MANAGEMENT OF CONDITION MONITORING

AND DIAGNOSTIC TECHNONLOGY TO

O P T I M I S E L A R G E T U R B O - G E N E R AT O R
ROTOR MAINTENANCE
BY

JABULANI RICHARD BEMBE

A D I S S E RTAT I O N S U B M I T T E D I N PA RT I A L
FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
DEGREE

MAGISTER INGENERIAE

IN

ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT

IN THE

F A C U LT Y O F E N G I N E E R I N G

AT T H E

UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG

NOVEMBER 2012

S U P E R V I S O R S : P R O F. J . H P R E T O R I U S
CO-SUPERVISOR: MR.S. NARAIN SINGH

1
 DECLARATION

I declare that this work is my own, unaided work, except where otherwise acknowledged. It
is being submitted for the partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree in Engineering
Management in the Faculty of Engineering at University of Johannesburg. It has not been
submitted before for any degree or examination in any other university.

……………………………………………………….

Signed on November 30, 2012

Jabulani Bembe

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my gratitude to those that assisted and supported me in carrying out
this research:

• Prof J.H Pretorius for his mentorship and insightful advice and patience.
• Shanil Narain Singh as my supervisor for his sterling example as mentor and coach
• Elvis Mathebula, for proof reading and advising on the compilation of the document
• My colleagues at Eskom and Rotek Engineering
• Eskom power stations for making available material used in this research.
• Rotek Engineering for the training, support and working environment that eventually
resulted in the experience I shared.
• My dearest family, my lovely wife; Lucky, my sons Ntokozo, Andile and ever precious
daughter Nqobile, for the sacrifices they have shown to afford me the opportunity to
endure even during trying times. Ngiyabonga.

The Author

November 2012

iii
 ABSTRACT
The turbo-generator unit is very important equipment for electric power production, which
has a high rate of failure. As the capacity increases, condition monitoring and fault diagnostic
play a crucial role to guarantee safe operation and cost efficiency. The Eskom generator
fleet is fast approaching the end of the original designed life. Also in view of the recent
constrained reserve margin, outage downtime, maintenance costs, resource management,
and maintenance inherent problems, a systematic approach is required to optimise
scheduled time-based maintenance to improve reliability and availability.

The subject of turbo machine condition monitoring requires the development of new
technologies to diagnose the turbo-generator problems. Condition is an underlying factor in
the performance of machines. It is also an important predictor of future performance that the
machine is in a good condition and will be reliable and perform better. It provides a reference
for maintenance engineers on the current condition of the turbo-generator. Trends in
condition monitoring can be used to determine whether turbo-generators are being
maintained and that are meeting their expected service lives or whether their performance is
deterioration faster than expected.

In the industry, traditional maintenance philosophies have taken two approaches; the first
approach is to perform fixed time interval maintenance, where the system engineers take
advantage of relaxed production cycles to fully inspect all aspects of the turbo-generator.
The second route is for engineers to simply react to the generator failure as and when it
happens. All too many utilities operate largely in the reactive run-to-failure mode. The old
phrase, “if it aren’t broken don’t fix” is perennial run to failure argument. Nonetheless, making
use of today’s technology, a new scientific methodology is becoming popular to maintenance
management.

For the purpose of investigating the management of condition-based monitoring and

diagnostic technology to optimise timed-based maintenance of large turbo-generators,
Eskom Units installed with condition monitoring techniques were considered. The mini-
dissertation culminated in the compilation of case histories based on Eskom turbo-generator
fleet where the technology is being rolled out. The literature survey looked at current industry
practices in areas such as total productive maintenance (TPM), technology management
and support systems, return on investment (ROI) and maintenance management to compare
what Eskom is doing to what in others in the field are doing. There is no research work
currently that has been done that links maintenance to maintenance technology deployment
enablers. The research incorporates a number of operational experiences where some
Eskom turbo-generator units continue to operate with a known fault. Regular maintenance

iv
interventions introduce faults into the machine due to human error, the opening of units and
the handling of components. Attention is given to the impact of two-shifting or cyclic
operation on turbo-generators that were originally designed for base load condition. The
time–based maintenance of these units is not taking advantage of condition monitoring
information. Also, the installed condition monitoring techniques fall short of addressing two-
shifting monitoring requirements.

A number of lessons were learnt from the implementation of the condition-based

maintenance technology on Eskom generator fleet. The theory of maintenance management
underscores establishment of a good relationship between system engineers, maintenance
personnel and the technology provider which is key to success of the technology. It further
indicates that this relationship must go deeper than the mere technology provider and the
end user of the technology service agreement. The maintenance engineers are taking key
business decision for the well-being of machines and maintenance technology needs to
demonstrate that it is creating value for the business. From the people perspective attention
is required to staff motivation and providing balanced job satisfaction, whilst ensuring that
employees feel part of an integrated organisation maintenance strategy rather than of being
under thread of disempowered by the technology.

A myriad of considerations have been identified to affect the effective execution of condition-
base maintenance strategy on Eskom generator fleet. There are multiple dashboards or
standards indicators that can be used for maintenance management improvement. It has
been established that the success of the implementation of condition-based maintenance
rests in the concept of total productive maintenance approach. Within the ambit of TPM, the
entire process of maintenance must be managed on the basis of maintenance programmes
plan, which will have function of connecting the various maintenance programmes.

v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................................... iv
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................................ x
LIST OF ABBREVATION ........................................................................................................................... xi
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................................... xii
CHAPTER 1: PROBLEM STATEMENT ........................................................................................................ 1
1. Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background of Project ......................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem Statement .............................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Research Objectives ............................................................................................................ 5
1.4 Research Methodology ....................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Value of Research................................................................................................................ 6
1.6 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................... 6
1.7 Structure of Research.......................................................................................................... 7
1.7.1 Chapter 2 ....................................................................................................................... 7
1.7.2 Chapter 3 ....................................................................................................................... 7
1.7.3 Chapter 4 ....................................................................................................................... 7
1.7.4 Chapter 5 ....................................................................................................................... 8
1.7.5 Chapter 6 ...................................................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER 2: TURBO-GENERATOR BASIC THEORY ................................................................................... 9
2 Turbo-generator Basic Theory and Operational Problems .................................................... 9
2.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................ 9
2.2 Turbo-generator Major Components ................................................................................. 9
2.2.1 Turbo-generator Steel Forging ................................................................................. 10
2.2.2 Failure Mechanisms of Turbo-Generator Steel Forging and Wedges ............... 11
2.2.3 The Turbo-generator Field Windings....................................................................... 12
2.2.4 Turbo-generator Rotor Cooling Mechanism ........................................................... 13
2.2.5 Turbo-Generator Insulation System ........................................................................ 14
2.2.6 Shorted Turn Failure Mechanism ............................................................................ 15
2.2.7 Failure Mechanism due to Copper Dust ................................................................. 15
2.2.8 Operational Impact of Running a Turbo-Generator with Shorted Turn .............. 17
2.2.9 Slot Wedges Failure Mechanism ............................................................................. 19
2.2.10 Tooth and Slot Wedges Cracks ............................................................................... 19

vi
 2.2.11 Coil Retaining Rings .................................................................................................. 20
2.2.12 Implications of Operating Turbo-generator Rotor with Abnormal Coil Retaining
Rings 21
2.3 Foreign Object Failure Mechanisms................................................................................ 23
2.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 24
CHAPTER3:TURBO-GENERATOR ROTOR FAULTS AND DIAGNOSIS ....................................................... 25
3 Turbo-generator Rotor Faults and their Diagnosis................................................................ 25
3.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 25
3.2 Application of Off-line Electrical Tests to Assess Insulation Condition ...................... 26
3.2.1 Trending of Condition Copper Resistance to Assess the Turbo-generator
Condition...................................................................................................................................... 26
3.2.2 Trending of Insulation Resistance to Assess the Condition of Turbo-generator
26
3.2.3 Trending of Polarisation Index Test Result ............................................................ 27
3.2.4 Insulation Assessment through Turn Short Indication .......................................... 30
3.3 Application of On-line Electrical Test to Assess Insulation Condition ........................ 31
3.3.1 Measurement of Copper Winding Temperature to Detect Abnormalities .......... 32
3.3.2 Application of Shaft Voltages and Currents to Identify Defects .......................... 33
3.3.3 Application of Search Coil to Detect Shorted Turn Abnormalities ...................... 33
3.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 34
CHAPTER 4: MANAGEMENT AND SUPPORT SYSTEMS FOR MAINTENANCE OF TURBO-GENERATORS 35
4 Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 35
4.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 35
4.2 Measuring Maintenance .................................................................................................... 35
4.2.1 Improving Equipment Reliability ....................................................................................... 36
4.3 Return on Investment and Quality Cost of Maintenance ............................................. 37
4.4 Support Systems for Maintenance .................................................................................. 37
4.5 Types of Maintenance Overview...................................................................................... 38
4.5.1 Planned Maintenance ................................................................................................ 38
4.5.2 Traditional Corrective Maintenance ......................................................................... 39
4.5.3 Condition-based Maintenance.................................................................................. 40
4.6 Frequency of Maintenance ............................................................................................... 42
4.7 Extent of Maintenance ....................................................................................................... 42
4.8 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 43
CHAPTER 5: CASE STUDIES .................................................................................................................... 44

