CHAPTER-2

The Culture and Heritage of

Gujarat, its Origin and
Development
 CHAPTER-2
The Culture and H eritage o f Gujarat, its Origin
and D evelopm ent

Gujarat has a very rich and artistic heritage with a number of

pilgrimage which are of varied culture. Gujarat derives its name from the
Prakrit word ‘gurjara rattaJ means ‘the land of the ‘gurjaras’. It is believed
that tribe of gurjaras migrated to India around 5th century. The history of
Gujarat dates back to 3500 years. The earliest Stone Age settlements in
Gujarat are situated on the margins of the South Asian Zone. The Indus
Valley Civilization also known as the Harappan Civilization have been
found in the area known as Gujarat12 and one of the most remarkable
Indus Valley sites in India. The main Harappan occupation lasted from
2450B.C. to 1900 B.C.3
The early history of Gujarat is full of imperial grandeur of
Chandragupta Maurya who conquered number of earlier states of Gujarat
ruled from 322 B.C. to 294 B.C. Emperor asoka, the grandson of
Chandragupta Maurya also rule Gujarat and extended his dominion
indicated by the rock edicts in the Girnar Hills. For nearly 400 years from
the start of the 1st century, saka rulers played prominent part in Gujarat’s
history.
The Kshatrapa dynasty was replaced by the Gupta reign with the
conquest of Gujarat by Chandragupta Vikramaditya. Vikramaditya's
successor Skandagupta has left an inscription (450 AD) on a rock at
Junagadh which gives details of the repairs of the embankment, damaged
by floods, of Sudarshan Lake by his Governor. Anarta and Saurashtra
regions were both part of the Gupta empire. Towards the middle of the 5th
Century AD the Gupta Empire started to decline. Bhatarka, the Maitrak
general of the Guptas, took advantage of the situation and in 470 A.D. he
set up what came to be known as the Maitrak kingdom. He shifted his
capital from Girinagar to Valabhipur, near Bhavnagar, on Saurashtra's
east coast. Maitrakas of Valabhi became very powerful and their writ
prevailed over large parts of Gujarat and even over adjoining Malwa.
Maitrakas set up a university which came to be known far and wide for its
scholastic pursuits and was compared with the famous Nalanda

1 M.R. Majmudar, ’’The Cultural History o f Gujarat” Popular Prakashan, Bombay,

1965, p.18
“Jinamanjari” Early Jainism, International Journal o f contemporary Jaina
Reflections” North America, Vol. 1 3 ,1 9 6 6 , p.99
3 ibid of Jinamanjan, p.99-102

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University. It was during the rule of Dhruvasena Maitrak that Chinese
philosopher-traveler Huan T-sangvisited in 640 A.D.
The present day Gujarat was ruled by the SolanM dynasty during
the period extending from 10th century to 13th century. This was the last
Hindu dynasty to rule the North-Western regions. The dynasty was
established by Mulraja I in 942 A.D. He further extended his kingdom by
bringing the regions of Saurashtra and Kutch under his sway. His capital
was the present town Patan. He was succeeded by other illustrious rulers,
notable among were Siddharaj Jaysimha and Kumampala, who further
extended the Kingdom. The period under the Solanki reign is considered
as the most glorious or golden period in the history of Gujarat. The
present name Gujarat was adopted during this period. The period saw
tremendous development in architecture, language and scripts. Numerous
artistic temples were built, famous among them being the Rudramala
Temple and the Sun Temple at Modhera. Jainism also made inroads in
the Kingdom during the Solanki rule. Siddharaj Jaysimha rule for 47 years
from 1094 A.D. and the second Solanki King Kumarapalah regin lasted
for 31 years from 1143 to 1174 A.D.
The guardian family deity of the Solanki's was Somnath at Prabhas.
Ironically, it was during the Solanki’s rule that the sacred shrine was
sacked by Mohammad Ghazni who defiled and despoiled the fabulously
rich shrine and put 50,000 Hindus to sword. The temple was destroyed
with its Linga during the regime of Bhimdev I Bhimdev's successor
Karandev defeated a Bhil chieftain and founded Kamavati. Karandev
married Minaldevi by whom he begot Siddharaj who ushered in Gujarat's
golden period. Siddhdrafs successor Kumarapala encouraged Jainism.
After the fall of Solanki rule, Vaghelas who were in the service of the
Solanki’s established a rather shortlived (76 years) but powerful dynasty.
The two rulers of this dynasty, Virdhaval and Vishaldev, were responsible
for consolidating and stabilising the prosperity of Gujarat after the fall of
the Solankis. While Vishaldev built the famous temples of Dabhoi and
founded Vishalnagar, the credit for building magnificent temples at Abu,
Girnar and Satrunjaya goes to two distinguished Dewans (chief
ministers)-Vastupala and Tejpala- of Virdhaval. Karandev of the Vaghela
dynasty was the last Hindu ruler of Gujarat. He was defeated and
overthrown by the superior forces of Allauddin Khilji from Delhi in 1297.
With his defeat Gujarat not only became part of the Muslim empire but
the Rajput hold over Gujarat lost forever. Before they finally entrenched
themselves in 1298, the Muslims had only an occasional contact with this
part of India. This was either as sea-farers or traders. They were allowed
to establish two small settlements in Cambay (current Khambhat) and
Broach (current Bharuch). Abdulla, a missionary from Egypt, who came
during Siddharaj Jaysimha's regime and was allowed to preach, is

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credited with the formation of Bohra community among the Muslims.
However, after the defeat of Karandev Vaghela at the hands of Allauddin
Khilji, Muslim rule continued for nearly 400 years either under Delhi's
viceroyalty or under Muslim Sultanates till the Mughal viceroy, Monim
khan was defeated by the Marathas who captured Ahmedabad in 1758
A.D. Zafar Shah, a vicerory of Delhi for Gujarat, was responsible for
starting the Sultanate in Gujarat. He fully exploited then prevailing
conditions in Delhi to his advantage. He shook off his loyalty to the
emperor, declared independence and became the first Sultan. He assumed
the title of Muzaffar Shah. His successor Ahmed Shah founded a new city,
following a dream, on the banks of the River Sabarmati and named it
Ahmedabad after his own name. Since then, this new city became the
capital of successive regimes in Gujarat until the state of Gujarat was
formed in 1960 and the capital was moved to new city of Gandhinagar
later. Ahmedabad grew into a flourishing city and became next only to
Delhi in importance. Mohammad Shah succeeded Ahmed Shah,
Mohammad became a powerful ruler and was successful in over powering
and subduing most of the Rajput chieftains. As a conqueror, Mohammad
was ruthless, as an administrator efficient and as a builder a great one.
Apart from subduing the Rajput chieftains, Mohammad also successfully
checked the Portuguese menace with the help of a naval fleet raised by his
slave named Malik Ayyaz. He set up his naval base at Diu off the
Saurashtra coast. Under Mohammad Shah Gujarat once again became
prosperous and there was a great deal of progress and building activity.
Patan, the ancient seat of Hindu learning, once again became a seat of
learning in Islamic disciplines. The available infrastructure at Patan was
exploited by Mohammad Shah.
The decline of the Sultanate started with the assassination of
Sikander Shah. Because of this decline Gujarat became an easy prey to the
great Mughal Emperor Akbar's armies. Bahadur Shah, the last Sultan, was
defeated which marked the beginning of the Mughal rule which lasted for
185 years. Notwithstanding the fact that Gujarat became a part of the
Mughal Empire its importance did not diminish as is apparent from the
selection of the ablest princes as Gujarat's viceroys. Murad, Shah Jahan,
Dara Shikoh were all made the Viceroys of this West coast region. The
formal Muslim rale in Gujarat ended in 1758 when Momin Khan
surrendered to the Marathas. When the cracks had started developed in
the edifice of the Mughal empire in the mid 17th century, the Marathas
were consolidating their power in the west, Chhatrapati Shivaji, the great
Maratha ruler, attacked Surat twice first in 1664 and again in 1672. These
attacks marked the entry of the Marathas into Gujarat. However, before
the Maratha inroads into Gujarat, the Europeans had made their presence
felt, with the Portuguese leading them, followed by the Dutch and the
English.

