C Programming

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C Programming
C Programming
Structured Programming
 Structured programming calls for a disciplined way of programming
 Minimize the use of the goto statement
 Write readable programs
 Write modular programs
The C Programming Language

 In 1972, Dennis Ritchie developed C as a powerful, general purpose structured
programming language
 Now C programmers say
 C is not just a language, C is an attitude, C is a culture, C is a way of living
Structure of a C program
main(){
}
 The program written in C is first given to a preprocessor that expands the program
into the real source code before giving it to the C compiler
 A C program may contain statements and preprocessor directives. The preprocessor
directive will expand the program based on these directives
 All statement should end with a semi colon (;)
 A statement exceeding 79 columns is difficult to handle. A statement in C can be
written in several lines. White spaces can be included between the keywords to
improve readability
The C Library
 A C program can be stored in different files for easy management
 It is usual to store commonly used sub programs in a separate file and include them
into the program in which you want to use them. Such files are called header files and
they usually have an extension h and these sub programs are called function
 We use the #include preprocessor directive to include a file in our program
General Form
#include "filename"
#include <filename>
Example
#include "myfile.h"
#include <myfile.h>
 First form will look for the file in the current directory and then in the specified
directories whereas the second form will look only in the specified directories
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 A lot of commonly used functions written in C are readily available as libraries. They
are organized into different header files like stdio.h, math.h, graphics.h etc. To use a
library function, the corresponding header file is to be included in the program by the
preprocessor
Comments in a C Program
 Including comments in a program is very important to make it more readable and
maintainable. Any thing that starts with a /* and ends with a */ is a comment in C
Example
main(){
/*This is a
comment in
C*/
}
Data Types
 Data is stored in a computer as 1s and 0s. Data types will abstract this fact and specify
a set of operations that can be done on these 1s and 0s. Some old languages were very
problematic and dangerous because of lack of data types
Data Type in C Length in bytes
Char 1
Int 2
Float 4
unsigned char 1
short int 2
long int 4
unsigned short int 2
unsigned long int 4
Double 8
long double 10
sizeof Operator
 The length of a data type in terms of number of bytes can be found using the sizeof
operator
General Form
sizeof(Data Type)
Example
sizeof(int) will give the result as 2
Variables
 Data is stored in the main memory of the computer which is identified using a unique
number called address
 Variable names are temporary names given to these locations for making them easy to
use. The value of a variable can change
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Constant
 Constant is something that cannot change. 10 is an integer constant, 3.96 is a float
constant and '*' is a char constant
 10L or 10l is a long constant
 -10U or -10u is an unsigned int constant
Declaration of variables
 All variables should be declared before use
General Form
DataType VariableName;
Example
int i;
float a;
 A number of variables can be declared in a single statement using comma
General Form
DataType VariableName1, VariableName2, VariableName3, …;
Example
int i,j,k;
float a,b;
 These variables are not automatically initialized. So they contain some garbage values
 The operator sizeof can be used with a variable also
General Form
sizeof(variable)
Example
sizeof(i)
Address Operator
 The address of a variable can be obtained using the address operator &
General Form
&VariableName
Example
&a
Storage Class
 To fully define a variable we should know its storage class also. Storage class will tell
us
 Where the variable is stored? What is the initial value? What is the scope? How long
would the variable exist?
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Register Storage Class

 Some variables can be stored in the CPU register for faster access
Example
register int i;
 i will be stored in the CPU register, if possible
 It may not be able to store a float or double in a register as registers are usually only 2
bytes long
 If a variable can be changed by a background routine it should be loaded from the
memory every time with out taking the advantage of having a copy in the register.
Such variables are called volatile variables. This can be specified by using the
keyword volatile
General Form
volatile declaration;
Example
volatile int j;
Initialization
 Along with declaring a variable, it can also be initialized
General Form
Data Type VariableName1=Constant1/Variable1,
VariableName2=Constant2/Variable2, ;
Example
int i=10;
float x=3.96;
int a, b=10, c=b;
char m='A';
Assignment
 Assignment operator (=) can be used to assign a value to a variable
General Form
Variable=Variable/Constant;
Example
i=25;
a=23.45;
c='X';
 Variables, constants and operators can be used together to form expressions. So i=25
is an assignment expression
 Some times there can be more that one operator in an expression
Example
a=b=c=25;
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 Such an expression is evaluated based on two things - Hierarchy of the operators and
Direction of association of the operators. In this example, all operators are assignment
operators having the same hierarchy. Assignment operator associates from right to
left. So first 25 is assigned to c, then to b and then to a
 We can use parenthesis to change the normal hierarchy of operators
Overflow and Underflow

 Any data type can hold only a particular range of values. int can hold values from -
32,768 to +32, 767. Trying to assign a value above this or below this in an int variable
will cause overflow or underflow
int i=32768; /*Overflow, the value is -32,768*/
int i=-32769; /*Underflow, the value is 32,767*/
Type Casting
 A data of one type can be assigned to a variable of another type. This is called
typecasting
Example
int j=25;
flaot a;
a=j;
 Here j is typecast to a float
 The typecast operator can be used for better readability
Example
a=(float)j;
j=(int)a;
Console Input Operation

 A function scanf available in the header file stdio.h is used to perform console input
General Form
scanf("Format String",addresses of variables);
 String is a collection of characters. Format string will specify the type of the data to
be read
 Following table shows the most commonly used format strings
Data Type Format String

