
when a uranium bomb of 1.5 kg is exploded (in a unit where 1 unit = 1011 J).

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 MODERN PHYSICS OP-MIII-P-37

ANSWERS TO PROFICIENCY TEST III

1. 449 yrs.

2. 75, 25

3. 9524 yrs.

4. 8459 keV

5. 1230 unit

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 MODERN PHYSICS OP-MIII-P-38

SOLVED OBJECTIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1:

A carbon radioactive substance has a half-life time period 30 days. The disintegration
constant is
–1 –2 -1 –4 –1 3 -1
(a) 231 day (b) 231 × 10 day (c) 231 × 10 day (d) 2.31 × 10 day

Solution:

0.693
T1/ 2 


0.693 0.693 0.0693 –4

    = 0.0231 per day = 231  10 per day
T1/ 2 30 3

 (c)

Example 2:

1 gram of a radioactive substance takes 50 seconds to lose 1 centigram. The half-life period
of substance is (ln 0.99 = –0.01005)

(a) 2914 seconds (b) 3448 seconds (c) 522 seconds (d) 212.97 seconds

Solution:

11
Suppose 1 g has N0 nuclei. After 50 seconds mass remains  g.
100
No. of nuclei which decay = 0 .01N0 = 0.01 g.

Remaining nuclei = N0 0.01N0 0.99N0 .

N  N0 e t  0.99N0  N0 e 50

 = 0.0002010

T1/ 2 = 3448 s

 (b)

Example 3:

The activity of a radioactive sample is measured as 9750 counts per minute at t = 0 and as
975 counts per minute at t = 5 minute. The decay constant is approximately (ln 10 = 2.3026)
–1 –1 –1 –1
(a) 0.230 min (b) 0.461 min (c) 0.691 min (d) 0.922 min

Solution:

A  A0 e t

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 MODERN PHYSICS OP-MIII-P-39

–1
 = 0.461 min

 (b)

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 MODERN PHYSICS OP-MIII-P-40

Example 4:

 z+2Y
4 A A+3
In a given nuclear reaction 2He + zX + K, K is

(a) electron (b) positron (c) proton (d) neutron

Solution:

Mass number is one and atomic number is zero. Hence it is neutron.

 (d)

Example 5:

In nuclear reaction, there is conservation of

(a) mass only (b) energy only

(c) momentum only (d) mass, energy and momentum

Solution:

Mass, energy and momentum are conserved.

 (d)

Example 6:

Moving with same velocity which of the following has largest wavelength of matter wave?
(a) Proton (b) Neutron (c) Electron (d) Alpha particle

Solution:

h 1
= or 
mv m
So the electron, having smallest mass has the largest wavelength.
 (c)

Example 7:
–27
The de Broglie wavelength of 0.08 eV neutron will be (mass of neutron = 1.67 × 10 kg)
–16 –6 –10 –12
(a) 1.01 × 10 m (b) 1.01 × 10 m (c) 1.01 × 10 m (d) 1.01 × 10 m

Solution:

h 6.6 10 34

= =
2Em 2  0.08 1.6 10 19  1.67  10 27

 (c)

Example 8:

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 MODERN PHYSICS OP-MIII-P-41

Light of wavelength 4000 Å is incident on a metal plate where work function is 2.0 eV. The
maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons would be
(a) 2 eV (b) 1.5 eV (c) 1.1 eV (d) 0.5 eV

Solution:

hc 12400
Emax =  W0   2.0  3.1  2.0  1.1eV
 4000
 (c)

Example 9:

In the case of hydrogen atoms, the energy required to remove an electron from fourth orbit is

(a) 0.85 eV (b) 13.6 eV (c) 3.4 eV (d) 1.5 eV

Solution:

13.6
En = eV
n2

13.6
when n = 4, En = eV
16
= 0.85 eV, so energy required is 0.85 eV

 (a)

Example 10:
The ground state energy of H-atom is 13.6 eV. The energy needed to ionise H-atom from its
second excited state is
(a) 1.51 eV (b) 3.4 eV (c) 13.6 eV (d) 12.1 eV

Solution:

In the second excited state n = 3

13.6
E= = 1.51 eV
9
 (a)

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 MODERN PHYSICS OP-MIII-P-42

SOLVED SUBJECTIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1:
–8
If the average life time of an excited state of hydrogen is of the order of 10 s, estimate how
many thousand rotation an electron makes when it is in the state n = 2 and before it suffers a
–11
transition to state n = 1. Bohr radius = 5.3  10 m.

Solution:
th
Velocity of electron in the n orbit of hydrogen atom

v 1 2.19  10 6
vn   m/s
n n

2.19  10 6
If n = 2, v n  m/s
2

Radius of n = 2 orbit, rn  n 2 r1 = 4  Bohr radius

–11
= 4  5.3  10 m

Number of revolutions made in 1 sec

vn 2.19  10 6
= =
2r 2  2  4  5.3  10 11

–8 2.19  10 6  10 8
Number of revolutions made in 10 s =
2  2  4  5.3  10 11

= 8.22  10 revolution = 8220 thousand revolution

6

Example 2:

The wavelength of the first member of the Balmer series in hydrogen spectrum is 6563 Å.
What is the wavelength of the first member of Lyman series?