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 The Peshwas had established their sovereignty over Gujarat
including Saurashtra, and collected taxes and tributes through their
representatives. Damaji Gaekwad and Kadam Bande divided the Peshwa's
territory between them, with Damaji establishing the sway of Gaekwad
over Gujarat and made Baroda his Capital. The ensuing internecine wars
among the Marathas were fully exploited by the British, who interfered in
the affairs of both Gaekwads and the Peshwas .The British also embarked
upon their policy of Subsidiary Alliance. With this policy they established
their paramount over one princely state after another. Anand Rao
Gaekwad joined the Alliance in 1802 and surrendered Surat and adjoining
territories to the English. In the garb of helping the Marathas, the British
helped themselves, and gradually the Marathas' power came to an end, in
1819 in Gujarat. Gaekwad and other big and small rulers accepted the
British Paramount.
Portugal was the first European power to arrive in Gujarat,
acquiring several enclaves along the Gujarati coast, including Daman and
Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. The British East India Company
established a factory in Surat in 1614, which formed their first base in
India, but it was eclipsed by Bombay (now Mumbai) after the British
acquired it from Portugal in 1668. The Company wrested control of much
of Gujarat from the Marathas during the Second Anglo-Maratha War.
Many local rulers, notably the Maratha Gaekwads of Baroda (Vadodara),
made a separate peace with the British, and acknowledged British
sovereignty in return for retaining local self-rule. Gujarat was placed
under the political authority of Bombay Presidency, with the exception of
Baroda state, which had a direct relationship with the Governor-General
of India. From 1818 to 1947, most of present-day Gujarat, including
Kathiawar, Kutch, and northern and eastern Gujarat were divided into
dozens of princely states, but several districts in central and southern
Gujarat, namely Ahmedabad, Broach (Bharuch), Kaira, Panch Mahals, and
Surat, were ruled directly by British officials.
Architecture o f Gujarat:
Gujarat region has always been an area of our country subjected to
constant pressures during all the periods of its historical existence. The
pressures have been a continuing phenomenon and as a result it has
always experienced a cultural vibrancy, which makes it a very interesting
subject for all those who are interested in cultural history and its various
aspects. The geographical boundaries in which Gujarat is encapsuled,
covers a large part of Western India and the regional history covers
periods from ancient times with some of the relics still standing giving
testimony to its links with prehistoric and ancient times. The relics are
obviously archaeologically very useful and in some cases traces fragments

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of built-environment giving us insights into architectural heritage which
also is an important indicator of cultural status of people anywhere.
Historically the region, based on the geographical boundaries-was
also culturally different. The peninsular Saurashtra of the immediate
history was distinctly known as Kathiawar, which was controlled by five
different princely states headed by the ruling families, each class
culturally different including even their dialects were different- derived
from Kathiawari. The early history of this region is a record of external
forces and rulers from northern India raiding this area and dominating
with their prowess, capturing at times and appointing their own agents to
administer and keep control over the revenue from this region.
Settlements and prosperity of various towns was totally dependent on the
well-being of people at large and it is observed that this condition
depended purely on governance of various regions. Such favorable
conditions were observed only in distinct periods and it would be
interesting to review these various phases in history of this region, which
were productive, and have left an important cultural heritage.
In terms of Architectural developments in Indo-Aryan idioms
Gujarat was one of the richest, in early times. The early 11th and late 13*
century, was an important phase of architectural development. Pre-11*
century period was marked by raids from Afghans and the resultant strife.
Once the Delhi Sultans took over there was relative peace and prosperity
and this also resulted in establishment of communities due to prosperous
trade and commerce in the region. Solanki rule also provided the much
needed stability and Anhilwada-Patan became the important center of
culture in this region. The wealth, which came to this part was also
largely due to its geological position on coast, which was an route all the
international routes from its long coast line. It was thus a focus of trade
and commerce and the trading communities, whose general state of
affluence was very high-diverted part of their resources to create a form of
religious architecture and became one of the distinct form of architecture
of that era continuing the finest traditions, which till date is ongoing.
Many of the examples of these fine creations are no more, as the
succeeding centuries of Muslim rule brought down many of these
following 13* century.
In 15* century this part was once again dominated by Muslim rule
followed by Mughal take-over followed by brief and sporadic spells of
Marathas until British finally took over the administration. Princely states
in Saurashtra and other parts of Gujarat did continue, though, all were
subjugated under British.
Architecturally, there was the period of early phases, the examples
of which are surviving in coastal areas of Saurashtra. The pre-Solanki

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period from where only few examples survive, the Solanki period, which
is evident of number of examples, which is our heritage today. The
Muslim domination is perceivable from a very vast source since 15th
century and we have that as our immediate history which has shaped our
present. The review of post Muslim rule-after Mughals took over is
marked once again by the fragmentation and dilution of architectural
activity and it has been expressed as per the needs and pressures of forces
that affected Gujarat.
The two significant and succeeding phases have been the Solanki
rule and later the Muslims, who established the reign with Ahmedabad as
its capital. The Solanki period saw evolution of religious and its reflective
aspect as domestic, which became a subordinated expression. The fine
temple building traditions of stone structure found its corollary in
exquisitely ornate house facades in timber construction. One with all the
resources of the community in establishing a strong and durable form for
religious on going traditions and the other for flexible, affordable yet
exquisite in art and decoration to also stimulate the same feeling as
Temple for the abode of people and family. These traditions survived for
long time, even after the Muslim domination of the region and became a
very strong evolving tradition in Gujarat.
The Muslim rule which followed after 15th century did realize the
strength of the communities and their own establishments. They also
recognized the strength of the then prevailing building crafts and the
communities of craftsmen. The 'mahajan' and the craftsmen were both
accepted in good confidence and were made partners by the Muslim rules
in establishing their state and their institutions. This expression emerged
out of a give and take from both cultures. A synthesis produced out of the
mutual desire to appreciate and adopt from both cultures. This was also
possible as the local merchant population was at peace as long as their
trading interests were not harmed by the rulers and rulers were also
happy as well, as long as there was enough prosperity and economic
activities in the region indirectly helping the stability of region-state. This
phase for this reason became one of the most significant phases for
architectural development also.
The Solanki dynasty from 10th to 13* century was exemplified by
temples at Sunak, Delmal, Kasara, Kanoda (all 10th century, Gujarat)
Mount Abu and Kiradu (Rajasthan) all 11th century, Rudra Mahal,
Vadnagar, Siddhapur, Patan in Gujarat-also Somnath destroyed several
times all in Gujarat in 12th century and ongoing Jaina Temples at Mount
Abu and Girnar also in 13th century. This phase was also rich in examples
of civic architecture connected with buildings for public use and also
other monumental functions. City-gates, victory towers and also buildings
connected with utilitarian function also became examples of exquisite

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building craft. Step-wells, kunds etc. on trade routes and temple precinct
speak volumes of the architectural creativity, which continued in later
centuries of Muslim rule. City-gates at Jhinjhuwada and Dabhoi (12*
century), Rani-ki-vav at Patan (11th century) are the most important in
Gujarat besides the Victory Tower at Chitor and other fortifications and
towns in Rajasthan (12th century).
The period of Muslim rule after 15 th century is once again marked
with stability, the architectural expression as mentioned earlier borrowed
from the local idioms. There were increased activities of buildings,
religious for Muslims and also city-building and buildings for public
utilities. While building new institutions, Muslims improvised on some of
the typologies of buildings, which were local and indigenous. Like the
mosque became enlarged and included mandapa form as hall in front of
mihrab with octagonal shaped plan within a square which suited best
structurally to span the roof with a dome. A local Temple would have a
pyramidal roof there on top of such an octagonal plan.
The Muslim architecture under Ahmed-Shah-Sultans could be
categorized in three phases during its two and a half century rule-14th
century, 15th century first half and 15th century later half onwards,
respectively. These phases produced some of the most notable structures
under the patronage of Sultans, who did display a very remarkable taste
for built environment. This was basically also a desire oriented to
establish their might as rulers. The territory of Gujarat also possessed the
unrivalled resources of crafts and building traditions, which was the other
factor they had at their disposal, which provided a favorable climate. The
Sultans exploited these resources and made the best use of it in building
their own institutions for personal use as well as for the city, especially
the City of Ahmedabad, which they established as their capital. The crafts
communities, which hitherto were involved in building of Temples for
local Jaina community were all diverted easily by the rulers to their own
works and the craftsmen also obliged sensing ongoing patronage. The
craftsmen did adhere to their own codes and canons of architecture
according to their traditions, however, it was also imperative for them to
modify the intensity of these codes to suit their work to the needs of their
new masters, who were culturally poles apart and their building
philosophy totally opposite to the one professed under traditional temple
arts.
There was a total change over required in thinking associated with
building, the craftsmen did not find it difficult to apply best of their skills,
which assumed the dimensions of patterns, carving and sculptural relief in
place of sculptural iconography of temple architecture with definite
symbolic significance. In fact since the patterns employed and the
decorative"filigree was left free to the craftsmen, their skills in moulding