Char %c
unsigned char %c
Int %d
short int %d
unsigned short int %u
long int %ld
unsigned long int %lu
Float %f
Double %lf
long double %Lf
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Example
scanf("%d",&j);
scanf("%d%d%d",&j,&k,&l);
scanf("%d%f",&a,&j);
 The data typed in through the keyboard can be separated by a space or an enter
Console Output Operation
 A function printf is available in the header file stdio.h is used for console output
operation
General Form
printf("Format String",list of variable);
Example
printf("%d",j);
printf("%f",a);
 A string can be printed as follows
printf("Hello World");
 Constants and variables can be combined and printed as follows
printf("The sum of %d and %d is %d",i,j,k);
 Escape Sequences are used to print special characters
Escape Sequence Special Character

\n New Line
\b Back Space
\f Form Feed
\' Single Quote
\" Double Quote
\\ Back Slash
\t Tab
\r Carriage Return
\a Alert
Example
printf("He said, \"Hello\"\n");
will print He said "Hello"
A Complete C Program
#include <stdio.h>
main(){
printf("Hello World\n");
}
Arithmetic Operations
 Arithmetic Operators +, -, *, / and % are available for performing simple arithmetic
operations. We can create arithmetic expressions using constant, variables and
arithmetic operators
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Example
a+b
x+35-y
 Be careful when you use / with integers, for it will yield only the integer part of the
result. 5/2 will give 2 and not 2.5
 % works with integers only
 The ++ operator and -- operator are available to increment and decrement numeric
values
 j++ will increment the value of j and j-- will decrement the value of j
 The increment operator and the decrement operator can be used in two forms - prefix
and postfix
 The postfix form k=j++; will assign the value of j to k and then increment j
 The prefix form k=++j; will increment the value of j and then assign j to k
 Operator -- also works in a similar way
 Arithmetic Assignment Operators +=, -=, *=, /= and %= can be used for doing
arithmetic operation and an assignment operation
Examples
 The expression a+=b is equivalent to a=a+b and a*=10 is equivalent to a=a*10
Logical Operations
 Relation operators <, >, <=, >=, == and != can be used to form relational expressions
that will give either true or false as the answer
Example
a>b
x!=35
 Logical operators &&, || and ! are used to form logical expressions
Example
a>b && a>c
a>b||a>c
If Statement
 If statement is used in C to make a decision based on a logical expression
General Form 1
if (logical expression)
statement;
General Form 2
if (logical expression)
statement1;
else
statement2;
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Example
if (a>b)
printf("%d\n",a);
if (a>b)
printf("%d\n",a);
else
printf("%d\n",b);
 Format the if statement properly to improve the readability
 There is no true and false in C. Integers are used to represent true and false. False is
represented by 0 and true is represented by any non-zero integer. So the expressions
a>b, x<=35 etc will produce integers only
The ?: operator
 The ?: ternary conditional operator has the following general form
General Form
Logical Expression?Expression1:Expression2
Example
j=a>b?1:2;
j=a>b?a>c?1:2:3;
 The ?: operator associates from right to left
Repetitive Statements
 C has repetitive statements that can be used in two situations – when you know and
when you do not know the number of times of repetitions
The for Statement

 It is easy to use the for statement, when we know the number of times of repetition
General Form
for(expression1;logical expression;expression2)
Statement;
 First, expression1 is evaluated. Then the logical expression is evaluated. If it is true,
statement is executed. After that, expression2 is evaluated and the logical expression
is checked again. This will continue till the logical expression becomes false
 This statement is bested suited when we know the number of times of repetition
because, expression1 can be used to initialize a counter, expression2 can be used to
increment or decrement the counter and the logical expression can be used to check
the final value of the counter
Example
for(int i=1;i<=10;++i)
printf(“%d\n”,i);
The while Statement

 The while statement can be used, when we do not know the number of times of
repetition
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General Form
while(logical expression)
Statement;
 The statement will be repeated as long as the condition is true
Example
while(a<10)
printf(“%d\n”,a++);
The do-while Statement

 The do-while statement is very similar to the while statement. In the while statement,
the logical expression is evaluated before executing the statement, but in do-while, the
statement is executed before evaluating the logical expression
General Form
do
Statement;
while(logical expression);
Example
do
printf(“%d\n”,a++);
while(a!=0);
The break Statement

 The break statement is used to exit from a repetitive block even if the logical
expression is true
General Form
break;
Example
for(int k=1;k<10;++k){
if (k==5)
break;
printf(“%d\n”,k);
}
The continue Statement

 The continue statement will ignore the current iteration and continue with the next
iteration in a repetitive block
General Form
continue;
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Example
for(int k=1;k<10;++k){
if (k==5)
continue;
printf(“%d\n”,k);
}
The switch Statement

The switch statement can be used to branch to different places based on the value of an
expression
General Form
switch(expression){
case value1:
Set of Statements 1
case value 2:
Set of Statements 2
case value 3:
Set of Statements 3
case value n:
Set of Statements n
default:
Set of Statements x
}
 If the expression evaluates to value 1, the program jumps to Set of Statements 1 and
continues execution from there. If it is value 2, the program jumps to Set of
Statements 2 and so on
 The default section is optional. If the expression is not evaluating to value 1, 2, 3 or n,
then Set of Statements x will be executed
Example
switch(a){
case 10:
printf(“Hello\n”);
case 20:
printf(“Welcome\n”);
case 7:
printf(“Ok\n”);
default:
printf(“Bye\n”);
}
 The break statement can be used to come out of a switch block also
Functions
 Functions are used for modular programming
 Functions make the program easy to write, read, understand, debug and maintain
 Functions make the program smaller
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 Functions help to create reusable modules