Solution:

Balmer series

1  1 1  5R
 R  2  2  =
1 2 3  36

Lyman series

1  1 1  3R
 R 2  2  
2 1 2  4

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 MODERN PHYSICS OP-MIII-P-43

2 4 5R 20 5
   
 1 3R 36 108 27

5 5
2   1   6563 = 1215 Å
27 27

Example 3:

A single electron, orbits around a stationary nucleus of charge Ze, where Z is a constant and
e is the electronic charge. It requires 47.2 eV to excite the electron from the second Bohr
orbit to 3rd Bohr orbit. Find,

(i) the value of Z.

(ii) the energy required to excite the electron from the third to the fourth Bohr orbit in
centi-electron volt (ceV).

(iii) the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation required to remove the electron from
first Bohr orbit to infinity in pico-metre (pm).
–19
(iv) the kinetic energy (in a unit where 1 unit = 10 J) potential energy (in a unit where 1
–19 –36
unit = –10 J) and angular momentum (in a unit where 1 unit = 10 J-s) of the
electron in the first Bohr orbit.
–13
(v) the radius of the first Bohr orbit in a unit where 1 unit = 10 m.

(Ionisation energy of hydrogen atom = 13.6 eV.

–11
Bohr radius = 5.3  10 m, Velocity of light = 3  10 m/s and
8

–34
Planck’s constant = 6.6  10 Js)

Solution:

(i) For a general hydrogen-like atom

 1 1 
E n2 E n1 Z 2 E 0  2  2  eV
n 
 1 n2 

where E0 is the ionisation energy of hydrogen atom

 1 1  13 .6
E  Z 2 13 .6 2  2  = 47.2 or Z 2 5 = 47.2
2 3  36

47 .2  36
Z2 = 25
13 .6  5

Z=5

 1 1 
(ii) E 4 E 3  5 2  13 .6  2  2  eV
 3 4 

7
= 25  13.6  = 16.53 eV
144

Energy required to excite the electron from the third to the fourth Bohr orbit

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 MODERN PHYSICS OP-MIII-P-44

= 1653 ceV

1 1
(iii) E  E 1  Z 2  13 .6  2   = 13.6  25 eV
1 

hc (6.6  10 34 )(3  10 8 )

 = = = 0.03640  10
–7 –10
= 36.4  10
E 13 .6  25  1.6  10 19

= 3640 pm

The wavelength of electromagnetic radiation required to remove the electron from first Bohr orbit to
infinity = 3640 pm

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 MODERN PHYSICS OP-MIII-P-45

(iv) K.E. of I Bohr orbit is numerically equal to the energy of the orbit

E1  Z 2 Eo  25  13.6eV

K.E .  25  13.6  1.6  1019 J = 544 × 10

–19
 J = 544 unit

Potential energy of electron  2  K.E.

–19 –19
= – 2 × 544 × 10 J = – 1088 × 10 J = 1088 unit

Angular momentum of the electron

nh h
mvr    n 1
2 2

6.6  10  34
 = 105 × 10
-36
J-s = 105 unit
2

(v) Radius r1 of the first Bohr orbit

n 2 ro
rn 
Z

For n = 1,

12  5.3  10 11 –13

r1  = 106 × 10 m = 106 unit
5

Example 4:

One milliwatt of light of wavelength 4560 Å is incident on a caesium surface. Calculate the
electron current liberated in nano-ampere (nA). Assume a quantum efficiency of 0.5%.

Solution:

The energy of one photon of incident light

hc 6.6  10 34  3  10 8
E = h    4.34  10 19 J
 4560  10 10

1 mW of light energy is equivalent to

10 3
34
 2.30  10 15 photon/sec
4.34  10

The quantum efficiency = 0.5%

This means that only 0.5% of these photons release photoelectrons.

 the number of electrons released from the surface per second

0.5
= 2.30  10 15 
100

= 1.15  10 13 electron/sec

The electron current = 1.15  10 13  1.6  10 19 amp

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 MODERN PHYSICS OP-MIII-P-46

–6
= 1.84 × 10 amp = 1840 nA.

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 MODERN PHYSICS OP-MIII-P-47

Example 5:

Find the de Broglie wavelength in pico-metre (pm) for an electron beam of kinetic energy 100 eV.

Solution:

1
Kinetic energy of electrons: (E ) K  mv 2
2

2(E ) K
 velocity of electrons: v =
m

2  100  1.6  10 19

 v= 31
 5.9  10 6 m/s
9.1  10

Momentum : p = mv = 9.11031  5.9  10 6 = 5.37  10 24 kg m/s

h 6.63  10 34 –10

 de Broglie wavelength :  = = 
= 1.23 × 10 m = 123 pm
p 5.37  10 24

Example 6:

The wavelength of K Xray of tungsten is 0.21 Å. If the energy of a tungsten atom with an L
electron knocked out is 11.9 keV, what will be the energy of this atom when a K electron is
knocked out? (h = 4.14  1015 eVs)

Solution:

hc
Energy of K photon: E =



4.14  10 15  3  1018 eV  A
 E=   59 .1 keV
0.21 A

Let EK = energy of the atom with a vacancy in the K-shell

EL = energy of the atom with a vacancy in the L-shell

Then, E K  E L = E  EK = E + EL = 59.1 + 11.9 = 71 keV

Example 7:

Radio phosphorus-32 has a half-life of 14 days. A source containing this isotope has initial
activity 10  curie.

(a) What is the activity of the source after 42 days in nano-curie?

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 MODERN PHYSICS OP-MIII-P-48

(b) What time elapses before the activity of the source falls to 2.5 micros curie?