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stone was abundantly displayed and reached an unsurpassed level of
exuberance in the new synthesis under the Sultanate architecture of
Gujarat, which then became one of the most important architectural
idiom amongst the provinces of India. The important centres of this
architectural development were Patan and Broach, Cambay and Dholka in
14th century, Ahmedabad, Sarkhej and Dholka in first half of 15* century
and Ahmedabad, Mehmadabad, Batwa and Champaner all in later half of
the 15th century. The third phase of development under Mohammed
Beghara (1459-1511 A.D) was the richest period as far as the building
arts were concerned. Ahmedabad and later Champaner has been the
center of architectural developments and the synthesis of local and the
imported traditions, where the fragments that exist today testify to the
richness and glory of the achievements in building arts of that period.
Following this once again the region came under the rule of
Mughuls and their regional administrator. The royal patronage was
considerably diminishing. However due to the ongoing support of
merchants and nobility the traditions of building survived. Gujarat was
frequented by the English and Portuguese traders and in order to establish
their trading interest, which were bilateral with local merchants and also
the Mughul state, then started building factories, churches, convents,
cathedrals and also fortresses for their settlements and tombs as
memorials to their dignitaries, who lived and died here. All these
foreigners, like the earlier invaders, brought with them their cultural ideas
for built-environments, involved local craftsmen, borrowed local materials
and building practices and built their own settlements and buildings. The
prominent examples of these are the towns of Diu, Daman with an
architecture expressive once again of another type of synthesis with lofty
buildings and characteristically Indo Portuguese idioms to their
settlements. These building practices also induced a lot of influence to the
region, which also under more permanent British influence brought
drastic changes in the ongoing local traditions of building practices and as
a result in the built environment.
The impact of monumental buildings all over also influenced
Gujarat and regional princes and rulers accepted wholeheartedly the new
progressive, westernized building practices which expressed a very
strange mixture of oriental and occidental forms, stylized and preferential
but completely lacking in integral characteristic, which the earlier
building traditions displayed. The important example of these phases are
in Baroda, Ahmedabad, Rajkot, Bhuj, Jamnagar, Junagadh, Morvi, and
many other towns including the towns of Upleta, Gondal, Jamnagar etc.
where the new towns were also planned re-structuring the old existing
town under the advice of British and European planners and architects in
19th century, some of the most remarkable structures are in Baroda, the

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Palace and Baroda college, in Ahmedabad the Town Hall (early 20th
century), the Palace in Bhuj and Morvi and Wankaner. Almost in all
princely towns scores of buildings for offices and educational institutions,
libraries were built during this period which stand testimony to the
changed attitudes to building arts. The craftsmen, though, once again
exhibited their innate ability to adapt to the new situation and employ
their best skills for the purpose, which the English architects and
engineers found handy to adorn their designs employing their overall
western ideas in Indian conditions and climate.
The post independence era in India brought in European masters to
infuse new spirit in traditional but changing society awaiting new revival
through a united country. Englishmen while working lately in India were
guilty of neglecting the local traditions and not being able to revitalize the
evolutionary trend for its upgradation. In their later efforts, English
architects saw "the germs of a movement becoming observable, which
suggest that a trend in the direction of reviving the styles of architecture
indigenous to India is in contemplation, and it is hoped that some genius
will arise who will combine the beauty and the spirit of the old national
art with the methods and ideas of the new age." But this was not the
thinking of the new leadership of India at the time of independence. It
was still necessary to look west for progress. And the masters invited to
plan an Indian city and its 'democratic' institutions-to inspire the India of
future. These masters did not believe in what English architects, after
years of their experience in India started believing in. New masters
planted ideas of modern movement, which were not acceptable to even
the progressive westerners-the new expression- the alien one-in new
material which was industrial-and an environment which did not induce
any cohesion were all untenable but in vague as it got patronage from
those leaders who suddenly became benefactors of people at large and
took the community at large as their subjects, as only the feudal lords
would do. However, this was going to be the 'universal' vision of built
environment and architecture of future for India.
Gujarat progressive as always in absorbing new currents had
nobility, which got convinced about this new idea and was instantaneous
in inviting these masters to give new expression to institutions. By then
city authorities and the merchant associations were powerful patrons and
the new cultural institutions promoted by them were awaiting new,
modern expressions. Advent of the modem architecture in Gujarat in 50’s
was almost contemporary to what was happening in Chandigarh. And
Ahmedabad already got a major share of Le Corbusier's projects in terms
of private houses and institutions, the similar number he hardly built
anywhere in a single city even in Europe.

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 The modern architecture-individualistic, different, universal and
stating designers' will lifted ego of the patron. Its total aloofness was seen
more as a virtue rather an aberration from indigenous. As work of
architecture of another culture these buildings represented qualities of
individuals in its making, but the type of format it offered for usage had
no basis excepting fulfilling function. This did trigger off series of
influences in the field of architecture and instantly following developed in
terms of younger generation, Indian architects claiming western leanings
and associations with masters and modern movement- followers followed
and the scene of the architectural field went on getting disoriented as
none of the works that followed had seriousness and promise of either
new interpretations nor attitudes, which ever appreciated real needs of
people at large. The new industrial material introduced by modern
masters became the only acceptable material without ever acquiring the
back-up technology that went with it. Local crafts were completely
sidelined. Building activities became labour oriented (as against craft) and
the processes became more and more detached. Architecture as an art was
getting replaced by building as trade.
Architecture that the built environment of an era reflects is the
collective expression of the community and in that sense it is embodied in
its settlements. In earlier times the settlements were representative of
community's ideals and way of life. The characteristic urban settlements
of 17th, is la n d 19th century stand testimony to this attitude in many a
towns and cities of Gujarat. For this reason the wooden facades of houses
are even today in priceless heritage of Gujarati architecture of last three
hundred years, and the symbolic religious architecture from
corresponding era is also a testimony as a source of inspiration for the
community's preferences for the architecture of settlements. All these
were perceived as long as the traditions were alive. But with grip of the
economic and administrative control slipping into British rule, the social
situations started getting rapid influences of western attitudes and
thinking. Beginning of 20th century saw 'developments' of almost all towns
and cities in Gujarat. Also providing a release for the affording class to
swiftly opt for westernized living in bungalows outside the old towns and
thereby adopting progressive tendencies of breaking away from
traditional community bound living to more mixed, identifiable to social,
economic standing. This then saw the rise of new urban middle class with
segregated dwellings in a suburban environment posing for the first time
a break away from the compact, homogeneous living of the pre-British
traditions. With the westernization taking firm roots new institutions were
gradually introduced to supplement the civic life and the new areas added
to the towns virtually became an added adjuncts with western imagery
dotted with parks, gardens and enclaves of educational buildings and
public amenities. The architecture patronized thus by the British was

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obviously an import of ideas from west mixed with local masonry and
craft-help working under British designers.
Looking backwards from present context in examining heritage
scenario helps us re-examine our past with a basis in our own context of
contemporary times. Latest scenario in building has its roots in our
sociopolitical developments immediately after obtaining independence
from foreign rule of last two centuries. The party involved in mobilizing
the struggle for independence also takes on the power to govern the
country, freshly united in an emotional upsurge to jump into an utopian
dream of bringing together a very diverse and heterogeneous populace,
which had a very long tradition of provincial rule. Social system was
ingrained into people, who identified themselves with a feudal lord or
king and the entire social system worked perfectly in tune with this.
Economic means were controlled-though by and large, there was a
responsible attitude towards welfare of common people. The new party
comprising of freedom-fighters, whose main aim was to oppose the
governance suddenly found themselves as governors of a country of a size
which was at least twenty times larger than the states in which they lived.
The contradictions arising out of this and the results which it showed in
succeeding years is witnessed by all and this is well known. But to trace
the single most cause of its ill effects to succeeding 'development' in built
environment in urban areas all over has been the exploitation of land for
vested interests connected with the power centers of present era. This was
a fall out of the power the political leaders suddenly found in their hands-
as in merger of states the biggest gain was the ability to assume
ownership of land from displaced farmers from near the urban growth
centers and the likely growth centers.
Land, a commodity for live rage in power struggle has become a
stronghold around politicians. Subsequently building as a salable
commodity for profit has become an 'industry'. This is the real scenario in
our built-environment all over the country and Gujarat is a strong market,
where this 'industry1flourishes as there is a favorable market for the same.
Land and buildings are also considered easy escapes for tax evasion and
appropriation of unaccounted wealth, a part of which also can be divested
to the power, which conjoins with those running the 'industry' in a
mutually supportive existence.
In such a scenario in Gujarat, it is extremely important to make a
distinction between mere buildings and works of architecture. Every
building or built-environment is not a work of architecture and everyone
who builds is not an architect. In past, architectural design and
construction, mind and action worked simultaneously. Very often the
owner together with the designer was directly involved with the
construction team. This fine tradition is gone now. Probably the split of

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mind and labour, thought and action, are consequence of the social
division of labour, so also are the need to build - and the trading of
buildings as commodity are consequence of a new political clout. The
separation of means and ownership continues and the results are
obviously seen as impersonal environment, loss of standards and above all
a loss of healthy, cohesive living supporting cultural exchange amongst
all. For this reason, when it comes to describing contemporary excellence
in the field of architecture, or to suggest the comparable towns and cities,
which can be cited as strong descendants of historic precedents, we are at
a complete loss. The only thing one can perceive from today's built-
environment is the lack of purpose and character and for this reason
unimportant as heritage with significance.
The following illustrations show the exemplary characteristics of
architecture of Gujarat over the important phases of history.
Plate 1

Shiva Temple at Sander near Mehsana in North Gujarat is a small but

important example o f 11th century Solanki period architecture o f Gujarat
Temple architecture and as a result architecture in general reached its
glorious heights during this phase o f history o f Gujarat. The perfection o f
form, innovations based on canons and stylistically matured treatment o f
parts o f building became important features o f the achievement in the
architectural expression.