 In C and C++ we have functions that can return a value and functions that do not
return any value
General Form
Return_type function_name(List of Parameters){
}
Examples
void sample(){
Statements
}
float test(float x, int n){
Statements
}
 Each function in a program should have a unique name in C

 A void function is called by giving the name of the function, as if it is a statement
 If a function is taking some parameters, they should be passed to the function
 The data that we pass to the function are called arguments and the variables in which
they are received by the function are called formal parameters
 The arguments and the formal parameters should match in data type, number and
order
 A variable that is declared inside a function can be used only by that function and is
known as a local variable of the function
 A variable that is declared outside all the functions can be used by all the functions in
the program and is known as a global variable
The return Statement

 The return statement can be used to return a value from a function
General Form
return expression;
Example
return;
return a;
return 100;
return a+b-c;
 When we are calling a function that returns a value, the returned value can be
collected in a variable
 The returned value can be used for other purposes also like printing and creating
expressions
Example
a=square(b);
printf(“%d\n”,square(q));
k=square(x)-square(y);
m=square(square(n));
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 Generally we can call a function that is returning a value by giving the name of the
function in a position, where we can have a return type constant
 That is, if a function is returning an integer, the name of that function can be given in
a position where an integer constant can be given
 A function that returns a value can be even called as if it is a void function, ignoring
the returned value
Pass by Value
 When an argument is passed to a formal parameter, the value of the argument is
copied to the formal parameter
 Since the formal parameter is only a copy of the argument, any change made on the
formal parameter will not affect the argument
 This is called pass by value
Automatic and Static Variables

 A local variable declared in a function is automatically created when the function is
called. It is automatically destroyed when the function ends. So they are called
automatic variables
 A local variable, declared as static, will be created when the function is called for the
first time. It will not get destroyed when the function ends. It will get destroyed only
when the whole program ends
 A static data is automatically initialized to zero
 Automatic and static are two storage classes
Function Declaration and Definition

 There can be any number of functions in a program and they can be written in any
order
 The program will always start with main
 A function should be at least declared before calling it. It can be defined later
Recursive Functions
 A function can call itself. Such functions are called recursive functions
Storing the Functions

 The functions in a C program can be stored in different files
 A global variable of a file can be accessed as an external variable in another file
 But a static global variable cannot be accessed as an external variable
 Extern is a storage class
Data Structures
Data structures make storage of data easier
A normal variable is the simplest form of a data structures
Arrays
 Array is a data structure we use when we want to store a large quantity of data of the
same type
 Arrays are declared as int a[10]; float x[20]; etc
 In an array int a[10], there are 10 elements - a[0] to a[9]
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 The elements of an array will occupy consecutive memory locations

 When you are declaring an array in C, the size of the array should be a specified as a
constant
 The is no boundary checking for an array in C
 An array can be initialized as follows
int a[5]={5,67,23,5,8};
int a[]={5,67,23,5,8};
int a[5]={5,6};
 An array cannot be assigned to another array
Character Arrays or Strings

 Character arrays are terminated by a null character
 A character array can be read using the function scanf using the format string %s
 Similarly the function printf can be used for printing a character array
 Functions like gets and puts are also available for reading and writing character arrays
 Character arrays can be initialized as follows
char a[6]={‘H’, ‘E’, ‘L’, ‘L’, ‘O’, ‘\0’};
char a[6]={“HELLO”};
char a[]={“HELLO”};
Array of Arrays
 When we want to have several arrays we go for an array of arrays
 An array of array is declared as int a[3][4];
 Here a is an array containing 3 elements – a[0], a[1] and a[2]. Each of this is an
integer array containing 4 integers
Arrays and Functions

 Arrays can be passed to a function as arguments. We have to specify only the name of
the array as the argument
 The formal parameters that are declared to receive arrays are declared just like the
argument arrays. But their size is optional. This is applicable to array of arrays also
 When the formal parameter is changed, the actual argument will change in the case of
an array. This looks like pass by reference
 Normally we cannot return an array from a function
Structures
 Structures are used when we want to have a compound data type that is made up of
several components
Example
struct student{
char name[20];
int classno;
int marks;
};
 Now, a structure called struct student is created. This can be treated as a data type and
we can create variables of this type
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Example
struct student a, b;
 The individual elements can be accessed using the . operator as a.name, a.classno etc
 The elements of a structure will occupy consecutive memory locations
 A structure variable can be initialized as follows
struct student a={“Tom”,12,45};
 We can have arrays in a structure and array of structures
 We can also have a structure variable of one type as a member of another structure
 A structure variable can be assigned to another structure variable using the assignment
operator
 A structure variable can be passed to a function
 A structure variable can also be returned from a function
 Structure variables can be declared along with the structure declaration as follows
struct student{
char name[20];
int classno;
}a, b;
 In such cases, we can even create nameless structures as follows
struct {
char name[20];
int classno;
}a, b;
Union
 Unions are very similar to a structure in syntax, but the fields of a union will share the
same memory location
Example
union test{
int k;
double d;
char c;
};
union test u;
 Here u.k, u.d and u.c will occupy the same memory locations
 A union can be used to store mutually exclusive data
Pointers
 A pointer is a variable that can hold the address of another variable
 A pointer can be declared by adding * with the variable
 So, int *p; means, p is an integer pointer and char *q; means, q is a character pointer
 The address of a variable can be stored in a pointer as follows
int a, *p;
p=&a;
 Now, we can use p instead of &a and *p instead of a
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Pointers and Functions