Solution:

42
(a) The number of half-lives in 42 days = =3
14

–t 1 10 curie

A = A0e = A0 = = 1250 nano-curie
3 8
2

Final activity 2.5  curie 1

(b) = =
Initial activity 10  curie 4

1
Time to decay to of initial activity = 2 half-lives = 28 days
4

Example 8:

It is found from an experiment that the radioactive substance emits one beta particle for each
decay process. Also an average of 8.4 beta particles are emitted each second by 2.5
milligram of substance. The atomic weight of substance is 230. What is its half-life in a unit
12
where 1 unit = 10 years?

Solution:
–1
The activity = 8.4 sec
26
Number of atoms in kilomole (i.e., 230 kg) = 6.02 × 10

6.02  10 26 –6

18
N= × 2.5 × 10 = 6.54 × 10
230

8.4 = N =  × 6.54 × 10
18

8.4  10 18 –18

= = 1.28 × 10 /sec
6.54

0.693 0.693
Half-life T =  = 5.41 × 10
17
sec
 1.28  10 18

5.41 10 17 12
= = 171 × 10 years = 171 unit
3.16  10 7

Example 9:

In the deuterium-tritium fusion reaction find the rate at which deuterium and tritium are
–12
consumed to produce 1 MW (in a unit where 1 unit = 10 kg/s). The Q-value of deuterium-
tritium reaction is 17.6 MeV. You can assume that the efficiency is 100%.

Solution:

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 MODERN PHYSICS OP-MIII-P-49

Energy released per fusion = 17.6 MeV

Number of fusion reactions to produce 1 MW

10 6 17
= = 3.55 × 10
17 .6 1.6 10 19 10 6

In each reaction one atom of deuterium and one atom of tritium are consumed.

Mass of deuterium consumed per second

2 kg 1 k mol

17
= × 3.55 × 10 atom/sec
1 k mol 6.023  10 26

–12
= 1179 × 10 kg/sec = 1179 unit

Mass of tritium consumed per second

3
 1.179  10 9 = 1769 × 10 kg/sec = 1769 unit.
–12
=
2

Example 10:

Two deuterium nuclei fuse to form a tritium nucleus and a proton as by product. Compute
the energy released in kilo electron volt (keV)

Given: Mass of deuterium = 2.0141 U

Mass of tritium nucleus = 3.01605 U

and mass of proton = 1.00782 U

Solution:

1 H  1H   11H  E
2 2 3
1H

Mass of reactants = 2.0141 × 2 = 4.02820 U

Mass of products = 3.01605 + 1.00782 = 4.02387 U

Mass defect = 4.0282 – 4.02387 = 0.00433 U

Energy released = 0.00433 × 931 = 4.031 MeV = 4031 keV

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 MODERN PHYSICS OP-MIII-P-50

MIND MAP

1. Radius of allowed 2. The wave number of a spectral line is

Bohrs orbit given by

= Ǻ m = 1, n > 2
Corresponds to Lyman series,
m = 2, n > 2
th
Energy of hydrogen atom in n energy Corresponds to Balmer series,
m = 3, n > 3
state = – Corresponds to Paschen series,
m = 4, n > 4
Corresponds to Bracket series,
Velocity of electron Bohr orbit m = 5, n > 5
Corresponds to Pfund series and so on.
(n is a natural number)
MODERN PHYSICS

3. de-Broglie wavelength of a 4. For continuous

particle of mass m and moving X-rays
with velocity v is
min =
=
Moseley law for characteristic
Einstein photoelectric equation X-rays
is = a (Z – b)
h = W0 + (K.E.)max
Stopping potential

V0 =

5. Einstein mass energy equivalence principle E = (m)c

2

Binding energy per nucleon

The statistical radioactive law

–t
N = N0 e
Half life
T1/2 =
Mean life,
Tav =
–t
Activity A = A0e

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EXERCISE – I

1. If the frequency of light in a photoelectric experiment is doubled the stopping potential will
be

(a) halved (b) doubled (c) more than double (d) less than double

2. Light of wavelength 3500 Å is incident on two metals A and B whose work functions are
4.2 eV and 1.9 eV respectively. Photoelectrons will be emitted by

(a) metal A only (b) metal B only (c) both A and B (d) none

3. The ratio of the speed of the electrons in the ground state of hydrogen to the speed of light
in vacuum is

1 2 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 237 237 137

4. The first member of Balmer series of H-atom has a wavelength 6561Å . The wavelength of
second member will be

(a) 6860 Å (b) 5860 Å (c) 4860 Å (d) 3860 Å

5. In which of the following transitions will the wavelength be minimum in the case of
hydrogen atom?

(a) n = 5 to n = 4 (b) n = 4 to n = 3 (c) n = 3 to n = 2 (d) n = 2 to n = 1

6. The X-rays coming from an X-ray tube will be

(a) monochromatic

(b) having all wavelength smaller than a certain minimum wavelength

(c) having all wavelength greater than a certain minimum wavelength

(d) having all wavelength between certain minimum and maximum wavelengths

7. Given that mass of proton = 1.00813 amu, mass of neutron is 1.00894 amu and mass of
-particle is 4.00388 amu, the binding energy of alpha particle is

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(a) 28.172 MeV (b) 27.172 MeV (c) 13.52 MeV (d) 56.321 MeV

8. Nuclear radius of 8O16 is 3 fermi. The nuclear radius of 82Pb205 is

(a) 5.02 fermi (b) 6.02 fermi (c) 7.02 fermi (d) 8.02 fermi

9. What percentage of a radioactive substance is left after 5 half-lives

(a) 31% (b) 3.12% (c) 0.3% (d) 1%

10. A photon of energy 10.2 eV collides inelastically with a stationary hydrogen atom (in ground
state). After few micro-second another photon of energy 15.0 eV collides with same
hydrogen atom. Which of the following can be detected by a suitable detector?