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Plate 2 & 3
The period o f Muslim rule in Gujarat following 12>h and l 6 h
century witnessed an important phase o f building cities and towns with
Ahmed Shah dynasty taking over firmly, in early Iff*century, power in
Gujarat and establishing Ahmedabad as their capital. Earlier to this the
invading rulers did build important monuments characteristic o f their
own idiom but heavily relying on the craftsmen locally available with
excellent skills and traditions. Champaner is expressive o f the glorious
building arts but most o f the town is completely ruined. Later century
show once more an upsurge in and around Ahmedabad region. Dholka,
Cambay, Mahemdabad, Bharuch and the richest o f all being Ahmedabad
where unprecedented building activities were undertaken by Ahmed shah
sultans. The architecture o f this era is a wonderful fusion o f Muslim
conception and local traditional Hindu execution. The acceptance was
mutually ingrained in the total act o f creation o f these monuments and is
cumulatively the best expression o f the integration achieved during the
period. Mutual concern for well being was at the root o f such a creative
extravaganza. The illustrations showSayeed Usman's tomb in Ahmedabad
and glimpses o f Jami Masjid in Champaner, so wonderfully noticed and
documented by Sir Claude Batley, whose pioneering study o f Indian
traditional architecture motivated brilliant young students o f architecture
at J.J. School o f Arts in Bombay in early 2Cfh century.
Plate 4

Ahmedabad old city o f 17thcentury onwards exemplify the collective

communal life style where communities shared togetherness to the utmost
level, caring for all the families irrespective o f their economic status. This
bondage was, o f course, a result o f religious ties which was the common

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link however the level o f agreement, accommodation and adjustments
achieved surpasses the mundane matters o f self-interest. This quality
amply exhibited in the resultant community settlement is unparallel in
value base and lends a very strong character to the town structure. A
house makes a city and vice-a-versa is perfectly demonstrated here. The
four illustrations here try to show the house within a settlement. This
richness o f quality o f town-form emerging and its reflected glory of
architecture o f a house form is a very rich heritage we have today.
Plate 5

In a similar scenario, Ahmedabad's traditional base also turns to

progressive west. The nobility so much committed to patronage to
traditions evolves further into progressive patrons to western masters. The
local master builders are replaced by western masters o f modem
architecture. These masters, though brilliant in their own way, offer
rational solutions to a 'house' in suburb in contemporary parlance, local
material, catalane shell for roof, and a 'free' plan - though the limits
unstated. A traditional house also offered a 'free'plan within the limits o f
the ethos o f the community tradition. The new house plan could only be
interpreted as 'free' between inside and outside, but with no barriers
defining 'life-style'.
In the ongoing scenario o f architecture ever since these imposed
ideas got currency as status symbol, there was a spate o f complete change
in house building with 'parallel walls' in suburban situation. The story o f
influences, external imports and new interpretations continues. The
society g et what it deserves and the emerging built environment only
reflects the level o f the culture o f people at any given time and as far as

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this belief is concerned the present scenario o f architecture in Gujarat as
anywhere else is hardly an exception.

The Origin and Development of Jainism in Guiarat

Jainism is one of the ancient religious in India. It was profunded by

Parsvanatha and was reformed and built into a closed system by
Vardhamana Mahavira a contemporary of Gautama Buddha. Though the
Jains are spread all over India, their main concentrations are in Gujarat,
Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. But the Jainism
has reached Gujarat more than 200 years ago.
From the early 4th century A.D. until around 600 A.D. northern
India was under the control of the Gupta dynasty. In the Gupta period
Gujarat seems to have become the most important center of Jainism in
India. Apart from Gujarat, Jainism was well established in many parts of
India, by the Gupta period.
Jaina is derived from the Sanskrit word Jina means “Conqueror”4a
title attached to revered beings of this religion who have conquered the
world of passions by their own strenuous efforts, who have obtained
perfect knowledge and absolute freedom from the bondage of karma. It
specially refers to the TTrthankaras, the one who has a built a passage
through the ocean of births, meaning the teachers of this religion.
One of the basic ethical principles of Jainism is ahimsa, not to
violate any form of life and aparigriha, non-possession principles and
beliefs. Jainism regards every living soul as potentially divine when the
soul sheds its karmic bonds completely, it attains divine consciousness. It
prescribes a path of non-violence to progress the soul to this ultimate
goal. Jainism encourages spiritual development through reliance on and
cultivation of one’s own personal wisdom and self-control. The goal of
Jainism is to realize the soul’s true nature. Jain tradition identifies
Rsabdeva as the first tlrthankaras, appeared prior to the Indus Valley
Civilization.5
Another major characteristic of Jain beliefs is the emphasis on the
consequences of not only physical but also on mental behaviors. Jainism
acknowledges that every person has different capabilities and capacities
and therefore assigns different duties for ascetics and householders. Jain

4 A.K. Coomaraswamy “Essays on the Jain A rt” (edt. By Richard J. Cohen) Published
By Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, New Delhi 2003, p.22
5 uJinamanjari\ Early Jainism, International Journal of Contemporary Jaina
Reflections, North America, Vol. 13, 1966, pp. 99-102

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believe that knowledge of the truth (dharma) has declined and revived
cyclically throughout history. Those, who discover dharma are called
“tlrthankara”.
Mahavira established the fourfold community (chaturvidhi sangha)
of monks, nuns and male and female laypersons. The 24 Jain tlrthankaras
in chronological order are - adinatha, ajitnatha, sambha vanatha,
abhinandan swami, sumadnatha, padmaprabhu, suparsvanatha,
chandraprabha, pushpadanta, (suvidhinatha), sitalnatha, sreyansanatha,
vasupujya swami, vimalnatha, anantnatha, dharmanatha, santinatha,
kunthunatha, aranatha, mallinatha, munisuvrata swami, naminatha,
nemindtha, parsvanatha,and mahavira (vardhamana)6.
Jainism has been a major cultural, philosophical, social and political
force since the dawn of civilization in Asia. It was already an ancient
deeply entrenched faith and culture over several thousand years. Jain
influence on Hindu philosophy and religion has been considerable while
Hindu influence on Jain rituals may be observed in certain Jain sections.
Jainism is among the smallest of the major world religions, but in India,
its influence is much greater than these numbers would suggest. Jains live
throughout India-Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Gujarat which have the largest
Jain population among Indian states.
In the medieval era, the rulers of Gujarat were patrons of Jainism
and it was due to them, that some of the most remarkable monuments of
the faith came into being. Jainism flourished in Gujarat during the days of
Rashtrakuta monarchs, many of whom were devout Jains, and it received
a further fillip at the hands of that veteran Jain ruler Vanaraja of Chavada
family. About 1100 A.D., Jainism gained a great ascendancy when the
Chalukya King Siddhardj and his successor Kumarapala openly professed
Jainism and encouraged the literary and temple building activities of the
Jainas, and great Jain teacher, scholar Hemchandracharya contributed to
Jain learning as well as too many other subjects. Hemchandra was
involved in the constructions of the Jain temples at Taranga. His influence
on Kumarapala resulted in the Jain religion, becoming the official religion
of Gujarat and animal slaughter was banned.
During the days of Vaghelas in the 13thcentury A.D. Jainism
received patronage through the hands of Vastupala and Tejapala, the two
famous Jain ministers of the time. They were responsible for constructing
the beautiful temple cities at Satruiijaya, Gimar and Abu. Afterwards even
though Jainism did not receive the royal patronage as before, still it
continued to hold its position and the numerical and financial strength of
Jain gave their religion a place of honour which is acknowledge even to
£
R.S.. Gupte, “Iconography o f the Hindus Buddhists and Jains, ’’Taraporevala
publication, Bombay 1972, p. 177-178.

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this day. Jainism mostly flourished during this period with large numbers
in all the classes of society, a golden age of the faith and an influence has
started to practice this religion with enthusiasm. It continued to produce
great scholars and many devoted saints. Temple building, Arts and
Architecture were flourished.
Jainism had very close relation with Gujarat and Kathiawar, where
we find the largest concentration of the Jain at present. Here on the
Mount Gimar in Junagadh district, neminatha, the 22 tirthankara of the
Jinas, attained salvation. The council of Jain ascetics held at Valabhi in
the year 993 after mahavira i.e.in 466 A.D. the Jain canon was, for the
first time reduced to writing. Just as South India is the stronghold of
digambaras Jain, similarly, Western India is the centre of activities of
svetambara Jain. Regarding the migration of Jains to these parts of India,
it is thought that the migrations must have taken place by 300 B.C. from
Eastern India. In this connection the Cambridge History of India has give
the following conclusion: "From the facts that the Jain tell us something
about the reigns of Chandragupta Mauiya and his son Bindusara but at
the same time they have practically nothing to tell about the reigns of
asoka and his successors in East India and that the division of the Jaina
Church into two great sects of the digambaras and svetambars had
probably begun after the reign of Chandragupta Mauiya. It Is concluded
that the Jain were probably already at this time, i.e., 300 B.C., gradually
losing their position in the kingdom Maghada, and that they had begun
their migration towards the western part of India, where they settled and
where they have retained their settlements to the present day."7
It is generally believed that the Jain sangha is divided into two
major sections-digambara and svetambara about 200 years after
mahavfra's nirvana. The digambaras are also called digvasanas. The name
Digambara means literally 'clothed in the quarters of the sky' and they are
called 'atmosphere-clad' or 'sky-clad.' Nudity is the main doctrinal
difference between the svetambaras and the digambaras. Outward
appearance is seen by the digambaras as an index of proper
understanding of the doctrine. The digambara view on ascetic nakedness
was put by Aparajita in the eighth century. The true monk must be
completely naked; even a loincloth is a compromise. He must abandon all
possessions and be no longer subject to the social considerations of pride
and shame. And to obey the vow of ahimsa, non-violence, dirty clothing
must be avoided as it attracts tiny creatures which might be crushed. The
naked monk must follow the example of the Jinas, who were naked. As

n
Rapson James Edward “Cambridge History o f India” Vol.II, Cambridge University,
London 1922, p.639