 Pointers can be passed to a function to bring about the effect of pass by reference
 A function can return a pointer, but never return a pointer to a local variable
 We can also have a pointer to a function
Pointers and Arrays

 The name of an array is a pointer to the array
 When we say a[3], it means *(a+3)
 Pointer arithmetic is different from normal arithmetic
 An element in an array of array is also located using the same technique
 Since the name of an array is a pointer to the array, when we try to pass an array to a
function, we are actually passing a pointer to the array
 That is why we get the effect of pass by reference when arrays are passed to the
function. Same is reason for not giving the size of the array in the formal parameter
 We can have an array of pointers
Pointers and Structures
 We can have a pointer to a structure as follows
struct student a, *p;
p=&a;
 Now, instead of a.classno, we can say (*p).classno or still better, p->classno
 Pointer to a structure can be used to pass a structure variable to a function to get the
effect of pass by reference
 Pointer to a structure can be used for creating data structures like linked lists
Pointers and Unions

 Pointer to a Union is similar to a pointer to a structure
Pointer to a Pointer
 We can have a pointer to a pointer as follows
int a, *p, **q;
p=&a;
q=&p;
Pointers and System Level Programming

 Pointers are used for system level programming as they can be used to directly
communicate to the hardware
Pointers and Dynamic Memory Allocation

 Dynamic variables are not declared as normal variables, but are created as the
program is running
 They cannot be given any name, but can be accessed using pointers
 They can be and should be deallocated after use
Preprocessor Directives
 A program can be manipulated using the pre processor, before it reaches the compiler
 Pre processor directives are used for this purpose
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 #define - Macros (#defines) can be used to declare constants, improve the readability
of a program, to write programs that are faster than functions and to write generic
programs
 #ifdef, #ifndef, #if, #else, #endif
The typedef Statement

 The tyedef statement can be used to improve the readability of a program
Example
typedef int COUNT;
typedef char STRING[20];
typedef struct{
char name[20];
int classno;
int marks;
}STUDENT;
 The typedef statement is very frequently used to improve the readability when
complicated pointer types are involved
Example
typedef void (*X)(int);
X p[10];
Files
 Files are used to store data permanently
 There are three major file operations – Opening the file, Reading data from or writing
data to the file and closing the file. Library functions are available in C for doing
these
 The functions fopen, fscanf, fprintf, fclose, feof etc that are available in stdio.h are
used for file operations
The enumerated Data Type

 It helps the user to create his own data types
Example
eum color {black, white, green, red, blue};
 A new data type enum color is created. We can declare variables of this type
 The constants available in this type are black, white, green, red and blue
 The constants have the following relationship between them
black<white<green<red<blue
 Enumerated data types are used to improve the readability of a program
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EXERCISE
1. Find the largest of three numbers
2. Print all multiples of 7 between 1 and 100
3. Solve y = x – x3 + x5 – x7 + ……….. xn
4. Find the largest and second largest number from a set of n numbers
5. Print all prime numbers between 1 and 100.
6. Find the LCM of two numbers
7. Find the HCF of two numbers
8. Find whether a number is palindrome or not
9. Find whether an year is a leap year.
10. Find the roots of a quadratic equation.
OOP through C++

Some new features in C++ language when compared to C
Comments
• Multiline comment
/* Comment statements
…..
*/
• Single line comment
// This is a single line comment
Console Output
Standard output stream object
Insertion operator / Put-to operator
cout << “Welcome…”;
Examples:
cout << “Hello,“ << “ Goodmorning”;
cout << “Sum = “ << iResult;
cout << “Hai\nThere”;
cout << iNum1 << “ + “ << iNum2 << “ = “ << iSum;
Console Input
Standard input stream object
Extraction operator / Get-from operator
cin >> var;
Examples:
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cout << “Enter Number: “;

cin >> iNum;
cin >> iNum1 >> iNum2;
iostream.h
• It contains the declarations for cout, <<, cin and >>
• So include it in your program
#include <iostream.h>
Declaration of variables
• C++ allows the declaration of a variable anywhere in the scope.
• But before or at the place of its first use.
int iNum1, iNum2;
clrscr();
cout << “Enter two numbers”;
cin >> iNum1 >> iNum2;
int iSum;
iSum = iNum1 + iNum2;
for(int i = 0; i < 5; i++)
{ }
for loop block scope

int x = 50;
for(int i = 0; i < 3; i++)
{
int x = 10;
}
cout << i << “\n” << x;
Output:
3
50
Reference variables
datatype &reference-name = variable-name
int x = 100;
int &y = x;
• A reference variable provides an alias (another name) for a previously defined
variable.
• More efficient memory usage.
• Can replace pointers to some extend.
• Call by reference.
Dynamic Memory management operators

new
Used to dynamically allocate memory
pointer-variable = new data-type;
– Here, pointer-variable is a pointer of type data-type
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– new operator allocates sufficient memory to hold a data object of type data-
type and returns the address of the allocated memory.
Egs:
int *p = new int; // Allocates memory for 1 integer
int *q = new int(50); // Allocates memory for 1 integer and initialize it to 50
int *r = new int[10]; // Allocates memory for 10 integer contiguously
delete
Used to release memory which was allocated dynamically
delete pointer-variable;
– Here, pointer-variable is a pointer which was previously allocated memory
using new operator.
Egs:
delete p; // Releases memory used by p
delete [] r; // Releases memory created for the array
Object oriented programming