(a) One photon of 10.2 eV and an electron of energy 1.4 eV

(b) One photon of 3.4 eV and one electron of energy 10.2 eV

(c) Two photon of energy 10.2 eV

(d) Two photon of energy 3.4 eV

11. K wavelength of an element with atomic number Z = 11 is  . For what value of Z

wavelength becomes 4 ?

(a) 44 (b) 11 (c) 6 (d) 4

12. A light beam coming from a monochromatic source of variable intensity I = I0 |sin t| is incident
on a metallic plate of work function w0. The curve correctly shows minimum potential required
to stop the ejection of electron from the surface with respect to time is

vs
(a)vs (b)vs (c)vs (d)

0 / 2/ 3/ t 0 2/ 3/

t t 0 / 2/ 3/ t
/ 0 / 2/ 3/


13. If potential energy of electron in the first excited state of hydrogen atom is taken to be zero
then energy of first excited state and that of the first line of Lyman series are respectively
(a) –3.4 eV, 10.2 eV (b) 3.4 eV, 10.2 eV
(c) –3.4 eV, 3.4 eV (d) 3.4 eV, –3.4 eV

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14. If 1, 2 and 3 are the wavelengths of K X-rays emitted by 112

Sn, 114
Sn and 116
Sn tin
isotopes, then
1 1 2
(a) 1 = 2 = 3 (b) 1 > 2 > 3 (c) 1 < 2 < 3 (d)  
1  3  2
15. At any instant the ratio of the amount of radioactive substances is 2 : 1. If their half-lives be
respectively 12 and 16 hours, then after two days, what will be the ratio of the substances?

(a) 1 : 1 (b) 2 : 1 (c) 1 : 2 (d) 1 : 4

16. The nucleus 6C12 absorbs an energetic neutron and emits particle . The resulting nucleus
is

(a) 7N14 (b) 5B13 (c) 7N13 (d) 6C13

A–4 A–4 A –4
17. In the reaction represented by ZX
A
 Z – 2Y  Z – 2Y  Z – 1K . The decays in the
sequence are

(a) , ,  (b) , ,  (c) , ,  (d) , , 

18. The de Broglie wavelength of an electron in the nth Bohr orbit is related to the radius R of
the orbit as

3
(a) n = nR (b) n  R (c) n  2R (d) n  4R
2

19. Light of wavelength  strikes a photosensitive surface and electrons are ejected with kinetic
energy E. If the KE is to be increased to 2E, the wavelength must be changed to  where

(a)  = /2 (b)  = 2 (c)  >  (d) /2 <  < 

20. The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons emitted from a surface when photons of
energy 6eV fall on it is 4eV. The stopping potential in volts is

(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) 10

21. Three radioactive substances have their activity in the ratio 1 : 3 : 5. The substances are
heated to double its temperature. Then, the activity will be

(a) 5 : 3 : 1 (b) 3 : 1 : 5 (c) 3 : 5 : 1 (d) 1 : 3 : 5

22. In Bohr’s model, the atomic radius of the first orbit is r0 ; then the radius of the third orbit is

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(a) r0/9 (b) r0 (c) 9r0 (d) 3r0

23. The diagram shows the energy levels for an electron n=4
in certain hydrogen like atom. Which transition shown n=3
represents the emission of a photon with the most n=2
energy?
(a) (i) (b) (ii) n=1
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(c) (iii) (d) (iv)

24. The radius of the shortest orbit in a one electron system is 18 pm. It may be

(a) hydrogen (b) deuterium (c) He+ (d) Li++

25. In a star, three alpha particles join in succession to form 6C12 nucleus. How much energy is
evolved in this reaction? Take mass 6C12 = 12 amu and that of alpha particle = 4.002603
amu

(a) 15 MeV (b) 18 MeV (c) 7.27 MeV (d) 2.917 MeV

EXERCISE – II

IIT-JEE-SINGLE CHOICE CORRECT


1. Kinetic energy of a photoelectron is E and wavelength of incident light is . If energy
2
becomes double when wavelength is reduced to /3, then work function of the metal is

3hc hc hc hc
(a) (b) (c) (d)
 3  2

2. If the frequency of K X-ray emitted from the element with atomic number 31 is f, then the
frequency of K X-ray emitted from the element with atomic number 51, would be (assume
that screening constant for K is 1)

5 51 9 25
(a) f (b) f (c) f (d) f
3 31 25 9

3. If the shortest wavelength of Lyman series of H atom is x, then the wavelength of first
member of Balmer series of H atom will be

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(a) 9x / 5 (b) 36x / 5 (c) 5x / 9 (d) 5x / 36s

4. An excited hydrogen atom emits a photon of wavelength  while returning to the ground
state. The quantum number n of the excited state is given by (R = Rydberg constant)

R / R  1 R / R  1 R  1 / R 1

(a) (b) (c) (d)
R R  1

5. Two radioactive materials X1 and X2 have decay constants 10  and  respectively. If

initially they have the same number of nuclei, then the ratio of the number of nuclei of X1 to
that of X2 will be 1/e after a time

1 1 11 
(a) (b) (c) (d)
10  11 10  9

6. A container is filled with a radioactive substance for which the half-life is 2 days. Six days
later, when the container is opened, it contains 5 grams of the substance. How many
grams of the substance were initially placed in the container?