vii
5 Case Studies: Application of Condition Monitoring and Diagnostic Techniques to
Reduce Outage Duration by Optimisation of Time-Based Maintenance ................................... 44
5.1 Operational Experience: Impact of Cyclic Operation on Turbo-generator ................ 44
5.1.1 OEM Recommendations on Mitigation Impact of Cyclic-Operation ................... 47
5.1.2 Application of Vibration Measurement System to Detect Early Anomalies ....... 47
5.2 Application of Stray Flux Techniques to Continuously Monitor a Turbo-generator
Shorted-Turn ................................................................................................................................... 48
5.3 Application of Condition Monitoring Techniques to Detect a 95% Stator Earth Fault
49
5.3.1 Investigation into the failure ...................................................................................... 49
5.4 Application of Various Condition Monitoring and Diagnostic Techniques to
Commission a Generator after a Tool was Found Missing during a Routine Maintenance 50
5.5 Application of Condition Monitoring and Techniques to Continuously Monitor a
Generator with Two Negative Phase Sequence Trips ............................................................. 52
5.6 Use of Condition Monitoring to Validate a 40 Year Old, 120 MW Class B Stator for
Return to Service after 15 Years in Mothballs ........................................................................... 55
5.7 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................... 55
CHAPTER 6:DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................... 57
6 Discussion ................................................................................................................................... 57
6.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 57
6.1.1 Alignment of Eskom Rolled out Condition-Based Monitoring Technology to Total
Productive Maintenance (TPM) Practices .................................................................................. 57
6.1.2 Management and Support Systems for Eskom Condition-based Monitoring
Technology ...................................................................................................................................... 58
6.1.3 Return on Investment on Eskom Condition-based Monitoring Technology
Investment ....................................................................................................................................... 59
6.1.4 Lessons Learnt from the Eskom Condition-Based Condition Monitoring Technology
60
6.2 Limitation of the Study ....................................................................................................... 60
6.3 Future Research ............................................................................................................. 61
6.3.1 Technology Performance Assessment ................................................................... 61
6.3.2 Evaluation of Condition Monitoring Economic Benefits........................................ 61
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................... 62
APPENDICES .......................................................................................................................................... 65
Appendix A: South Africa’s Capacity Expansion and Demand Forecast for 2005-2025. ....... 65
Appendix B: Impact of Majuba Unit 3 Generator Failure on National Electricity Plan Capacity
.............................................................................................................................................................. 66

viii
Appendix C: Condition Based Maintenance .................................................................................. 67
Appendix D: Literature Survey of two-shift Operated Units ......................................................... 68
Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 68
Cyclic Operation Failure Mechanisms and Monitoring Techniques ....................................... 68
On-line Condition Monitoring for Cyclic Operated Machines................................................... 70

ix
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1:Off-line monitoring tests and fault diagnosis.................................................................... 31

Table 2: On-line monitoring tests and fault diagnosis advantages and disadvantages .......... 34
Table 3: Corrective maintenance advantages and disadvantages............................................. 39
Table 4: Time-based maintenance advantages and disadvantages.......................................... 41
Table 5: Condition-based maintenance advantages and disadvantages.................................. 41
Table 6: Impact of cyclic operation on a turbo-generator rotor ................................................... 46
Table 7: Risk management using condition monitoring ............................................................... 51

x
 LIST OF ABBREVATION

AC : Alternating Current

A-T : Ampere-turn

ASME : American Society of Mechanical Engineers

DC : Direct Current

CRR : Coil Retaining Ring

EPRI : Electrical Power Research Institute

IEEE : Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers

Kpa : Kilopascal

NERSA : National electricity Regulator of South Africa

OEM : Original Equipment Manufacturer

PI : Polarisation Index

RSO : Recurrent Surge Oscillation

SCR : Short Circuit Ratio

TDR : Time Domain Reflectometer

VT : Voltage Transformer

SCC : Stress corrosion cracking

VT : Voltage Transformer

EMI : Electro-magnetic Interference

β : Shape parameter of the Weibull function

RTS : Return to Service

xi
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Component failure rate [3] ................................................................................................ 2

Figure 2: Turbo-generator installed sensors for monitoring [4] ..................................................... 3
Figure 3: Real time condition monitoring schematic diagram [4] [6] ............................................ 4
Figure 4: Generator schematic diagram [9].................................................................................... 10
Figure 5: Generator rotor forging ..................................................................................................... 11
Figure 6: Arcing damaged wedge .................................................................................................... 12
Figure 7: Turbo-generator cooling different cooling mechanism [6] [7] ..................................... 14
Figure 8: Copper dust between copper strands ............................................................................ 17
Figure 9: Copper coils distortion [2]................................................................................................. 17
Figure 10: Coil retaining rings .......................................................................................................... 21
Figure 11:Coil retaining rings indicating areas susceptable to cracks [2] ................................. 22
Figure 12: Stator core damage from balancing bolt left inside the machine [9] ....................... 23
Figure 13: Graph of insulation resistance versus current [2] ....................................................... 28
Figure 14: Trending of insulation ..................................................................................................... 29
Figure 15: RSO test results indicating shorted turns [9]............................................................... 30
Figure 16: OEM Generator inspection limits [19] .......................................................................... 45
Figure 17: Plant components design start limitations [19] ........................................................... 45
Figure 18: Stray flux test result [19]................................................................................................. 48
Figure 19: Stray flux signature indicating shorted turn ................................................................. 53
Figure 20: EMI test results ................................................................................................................ 54

xii
 CHAPTER 1: PROBLEM STATEMENT

1. Introduction

1.1 Background of Project

The electricity system can be reasoned to be a country’s supreme critical infrastructure, as it
enables all other infrastructures such as telecommunication, water, healthcare etc. [1]. In
South Africa, electricity’s segment of total energy used is growing rapidly as more
communities now have access to electricity and other economic infrastructures become
more reliant on electricity. According to [2] the heart of the electricity infrastructure is the
generation plant, which is the most technologically-intensive component.

Eskom, as a main electricity supplier in South Africa, is currently under enormous pressure
to better manage generator asset performance to meet its objectives. Coupled with more
electricity power demand is the dwindling and ageing infrastructure. Appendix A indicates
Eskom power forecast demand for long-term. It can be seen that the current demand is more
than the current infrastructure can provide. For economic reasons, the current trend among
generator machinery users including Eskom is to extend the life of rotating machinery,
increase plant availability and reliability. Instead of replacing 30 year old machinery, plant life
extension programmes are being implemented to operate machinery up to and beyond its
original intended lifespan. Historically, Eskom has followed a fixed time-based maintenance
program to manage its asset. This maintenance program has not taken into account current
practices such as, run-up and run-down or two-shifting which lead to premature ageing. In
view of power shortages, maintenance budgetary constraints, risk associated with
disassembly or repair and financial impact of forced outages, time-based program that uses
condition-based information is considered a cost effective approach. Eskom is investing over
five hundred million rand on conditioning monitoring and the benefit need to be realised. The
investment consists of research and development (R&D), pilots and demonstration and
implementation of the technology. The research investigates benefit derived from predictive
maintenance through use of condition-based maintenance to optimise fixed time-based
traditional maintenance. Study case histories that show impact of two-shifting practice on
generators and how condition monitoring has assisted in reducing down-time and sometime
deferred maintenance has been undertaken. The application of this technology is
investigated in terms maintenance technology management perspective.

1
1.2 Problem Statement
Generator rotors though seemingly simple in appearance, are in fact complex structures,
which have resulted from the best in electrical, mechanical and material manufacturing
knowledge and experience. The generator rotor must withstand extreme electrical and
mechanical forces while securely carrying the field winding. These components are expected
to operate reliably over decades and sometimes go beyond maintenance regime schedule.
The adverse conditions under which these generator rotors function include transient
voltages, currents, and cyclic operated generator a significant starts and stops during and
beyond their design life [3]. The increasing electrical power demand all over the world has
called upon utilities to operate generator rotors beyond their design margins. This has also
triggered the level of maintenance performed to decrease thus allow problems to possibly
develop without being detected [2]. Older installed Units constitute higher percentage of
industry capacity and reserve margins and represent an important segment of the industry.
Though, highly reliable turbo-generator rotors are not immune to accelerated ageing.

Figure 1: Life cycle of physical and failure rate [3]

Most mechanical systems present a development of the failure rate that well determines
bathtub curve in which three regions can be distinguished. These are called infant mortality
rate, causal breakdown and breakdown due to wear. In the first region there are newly

2
refurbished systems. In this phase the probability of failure is rather high due possible design
errors, assembly and installation variables. The second phase (maturity) is characterised by
a constant failure rate due wear tear. The last phase of the bath curve is characterised by
the growing rate of failure as equipment ages (wearing and tear rate). During normal life
expectancy, most equipment exhibits a basic pattern of failure rate which is depicted in
Figure 1. Likewise, during the normal operating condition, the turbo-generator rotor reliability
remains fairly constant. However, after many years of service, the failure rate tends to
increase. Replacement of the worn components will improve the reliability of the generator.
The main purpose of condition monitoring is to detect a fault or degradation process that has
reached a certain symptomatic level and provide indication of an abnormality in time before
a catastrophic failure. The overall goal of a maintenance program is to perform right amount
of maintenance at the right time and in the most cost effective manner [1]. The condition
monitoring in enhancing the care and maintenance of large generator rotors has become a
high priority in the power industry.