Procedure Oriented Approach
• Focus is on procedures
• No protection for data
• Data may be shared for convenience
• More difficult to modify
• Hard to manage complexity
• Hard to maintain when program size increased
• Top-down approach
The object oriented approach

• It allows you to decompose a problem into a number of entities called objects and
then build data and functions around these entities.
• Here more importance is given to the data rather than the functions.
• Bottom-up approach
What are the steps?

1. Identity the entities in your domain
2. Identify the attributes of each entities
3. Identify the methods that the entities can perform
4. Identify the relationship between the entities
Basic OOP Concepts

• Abstraction
• Encapsulation
• Polymorphism
• Inheritance
Abstraction
It is what you conceive about an entity.
Eg: What can you say about a computer mouse?
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Have two buttons

Have a scroll button
It is optical
Black in color
• This is your abstraction about the mouse.
• Another person may describe this same mouse in a different way, which is his abstraction of
the mouse.
Encapsulation
• Binding of data and the methods that operate on the data together as a single unit
(capsule) is known as encapsulation.
• This unit is referred to as class.
Class Vs Object
• Class:
– A category or group of things that have similar attributes and common
behaviors.
• Object:
– A specific thing which has specific values for the attributes and behavior.
Using Encapsulation
• Data and methods are bound together tightly
• Data Hiding
– It is like a black box
– Data and methods of the class is hidden from outside
– Nothing outside the class can access the data or methods unless permitted by
the class
• Communication between the objects is through messaging (methods).
Polymorphism
• Ability to take more than one form
• An operation may exhibit different behavior in different situations
• The behavior depends on the types of data used in the operation
Inheritance
• The children will be inheriting the behaviors of the parents
• They will have there own behaviors as well
A Problem: to automate TurboPlus Information Technologies

• You will be able to readily identify entities
– Staff
– Student
Staff Student
Name Name
Address Address
DOB DOB
DOJ DOJ
Turbo Plus Information Technologies (P) Ltd., Old Course
Dept
24
Chithra Theatre Compound, Aryasala, Trivandrum, Ph: 0471-2571377

Skills Qualification
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• Some common features are present in both the entities. You can refine the entity by
taking the common features outside
Advantages of using OOP

• Modularity
– Large software projects can be split up in smaller pieces.
• Reusability
– Programs can be assembled from pre-written software components.
• Extensibility
– New software components can be written or developed from existing ones.
C++ implementation of oop

Class
• Can be considered as an extension to structures.
• Supports the implementation of all the OOP features.
• An Abstract Data Type (ADT)
Specifying a Class
Consists of
• Class declaration
– Describes the type and scope of its members
• Class method definitions
– Describe how the class methods are implemented
class class-name
{
variable declarations;
method declarations;
};
An Example
class Student
{
int iRegno;
Data members
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char sName[30];
char sCourse[20];
void AddStudent();
void EditStudent();
void DeleteStudent(); Member methods
void SearchStudent();
void DisplayStudent();
};
Defining Member Methods

• In C++ you can define the member methods
– outside the class definition OR
– inside the class definition
• When you define it inside the class definition, it is by default considered as inline
methods.
• When you define it outside the class definition, you have to specifically make it inline
(if desired).
Outside the class definition

return-type class-name :: function-name(argument declarations)
{
// function body
}
Eg:
void Student :: AddStudent()
{
…
}
Inside the class definition

class Student
{
int iRegno;
char sName[30];
char sCourse[20];
void AddStudent()
{
…
}
void EditStudent()
{
…
}
};
Creating Objects
class-name object-name;
Eg:
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Student stud1;
Accessing Class Members

• Use dot (.) operator along with the object-name.
stud1.iRegno;
stud1.sName;
Data hiding
• By default all the members of class in C++ are private to the class.
• You can give access to members from outside the class by using the access specifier,
public.
class Student
{
int iRegno;
char sName[30];
public:
void AddStudent();
void DispStudent();
};
Access specifiers in C++

• private
• public
• protected
Memory allocation for objects

• For each object separate memory will be allocated for data members.
• All the methods will be allocated memory only once and is shared by all the objects
created from that class.
• Eg:
class Mem
{
int iNum1, iNum2;
void GetValues()
{ … }
void DispValues()
{ … }
};
Mem m1, m2;
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this pointer
• When an object is used to call a method, implicitly a pointer called this pointer is
passed into the function, which will contain the address of the object which invoked
the function.
• So inside the method,
void DispData()
{
cout << x; cout << this -> x;
}
Array of Objects
• To store more than one object of the same class and to manipulate them easily, an
array of objects can be created.
• class-name obj[size];
• Student stud[10];
• stud[2].iRegno = 20;
Method Overloading
• In C++, you can have more than one method with same method name but with
different number / type of parameters.
• This is one method by which polymorphism is implemented in C++.
class DataStore
{
int iData;
public:
void SetData()
{
cout << “Enter data: “;
cin >> iData;
}
void SetData(int data)
{
iData = data;
}
};
void main()
{
DataStore ds1, ds2;
ds1.SetData();
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ds2.SetData(100);
}
Objects as method arguments