(a) 40 (b) 60 (c) 80 (d) 100

7. The radioactivity of a sample is R1 at a time T1 and R2 at a time T2. If the half-life of the
specimen is T, the number of atoms that have disintegrated in the time (T2 – T1) is
proportional to

R1  R 2
(a) R1T1  R 2T2 (b) R1  R 2 (c) (d) (R1  R 2 )T
T

8. The activity of a radioactive element decreases to one-third of the original activity I0 in a

period of nine years. After a further lapse of nine years its activity will be

(a) I0 (b)(2/3) I0 (c) (I0/9) (d) (I0/6)

9. An element A decays into element C by a two step process A  B + 2He4, B  C + 2e–.

Then

(a) A and B are isotopes (b) A and B are isobars

(c) A and C are isotopes (d) A and C are isobars

10. A light source is at a distance d from a photoelectric cell. The stopping potential of the
photoelectrons emitted is V0. If the distance of light source and cell is reduced to half, then
the stopping potential will become

(a) V0/2 (b) 2V0 (c) 4V0 (d) V0

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11. Two identical photo cathodes receive light of frequencies 1 and 2. If the velocities of the
photoelectrons (of mass m) coming out are v1 and v1 respectively, then:
1/ 2
 2h  2h
(a) v 1  v 2   ( 1   2 ) (b) v 12  v 22  ( 1   2 )
m  m

1/ 2
 2h  2h
(c) v 1  v 2   ( 1   2 ) (d) v 12  v 22  ( 1   2 )
m  m

12. Which of the following curves may represent the

speed of electron in a hydrogen atom as a
function of principal quantum number n? A
(a) A (b) B D
(c) C (d) D C
v

n
13. The momentum of an X-ray photon of wavelength 0.10 nm will be

(a) 6.62  10-34 kg-m/s (b) 3.31  10-24 kg-m/s

(c) 3.31  10-34 kg-m/s (d) 6.62  10-24 kg-m/s

14. The wave number of energy emitted when electron comes from fourth to second orbit in
hydrogen is 20397 cm–1. The wave number of energy for same transition in helium is

(a) 5099 cm–1 (b) 20497 cm–1 (c) 40994 cm–1 (d) 81588 cm–1

15. If the wavelength of light incident on a photoelectric cell be reduced from 4000 Å to
3600 Å, then the change in the cut off potential will be

(a) 3.4 V (b) 0.34 V (c) 1.34 V (d) 2.34 V

16. Assuming that four protons combine to form helium atom and two positrons each of mass
0.000549 amu. Calculate the energy released. Given mass of 1H1 = 1.007825 amu and
mass of 2He4 = 4.0026 amu

(a) 12.2 MeV (b) 25.7 MeV (c) 24 MeV (d) 40 MeV

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17. An unknown atom has 30 neutrons in its nucleus. Ratio of radii of nuclei of this atom and
1
4
2 He is 14 3 . Then the atomic number of unknown atom is

(a) 28 (b) 26 (c) 30 (d) 31

18. A silver sphere (work function 4.6 eV) is suspended in a vacuum chamber by an insulating
thread. Ultraviolet light of wavelength 0.2 m strike on the sphere. The maximum electric
potential of the sphere will be (hc = 12400 eVÅ)

(a) 4.6 V (b) 6.2 V (c) 1.6 V (d) 3.2 V

19. The counting rate observed from a radioactive source at t second was N0 counts per
N
second and at 4t second 0 counts per second. The counting rate observed, as counts
16
 11 
per second, at  t second will be
2

N0 N0 N0 N0
(a) (b) (c) (d)
128 64 32 256

20. If light of wavelength of maximum intensity emitted from a surface at temperature T1 is

used to cause photoelectric emission from a metallic surface, the maximum kinetic energy
of the emitted electron is 6 eV, which is 3 times the work function of the metallic surface. If
light of wavelength of maximum intensity emitted from a surface at temperature
T2 T2  2T1  is used, the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons emitted is
(a) 2 eV (b) 4 eV (c) 14 eV (d) 18 eV

21. A proton is bombarded on a stationary lithium nucleus. As a result of the collision two -
particles are produced. If the direction of motion of the -particles with the initial direction of
 1
motion makes an angle cos 1   , then the kinetic energy of striking proton is (Given
4
binding energy per nucleon of Li7 and He4 is 5.60 MeV and 7.06 MeV respectively).

(a) 17.28 MeV (b) 5.76 MeV (c) 11.52 MeV (d) 12.66 MeV

22. Nuclei of a radioactive element A are being produced at a constant rate . The element
has a decay constant . At time t = 0, there are N0 nuclei of the element. The number N of
nuclei of A at time t is

1 1
(a) [  (  N0 ) e t ] (b) [ (  N0 ) e t ]
 

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(c)  [  (  N0 ) et ] (d) N0e  t

23. A beam of light having  between 5 × 10–7 m and 6 × 10–7 m is incident on a sample of
atomic hydrogen. If the atoms are in first excited state, the wavelength which will have low
intensity in the transmitted beam is (Take R = 107 m–1)