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well, he may not use an alms-bowl, but has to use his hands cupped
together as a bowl. He can eat only once a day. However, nuns are
allowed to be clothed as otherwise they would cause social disruption-
even though there is a tradition of naked female yoginis in Hinduism.
There are doctrinal differences with the svetambaras over the Jinas. The
digambaras believe that kevalins, perfect saints, such as the Jinas live
without food. In fact, the Jinas can manifest no worldly activity and no
longer has any bodily functions, for if he did his jiva, soul, would then
change and he would not be omniscient. The Jinas teach by a magical
divine sound. There are also differing accounts of the life of mahavlra. To
the digambaras, the embryo of mahavlra was not removed from the womb
of devananda to that of trisala, as the svetambaras believe, and they do
not follow the svetambara account of mahavira being married and living
the life of the householder until he was thirty.
In the digambara tradition, women cannot gain moksa, liberation,
unless they are first reborn as men. The digambaras disown the
svetambara canon, claiming that these texts were gradually lost during
the first centuries after the nirvana, death, of mahavlra. They give
canonical status to two Prakrit works, chapters on karman and chapters
on kasayas (passion), both of which they claim were composed on the
basis of the lost drstivada. Of great importance to the digambaras are the
works of kundakunda, such as “Essence of the Doctrine”. Essentially, the
difference in doctrine is minor. Both the svetambara and digambara
traditions accept the tattvarthasutra of Umasvati, who in the second
century was the first systematize of Jain philosophy. The philosophy and
ethics which form the foundation of Jainism are exactly the same for both
the svetambaras and the digambaras, and the five major vows of ahimsa
Cnon-violence), satya {truth), asteya{non-stealing), aparigraha(/2on-
possession), and brahmacarya {celibacy), are central to their doctrine.
Most digambaras are image-worshippers, except for the sects of the
terapanthis (terahapanthis) and the taranapanthis. gumanapanthis and
totapanthis are minor subsects of the digambaras. They are not very
important and very little is known about them. Gumanapantha flourished
late in the eighteenth century and is named after its founder Gumana
Rama.
History: There are both svetambara and digambara stories of the
origin of the Digambara sect. The svetambara version says the sect started
609 years after the death of mahavlra when a svetambara named
sivabhuti initiated himself as a monk after he was angry at being locked
out one night by his mother-in-law and subsequently decided to follow
the way of mahavira and threw off his monastic robes. The digambara
version is set in the time of durbhiksha, 'a time when it is difficult to gain
alms,' when there was famine and political anarchy in the North.

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 The digambaras migrated to the South under Bhadrabahu, while
those that remained became the backsliding svetambaras who took to
wearing clothes. The svetambaras maintain that Bhadrabahu was at that
time in Nepal. Neither version is very old, the svetambara story dating
from the 5“ century A.D. and the digambara story from the 10th century
A.D. The actual historical situation is more complex. It is likely that the
fracture into two major sub-groups on the basis of clothing or nudity took
place gradually, judging from archaeological and inscriptional evidence.
There was no sudden doctrinal split. Mahavira and his followers were
naked monks and the earliest Jina-images are naked. Only in the 5th
century A.D. is there an image of Rsabha wearing a lower garment and
svetambara images became generally clothed only several centuries later.
The name digambara took some time to become established in use.
Until the 14thcentury a sect called the Yapaniyas existed, which
shows the original flexibility regarding sectarian affiliation. Yapaniyas
were a compromise, wearing clothes only when with lay followers. The
schism appears to have been recognized as early as the 1st century A.D.
and was certainly established by the time of the Council of Valabhi in 453
or 466 A.D. Dundas describes the Council as "The catalyst for the final
hadening of boundaries between the svetambaras and the digambaras"
(1992, 43) only svetambaras came to the Council, held on the Kathiawar
Peninsula. Geography played an important part in the schism, with the
digambaras prospering in South India and the svetambaras remaining
mainly in the North. The digambaras claim that when they migrated south
with Bhadrabahu to Mysore, Chandragupta Maurya, first king of the
Maurya dynasty who had become a Jain monk, was with them. They
believe that Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta Maurya died the holy death
of sallekhana, fasting to death, on hills at sravana belgola. There is no
evidence of this, but numerous inscriptions in the area from the 5th
century A.D. support a southern migration.
The Jain religion is one of the oldest religions in the world. The
Jain religion was also known as sraman dharma, nirgranth dharma, etc. It
is not an offshoot of any other religion but is an independent religion
recognized by these various names during different time periods. It was
has been taught by tirthankaras also called Jina. A follower of a Jina is
called a Jain and the religion followed by Jains is called Jainism8. Each
tirthankara revitalizes the Jain order. The Jain Order is known as the Jain
sahgha. The current Jain sahgha was re established by Mahavira who was
the 24th and last tirthankara of the current time period. The Jain sahgha is
composed of the following four groups.

8 Mohan Lai Mehta, “Jain Culture” Varanasi, 1969, p. 99

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 1) sadhus (monks)
2) sadhvis (nuns)
3) sravaks (malehouseholders)
4) sravikhs (female householders)
Mahavira’s teachings were carried on by his Ganadharas to us in the
form of scriptures (agams). They were compiled into twelve separate
parts, known as the dwadashangi (twelve parts). These twelve
compositions were acceptable to all followers. However, the dwadashangi
were not put in writing for a long time. The Jain pupils learned them by
memorizing them. About 150 years after the nirvana of Mahdvira, there
was a drought for 12 years. During this time, some monks along with
Bhadrabahu swami migrated to South. After the drought was over, some
monks came back to North. They observed that there was some
inconsistency in oral recollection of the Jain scriptures by different monks.
That made them to compile scriptures. To accomplish that, the first
council (conference) of monks was held in Patliputra about 160 years
after Mahavira’s nirvana. Monk Bhadrabahu, who had the knowledge of
all 12 angas, could not be present at that meeting. The rest of the monks
could compile only the first eleven angas by recollection and thus, the
twelfth anga was lost. The monks from the South did not agree with this
compilation, and the first split in Jainism started. Jains are divided into
two main groups, svetambaras and digambaras. svetambara monks wore
white clothes, digambara monks did not wear any clothes at all.
The svetambara sect has also been split to three main sub-sects:
1) murtipujaka
2) sthanakvasi
3) terapanthi
Murtipuiaka
The original stock of the svetambaras is known as murtipujaka
svetambaras since they are the thorough worshippers of idols. They offer
flowers, fruits, saffron, etc. to their idols and invariably adorn them with
rich clothes and jewelled ornaments.
Their ascetics cover their mouth with strips of cloth while speaking,
otherwise they keep them in their hands. They stay in temples or in the
especially reserved buildings known as upasrayas. They collect food in
their bowls from the sravakas or householders' houses and eat at their
place of stay.

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 The murtipujaka sub-sect is also known by terms like (i) pujera
(worshippers), (ii) deravasi (temple residents), (iii) chaityavasi (temple
residents) and (iv) mandira-margi (temple goers).
The murtipujaka svetambaras are found scattered all over India for
business purposes in large urban centers, still they are concentrated
mostly in Gujarat.
Sthanakvasi
The sthanakvasi arose not directly from the svetambaras but as
reformers of an older reforming sect, viz. the Lonka sect of Jainism. This
Lonka sect was founded in about 1474 A.D. by Lonkashaha, a rich and
well-read merchant of Ahmedabad. The main principle of this sect was
not to practice idol-worship. Later on, some of the members of the Lonka
sect disapproved of the ways of life of their ascetics, declaring that they
lived less strictly than Mahavira would have wished. A Lonka sect layman,
Viraji of Surat, received initiation as a Yati, i.e., an ascetic, and won great
admiration on account of the strictness of his life. Many people of the
Lonka sect joined this reformer and they took the name of sthanakvasi,
meaning those who do not have their religious activities in temples but
carry on their religious duties in places known as sthanakas which are like
prayer-halls.
Terapanthi
The terapanthi sub-sect is derived from the sthanakvasi, section.
The terapanthi sub-sect was founded by Swami Bhikkanaji Maharaj.
Swami Bhikkanaji was formerly a Sthanakvasi saint and had initiation
from his Guru, by name acharya Raghunatha. Swami Bhikkanaji had
differences with his Guru on several aspects of religious practices of
sthanakvasi ascetics and when these took a serious turn, he founded
terapantha on the full-moon day in the month of asadha in the year V.S.
1817=1760 A.D.
As acharya Bhikkanaji laid stress on the 13 religious principles,
namely, (i) five mahavratas (great vows), (ii) five samitis (regulations)
and (iii) three guptis (controls or restraints), his sub-sect was known as
the tera (meaning thirteen)-pantha sub-sect. In this connection it is
interesting to note that two other interpretations have been given for the
use of the term terapantha for the sub-sect. According to one account, it is
mentioned that as there were only 13 monks and 13 laymen in the pantha
when it was founded, it was called as Tera (meaning thirteen) -pantha.
This practice of regulating the entire pantha by one acharya only
has become a characteristic feature of the terapantha and an example for
emulation by other panthas. It is noteworthy that all monks and nuns of
the terapantha scrupulously follow the orders of their acharya, preach