• You can pass arguments of any type including the same class type to member
methods.
• In C++ objects can be passed by value or reference.
• When you invoke a member method using an object, that object in implicitly passed
into the function by reference.
• When you pass objects as arguments to member methods, it is by default passed by
value.
• You can return any type including object of the same type from member methods by
value or by reference.
Constructor
• A special member method invoked automatically when an object of the class is
created
• Used to construct an object in memory
• The compiler provides a built-in default constructor if you don’t have any
constructors defined in the class.
Constructor – special features

• Cannot have any return type (not even void)
• Name of the method is same as that of the class
• Can have arguments
• Will be automatically invoked when an object is created
Default constructor
• A constructor with no parameters in known as a default constructor
class Integer
{
int iVal;
public:
Integer()
{
iVal = 0;
}
};
Integer int1;
• This constructor can be used to give initial values for class data members.
Parameterized Constructors
• Constructor that can take parameters
class Integer
{
int iVal;
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public:
Integer(int x)
{
iVal = x;
}
};
Integer int1(10);
Integer int2 = Integer(20);
Integer int3 = 30;
• This constructor can be used to initialize different objects with different values.
Copy Constructor
• A special type of parameterized constructor which can be used to initialize an object
with the data of another object.
class Integer
{
int iVal;
public:
Integer(int x)
{ iVal = x; }
Integer(Integer &x)
{
iVal = x.iVal;
}
};
Integer i1(100);
Integer i2(i1); or Integer i2 = Integer(i1) or Integer i2 = i1;
Some Points
• Constructors can be overloaded.
• When defining copy constructors, the object is to be passed by reference.
• If you have atleast one constructor defined inside the class, the built-in default
constructor will not be invoked.
• It is a good programming practice to give your own default constructor in the class
even if it is not needed.
Destructor
• A special member function invoked automatically when an object is being destroyed.
• If no destructor is defined in the class the compiler supplies a built-in destructor.
Destructor – special features

• Has the same name as that of the class with a tilde(~) at the beginning.
• Cannot have a return type.
• Cannot take any arguments.
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• If you are creating objects dynamically (using new operator), it is good to define
destructor which will release the dynamically created memory (using delete operator).
Static Data Member

• Data members of a class can be declared as static.
• Only one copy of the static member will be created for the entire class and is shared
by all the objects of that class.
• The type and scope of each static data member must be defined outside the class
because static data members are stored separately rather than as part of any object.
• If no initial value is specified, it is initialized to zero.
• Also known as class variables.
• Can be accessed using class name.
• Static members are usually used to maintain values common to the entire class.
class Item
{
public:
static int iCount;
int iNum;
};
int Item :: iCount = 1;
main()
{
cout << Item :: iCount; // Accessing using class name
}
Static member methods

• A static member method can access only static members of the same class.
• A static member method can be accessed using the class name.
Inheritance
• The mechanism of deriving a new class from an older class.
• The class from which derivation takes place is called the base class.
• The class into which derivation takes place is called the derived class.
• The derived class derives some or all traits (features) of the base class.
Implements is a relationship
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Types of inheritance in C++

• Single inheritance
• Multi-level inheritance
• Hierarchical inheritance
• Multiple inheritance
• Hybrid inheritance
Single Inheritance
Parent
Child
One base class and one derived class.
Multi-level Inheritance
GrandParent
Parent
Deriving from an already derived class.

Child
Hierarchical Inheritance
Parent
Child 1 Child 2
One base class and more than one derived classes.
Multiple Inheritance
Parent 1 Parent 2
Child
More than one base class and one derived classes.
Hybrid Inheritance
Some combination of the basic inheritance types.

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Defining Derived Class

class derived-class : visibility-mode base-class
{
……. // derived class members
}
• The default visibility-mode is private.
Example
class Person
{
char sName[20];
char sAddress[50];
char sDOB[15];
public:
void GetPerson();
void ShowPerson() …
};
class Student : public Person

{
int iRegno;
char sCourse[20];
public:
void GetStudent();
void ShowStudent(); …
};
Single Inheritance
class A
{
…
};
class B : public A
{
…
};
Protected
• Private member of a class cannot be inherited.
• Therefore it is not available for the derived class directly.
• A member declared as protected is accessible within that class and any class
immediately derived from it.
• It cannot be accessed by the functions outside these two classes.
Visibility of Inherited members

Base class Derived class visibility
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visibility public protected private derivation

derivation derivation
public public protected private
protected protected protected private
private Not inherited Not inherited Not inherited
Multilevel Inheritance
class A
{
…
};
class B : public A
{
…
};
class C : public B
{
…
};
Hierarchical Inheritance
class A
{
…
};
class B : public A
{
…
};
class C : public A
{
…
};
Multiple Inheritance
class A
{
…
};
class B
{
…
};
class C : public A, public B

{
…
};
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Problems with Multiple inheritance