(a) 5.11 × 10–7 m (b) 5.22 × 10–7 m

(c) 5.33 × 10–7 m (d) 5.44 × 10–7 m

24. The graph between 1/, where  is wavelength of incident V(eV)

light and stopping potential (V) of three metals having work metal 1 metal 2 metal 3

functions 1, 2 and 3 in an experiment of photo-electric

effect is plotted as shown in the figure. Which of the
following statements is correct? 
0.001 0.002 0.004 1/(1/nm)
`
(a) Ratio of work functions  1 :  2 :  3  1: 2 : 4

(b) Ratio of work functions  1 :  2 :  3  4 : 2 : 1

hc
(c) tan  is inversely proportional to , where h is Planck’s constant and c is the speed of
e
light

(d) The violet colour light can eject photoelectrons from metals 2 and 3

25. The ratio of U238 to Pb206 nuclei in an ore is 3. The age of the ore, assuming that all the lead
present in the ore is the final product of U238 (decay constant = ) is

3 4
ln  ln 
ln 2 ln 3 4 3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
   

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EXERCISE – III

ONE OR MORE THAN ONE CHOICE CORRECT

1. During radioactive decay

(a) atomic number cannot increase (b) atomic number may increase

(c) atomic number may decrease (d) atomic number may remain unchanged

2. When photons of energy 4.25 eV strike the surface of a metal A, the ejected
photoelectrons have maximum kinetic energy TA eV and de Broglie wavelength A. The
maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons liberated from another metal B by photons of
energy 4.70 eV is TB = (TA -1.50) eV. If the de Broglie wavelength of these photoelectrons
is B = 2 A, then

(a) the work function of A is 2.25 eV (b) the work function of B is 4.20 eV

(c) TA = 2.00 eV (d) TB = 2.75 eV

3. Light rays are incident on an opaque sheet. Then they

(a) exert a force on the sheet (b) transfer an energy to the sheet

(c) transfer momentum to the sheet (d) transfer impulse to the sheet

4. Which of the following statements is /are correct for an X-rays tube?

(a) on increasing potential difference between filament and target, photon flux of X-rays
increases

(b) on increasing potential difference between filament and target, frequency of X-ray
increases

(c) on increasing filament current, cut off wavelength increases

(d) on increasing filament current, intensity of X-rays increases

5. When an electron of hydrogen like atoms jumps from a higher energy level to a lower
energy level

(a) angular momentum of the electron remains constant

(b) kinetic energy increases

(c) wavelength of de-Broglie wave, associated with motion of the electron decreases

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(d) none of these

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6. When a hydrogen atom is excited from ground state to first excited state

(a) its KE increases by 10.2 eV

(b) its KE decrease by 10.2 eV

(c) its PE increases by 20.4 eV

(d) its angular momentum increases by 1.05  10-34 J-s

7. Suppose the potential energy between electron and proton at a distance r is given by
Ke 2
 . Application of Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom in this case shows that;
3r 3

(a) energy in the nth orbit is proportional to n 6

(b) energy is proportional to m–3 (m: mass of electron)

(c) energy in the nth orbit is proportional to n–2

(d) energy is proportional to m3 (m = mass of electron)

8. Which of the following assertions are correct?

(a) A neutron can decay to proton only inside a nucleus.

(b) A proton can change to a neutron only inside a nucleus.

(c) An isolated neutron can change into a proton.

(d) An isolated proton can change into a neutron.

9. When the nucleus of an electrically neutral atom undergoes a radioactive decay, it will
remain neutral after the decay if the process is

(a) an  decay (b) a   decay (c) a  decay (d) a K-capture process

10. In the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, let R, V and E represent the radius of the orbit,
speed of the electron and the total energy of the electron respectively. Which of the
following quantities are proportional to the quantum number n ?

V R
(a)VR (b) RE (c) (d)
E E

11. An electron in a hydrogen atom makes a transition from n = n1 to n = n2. The time period of
the electron in the initial state is eight times that in the final state. The possible values of n1
and n2 are
(a) n1 = 4, n2 = 2 (b) n1 = 8, n2 = 2 (c) n1 = 8, n2 = 1 (d) n1 = 6, n2 = 3

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12. Whenever a hydrogen atom emits a photon in the Balmer series,

(a) it may emit another photon in the Balmer series

(b) it must emit another photon in the Lyman series

(c) the second photon, if emitted, will have a wavelength of about 122 nm

(d) it may emit a second photon, but the wavelength of this photon cannot be predicted

13. When an electron moving at a high speed strikes a metal surface, which of the following
are possible?

(a) The entire energy of the electron may be converted into an X-ray photon.

(b) Any fraction of the energy of the electron may be converted into an X-ray photon.

(c) The entire energy of the electron may get converted to heat

(d) The electron may undergo elastic collision with the metal surface

14. A radioactive sample has initial concentration N0 of nuclei.

(a)The number of undecayed nuclei present in the sample decays exponentially with time

(b) The activity (R) of the sample at any instant is directly proportional to the number of
undecaysed nuclei present in the sample at that time

(c) The number of decayed nuclei grows linearly with time.

(d) The number of decayed nuclei grows exponentially with time

15. When a monochromatic point source of light is at a distance of 0.2 m from a photoelectric
cell, the cut-off voltage and the saturation current are respectively 0.6 V and 18.0 mA. If the
same source is placed 0.6 m away from the photoelectric cell, then

(a) the stopping potential will be 0.2 V

(b) the stopping potential will be 0.6 V

(c) the saturation current will be 6.0 mA

(d) the saturation current will be 2.0 mA

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EXERCISE –IV

MATCH THE FOLLOWING

Note : Each Statement in column – I has only one match in column – II.