Figure 2: Turbo-generator installed sensors for monitoring [4]

Monitoring systems obtain information about the generator in the form of primary data.
Through the utilisation of modern signal processing and analysis techniques, it is possible to
give vital diagnostic information to the system engineer or operator before it catastrophically
fails. Figure 2 and Figure 3 depict how condition monitoring information can be accessed
through various on-line communication systems. Generator components are fitted with

3
temperature, partial discharge sensors, pressure gauges and various other sensors to
monitor and display the status of the equipment. The information is captured in the DCS
(distributed data control historian. This may be viewed through the local area network (LAN)
and website.

Figure 3: Real time condition monitoring schematic diagram [4] [6]

4
1.3 Research Objectives
Due to the highly competitive nature of today’s power makers, utilities including Eskom,
cannot afford to do major outages on their plant too frequently. On the other hand if utilities
wait too long to perform outage maintenance, irreversible plant damage may result. There
are a number of mechanisms that utilities utilise to make decisions about the correct interval
to schedule an outage. One approach is to utilise equipment risk to manage and optimise
outage intervals. The risk approach uses the information of condition monitoring as part of
decision making. The aim of this study is to provide an overview of how condition-based
maintenance and diagnostic techniques can:

• Assist to optimise time-based maintenance

• Reduce planned outage duration
• Minimise unplanned outages
• Assist in generator return- to- service inspections
• Keep generators running longer until the next planned outage
• Help to allocate resources where needed
• Advice items of management of maintenance technology

1.4 Research Methodology

The mini-dissertation aims to achieve an in-depth understanding of turbo-generator condition
monitoring techniques and maintenance practices. The methodology followed the qualitative
research approach [5]. The research is based on the case histories extracted from Eskom
conditioning monitoring reports along with direct observations. The author compiled this
mini-dissertation based on ten years’ experience working at Rotek Engineering as a
maintenance specialist on Eskom large fleet of turbo-generators, Municipalities, Sappi,
Kelvin, Sasol and Namibian Power (Nampower). Rotek Engineering is a division of Eskom
that performs maintenance on its generator fleet and other utilities inside and outside South
Africa.

Valuable research information was also provided by power station system engineers, chief
engineers, corporate specialists and generator consultants. Additional information was
obtained from generator rotor vendors and original equipment manufacturer (OEM). Industry
literature that has been consulted included Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) mini-
dissertations on world wild operational experience. Eskom’s generator manuals were of
great help as well in streamlining the research. The premise for the case studies is to look at
maintenance regimes and condition monitoring techniques currently utilised by Eskom to
ensure operational reliability. The management of this maintenance technology is critical to

5
the success of entire maintenance approach. Lastly, the author makes conclusions from the
lessons learnt and recommends further studies to be conducted. The research is, however,
limited by classification and confidentiality of information. The study relied heavily on
qualitative information due to the subjective nature of the subject matter. The implementation
of condition-based maintenance at Eskom is still limited to few Units, hence proper
evaluation not possible.

1.5 Value of Research

If a turbo-generator was to fail catastrophically, it could destroy both the generator and the
stator, causing damage to the entire centreline and auxiliaries. The catastrophic failure of
one Eskom station Unit, caused the entire centreline to fail, resulting in R 500 000 000 worth
of damage. However the probability of failure is relatively low, a more likely risk is that the
turbo-generator damage would result in a Unit coming off-load for winding repairs which
impact on the system availability. Assuming a loss of R 3 000 000 per day over ten days, the
return to on investment would be approximately R 30 000 000. Conducting this research is
critical to the author as a condition monitoring specialist to evaluate how conditioning
monitoring is implemented to make critical plant decisions. This research is critical to the
author as a condition monitoring specialist to evaluate how conditioning monitoring is
implemented for the purpose of making critical plant decisions. The research aims to assist
system engineers to formulate long-term strategies for generators. It is hoped that the
outcome of the research will enable decision makers to structure their maintenance plan
based on the condition of each machine. In light of power shortages due to plant generator
rotor unavailability, the value of the research will go a long way in reducing generator down
time. The experience, lessons learnt and best practices offer a unique insight into turbo-
generator rotors maintenance and condition monitoring practices.

1.6 Conclusions
The increasing electrical power demand in South Africa and all over the world has forced
utilities to operate generator rotors beyond their design margins. This has also resulted in
the level of maintenance performed on equipment to decrease thus allowing problems to
develop without being detected. Older installed units constitute a higher percentage of
industry electricity capacity thereby represent an important segment of the industry. With the
highly competitive nature of today’s power generation markets, most utilities cannot afford to
do major generator maintenance too frequently. Conversely, waiting too long to perform

6
maintenance may result in irreparable damage to plant. With less maintenance being
performed in line with Eskom commitment to “keeping the lights on”, problems have
developed without being detected. The catastrophic failure of one Eskom station Unit,
caused the entire centreline to fail, resulting in R 500 000 000 worth of damage. Utilities
need a systematic approach to determine the condition and maintenance needs of their
machines. The traditional time-based maintenance can be optimised by applying condition-
based maintenance. Condition monitoring allows for more insight into the machine condition
and prevents catastrophic failures due to early warning of component degradation.

1.7 Structure of Research

1.7.1 Chapter 2
Basic theory of turbo-generator: This chapter outlines the basic function of a turbo-
generator. The generator mechanical and electrical components design is such that the
generator must be able to withstand large electrical and mechanical forces and
temperatures. The turbo-generator operational regime has a large impact on the condition
and life of the machine. The design, operation and maintenance of turbo-generators are
discussed in great detail in [5, 6, and 7].

1.7.2 Chapter 3
Effects of operational condition on a turbo-generator: The effects of generator
operational conditions are discussed. Current periodic inspection and maintenance
strategies being employed on turbo-generators are briefly discussed. These inspections are
categorised into off line and on-line inspections. The objective of the tests is to detect flaws
and defects at an early stage to afford early intervention and to minimise outages.

1.7.3 Chapter 4
Turbo-generator currently practised maintenance strategies: This chapter looks at
current maintenance practices of turbo-generator units originally designed for base load but
now have to be implemented for two-shifting operations. The aim is to ascertain the
advantages and disadvantages of these different approaches in line with maintenance
budget, resources and world-wide surging power demands.

7
1.7.4 Chapter 5
Case histories and operational experience are discussed: This chapter looks at how
condition monitoring and diagnostic techniques of turbo-generators have assisted Eskom to
have continued supply of electricity with ageing machines. Condition monitoring information
has been applied to defer scheduled maintenance due to grid capacity constraints. This
chapter also impresses upon using condition monitoring and diagnostics techniques during
the return-to-service of generator units.

1.7.5 Chapter 6
This chapter discusses findings of the mini-dissertation and conclusions. Recommendations
for future research in the area of condition monitoring and diagnostic techniques are
outlined.

8
 CHAPTER 2: TURBO-GENERATOR BASIC THEORY

2 Turbo-generator Basic Theory and Operational Problems

2.1 Introduction
The term generator rotor refers to a moving part of an electrical generator machine of the
steam turbine-driven, or turbo-generator. Turbo-generators range from relatively small
machines of few megawatts (MW) to very large generators with ratings well over 1600 MW.
The function of the turbo-generator is to generate electric power, at rated frequency and
voltage to the electrical grid. The steam driven turbine produces mechanical energy which is
converted to electrical energy by means of rotating magnetic field produced by DC current in
the copper windings of the generator rotor. This in turn generates three phase AC voltages
in a copper winding of the stator or armature. The design of the generator must be able to
cope with large and fast changes which further show up inside the machine as mechanical
forces and temperatures [7, 8].

The reasons behind failures in rotating electrical machines have their origin in design,
manufacturing tolerances, assembly, installation, working environment, nature of load and
schedule of maintenance. The design of the generator is such that the interaction between
mechanical and electrical forces under normal condition leads to a stable operation. When
there is a fault, the equilibrium between the forces is lost, leading to further enhance of fault
[6]. The turbo-generator rotors specific to this mini-dissertation are of the 2 or 4 pole
designs, employing round rotors with rotational operating speeds of 3000 and 1500 rpm
(revolution per minute) for the 2 and 4 pole, respectively. The theory of machines extensively
covered in most rotating machinery books.

2.2 Turbo-generator Major Components

Turbo-generator Units are constructed from various components used to make the
specialised components that encompass the turbo-generator rotor as whole. All these
components are designed to work together as Unit under strenuous operating conditions,
encompassing electrical, thermal and mechanical loads. The main turbo-generator
components comprise of the forging, windings, winding insulations, winding slot wedges, end
winding packing and blocking, damper windings, main leads, retaining rings, radial stalk

9
bolts, balance ring, bore plug, locking rings, fans, balance weights, slip ring and brush gear.
A schematic diagram of generator rotor is shown in Figure 4, and is depicted as a rotor.