Due to getting the features from different classes, there may be situations where multiple
copies of the same feature coming to the derived class.
So when an object of the Child class is used to invoke a Grandparent class method (which is
derived more than once through different paths), the compiler will not be able to decide
which copy to call. This is an ambiguity situation.
Solution: Virtual Base Class

• The duplication of inherited members due to multiple paths can be avoided by making
the common class (Grandparent) as virtual base class while declaring the intermediate
base classes.
class Grandparent
{ … };
class Parent1 : public virtual Grandparent
{ … };
class Parent2 : virtual public Grandparent
{ … };
class Child : public Parent1, public Parent2
{ … };
Constructors in derived classes

• In single, multilevel and hierarchical inheritance, always the base class constructors
are executed first from top to bottom.
• In multiple inheritance, the base class constructors are called in the order in which
they appear in the declaration of the derived class.
• When a base class need some data in the constructor it has to be explicitly passed
from the derived class constructor.
Abstract class
• Is a class which contains at least one pure virtual function.
• You cannot create an object of an abstract class.
• Used for just inheritance.
• Can have other normal members.
class Shape
{
protected:
int Dim1, Dim2, Dim3;
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float Area;
public:
void GetDims(int D1 = 0, int D2 = 0, int D3 = 0)
{ Dim1 = D1; Dim2 = D2; Dim3 = D3; }
virtual void FindArea() = 0; // pure virtual function
void ShowArea()
{ cout << Area; }
};
Pure Virtual function

• A function for which no definition but only declaration is given in the class.
• The function is declared as virtual and is assigned to 0.
Eg: virtual void FindArea() = 0;
• Such a declaration just functions as a place holder for the actual function.
• Any class which derives from a class which has pure virtual function (abstract class)
must give definition to the function.
• Each derived class can give its own implementation for the function.
• If the derived class does not implement the pure virtual function, then that class also
will become an abstract class.
Different Implementations
class Circle : public Shape
{
void FindArea()
{ Area = 3.14 * Dim1 * Dim1 }
}
class Rectangle : public Shape
{
void FindArea()
{ Area = Dim1 * Dim2 }
}
Nested Classes
• A class containing the objects of other classes as its members is called a nested class.
• It is also called containership.
• This implements has a relationship.
• When an object of such a class is created, the nested objects are created first, then the
container object part.
• So the container class’s constructors should explicitly pass the necessary arguments to
the contained object’s constructors.
Polymorphism
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Object Pointers
• Can be used to create objects at run time.
class A
{
int a;
public:
void ShowA()
{
cout << a;
}
};
void main()
{
A *ptrA;
ptrA = new A;
ptrA -> ShowA();
}
Using Base class Pointer

• If you have a base class pointer, that pointer can point to
– any of the objects of its own class
– any of the objects of classes derived from it
class Base
{ };
class Derived1 : public Base
{ };
class Derived2 : public Base
{ };
class Derived3 : public Derived1
{ };
Base *ptr;
Base b1;
Derived1 d1;
Derived2 d2;
Derived3 d3;
ptr = &b1;
ptr = &d1
ptr = &d2;
ptr = &d3;
• When you use a base class pointer, which is pointing to a derived class object, to
access any of the derived class members, it can access only those members which are
derived from the base class whose pointer you are using.
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Example
class Base
{
int x;
public:
void ShowBase()
{ }
};
class Derived : public Base
{
int y;
public:
void ShowDerived()
{ }
};
void main()
{
Base *ptr;
Derived d1;
ptr = &d1;
ptr -> ShowBase(); // OK
ptr -> ShowDerived(); // Error
}
Another Example
class Base
{
int x;
public:
void Show()
{ cout << x; }
};
{
int y;
public:
void Show() // method overriding
{ cout << y; }
};
void main()
{
Base *ptr;
Base b1;
b1.Show(); // shows x
ptr = &b1;
ptr -> Show(); // shows x
Derived d1;
d1.Show(); // shows y
ptr = &d1;
}
Dynamic Polymorphism
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• Also called Runtime Polymorphism or Late Binding.