1. 7N
14
+ 2He4  8O17 + 1H1. The masses are given as : N14 = 14.003 amu, 1H1 = 1.0078
amu, O17 = 16.999 amu, m(0n1) = 1.009 amu, 2He4 = 4.002 amu, 1 amu = 931 eV
Match the quantities of column I with their values in column II.

Column I Column II

I. Q value (MeV) A. 29.42

II. Minimum K.E. of an -particle to cause the B. 7.9

reaction (MeV)

III. Binding energy of -particle (MeV) C. 2.15

IV. Binding energy per nucleon of 8O17 (MeV) D. 1.675

2. The radiations emitted when an electron jumps from n = 4 to n = 3 in a lithium atom, falls
on a metal surface to produce photoelectrons. The photoelectrons with maximum K.E. are
allowed to move in a perpendicular magnetic field of 4 × 10–4 T. It traces out a circular path
of radius 2 cm. (mass of electron = 10–30 kg, R = 1.09 × 107 m–1)
Match the quantities of column I with their values in column II.

Column I Column II

I. Wavelength of radiation (in Å) A. 1280

II. Velocity of electron (in km/s) B. 0.83

III. K.E. of electron (in eV) C. 2097

IV. Work function of metal (in eV) D. 5.12

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Note: Each statement in column – I has one or more than one match in column –II.

3. The kinetic energy, the speed, the magnitude of angular momentum and orbital radius of
an electron in a hydrogen atom corresponding to the quantum number n are E, v, L and r
respectively. Match the quantities in the column-I with the quantities in the column-II on the
basis of proportionality.

Column I Column II
I. E/L A. n
r
II. B. n –1
L
L C. v/r
III.
Er

IV. E r D. n–3

REASONING TYPE

Directions: Read the following questions and choose

(A) If both the statements are true and statement-2 is the correct explanation of
statement-1.

(B) If both the statements are true but statement-2 is not the correct explanation of
statement-1.

(C) If statement-1 is True and statement-2 is False.

(D) If statement-1 is False and statement-2 is True.

1. Statement-1: During radio active disintegration an -particle and a -particle can be emitted
simultaneously.

Statement-2: , -particles are the products of radioactive decay.

(a) (A) (b) (B) (c) (C) (d) (D)

2. Statement-1: The process of photoelectric emission is different to that of thermionic

emission.
Statement-2: The process of thermionic emission is temperature dependent but
photoelectric emission is independent of temperature.
(a) (A) (b) (B) (c) (C) (d) (D)

3. Statement-1: In the process of photoelectric emission, all the emitted photoelectrons have
the same kinetic energy.
Statement-2: The photons transfer its whole energy to the electron of the atom in
photoelectric effect.
(a) (A) (b) (B) (c) (C) (d) (D)

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4. Statement-1: Hydrogen atom consists of only one electron but its emission spectrum has
many lines.
Statement-2: Only Lyman series in found in the absorption spectrum of hydrogen atom
where as in the emission spectrum, all the series are found.
(a) (A) (b) (B) (c) (C) (d) (D)

5. Statement-1: The threshold frequency of photoelectric effect supports the particle nature of
light.
Statement-2: If frequency of incident light is less than the threshold frequency, electrons are
not emitted from metal surface.
(a) (A) (b) (B) (c) (C) (d) (D)

LINKED COMPREHENSION TYPE

We have two radioactive nuclei A and B. Both convert into a stable nucleus C. Nucleus A
converts into C after emitting two -particles and three -particles. Nucleus B converts into C after
emitting one -particle and five - particles. A time t = 0, nuclei of A are 4 N0 and that of B are N0.
Half-life of A (into the conversion of C) is 1 minute and that of B is 2 minutes. Initially number of
nuclei of C is zero.

1. If atomic numbers and mass numbers of A and B are Z1, Z2, A1 and A2 respectively. Then

(a) Z1 – Z2 = 6 (b) A1 – A2 = 4

(c) both (a) and (b) are correct (d) both (a) and (b) are wrong

2. What are number of nuclei of C, when number of nuclei of A and B are equal?

(a) 2 N0 (b) 3 N0

9N0 5N0
(c) (d)
2 2

3. At what time rate of disintegrations of A and B are equal

(a) 4 minute (b) 6 minute

(c) 8 minute (d) 2 minute

4. At what time activity of A will be double the activity of B

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(a) 4 minute (b) 6 minute

(c) 8 minute (d) 2 minute

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EXERCISE – V

SUBJECTIVE PROBLEMS

1. A solution contains a mixture of two isotopes A(half life = 10 days) and B (half life = 5
days). Total activity of the mixture is 15 × 1010 disintegrations per second at time t = 0, the
activity reduces to 20% in 20 days. Find the initial activities of A and B in a unit where
1 unit = 1010 disintegration per second.

2. Photons of energy 3eV fall on a photosensitive metal of work function 1 eV. The de-Broglie
wavelength of the most energetic ejected electron is found to be (1.09)2 10 times the
wavelength of K X-ray coming from a certain element A when it is bombarded by fast
moving electron. Find the atomic number of the element A.
Given plank constant h = 6.54  10–34 J –s, mass of the electron = 9  10–31 kg, Rydberg’s
constant = 1.09  107 m–1.