Figure 4: Generator schematic diagram [10]

2.2.1 Turbo-generator Steel Forging

Turbo-generator rotors are generally constructed from single steel forging made of highly
electromagnetically permeable steel, depicted in Figure 5. This enables the steel forging to
carry the magnetic flux generated by the current flowing in the rotor copper windings. They
are axially cut slots machined into the main body of the forging to house the copper windings
that carry the DC magnetising current. There are extremely high stresses present in specific
part of the generator forging which call for careful design attention and generous safety
margins. The design constraints are temperature, mechanical forces and insulation. Very
high stresses occur in the rotor slot teeth roots, shrink fit area and generally where there are
machined radii and slots. These stresses are low cyclic mechanism due to start- up and shut
down operations. The copper windings are kept in place by wedges generally made of steel,
aluminium, or brass alloys. The end winding of the copper are kept in place by steel coil
retaining rings. The coil retaining rings are generally made of nonmagnetic steel, some older

10
design contain magnetic material for wedges that aid to produce smooth magnetic field
wave.

Figure 5: Generator rotor forging

2.2.2 Failure Mechanisms of Turbo-Generator Steel Forging and Wedges

Short steel wedges installed on the generator rotor cause fretting, cracking and fatigue on
the forging during operation. The ends of short wedges rub or fret against the rotor body
when the rotor flexes during low speed or during run-up or run-down. High stress
concentration at sharp fillets between wedge body and wedge shoulder can lead to crack
growth. High bending stress occurs in the rotor if the length to body ratio is high, cracks may
form in the winding slot dovetail at the location of the wedge end. The crack starts small,
almost unnoticeable and grows without any indication of trouble [1, 5, 6 and 8]. During
unbalanced load conditions, as well as during system oscillations or other types of abnormal
operation, alternating currents are established in the body of the rotor. These currents tend
to flow along the rotor forging along the wedges. The current can give rise to localised pitting
of metals. The high resistance areas are mainly found in the contact surfaces between the
wedges and the slots, between different wedges, and between wedges ns retaining rings.
The severe pitting can lead to catastrophic failure due to crack initiated from pitting.

11
Figure 6: Arcing damaged wedge

Once it reaches a critical size, it may propagate to an un-repairable size [2]. The cracking
shaft can have catastrophic results on the turbo-generator. Key-ways and seating surfaces
on the shaft and other machined areas may be stress risers, which when subjected to strain
from rotor flexing and vibration may initiate shaft cracking [9]. Figure 6 depicts a slot wedge
of a 660 MW Eskom turbo-generator that suffered from arcing damage when the generator
was switched on at standstill. The wedge has undergone parasitic electrical currents from
motoring or negative sequence events.

2.2.3 The Turbo-generator Field Windings

The windings of a generator rotor convey electrical energy to or from working region and are
concerned with electro-motive-force and development of magneto–mechanical force [6 and
7]. The rotor copper field windings are installed in a winding slot of the body forging as
indicated above in Figure 5. Copper is a most common conducting material used on
generator design because of its superior conducting properties. These copper, copper alloys
or aluminium conductors act as conduits for the DC excitation current. The copper field
windings are distributed around the rotor between poles. The field winding itself is made up
of fully series connected concentric copper coils, each located in the pair of slots in
corresponding positions on the opposite side of the rotor body. The series connection
essentially creates a single multi turn loop, which develops the total ampere-turn for the
turbo-generator rotor. Each winding turn is insulated from the other by a thin layer of

12
insulation. The windings themselves are insulated from the forging as well by slot wall
insulation. The windings are held in place in the slot by wedges. The wedges are therefore
subjected to tremendous static load from these forces. Packing blocks are used to separate
coils to prevent shorts that would result from electrical contact.

The capability of the field windings is expressed in ampere-turn (A-T) per pole. The total
cross sectional area in each slot available for copper is subdivided into turns. The product of
the copper winding turns and excitation current result in ampere-turn for the generator. The
current density in the copper determines the total loss dissipated as temperature of the field
windings. As the number of turns increases, the copper area per turn, the current per turn
decreases proportionally. The field voltage is directly proportionally to number of turns. The
major design criterion impacting the A-T capability of the field windings is the temperature.
The capability can be enhanced by improved insulation system, better cooling or by
increasing the total area available for copper in the rotor cross section.

2.2.4 Turbo-generator Rotor Cooling Mechanism

Turbo-generators utilise either air or hydrogen as the internal cooling medium for the copper
windings and insulation. Hydrogen is the most cost effective gas for ventilation used on
generators. Turbo-generator rotors are configured differently for different method of heat
removal during operation, see Figure 7. Most of the turbo-generator rotors directly cool the
windings using hydrogen. Its density at ninety eight percentage purity is in the order of one is
to ten that of air at a comparable pressure [6, 8]. Higher pressure greatly improves the heat
removal capability and the coefficient is fifty percent more effective than that of air at the
same pressure. This reduces the fan and windage loses to such a low value that is feasible
to raise hydrogen pressure to high as 520 Kpa without adversely affecting efficiency.

The cooling passages are provided within the field windings themselves to eliminate the
temperature drop across the ground wall insulation to preserve the life of the insulation
material. The hydrogen is circulated throughout the turbo-generator by shaft mounted fans.
For the axially cooled rotor windings, the cooling gas passes through the axial passages in
the conductors, being fed from both ends and the gas is exhausted through the centre of the
rotor in the air gap. In the radial design, radial passages in the stack of conductors are fed
from sub slots machined along the length of the rotor at the bottom of each slot. In the air
gap pick up method, the cooling gas is picked up from the air gap and the cooling is
accomplished from a relatively short length of the generator and then discharged back to the
air gap. In smaller machines cooling is done indirectly, where the heat is removed by

13
conduction through the ground wall or slot liner insulation to the rotor body. For any
generator, a failure of the cooling system can result in deterioration of the rotor and stator
windings insulation.

Figure 7: Turbo-generator cooling different cooling mechanism [6] [7]

2.2.5 Turbo-Generator Insulation System

Ideal insulation material has high dielectric strength at elevated temperatures, good thermal
conductivity, and good mechanical properties and is non-deteriorating at high temperature
[11]. The insulating materials, essentially non-metallic, are organic or in organic and uniform
in composition. Generator rotor windings have both turn-to-turn insulation and slot insulation.
Slot insulation is required to isolate the field windings from the rotor body and the retaining
rings which are essentially at ground potential. Copper winding turns are separated from
each other by turn insulation to prevent interturn short. The insulation is designed to carry
out its insulating function as well as being able to withstand the immense mechanical loading
due to rotational forces. During turn-to-turn contact the DC current through the rotor field
windings creates considerable I2 R losses, leading to the heating of the copper windings [6,
7 and 8]. The temperature causes copper windings axial growth due to thermal coefficient of

14
expansion. This growth leads to differential movement of the winding components and the
copper insulation can be abraded as a result.

Turbo generator rotor rotation imposes a huge centrifugal load on the insulation system. The
impact on the insulation is further exacerbated by the change of temperature in the winding,
which occurs during excitation and loading. Cycling of the load causes temperature cycling
which in turn causes the field windings to expand and contract. These may induce electrical
ageing and wear out in the insulation system. The field excitation voltage can reach 700 V
DC on larger machines. The insulation must be capable of handling the field forcing duty
which is twice the rated field voltage [6, 7 and 10]. The weight of the copper conductors
tends to compress and distort the insulation.

2.2.6 Shorted Turn Failure Mechanism

The life span of an insulating material is related to the hot spot temperature within the
windings it covers. There are significant temperature rises in the copper windings due to high
dc current flowing. Cooling is imperative to ensure that the insulation does not experience
overheating. When overheating takes place, the insulation may allow shorted turns and
ground faults. When series copper turns come into contact a winding short is created. The
turn insulation is damaged due to wear and tear, insulation migration and overheating, failed
winding joints and copper distortion or softening [1, 12]. Debris in the copper windings such
as copper dust that cause tracking between turns may result in winding shorts. Shorted turns
cause imbalance in the flow of excitation current. This creates difference in heating from one
side of the rotor windings to the other. The difference in heating causes vibration in the rotor
behaviour. Shorted turns are common cause for sudden change in rotor thermal balance
characteristics. Lack of proper contact of joints may be as result of bad brazing, fatigue, or
excessive stress. The current carrying capability might be compromised if a bar loses its full
cross sectional area for design current density. The loss of current carrying capability might
cause the bar to overheat. This could cause the bar to separate or simply creating open
circuit. The collateral damage from overheating and molten copper splatter creates multiple
interturn shorts.

2.2.7 Failure Mechanism due to Copper Dust

Experience indicates that one of the most detrimental modes of operation to the integrity of
the field windings is prolonged low speed operation [7, 9]. For double layer copper winding
design, where the two layers are in contact copper dusting takes place. This phenomenon

15
occurs when the generator rotor is on barring gear or low speed. During this operation the
copper windings are loose in the slot due to not enough centrifugal force loading to lock
them against the slot wedges. The copper winding strands rub against each other in a
traverse direction and create copper dust. The dust particles migrate to critical areas and
lodge themselves between wedges and adjacent turns. This may result in ground or turn
shorts.