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under his guidance and carry out all religious activities in accordance with
his instructions. Further, the terapantha regularly observes a remarkable
festival known as maryada mahotasava. This distinctive festival is
celebrated every year on the 7th day of the bright half of the month of
magha when all ascetics and lay disciples, male and female, meet together
at one predetermined place and discuss the various problems of
terapanthis.
The penance of terapanthis is considered to be very severe. The
dress of terapanthi monks and nuns is akin to that of sthanakvasi monks
and nuns. But there is a difference in the length of muhapanthis, i.e., a
piece of white cloth kept always on the mouth. The terapanthis believe
that idolatry does not provide deliverance and attach importance to the
practice of meditation.
Further, it may be stressed that the terapantha is known for its
disciplined organization characterized by one acharya (i.e., religious
head), one code of conduct and one line of thought. The terapanthis are
considered reformists as they emphasize simplicity in religion. For
example, the terapanthis do not even construct monasteries for their
monks, who inhabit a part of the house which the householders build for
themselves. Recently their religious head, acharya tulsi, had started the
Anuvrata Andolana, that is, the small vow movement which attempts to
utilize the spiritual doctrines of the Jain for moral uplift of the masses in
India.
The rise of terapantha is the last big schism in the svetambara sect
and this pantha is becoming popular. The terapanthis are still limited in
number and even though they are noticed in different cities in India, they
are concentrated mainly in Bikaner, Jodhpur and Mewar areas of
Rajasthan.
Sadhus (monks) and Sadhvis (nuns) are people who have
voluntarily given up their household lives and worldly affairs and have
accepted the five major vows to uplift their souls on the spiritual path.
They strictly follow the rules laid down for them, sravaks and sravikas, on
the other hand, continue to lead worldly lives. They may observe in full or
to a limited extent, twelve minor vows laid down for them.
Classes of Jains:
The Jains are also divided into various castes through the rules of
caste endogamy and inter caste relations are not very strictly followed
within the community. The Jain also maintains the traditional affiliation
to a certain line of monks. Occupations involving less mobility such as
those of merchants are more suitable to them. Due to these regions, the
Jain own large business-houses connected with textiles, grains, machinery
and capital investment.
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 Other industries owned by the Jain are the chemical industry, the
paper industry newspapers, precious metals, jewelers and banking. Most
of the middle class Jain are accountants, bankers and craftsman.
Contribution of Jainism to Indian Culture:
It is evident that Jainism is an ancient religion of India and that
right from hoary antiquity to the present day, it has continued to flourish
along with other religions in different parts of India. The Jain succeeded
in continuing to exist as devout followers of a distinct religion in India.
In fact the most outstanding characteristic of Jain in India is their
very impressive record of contribution to Indian Culture. In comparison
with the limited and small populations of Jain, the achievements of Jain,
in enriching the various aspects of Indian Culture are really great.
Jainism had a major influence in developing a system of philosophy
and ethics that had a major impact on all aspects of Indian Culture. Jain
has also wielded great influence on the culture and languages. The
earliest known Gujarati text, bharat-bahubali ras, was written by a Jain
monk. Some important people in Gujarat's Jain history were acharya
Hemchandra Suri and his pupil the Chalukya ruler Kumarapala9.
Perhaps the most creditable contribution of Jain is in the field of
languages and literature. It is quite evidence that right from the Vedic
period two different currents of thought and ways of life known as-
(a) brahman culture and
(b) sramana culture are prevalent in India
The sramana culture is mainly represented by the Jain and the
Buddhists and of them the Jain were the first to propagate that culture.
That is why from ancient times we have the sramana literature besides the
brahmanic literature. The characteristic features of the sramana literature
are as follows: It disregards the system apart from these, the most
valuable contributions have been made by the Jains to the Indian
scientific and technical literature on various subjects like logic,
philosophy, poetics, grammar, lexicography, astronomy, astrology,
geography, mathematics and medicine. The Jain have paid special
attention to the arthasastra (or politics) which is considered to be "a
worldly science" par excellence. Thus there is hardly any branch of science
that has not been ably treated by the Jain castes and asramas. The
sramana literatures have contributed enormously to the religious, ethical,
poetical, and scientific literature of ancient India.

9 Manjulal R. Majmudar, “Cultural H istory o f Gujarat”, Popular Prakashan, Bombay,

1965, p. 18

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 The literature of the Jain is also very important from the point of
view of the history of Indian languages for the Jain always took care that
their writings were accessible even to the masses of the people. Hence the
canonical writings and the earliest commentaries are written in prakrit
dialects and at a later period Sanskrit and various modem Indian
languages were used by the Jain. The Jain have enriched various regional
languages and especially hindi, gujarati, kannada, tamil and telugu.10
The Jain have produced their vast literature in these languages
from very ancient times, they have certainly played a very important part
in the development of the different languages of India. The medium of
sacred writings and preaching of the brahmins has all along been Sanskrit
and that of the Buddha’s Pali. But the Jain alone utilized the prevailing
languages of the different places, besides Sanskrit, prakrit and
apabhramsa, for their religious propagation as well as for the preservation
of knowledge. It is thus quite evident that the Jain occupies an important
position in the history of the literature and civilization of India.
Arts and Architecture:
Along with literature the Jain has always contributed considerably
to the development of the arts in the country The Jain have taxed their
mite to enhance the glory of India in several branches of arts. Compared
with their number their contributions appear to be very imposing and
distinctive. The Jain religions consider constmction of temples and have
constructed an unusually large number of temples through India. Jain
temples are distinguished for elaborate details and equisite finish. The
marble temple at Mount Abu, Rajasthan are considered as the most
valuable contributors of the Jain in the domain of architecture. It is
famous for Western or Gujarati style of Architecture which is
characterized by a free use of columns carved with all imaginable
richness, stmt brackets and exquisite marble ceilings with cusped
pendants. The temples are known for the beauty and delicacy of the
carvings and the richness of the design. The temples at Ranakpur built in
1440 A.D. is also another famous Jain architecture.*11
The other temples of such superb character are (i) the temple of
Parsvanatha at Khajuraho in Bundelkhand in Madhya Pradesh, (ii) the
temple at Lakkundi in North Karnataka, (iii) the temple known as

10 A. N. Upadhye, "JAINISM” A Cultural H istory o f India, Ciarendron Press London,

1975, p. 102
11 Dhaky A. Madhusudan & Shah U.P. “Aspects o f Jain A rt & Architecture” Gujarat State
Committee for the Celebrations o f 250th Anniversary of Bhagavan Mahavira
Nirvana, Ahmedabad, December 1975, p.352

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Jinanathapura Basadi near Sravana-belagola in South Karnataka, (iv)
Seth Hutheesingh’s temple at Ahmedabad (v) The temple known as Hose
Vasadi at Mudabidri in South Kanara District of Karnataka.
As regards the spread of beautiful Jain temples in India it may be
noted that the number of such temples in India was considerably reduced
during the Muslim period because the structure of Jain temple was such
that it could easily be converted into a mosque. The light columnar style
of the Jain temples not only supplied materials more easily adopted to the
purposes of Muslims, but furnished hints of which the Muslim architects
were not slow to avail themselves. A mosque obtained in this way was, for
convenience and beauty, unsurpassed by anything the Muslims afterwards
erected from their own original designs. Thus the great mosques of Ajmer,
Delhi, Kanauj and Ahmedabad are merely reconstruction on the temples
of Hindus and Jains.
Temple-cities:
Further, the grouping together of their temples into what may be
called 'Cities of Temples' is a peculiarity which the Jains have practiced to
a greater extent than the followers of any other religion in India. Such
notable temple cities are found, among other places, at (i) Satrunjaya or
Palitana in Gujarat, (ii) Girnar in Gujarat, (iii) Sammed-Shikhara in Bihar
(iv) Sonagiri in Bundelkhand in Madhya Pradesh, (v) Muktagiri in
Vidarbha, Maharashtra, (vi) Kunthalgiri in Marathwada, Maharashtra,
(vii) Sravana-belagola in Hassan District, Karnataka and (viii) Mudabidri
in South Kanara District, Karnataka.
Cave-temples:
Again, the Jain also like the Buddhists built several cave-temples
cut in rocks from the early times. But in dimensions, the Jain cave temples
were smaller than the Buddhist ones because the Jain religion gave
prominence to individualistic and not to congregational ritual. The most
numerous cave-temples are in Udayagiri and Khandagiri Hills in Orissa.
The pictures queness of their forms, the character of their sculptures, and
the architectural details combined with their great antiquity render them
one of the most important groups of caves in India. These and those of
Junagadh in Gujarat belong to the second century B.C. while the others
are of a later date of which the important ones are found at (i) Aihole and
Badami in Bijapur District (Karnataka), (ii) Ankai and Patana in Khandesh
District (Maharashtra), (iii) Ellora and Oosmanabad in Marathwada
(Maharashtra), (iv) Chamar Lena near Nasik City (Maharashtra), and (v)
Kalugumalai in Tinnevelly District (Tamilnadu).