3. A source of radiation consisting of Be3+ ions excited to their third excited state is being
used to have photoelectric emission on a metallic plate with work function 8 eV.
(a) What is the maximum possible energy in eV of the emitted photons from Be3+?
(b) Find the minimum de-Broglie wavelength of the emitted photoelectrons in nano-metre
(nm).
(Given mass of electron = 9.1 × 10-31 kg and Plank constant = 6.63 × 10-34 Js)

4. Photoelectrons are emitted when 400 nm radiation is incident on a surface of work function
1.9 eV. These photoelectrons pass through a region containing -particle. A maximum
energy electron combines with an -particle to from a He+ ion, emitting a single photon in
this process. He+ ions thus formed are in their fourth excited state. Find the energy in meV
of the photons lying in the 2000 to 4000 meV range, that are likely to be emitted during and
after the combination. (take h = 4.14 × 10–15 eV-s]

5. A hydrogen like atom (atomic number Z) is in a higher excited state of quantum number n.
The excited atom can make a transition to the first excited state by successively emitting
two photons of energy 10.2 and 17.0 eV respectively. Alternately, the atom from the same
excited state can make a transition to the second excited state by successively emitting
two photons of energies 4.25 eV and 5.95 eV respectively. Determine the values of n and
Z. (Ionization energy of H-atom = 13.6 eV).

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6. Light from a discharge tube containing hydrogen atoms falls on the surface of a piece of
sodium. The kinetic energy of the fatest photoelectrons emitted from sodium is 1.18 eV.
The work function for sodium is 1.82 eV. Find

(a) the energy of the photons causing the photoelectric emission.

(b) the recoil speed of the emitting atom assuming it to be at rest before the transition in
mm/s. (Ionization potential of hydrogen is 13.6 V).

7. (a) An electron in a hydrogen like atom is in an excited state. It has a total energy of
– 3400 meV. Calculate

(i) the kinetic energy in meV

(ii) the de-Broglie wavelength of the electron in pico-metre (pm)

(b) At a given instant there are 25% undecayed radioactive nuclei in a sample. After 10
second the number of undecayed nuclei reduces to 12.5%. Calculate the time in which
the number of undecayed nuclei will further reduce 6.25% of the reduced number.

8. When a beam of 10.6 eV photons of intensity 2.0 W/m2 falls on a platinum surface of area
1.0 × 10–4 m2 and work function 5.6 eV, 0.53% of the incident photons eject photoelectrons.
Find the number of photoelectrons emitted per second (in a unit where 1 unit = 109 s–1) and
their minimum and maximum energies (in eV). Take 1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J.

9. In a photoelectric effect set-up a point source of light of power 3.2 × 10–3 W emits
monoenergetic photons of energy 5.0 eV. The source is located at a distance of 0.8m from
the centre of a stationary metallic sphere of work function 3.0 eV and a radius 8.0 × 10–3 m.
The efficiency of photoelectron emission is one for every 106 incident photons. Assume
that the sphere is isolated and initially neutral and that photoelectrons are instantly swept
away after emission.

(a) Calculate the number of photoelectrons emitted per milli-second.

(b) Find the ratio of the wavelength of incident light to the de-Broglie wavelength of the
fastest photoelectrons emitted in nearest whole number.

(c) Evaluate the time t in which the photo electron emission stops after the light source is
switched on.

10. Assume that the de-Broglie wave associated with an electron can form a standing wave
between the atoms arranged in a one dimensional array with nodes at each of the atomic
sites. If it found that one such standing wave is formed if the distance d between the atoms
of the array is 4 Å. A similar standing wave is again formed if d is increased to 5 Å but not

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 MODERN PHYSICS OP-MIII-P-69

for any intermediate value of d. Find the energy of the electron in eV and the least value of
d (in Å) for which the standing wave of the type described above can form.

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EXERCISE – I

AIEEE-SINGLE CHOICE CORRECT

1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (d)

6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (a)

11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (a)

16. (c) 17. (d) 18. (c) 19. (d) 20. (b)

21. (d) 22. (c) 23. (c) 24. (d) 25. (c)

EXERCISE – II

IIT-JEE - SINGLE CHOICE CORRECT

1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (d)

6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (d)

11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (b)

16. (b) 17. (b) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (c)

21. (a) 22. (a) 23. (c) 24. (a) 25. (d)

EXERCISE – III

MORE THAN ONE CHOICE CORRECT

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 MODERN PHYSICS OP-MIII-P-71

1. (b,c,d) 2. (a,b,c) 3. (a,b,c,d) 4. (b,d) 5. (b,c)

6. (b,c,d) 7. (a,b) 8. (b,c) 9. (c,d) 10. (a,c)

11. (a,d) 12. (b,c) 13. (a,b,c) 14. (a,b,d) 15. (b,d)

EXERCISE – IV

MATCH THE FOLLOWING

1. I – D, II – C, III – A, IV – B
2. I – C, II – A, III – D, IV – B
3. I – C, D, II – A, III – A, IV – B

REASONING TYPE

1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (b)

LINKED COMPREHENSION TYPE

1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (a)

EXERCISE –V

SUBJECTIVE PROBLEMS

1. 11 unit, 4 unit 

2. 24

3. (a) 204 eV (b) 878 nm

4. 3376 meV during combination and 3868 meV and 2644 meV after combination.

5. 6, 3

6. (a) 3 eV, (b) 814 mm/s

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 MODERN PHYSICS OP-MIII-P-72

7. (a) (i) 3400 meV (ii) 663 pm (b) 40 s

8. 625 unit, 0 eV, 5 eV

9. (a) 100 (ms)–1 (b) 285 (c) 111 s

10. 38 eV, 1 Å

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