The ground or earth fault occurs when the copper windings are shorted to the rotor body or
coil retaining rings. Ground faults manifest because of a breakdown in the ground wall
insulation. This insulation breakdown may be in the slot section of the winding, under the coil
retaining rings, at the main lead terminals or collector terminals or in the bore copper region.
The ground or turn faults can be caused by copper dusting, insulation failure, operating
regime such as many start-stop or cyclic operation, any contamination introduced into the
generator due to burning in the machine that could produce conductive material that is
circulated inside the machine. Operating incidents may induce heating; burning, arcing, high
stress etc. that could be detrimental to the insulation. These abnormal operations include
motoring, a negative sequence event (closing a generator breaker on standstill or turning-
gear or single phase operation). A single rotor ground fault might not be catastrophic by itself
and the rotor is capable of continued operation. This is not, however, recommended for the
life of the generator, because the second fault is likely to occur. A second ground fault
causes high current to flow between the two ground points and enough heating could be
generated such that the field forging, wedges or retaining rings could melt resulting in
catastrophic failure. The loading on the copper winding when it is too soft, causes it to
elongate and to grow beyond design clearances, see Figure 9. The winding distortion can be
seen and is more conspicuous on the outer turns. Due to the enclosing rings the windings
become distorted. This occurs when the copper is overheated due cooling starvation and
cannot maintain its material characteristics and becomes softened. In some instances
copper windings hung up and cannot return to their original position after the electrical
current loading is removed. When the machine is loaded again the copper windings can
elongate and distort further. Also, because copper has relatively low yield strength and the
stresses can be high, turn and coil distortion may occur [1, 4 and 6]. Measure of coil
distortion can result in serious magnetic and electrical problems including arcing to ground.
Coil distortion may also cause mechanical unbalance due to a portion of the coil fore-
shorting sufficiently to throw out from under the remainder of the coil [9, 12]. Distortion can
be caused by poor design of the end-turn blocking supports or by fore shorting of the rotor
windings. Copper fore-shortening is caused by a combination of rotational and axial thermal
forces, causing ratchetting or compression of the windings as the Unit is cycled.

16
Figure 8: Copper dust between copper strands

Figure 9: Copper coils distortion [2]

2.2.8 Operational Impact of Running a Turbo-Generator with Shorted Turn

Generator rotors that have been in service for longer duration and have experienced
adverse operating incident, may develop insulation problems. The output of a turbo-
generator is a direct function of the ampere-turn values of the rotating field. Any reduction in

17
the number of active turns in a field will require corresponding increase in the excitation
current in order to maintain the ampere-turn value. Increases in field current result in higher
hot spot temperatures in the field windings. The increase in hot spot temperature accelerates
the breakdown of insulation system and increase in the temperature related deformation of
the windings.

The short results from the insulation between the copper turns when is locally bridged
allowing the adjacent turns to make contact. Although this is not desirable, generator fields
have and will operate with limited number of shorted turns without significant effect on the
operation of the generator. The primary consequence of operating with shorts is not being
able to reach the full capacity of the machines or developing a thermal sensitive generator.
Shorts can occur anywhere in the winding of the turbo-generator; however, they seem to be
common in the end winding area under the retaining rings. A small number of short turns
usually do not pose operational problems. When the generator has one or few shorted turns,
the imbalance in resistance between the poles is not sufficient to create even heating and
subsequent vibration of the rotor. The small decrease in ampere-turn may not produce a
noticeable field current increase detectable when measuring the change in impedance.
However, shorted turn indications can lead to further insulation degradation.

The most likely problem with the operation in the presence of shorted field windings is
excessive vibration. Vibration in two pole turbo-generator rotors occurs due to the unequal
amount of heat, (I2R losses) distribution between poles. This unequal heating causes the
turbo-generator rotor to deform or bow and thereby initiate vibration. In general, unequal turn
distribution in smaller coils (say coil 1, 2, and 3] will have a greater effect whereas unequal
distribution in the larger coils will have a lesser effect. For instance one may expect vibration
problems with 5 percent shorted turns in coil 1 of one pole of a seven coil turbo-generator
rotor and no vibration would be expected if the same percent of turn shorts were present in
coil 6 or coil 7 and 8 [1, 7 and 2].

A thermal sensitive rotor is characterised by a once per revolution frequency response

vibration signature. This is mainly caused by the change in the generator balance due to the
bow. If the total vibration of the field stays within the acceptable limits the generator is not
considered thermal sensitive. The vibration signature that follows the excitation current is
known as a reversible or repeatable thermal sensitive vector. The reversible or repeatable
thermal sensitive vector follows the excitation current whether decreasing or increasing. If
this is the case, in many instances the generator can be trimmed balanced so that the
thermal vector passes through zero and the maximum vibration limits stays within

18
acceptable levels. This type of vibration is as a result of interturn short in the winding
insulation which is the main common cause of thermal sensitivity [3].

2.2.9 Slot Wedges Failure Mechanism

The wedges that hold the filed winding against rotational forces are complex in design and
highly stressed components as well. The slot wedges always include radial ventilation slot
holes for cooling gas to escape or enter the field winding. The wedges also are designed to
move marginally along the slot groove. The differences in design philosophy allow for
numerous basic designs for winding slot designs, from short wedges to full rotor body length
wedges. In modern machine, slot wedges are made of high strength aluminium. Steel
wedges which are still in use by some manufacturers are susceptible to fretting fatigue and
cracking [2]. In operation when the rotor body flexes the wedges rub or fret against the rotor
body in the low speed range at barring speed, during run-up or run-down. These cause
fretting marks or cracking to occur.

2.2.10 Tooth and Slot Wedges Cracks

There are two basic designs of retaining rings: the spindle-mounted design and the body-
mounted design. Each design has inherent design weak points demanding closer
examination during an inspection phase. Some rotor designs with body mounted coil
retaining rings have a tendency to develop cracks in the shrink fit areas of the tooth as a
result of loading. The area of the rotor teeth between the groove for the ring key and the end
of the rotor is prone to the development of cracks [7]. In most cases the broken tooth
remains in position because it is trapped in its position until the coil retaining rings have been
removed [2]. This poses risk to generator because the shrink fit has been compromised and
the loading on the other teeth is increased.

Generator rotor slot wedges are highly stressed components of the generator [2]. They
restrain the copper windings in the slots. They must be capable of carrying the loading of the
copper windings under centrifugal force during loading [6]. They consist of ventilation slots to
match the slots on the copper windings. This means that wedges are affected by
temperature and may experience overheating if there is blockage. Reference [7] provides a
good entry point to literature on the subject of fretting or movement at interference-fit
surfaces of wedges and coil retaining rings. Utilities work together with OEM who are well
versed on how to identify and repair if possible fatigue and fretting related failures.

19
2.2.11 Coil Retaining Rings
Coil retaining rings (CRR’s) are the most critical components of the generator rotor mounted
to support the rotor end windings, as the turns exit the slots in the rotor forging and cross to
complete the coil connections. They must also withstand a high axial thermal thrust load
because of the thermal expansion of the field windings. They are critical in the sense that
their mechanical failure always has catastrophic consequence on the physical integrity of the
machine [1, 2 and 7]. Their function is to contain the field windings centrifugal load at the end
regions. Therefore, these components deserve the utmost attention from the inspection team
engaged in the inspection and maintenance of the Unit. Figure 10 depicts a coil retaining
ring mounted on the rotor body. A circumferential lock ring is used to lock the coil retaining
ring into position. At the back, an end ring or centre ring is used to stiffen the non-shrunk end
of the retaining ring, to minimise the non-uniform expansion of the winding weights and
accommodate balance weights [6, 7] during trip balancing. The older generator designs are
fitted with 18-5 (18 percent manganese and 5 percent chromium alloy). These coil retaining
rings have been found to be susceptible to stress corrosion cracking. Most utilities replace
the 18-5 with the 18-18 due to improved resistance to stress corrosion cracking. For Units
with 18-5 coil retaining rings, a rigorous management system is maintained. Operators of
units with nonmagnetic retaining rings have developed various techniques to keep moisture
out of the rings during outages as well as during operations. Although the 18-18 coil
retaining rings are not immune from stress corrosion cracking (SCC) problems are not
impervious to moisture in which halides or copper ions are present. Therefore, it is
imperatives that these rings are kept dry, clean and free from any halides contaminants.