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Stupas:
Like the Buddhists, Jain also erected stupas in honor of their saints,
with their accessories of stone railings, decorated gateways, stone
umbrellas, elaborate carved pillars and abundant statues. Early examples
of these have been discovered in the Kankali mound near Mathura in
Uttar Pradesh, and they are supposed to belong to the 1st century B.C.

Mana-stambhas or Pillars:
Another remarkable contribution of the Jain in the field of
architecture is the creation of many stambhas or pillars of pleasing design
and singular grace which are found attached to many of their temples. In
connection with these manastambhas, as they are popularly called, the
famous authority on Jain architecture, Dr. James Fergusson, states that it
may be owing to the iconoclastic propensities of the Muslims that these
pillars are not found so frequently where they have held sway, as in the
remote parts of India; but, whether for this cause or not, they seem to be
more frequent in South India than in any other part of India. Dr. James
Fergusson further suggests the obelisk of the Egyptians.12 Regarding these
Jain pillars in the South Kanara District of Karnataka, the research scholar
Mr. Walhouse has remarked that "the whole capital and canopy are a
wonder of light, elegant, highly decorated stone work, and nothing can
surpass the stately grace of these beautiful pillars whose proportions and
adaptation to surrounding scenery are always perfect, and whose richness
of decoration, never offends." According to another eminent authority on
Indian Architecture, Dr. Vincent Smith, in the whole range of Indian Art
there is nothing perhaps equal to these pillars in the Kanara District for
good taste.13
Towers:
There is evidence to show that apart from pillars the Jains.
Especially from northern India, constructed a great number of beautiful
towers dedicated to their tirthankaras. There is such a tower which is still
adorning Chittor in Mewar (Rajasthan) and it is considered as one of the
best preserved monuments in India. This Jain Tower at Chittor is a
singularly elegant specimen of its class, about 75 feet in height and
adorned with sculpture and moldings from the base to the summit. The
Tower was constructed in the 12th century and was dedicated to Adimtha,

12 A .L.Basham3 “ Cultural History o f India” Oxford”, Charendron Press, 1975, p. 102-

103
13 Vincent Smith, “The Jain Stupa and the Antiquities o f Mathura”, Allahabad, 1901, p.
3-9.

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the first of the Jain tlrthankaras, and nude figures of them are repeated
some hundreds of times on the face of the tower.
Sculpture:
The innumerable specimens of Jain sculpture found in practically
all parts of India show that the Jain enlisted the services of sculptors from
very ancient times. Their most common form of sculpture up to this day is
modeling of images or statues of their tlrthankaras. But in giving shape to
these figures no scope at all was given for the free play of imagination of
individual sculptors as regular rules regarding the form and pose of
statues of tlrthankara had been prescribed by the Jain religion from the
very beginning. Consequently, practically all Jain images pertain to one
class and therefore Jain images from any part of the country cannot be
distinguished from their style even though they belong to different age’s
altogether.
Further, it is significant to note that the Jain images have been
made of all sizes and substances and are almost always invariable in
attitude, whether seated or standing. Small images are made of crystal,
alabaster, soapstone, bloodstone, and various other precious and
semiprecious materials, while the larger ones are carved from whatever
kind of stone happens to be locally available.
. Undoubtedly the most remarkable of the Jain statues are the
celebrated colossi of southern India, the largest free-standing statues in
Asia which are three in number, situated in Karnataka State respectively
at sravana-belgola in Hassan District (constructed in 9S1 A.D. and 56.5
feet in height), at Karkala in South Kannada District (constructed in 1432
A.D. and about 41 feet in height) and at Yenura or Venura in South
Kanara District (Constructed in 1604 A.D. and 35 feet in height). All these
three images of Bahubalithe son of first tlrthankara adinatha, being set of
the top of eminence, are visible for miles around, and inspire of their
formalism they command respectful attention by their enormous mass
and expression of dignified serenity. That is why these three images are
considered by authorities like Dr. James Fergusson and Dr. Vincent Smith
as the most remarkable works of native art in south India14.
Decorative Sculpture:
Regarding the unrivaled progress of the Jain in decorative
sculpture, as distinguished from individual statuary, Dr. Vincent Smith
remarks that 'The Jains encouraged the work of a high order of excellence
and beauty, employed to adorn with the utmost possible magnificence
and pillared chambers which were their favorite form of architecture15.

14P.M. Joseph, “Jainism in South India”, Thirvananthapuram, 1997, p.33-37

15 ibid of Joseph, p.37

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Nothing in the world can surpass for richness and delicacy of detail the
marble columns and ceilings of the Mount Abu temples and it would be
easy to fill to large volume with illustrations of more or less similar
exquisite work in many localities."
Painting:
Along with architecture and sculpture, the, Jain have contributed in
a large measure to the development of art of painting in India. The
tradition of Jain painting is as old as Buddhist painting and innumerable
Jain paintings of exquisite quality could be found on walls, palm-leaves,
paper, cloth, wood, etc. It is significant to note that the Jain possess a very
extensive treasure of manuscript paintings drawn in the early Western
Indian Style, called the 'Gujarati Style' or specifically the 'Jain Style'.
The Jain School of Miniature Paintings laid great emphasis on style.
The unique features of this school include strong pure colors, stylish
figures of ladies, heavy gold outlines, diminution of dress to angular
segments, enlarged eyes and square-shaped hands16. One can see the
influence of Jain Miniature Paintings on Rajasthani and Mughal paintings
also.
Philosophy:
As Jainism is an original system, quite distinct and independent
from all others, the Jain have developed a separate philosophy which is
regarded as a valuable contribution to Indian philosophy.
In philosophy the Jain occupy a distinct position between the
Brahmanic and Buddhist philosophical systems. This has been shown very
clearly by Dr. Hermann Jacobi in his paper on 'The Metaphysics and
Ethics of the Jainas'. Regarding, the problem of being the three-hold
different opinions17. The Vadantins consider that underlying and up­
holding from within all things there is one absolute permanent Being'
without change and with none other like it. On the contrary the Buddhists
hold that all things are transitory. The Jain, however, contend that Being'
is joined to production. Continuation and destruction and that they call
their theory of multiple view points (i.e. anekantavada). In contra­
distinction to the theory of permanency, (i.e. nityavada) of the Vedantins,
and to the theory of transitoriness (i.e.ksanika-vada) of the Buddhists.
The Jain think that the existing things are permanent only as
regards their substance, but their accidents or qualities originate and
perish. To emphasize once again here the significance of this Jain theory

1£
Manjulal R. Majmudar, “Cultural History o f Gujarat” Popular Prakashan, Bombay,
1965, p. 71
17
Hermann Jacobi, “Some Aspects o f Jainism”, 1914

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of 'Being' comes out more clearly when it is regarded in relation to the
doctrines of syadvada and of nayavada. According to the doctrine
of syadvada any proposition about an existing thing must, somehow,
reflect the many-sidedness of Being.' i.e. any metaphysical proposition is
right from one point of view, and, the contrary proposition is also right
from another point of view. The nayas are ways of expressing the nature
of things; all these ways of judgment are, according to the Jains, one­
sided, and they contain but a part of truth. The doctrine of
the nayas is thus, the logical complement to the syadvada which is the
outcome of the theory of the many-sidedness of ‘Being' from this Dr. H.
Jacobi affirms that the Jain theory of ‘Being’ is an indication of the
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commonsense view.
Ethical Code:
As the Jain has evolved a philosophy of their own, they follow a
distinct ethical code based on their philosophy. The Jain ethics stands as a
class by itself in the sense that it is the only system which is founded, on
the main principle of ahimsa. It has already been noted how the principle
of ahimsa forms the basis of various rales of conduct prescribed for both
the Jain laymen and ascetics19.
Thus one of the significant contributions of the Jain is
the ahimsa culture. If the Jain are known for anything it is for the
evolution of ahimsa culture and it must be said to the credit of the Jain
that they practiced and propagated that culture from ancient times20. In
fact the antiquity and continuity of ahimsa culture is mainly due to the
incessant efforts of the Jain ascetics and householders. Naturally wherever
the Jain were in great numbers and wielded some influence they tried to
spread ahisa culture among the masses. That is why we find that the
States of Gujarat and Karnataka, which are the strongholds of Jain from
the beginning, are mainly vegetarian. In fact it is admitted that as a result
of the activities of the Jain for the last so many centuries, ahimsa still
forms the substratum of Indian character as a whole.
The Political Progress:
The Jain also distinguished them in giving their unstinted support
for the improvement of political and economic life in the country. The
Jain, especially in Southern and Western India, produced a large number
of eminent and efficient monarchs, ministers, and generals and thereby
contributed to maintain and improve the political importance of the