• Here the compiler will not be able to link the function that is to be called during
compile time.
• At runtime, when it is known what class objects are in consideration, the appropriate
version of the function is called.
Implementation
class Base
{
int x;
public:
virtual void Show()
{ cout << x; }
};
{
int y;
public:
void Show() // method overriding
{ cout << y; }
};
void main()
{
Base *ptr;
Base b1;
b1.Show(); // shows x
ptr = &b1;
Derived d1;
d1.Show(); // shows y
ptr = &d1;
ptr -> Show(); // shows y
}
Virtual Functions
• If a function in a base class definition is declared to be virtual, and is declared exactly
the same way in one or more derived classes, then all calls to that function using
pointers or references of type base class will invoke the function that is specified by
the object being pointed at, and not by the type of the pointer itself.
EXCERCISE
1. Create a class Date for storing a date. Write the following functions. (i) Function to read
the date from the keyboard (ii) Function to check the validity of the date (iii) Function to
print the date on the screen (iv) Function to add a specified number of days to the date
2. Create a class String to hold a character string. Write the following functions. (i) Function
to initialize string (ii) Function to copy string (iii) Function to compare strings
considering the case (iv) Function to concatenate strings. The String object that calls the
function should not change (v) Function to concatenate strings. The String object that
calls the function should change (vi) Function to print the string on the screen
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3. Write a program that reads a C++ program from the keyboard. Remove all the // and /**/
comments from the program and print the program on the screen. Beware of the // and
/**/ that come inside a string
4. Create a class Brush. Write the following functions. (i) Function to draw a circle (ii)
Function to draw a rectangle (iii) Function to choose the color of drawing
5. Create a class Calculator. Write the following functions. (i) Function to add two numbers
(ii) Function to find the square root of a number (iii) Function to find the sine of an angle
6. Create a class Integer to store an int. Write the following functions. (i) Function to
initialize an Integer object with an int (ii) Function to convert an Integer object to a binary
string (iii) Function to convert an Integer object to a hexadecimal string (iv)
Function to add two Integer objects
7. Overload the prefix and postfix ++ and – operators in the class Date
8. Overload the operators +, +=, <, >, <=, >=, == and ! = in the class String
9. Create a class Complex to store a complex number. Overload the operators +, -, *, /, +=, -
=, *= and /=
10. Write a class IntegerString to store an integer as a string. Eg : “156”. Overload the
operators +, -, *, /, %, +=, -=, *=, /=, %=, ++ (prefix and postfix) and – (prefix and
postfix)
11. Create a class Window. Write functions to set the width and height of the window and
display the window. Create a class that has all the properties of class Window. But while
displaying the window, the new class should show a shadow also
12. Create a class List to store a list of integers. Hint – Use an integer array inside the class.
Write the following functions (i) Function to add an element at a particular position in the
list. Note that the list should not have blank elements in between elements. That is the
elements should be in contiguous cells (ii) Function to delete an element at a particular
position in the list (iii) Function to display the list (iv) Function to get the number of
elements in the list (v) Function to check whether the list is empty (vi) Function to
check whether the list is full
13. Create a Stack to store integers. Use the class List for implementing the stack
14. Create a class Book to store the Title, Name of Author, Price and Number of Pages. Also
create a class CD to store the Title, Name of Author, Price and Total Play Time. Include
functions in both the classes to input and output the details
15. Write a program to store some circles and rectangles
16. Write a program to create a linked list. Include functions in question 12
17. Repeat program 13. Use a linked list instead of the list created by program 12 and show
that the class Stack will not change
18. Modify the class Stack that uses the Linked List so that it throws exception whenever
there is an overflow or underflow
19. Modify the class Stack of program 18, so that the stack can hold any kind of data
20. Write a program to store the Name, Class Number and Marks of n students. Write
functions to display the details of all students and search for a student based on Class
Number
21 Consider a school where there are a number of students. You have to develop an
application that will read in the details of each student (regno, name, class), the marks got
by them for three terms for 6 subjects and calculate and display the result. The result
should display the regno, name, total marks and the grade of the each student when the
class is given.
a) Identify the classes for this application
b) Identify the relationships between the classes.
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c) Use inheritance where necessary.
Use a menu driven program to implement the above scenario.

22. Create a class TextBox using graphics functions which will implement the functionalities
like:
(i) Provision for specifying the position to display the textbox
(ii) Provision for specifying the width of the textbox
(iii) Should be able to give the maximum length of the text
(iv) Read in text into the textbox
(v) Should be able to specify the characters which can be used in the textbox
(vi) Should be able to specify if password field or normal field; if password,
should display only * in the textbox
(vii) Provision for returning the text in the textbox
(viii) Provision for clearing the textbox
Use a program to test the class.

23. Create a class Crypto that can be used to encrypt and decrypt a text given to it. Use
another class, Text which will inherit this class to do encryption and decryption.
24. Create a class Date that can be used to validate a given date to check if it is a valid date. It
should have provisions to do all date manipulations like:
a. to add number of days, months, years to a given date
b. to subtract number of days, months, years from a given date
c. find the difference between two dates in terms of days, months or years
d. to compare two dates
Use operator overloading and type-conversion functions for the above manipulations.
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tURBO PLUS

Information Technologies (P) Ltd

The C Programming Language

Register Storage Class

Overflow and Underflow

Console Input Operation

Data Type Format String

Escape Sequence Special Character

The for Statement

The while Statement

The do-while Statement

The break Statement

The continue Statement

The switch Statement

 Functions help to create reusable modules

 Each function in a program should have a unique name in C

The return Statement

Automatic and Static Variables

Function Declaration and Definition

Storing the Functions

 The elements of an array will occupy consecutive memory locations

Character Arrays or Strings

Arrays and Functions

Pointers and Functions

Pointers and Arrays

Pointers and Unions

Pointers and System Level Programming

Pointers and Dynamic Memory Allocation

The typedef Statement

The enumerated Data Type

OOP through C++

cout << “Welcome…”;

cin >> var;

cout << “Enter Number: “;

for loop block scope

Dynamic Memory management operators

Object oriented programming

The object oriented approach

What are the steps?

Basic OOP Concepts

Have two buttons

A Problem: to automate TurboPlus Information Technologies

Chithra Theatre Compound, Aryasala, Trivandrum, Ph: 0471-2571377

Advantages of using OOP

C++ implementation of oop

Defining Member Methods

Outside the class definition

Inside the class definition

Accessing Class Members

Access specifiers in C++

Memory allocation for objects

Objects as method arguments

Constructor – special features

Destructor – special features

Static Data Member

Static member methods

Types of inheritance in C++

Deriving from an already derived class.

More than one base class and one derived classes.