CRR’s mounted on the rotor body are subjected to high circulating currents during certain
unbalanced loading conditions, which produce negative sequence currents in the rotor body.
This current circulate in a closed loop pattern, first along the length of the rotor body, then
enter the coil retaining ring and then flows circumferentially around the ring for a short
distance and return to the generator rotor. Unless good electrical contact exists at the
junction between the retaining ring and the rotor body, excess heat may occur and possibly
damage the coil retaining rings. During inspections, the coil retaining rings are checked for
obvious signs of damage such as score marks scratches, overheating and electrical arcing
or pitting especially at the nose areas. They are normally subjected to non-destructive
examination. The examination can be carried out when the coil retaining rings are mounted
or removed. A full revalidation is conducted when they have been removed as they can be
inspected on the inside and outside diameters and all the radii and shrink fit areas. A dye
penetrant examination of the body is conducted to detect surface cracks and can be

20
performed when the coil retaining ring is place. For locating deep seated indications, eddy
current or ultra-sonic tests are conducted.

Figure 10: Coil retaining rings

2.2.12 Implications of Operating Turbo-generator Rotor with Abnormal Coil Retaining

Rings
It is extremely important that the coil retaining ring environment is maintained clean not only
during operation also during the overhauls and inspections. It carries the magnetic flux
generated by the currents flowing in the copper windings. All the generator components are
operating under high stress and are well balanced. As mentioned before the coil retaining
rings are the most highly stressed components. All rotor mechanical components are
designed with fifty percent safety factor above the maximum operating stress at twenty
percent above rated speed [3, 7 and 9]. This design criterion ensures that rotors undergo
over-speeds during stress events as a natural testing function. The safety margins are
important because of the potentially catastrophic failure of rotor features.

One of the main operating issues concerning turbo-generator rotors is requirement to run at
high speed with minimum vibration. There are various vibration types that generator rotors
encounter. The generator vibration characteristics generally exhibit either the 1 or 2 times

21
revolution frequency. Mechanical and electrical stresses can be induced. Operating a
generator with known flaws in retaining rings, dovetail and copper windings is not
recommended due to the risk of catastrophic generator failure. Due to economics, the power
plant operation may require putting the Unit back to service without repairs. Even though the
generator rotor must be on outage for components validation and crack identification, it
might not be economically feasible to extend the outage. If the indication or flaw is minor, the
Unit can be put back to service or else the Unit should not be put back to service regardless
of the economic cost. The OEM is consulted on continuing operation with a known defect.
Cracking of coil retaining rings can often occur on the outside of the rings where dye
penetrant and other visible inspections can detect while the rings are mounted on the
generator. Figure 11 indicates several areas on the coil retaining rings that are susceptible to
that are hard to reach due to ring configuration. Some of the areas can only be fully
inspected when rings have been completely removed for the rotor. Stress corrosion cracking
of the generator coil retaining rings is a well-documented industry–wide concern for
generator maintenance. Stress corrosion cracking develops on the surface of the material in
the presence of moisture and stress. As a result of the stress concentration and geometry
which tends to hold moisture, the coil retaining rings inside surface tends to be more
susceptible to stress corrosion cracking. EPRI has in particular followed the issue of coil
retaining maintenance and produced a significant of informative publications [7].

Figure 11:Coil retaining rings indicating areas susceptable to cracks [2]

22
2.3 Foreign Object Failure Mechanisms
Foreign material or loose objects have been a major cause of forced outages. There are a
number of causes of foreign material ingress, ranging from overlooked repair tools, objects
lost from pockets, inadequately secured or locked bolts, magnetic material picked by the
rotor residual magnetic field, loose stator end blocking and broken laminations. Foreign
objects can be introduced into the machine in a variety of ways, object being left inside the
machine when it is opened, object normally attached to the machine breaking loose. Figure
12 indicates a balance bolt that was not locked properly and as a result, become loose and
came off the thread. Because the bolt was magnetic, the stator core of the generator was
damaged and caused extensive damage. Foreign objects that enter the generator can result
in degradation and in failure. It is not unknown for a metallic foreign object like a nut, a bolt, a
washer or a piece of shavings etc. to find its way into the rotor or stator gap or into an axial
cooling duct in the stator core. Over time this foreign body may vibrate against the lamination
edges and damage the inter-laminar insulation, causing adjacent laminations to come in
contact with one another. This may result in a number of laminations becoming connected
together leading to local hotspot.

Figure 12: Stator core damage from balancing bolt left inside the machine [12]

Most utilities require clean working conditions during manufacturing, maintenance and
refurbishment of generators. These standards have requirements that seek to avoid damage
by foreign objects left in machines. Eskom has developed procedures and extensively make

23
use of condition monitoring techniques to monitor its generators during start-ups after
maintenance to eliminate any chance of failure due to foreign object. The other components
believed to be playing an important role in the development of shorted turns are moisture,
and dust particles ingress. These contaminants are moved throughout the generator with the
cooling gas. The contaminants are then deposited in most location around the inside of the
turbo-generator rotor. The area under the coil retaining rings becomes a collection of high
concentration due to its physical arrangement. Other contaminants can come from many
different sources such as carbon, which represents one of the more common contaminants,
due to collector brush wear. Other particulates likely to be found inside the generator come
from the generator itself, worn insulation, blocking and wedges. Liquid may also be present
and can compound problems by combining with the particulates and sticking on areas of the
rotor. The liquid contaminant is limited to oil from the hydrogen seals and bearings. The oil
can get drawn into the generator and coat or block rotor ventilation. Oil leaks into the
generator can easily drop hydrogen purity levels, tripping the machine. There are many
problems that may surface as a result of this, these include low Megger readings,
overheating creepage and shorted turns. Electrical ground shorts that are caused by dirt or
dust tracking along the creepage path are also a common occurrence.

2.4 Conclusion
The function of the turbo-generator is to generate electric power, at rated frequency and
voltage to the electrical grid. Turbo-generator rotors operational issues involve the mode, in
which the turbo-generators are operated, and the conditions and transients to which the
rotors are subjected. The modes of operation include base loads, cyclic and peaking. The
cyclic operation also coined two-shifting, involves running the generator during peak load
times of the day and shutting down for the remainder of the day. Stresses occur in various
parts of the generator such as the windings, insulation, and slots teeth roots, shrink fit area
and, generally where there are machined radii and coil retaining ring. The causes of failure
are almost numerous to count, but the most common reasons are turn-to-turn shorts, rotor
winding foreshortening, blocked ventilation passages, electrical grounds, and overheating.
Foreign object if left inside the machine can cause extensive damage. Coil retaining rings
are critical in the sense that their mechanical failure always has catastrophic consequence
on the physical integrity of the machine. The following chapter discusses turbo-generators
incipient faults and diagnostics. Commercial available turbo-generator test methods are
discussed.

24
 CHAPTER3:TURBO-GENERATOR ROTOR FAULTS AND
DIAGNOSIS

3 Turbo-generator Rotor Faults and their Diagnosis

3.1 Introduction
The turbo-generator rotor is the rotating part of the generator. It is a large electromagnetic
part, made of a precision machine steel alloy forging and copper windings which are
insulated. The windings are insulated from ground by slot liner and retaining rings insulation
and individual copper turns are isolated from each other by turn-to-turn insulation. Insulation
is utilised to isolate the field lead and terminals, rotor bore copper and collector terminals. If
the integrity of the insulation is compromised by mechanical damage, excess heat, burning
or some other cause, interturn short or earth fault will manifest. Periodic inspections are
necessary elements of generator condition assessment. The overall idea of maintenance
practice is to perform the correct amount of maintenance at the right time at the most cost
effective manner. Maintenance planning usually revolves around the specific need of the
turbo-generator rotor. Inspection and testing identify flaws and defects at an early stage.
Early identification of problems allows for remedial intervention before minor flaws and
defects can develop into potential dangerous and catastrophic failures. Predictive
maintenance as applied provides a means to ascertain the condition of the rotor [10, 12]. It is
also affords an opportunity to take prompt early action. Properly maintained generator rotor
yield extended life and minimise outages.

Generator rotors that have been in service for a long period of time or have had in service
operating incident may develop insulation problems. When this happens, insulations
between the windings and between the ground and windings are locally damaged and as a
result, the integrity of the generator rotor is compromised. This breakdown in insulation could
result in winding shorts or ground fault between the windings and the forgings, retaining
rings or other component at ground potential. It is important to understand the difference
between an interturn short and an earth fault and their effect on the continued operation of
the generator after such condition has developed. Due to potential of such serious
consequences to the generator, if it is operated in that fault condition, it is important to be
able to accurately diagnose the type of fault condition and its location in the generator.

25
3.2 Application of Off-line Electrical Tests to Assess Insulation Condition
Turbo-generator field problems include shorts, earth faults and bad copper winding
connections. Periodic electrical tests can detect most winding problems. In some cases, a
shorted winding turn may not be detectable as a short is often a high resistance short which
may not significantly change the overall measured winding resistance. Some electrical tests
have limitations in that they can only be performed during an outage. This means that
degradation that the turbo-generator experiences during operation may not be detected and
assessed by electrical testing until an outage. Some ground and turn shorts can only be
detected at speed. The faults that occur due to centrifugal and thermal loading may clear
when the generator is shut down. This observation does not however suggest that electrical
testing is not beneficial. It merely indicates that utilities need to be aware of the limitations
associated with off-line electrical tests and adopt other technologies to augment the
electrical tests. Heat sensitive paints or tags, air gap flux monitoring and field ground
detection relays can provide additional critical information when employed on the running
generator. Table 1 depicts off-line testing advantages and disadvantages

3.2.1 Trending of Condition Copper Resistance to Assess the Turbo-generator

Condition
Shorted turns can be recognised during operation by one of two major changes in the
generator Unit characteristics. It has been established that shorted turns can create hot
spots, which cause the generator to be more thermally sensitive. Since the existence of
shorted turns decreases the resistance of the copper windings, an increase in excitation
current is necessary to maintain constant load demand. During routine maintenance testing,
the generator impedance and resistance measurements which have changes relative to past
history can indicate existence of shorted turns. The winding copper resistance test is a very
useful test performed on all new generators prior to shipment. A high resistance joint reading
is a matter that needs urgent attention, as it may indicates a short. An increase or erratic
field resistance reading would indicate a high resistance joint. This fault might eventually
lead to a forced outage of the generator rotor with, major damage.