1Q
Hermann Jacobi, “Some Aspects o f Jainism”, 1914, p.
19 A.L. Basham, “A Cultural History o f I n d ii\ Clarendron Press, Oxford, 1975,
p.106-107
20 ibid of Basham,p. 107

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people. Not only the ordinary Jain, but their acharyas, i.e., saints also
aided materially to create the proper political environment based
on ahimsd culture necessary for the resuscitation of the life in the country.
It is considered that due to the keen interest taken by the Jain
acharyas, i.e.. saint in political affairs of the country, Jainism occupies an
important place in the history of India. The Jain ascetics were never
indifferent towards the secular affairs in general. We know from the
account of Megasthenes that, in the 4th century B.C., the sramanas of Jain
ascetics who lived in the woods were frequently consulted by the kings
through their messengers, regarding the cause of things. So far as
Karnataka is concerned Jainism, throughout its course of more than one
thousand years, was an example of a religion which showed that religious
tenets were practiced without sacrificing the political exigencies when the
question of rejuvenating life in the country was at stake. That is why in
Karnataka we find that the Jain acharyas ceased to be merely exponents
of dogmas and turned themselves into creators of kingdoms. It has
already been noted that the Jain saints were virtually responsible for the
founding of the Ganga kingdom in the 2nd century A.D. and the Hoysala
kingdom in the 11th century A.D.
Languages an d L iterature
Languages- It is a means of self-expression. It came into existence with
the very existence of living beings the function is language its
communication of thought through the medium of signs and signals. The
origin of language is very much related with the very origin of the world
of living beings and cannot be taken as separate from the origin of living
beings. Jain hold the nature of languages is ever transforming like the
nature of reality. Language subjects in the midst of change. It is existent
from the very existence of life and yet it undergoes changes from time to
time and from places to places.21
The particular language from the point of view of being developed
at a certain place in a certain time by certain class of people is of course
temporal but from the point of view of tradition and flow the concept of
language in itself is eternal. To regard language as eternal means only
that the language is existent from the advent of living world or in other
words the language functioning of medium of communication of thoughts
and emotions through symbols.
Other doctrines of origin of language and Jainism:

o -l

Kapadia A.R. “History o fth e Canonical Literature o f the Jainas” Bombay 1947,
p.110-112

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 According to Jain, the language is not created by God, but by the
world of living beings. It is influenced by many factors. The meaning-
symbols and cognition of meaning of living beings which are influenced
by any factors as space, time and circumstances. Languages goes on
developing as it is never fixed and final and continuously dynamic. It is a
creation but developed in due course of time by traditions. This is the only
theory regarding the origin of language that is acceptable to the Jain.

Languages and Literature:

Perhaps the most creditable contribution of Jains is in the field of
languages and literature. It is quite evidence that right from the Vedic
period two different currents of thought and ways of life known as (a)
Brahman culture and (b) Sramana culture are prevalent in India The
sramana culture is mainly represented by the Jainas and the Buddhists
and of them the Jainas were the first to propagate that culture. That is
why from ancient times we have the Sramana literature besides the
brahmanic literature. The characteristic features of the sramana literature
are as follows: It disregards the system of castes and asramas; its heroes
are, as a rule, not Gods and Rule, but kings or merchants or even sudras.
The subjects of poetry taken up by it are not brahmanic myths and
legends, but popular tales: fairy stories, fables and parables. It likes to
insist on the misery and sufferings of samsara and it teaches a morality of
compassion and ahimsd, quite distinct from the ethics of Brahmanism
with its ideals of the great sacrifices and generous supporter of the priests,
and of strict adherence to the caste system.
The authors of this sramana literature have contributed enormously
to the religious, ethical, poetical, and scientific literature of ancient India.
A close examination of the vast religious literature of the Jains has been
made by M. Winternitz in his 'History of Indian Literature'. In this
masterly survey of ancient Indian literature, M. Winternitz has asserted
that the Jains were foremost in composing various kinds of narrative
literature like puranas. charitras■ kathas, prabandhas. etc. Besides a very
extensive body of poetical narratives, the non-canonical literature of the
Jains consists of an immense number of commentaries and independent
works on dogma, ethics and monastic discipline22. They also composed
legends of saints and works on ecclesiastical history. As fond of story­
telling, the Jains were good story-tellers themselves, and have preserved
for us numerous Indian tales that otherwise would have been
lost, kavyas and mahakavyas too, of renowned merit have been composed

on
Maurice Winternitz, “History o f Indian Literature, Buddhist literature and Jain
literature, (translated by) V. Srinivasa Sharma, Motilal Banarsidass Publication,
Delhi

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by Jain poets. Lyrical and didactic poetry are also well represented in the
literature of the Jain.
Apart from these, the most valuable contributions have been made
by the Jains to the Indian scientific and technical literature on various
subjects like logic, philosophy, poetics, grammar, lexicography,
astronomy, astrology, geography, mathematics and medicine. The Jain
have paid special attention to the arthasastraior politics) which is
considered to be "a worldly science" par excellence. Thus there is hardly
any branch of science that has not been ably treated by the Jain.
The literature of the Jain is also veiy important from the point of
view of the history of Indian languages for the Jain always took care that
their writings were accessible even to the masses of the people. Hence the
canonical writings and the earliest commentaries are written in prakrit
dialects and at a later period Sanskrit and various modem Indian
languages were used by the Jain23, that is why it is not an exaggeration
when the famous Indologist H.H. Wilson says that every province of
Hindustan can produce Jain compositions either in Sanskrit or in its
vernacular idioms. It is an established fact that the Jain have enriched
various regional languages and especially hindi, gujarati, kannada, tamil
and telugu.
Regarding the Jain contribution to kannada literature, the great
kannada scholar R. Narasimhacharya has given his considered opinion in
the following terms: "The earliest cultivators of the kannada language
were Jain. The oldest works of any extent and value that have come down
to us are all from the pen of the Jains. The period of the Jainas'
predominance in the literary field may justly be called the 'Augustan Age
of Kannada Literature'. Jain authors in kannada are far more numerous
than in tamil. To name only a few, we have Pampa, Ponna, Raima,
Gunavarman, Nagachandra,Nayasena,Nagavarman,Aggala, Nemichandra,
Janna, Andayya, Bandhuvarma and Medhura, whose works are admired
as excellent specimens of poetical composition. It is only in kannada that
we have a Ramayam and a Bharata based on the Jaina tradition in
addition to those based on brahmanical tradition. Besides kavyaswritten
by Jaina authors, we have numerous works by them dialing with subjects
such as grammar, rhetoric, prosody, mathematics, astrology, medicine,
veterinary science, cookery and so forth. In all the number of Jaina
authors in kannada is nearly two hundred".

23 Kapadia A.R., “History o f the Canonical Literature o f the Jainas”, Bombay 1947,
p.113

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 As the Jainas have produced their vast literature in these languages
from very ancient times, they have certainly played a very important part
in the development of the different languages of India. The medium of
sacred writings and preaching of the Brahmins has all along been Sanskrit
and that of the Buddha’s Pali. But the Jainas alone utilized the prevailing
languages of the different places, besides Sanskrit, prakrit and
apabhramsa, for their religious propagation as well as for the preservation
of knowledge. But the prakrit speeches fossilized in course of time and
resulted in a classical standardized form of prakrit which became the
medium of literature and was treated by grammarians as the principal
prakrit.
From these early prakrit speeches developed the apabhramsa, the
language current in a considerable portion of northern India, from 5th to
10th century A.D. Some philosophers view that the existed several regional
apabhramsa from which new indo-aryans speeches or modern Indian
languages gradually evolved. From the evidence of early grammarians
and rhetoricians, apabhramsa has been connected with the abhiras. It was
that speech that developed into apabhramsa. Their abode extended from
the Indus delta to Kutch and Saurashtra. They adopted the general
praakrit language, infusing the powerful speech known as apabhramsa.
But linguistically, the specimens from folk-literature cited by Hemchandra
in “Siddha Hemchandri\ his prakrit grammar reflect the speech more
faithfully than the stylized form used in literary works.

Types of Languages:
All the sound signals, body signals and other type of signals which
communicate ones feelings and thoughts to the listener or the seer and
through which the listener or the seer comprehend the meaning are called
language. In the Jain tradition the linguistic knowledge is known ‘s ruta’.
In Jain literature exists in Prakrit, Sanskrit, Apabhramsa, Gujarati, Hindi,
Dhundhari (old Marwadi), Rajasthani.

Script:
Deciphering of the Brahmi script by James Prinsep in 1788 enabled
the reading of ancient inscriptions in India and established the antiquity
of Jainism. The discovery of Jain manuscripts has added significantly to
retracing Jain history. The script which usually used to write the
manuscripts are Devnagri, Sarda, Tamil, Telegu, Kannad and Oriya script.

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 The ink or colours employed to write or draw of the manuscripts
paintings are gold, black, red, silver, and ultramarine. Gold is used in
certain paintings, ornaments and in certain details of the furniture,
landscape, architecture. Borders and line dividing of the panels are
invariably done in gold. But they used silver very less. In the margins of
the paper they used black and red which are of herbal colour.24

24 Moti Chandra, “Jain Miniature Paintings from Western India” Sarabhai Nawab
Publication, Ahmedabad, 1949, p.

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