3.2.2 Trending of Insulation Resistance to Assess the Condition of Turbo-generator

Insulation resistance (IR) test, commonly known by its trade name Megger (instrument
developed for this purpose), applies a fixed DC voltage (500-1000 V) between the rotor
copper windings and the forging for one minute. The applied voltage produces small current
through the winding ground insulation which is proportional to the insulation resistance. The

26
test is regarded as the initial test to identify gross insulation problems. It also indicates
whether further electrical high voltage test can be continued and that the insulation would not
fail. Ideally, the resistance should be infinite since; after all, the purpose of the insulation is to
block current flowing between the windings and the body. It measures the ohmic resistance
of the insulation. Normally, the readings for IR are in the meg-ohm range for good insulation.
According to IEEE 43, low insulation resistance test reading indicates possible insulation
defects. Low insulation resistance often results from moisture and contamination. Windings
that exhibit low insulation resistance due to contamination are subjected to cleaning. If the
low insulation resistance is due to moisture, the windings are dried out by applying current
through the windings or blowing dry air. The insulation resistance is also useful in detecting
insulation degradation, such as insulation wear, cracking, copper dusting and displaced
insulation.

3.2.3 Trending of Polarisation Index Test Result

Insulation resistance is time dependent as well as being a function of dryness for turbo-
generator insulation. Prior to 1974, a system was developed to evaluate the polarisation of
the insulation systems. It was discovered that most insulation systems would polarise after
10 minutes to 1 hour. So by looking at the insulation resistance between one and ten minute
readings one obtains a ratio which when trended over time provides insulation condition. The
Polarisation Index (PI) test is often conducted in conjunction with the insulation resistance. In
the test a relatively high DC voltage is applied between the windings and the forging or body.
The test value is well below rated peak line-to-ground voltages of the windings. This test is
performed by applying insulation resistance test for 10 minutes and taking the insulation
resistance measurement at 1 minute and 10 minute intervals. The PI is described as the
ratio of the 10 minute over the 1 minute readings of insulation resistance. The amount of
change in the IR readings during the first few minutes depends on the insulation condition
and amount of contamination and moisture present. The IEEE 43 standard for high voltage
testing stipulates that the ratio should be greater than 1.5, unless the leakage current is
abnormally high. However, if the ratio is considerably higher, say more 5 meg-ohms, the PI
is considered unimportant and low PI values with high insulation reading is acceptable.
Figure 13 below shows the resistance, current versus time relationship [6, 7, 11, and12]. The
IEEE 43-2000 guide gives an extensive discussion on the theory of IR/PI tests as applied in
rotating machinery. The 2000 revision of IEEE 43 suggests that the voltage be higher than
the recommended than in the past, because tests at higher voltage are more likely to find
measure defects. There is no equivalent IEC procedure for the IR/IP tests. What constitute a
good reading or bad reading is dependent on the type of insulation system and the

27
component being tested. Both the IR and PI tests require the turbo-generator to be removed
from service for the duration of the test.

Figure 13: Graph of insulation resistance versus current [2]

Figure 13 depicts the copper winding resistance test. It is conducted by measuring

resistance between the positive and negative slip rings. The test value stays fairly constant
for a healthy generator. A standard formula is used to correlate the winding resistance
readings to standard resistance values at ambient temperature, usually 25 deg. C. The
winding temperature is taken to account when analysing the test results. The result of the
test verifies continuity, identifies bad connections, and possible short turns. Typical values
for generator rotor winding resistance value range from 0, 012 to 0, 36 ohms [2, 6 and 7].
The DC resistance is strongly affected by the temperature of the windings, i.e. as the
temperature increases so does the resistance of the windings Results of the test are
compared to new rotor windings and previous service values. Low reading is associated with
turn shorts.

It is expected that the tests values are approximately 10 percentages to each other. All
windings are susceptible to moisture contamination which is sometimes absorbed through
the ground wall insulation. Windings contamination will lead to winding shorts or breakdown

28
of insulation to ground. In addition, severe contamination will cause blacking of and
overheating of the insulation systems.

Figure 14: Trending of insulation [2]

In the case the rotor is found or suspected to be contaminated with moisture, drying out of
the windings may be needed before the Unit is subjected to high voltage test or returning the
service. A number of processes such as application of heat over a period of time or applying
a DC current to the windings should dry the windings and improve the insulation resistance
and PI measurements. The applied current to dry the windings should be well below current
rated values. In both cases, the application of heat is controlled so as to remove moisture
slowly. Drying a damp machine may, sometimes take 24 hours, even much longer, 3 to 5
days if the moisture has penetrated the insulation material. Caution is exercised when
applying current through the winding due to low resistance as large currents may generate
significant local overheating damage. In addition to moisture and contamination related
problems, the insulation resistance tests is able to detect other problems such as insulation
degradation, including abrasion cracking, copper dusting and insulation migration. Figure 14
depicts a relationship between the insulation resistance and time duration during a machine
drying process.

29
3.2.4 Insulation Assessment through Turn Short Indication
A method to detect shorted turn in generator at standstill is called recurrent surge
oscillography (RSO). It is a variation of the time domain reflectometery (TDR), a method
used to locate faults in underground cables. The RSO equipment consists of an oscilloscope
and pulse generator. A low voltage, high frequency (KHz) surge wave is injected at both
negative and positive slip rings. The signals are then superimposed and compared to
determine if the same waveform is observed. For a healthy generator, the reflection for both
pulses is identical. A winding short turn causes a partial wave reflection as can be viewed in
the RSO Figure 15, which is a RSO results indicating shorted turns.

Shorted turn indication

Figure 15: RSO test results indicating shorted turns

The winding impedance test is also used for detecting shorted turns. It can be performed at
standstill or at speed on rotors with slip ring connection. The winding impedance test
consists of an AC voltage that is applied on the winding in incremental steps. The current is
measured after applied voltage has stabilised. The theory behind the test is that at low
voltage values, current will not flow through a short between turns as shorts are not typical
solid electrical connections. At higher test voltage, the turn to turn voltage is deemed high
enough to bridge the short. In the event where the short is bridged, the turn is effectively
removed reducing the winding impedance. The current flows as a result of reduced winding
impedance. To locate a fault, a DC voltage of between 70 to 100 volts is applied across the
entire windings, through the main connection or slip rings. The current that is applied is kept

30
below 10 amperes. The voltage is read of through the accessible coil and pole-to-pole
connections. The volt drop difference across each pole should not exceed 2 percent
between poles and the coils volt drop difference should not be more than 10 percent of the
total number of coils.

Table 1:Off-line monitoring tests and fault diagnosis

Advantages Disadvantages

Provide periodic testing of turbo-generator. Developed problems can go unnoticed until

another schedule outage.

Maintenance scheduling is determined by Maintenance scope of work is not based on

OEM recommendation. “as found” condition of the machine.

Cost is included in the periodic Required large resources during the outage.
maintenance budget.

Information is archived and stored at the Some information remains with vendors and
document centre for future reference. subcontractors.

Result can be trended based on the Lack of proper storage facility sometimes
previous outage test results. results in missing critical information.

Important for components that cannot be Data gathered not representing real time
tested when the turbo-generator is in behaviour of the turbo-generator.
service e.g. coil retaining rings and steel
forgings.

Provides opportunity for visual inspection. Susceptible to introduction of foreign objects.

3.3 Application of On-line Electrical Test to Assess Insulation Condition

On-line monitoring is an automated method of monitoring equipment performance while the
equipment is operating without disturbing the monitored parameter. Monitoring sensors
obtain information about the machine in the form of primary data and though the use of
signal processing and analysis techniques it is possible to vital diagnostic information before
failure.

31
In some cases a shorted winding turn may not be detectable as a short is often a high
resistance short which may not significantly change the overall measured winding resistance
during the off-line test. Some electrical tests have limitation in that they can only be
performed during an outage. This means that degradation that the turbo-generator
experiences during operation may not be detected and assessed by electrical testing until an
outage. Some grounds and turn shorts can only be detected at speed. The faults that occur
due to centrifugal and thermal loading may clear when the generator is shut down. This
observation does not however suggest that electrical testing is not beneficial. It merely
indicates that utilities need to be responsive of the limitations associated with off-line
electrical tests and implement other technologies to supplement this testing approach. It has
been observed through experiments and experience that heat sensitive paints or tags, air
gap flux monitoring and field ground detection relays can provide valuable information when
employed on the running generator. Table 2 below shows advantages and disadvantages of
on-line turbo-generator monitoring.

3.3.1 Measurement of Copper Winding Temperature to Detect Abnormalities

The winding temperature is generally measured as the function of the winding resistance.
The field temperature monitoring system reads the field voltage and current and computes
the winding temperature. The calculation is derived from the Ohm’s Law to determine the
electric resistance and temperature coefficient for the winding copper [6, 12 and 14]. This
provides the accurate temperature of the field windings. For generators that employ collector
rings and brushes, the voltage and current transducers are wired directly to excitation circuit
upstream the brushes. In brushless machines, a wireless transmitter is wired on the rotor to
relay temperature data. The field winding temperature is checked regularly for any
abnormalities. Alarms are installed to alert the operator for any temperature that rises above
predetermined values. The temperature is trended weekly to gradual changes that can be
reminiscent of fault. Field temperature problems may indicate bad electrical connection, high
field current, blocked or clogged cooling paths. However, field temperature indicates average
field temperature and does not indicate localised heating. Rotor earth faults result from
leakage field current to the ground. A ground fault can occur through or track over the slot
liner or the coil retaining rings. The earth short can also occur to the radial studs, rotor
forging, and slip ring insulation system and on the main leads. The ground winding
protection of the generator rotor is used to detect and provide warning of the impending
earth fault. The ground alarm is an alarm meant to trip the Unit. The responsibility rests with
the operator to trip the Unit. It is common for the generator rotor to operate with a single
ground fault until an outage. Should a second fault occur on the generator, very high

32
currents will be circulated through the two ground points creating overheating of the rotor
components. Due to the damaging nature of the overheating, the double rotor earth fault is
more likely to be catastrophic in nature.

3.3.2 Application of Shaft Voltages and Currents to Identify Defects

Electrical damage to turbo machinery has caused a number of failures and machinery down
time. Electrostatic and electromagnetic type voltages are often misdiagnosed a situation that
might lead to incorrect remedy. These are voltages which can build up on the shafts of
virtually any rotating machinery, potentially causing currents to flow between the shaft and
earth, for example, seals, bearings, gears resulting in significant damage. During rotor
operation, shaft voltages build on the rotor shaft. These voltages are attributed to the
excitation system due to imbalanced capacitive coupling, electrostatic voltage from the
turbine due to charged water droplet impacting the blades. If these voltages are not drained
to ground they will increase and break down the various oil films, hydrogen seals, trust
bearing. These voltages build up result in the current discharges and pitting of the critical
running surfaces. This may result in mechanical failure. Inadequate grounding of the
generator and the centre line may result in voltage build-up. The inadequacy shaft grounding
may be due to a problem with the shaft grounding brushes that may be worn out. Protection
against shaft voltages build-up and current discharges is provided in the form of a shaft
grounding device, located on the turbine end of the generator rotor shaft. The device
consists of carbon brushes, copper braids with one brush riding on the rotor shaft and other
connected to ground.

3.3.3 Application of Search Coil to Detect Shorted Turn Abnormalities

A stray flux probe is a search coil mounted on the generator stator core by various methods,
located strategically in the air gap. The search coil looks at the variation in the magnetic flux
(leakage flux) in the air gap produced by the rotor as it spins. The energised rotor windings
and the slotted effects of the winding arc cause a sinusoidal wave form to be produced in the
winding face of the rotor. The pole face on the other hand has no winding and the signal is
small due to small magnetic field variation. The magnitude of the sinusoidal peaks in the
windings face is depended on the ampere-turn produced in various slots. If there is a short
turn, then the peak of the signal from that affected slot will be reduced. The reduction will be
dependent on the magnitude of the short. Therefore, knowing which slot is affected by the
short, an estimate of the number of shorted turns can be made fairly accurately.

33
Table 2: On-line monitoring tests and fault diagnosis advantages and disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages

Turbo-generator evaluation is performed on- A lot of data is captured and requires a huge
line. infrastructure.

Incipient problems can be identified as soon Not all components can be monitored on-
as there manifest themselves. line.

Degradation can be assessed while High level of expertise is required to deal

generator is operation, thus limiting the with the amount of data.
probability of catastrophic failure.

Can be connected to alarm systems to Added cost required as more monitored

indicate if limits have been exceeded. parameters improve communication
infrastructure are required.

The turbo-generator status can viewed on Requires more memory as more data is
the LAN. captured.

The trending of the machine parameters can Volume of data required is determined by the
be done on-line. LAN requirements.

3.4 Conclusion
This chapter has provided information on the turbo-generator insulation systems as well
various off-line and line condition assessment tests. These diagnostic techniques enable
system engineers to determine if specific deterioration mechanisms are occurring. The
following chapter discusses how the information obtained above together other visual
inspections can be utilised to maintenance strategies to assess the condition of a turbo-
generator rotor. The turbo-generators monitoring of limited nature has been available for
decades using a number of qualitative and quantitative methods. As discussed in the
previous chapters as part of best generator maintenance practice, most turbo-generators are
fitted with a group of on-line and off line condition monitoring tools. In today’s competitive
environment, maintenance budgets are shrinking, choice of technology is critical for both
financially and technically.

34
 CHAPTER 4: MANAGEMENT AND SUPPORT SYSTEMS FOR
MAINTENANCE OF TURBO-GENERATORS

4 Introduction
4.1 Introduction
Maintenance is defined as the combination of technical, administrative and managerial
actions during the life cycle of an intended to retain in it, or restore it to a state in which it can
perform the require task. Maintenance consists of two distinct activities, the first of which is
recognising that the equipment if failing and second of which is correcting the defects. The
former is conditioned–based monitoring; the latter is reactive base-maintenance [15].
Traditional methods of turbo-generator maintenance during an outage have focused on the
speed of repair i.e. planning outage scope and managing vendors to speed up the work.
Better maintenance practices have become the essential part of the strategy for
competitiveness. The overall idea of maintenance practice is to perform the correct amount
of maintenance at the right time at the most cost effective manner. In most cases,
maintenance personnel perform exploratory surgery before they have any idea about the
problem. They wait until the machine is scheduled for an outage then disassembly it looking
for things to fix or correct. It has come apparent that more damaged is incurred during
disassembly and repairs than the machine had been left alone. A more viable maintenance
approach program is to monitor as much of the generator as feasible possible during the
normal operation. When a problem is detected, a plan for more extensive evaluation in the
form of off-line testing can be implemented.

4.2 Measuring Maintenance

Productivity is simply what an organisation get compared to what it invested. With
maintenance, what an organisation gets is better equipment performance, usually measured
in production output time [16]. A simple ratio of output to input is an easily understood
measure that quickly indicates if an organisation gets a return on investment. The measure
of equipment performance is not based on whether equipment is running or not, but the
answers to the follow-up questions give more information. Is the equipment available for
use? If does run how is it expected to keep running before failure? What is the average time
it will be down for repair and maintenance? How fast can it operate compared to what is it

35
was designed for? Is the performance improving or deteriorating? The value of any of these
measures has a lot to do with how the equipment was designed and built. The best test of
equipment performance is often its performance trended over time. Many maintenance
engineers believe that delivering working equipment is a key, but the real job is to sustain
the function of the equipment not equipment itself [16]. Maintenance management is a
business process with inputs and outs. The inputs are costs; the output is the equipment
performance and productivity. Between the two comes the complex job of ensuring the
equipment performs at top performance.

Benchmarking is a tool with which an organisation compares its internal performance to

external standards and then acts to close whatever gap exist. The objective is to achieve
and sustain best-in class performance through continuous improvements [16, 17]. It is critical
in the sense that it gives an understanding which measures and practices are critical to the
success of maintenance approach. The work management process is essential to keeping
costs under control in maintenance, but an organisation will not know if it is doing well if it is
does not measure.

4.2.1 Improving Equipment Reliability

Reliability is the confidence one has in the product, process or service to operate under
prescribed conditions without failure in order to produce the required output. Total productive
maintenance (TPM) programs promote a holistic approach that includes equipment
performance as a major enhancement to productivity [17]. The concept of TPM was
implemented in Japan in 1971. It is an approach to managing physical assets that
emphasises the importance of teams of maintenance and operators working together to
make equipment reliable [16, 18]. Caring about a job cannot be taught but TPM creates an
environment that encourages that kind of commitment. When several people are involved,
producing quality depends on entire team. TPM has three distinct requirements: activities to
maximise equipment effectiveness and productivity by eliminating all machines failures, to
create a sense of ownership in equipment operators through a program of so the staff
perform autonomous maintenance by operators and group activities involving production,
engineering and maintenance to promote continuous equipment improvement [18, 19]. It is
less formal in the way equipment effectiveness is managed. It moves from hierarchical
organisation with plenty of command and control to small teams making and acting on their
own autonomous decision and creating value.

36
4.3 Return on Investment and Quality Cost of Maintenance
Quality is becoming an increasing central factor in the determination of return on investment.
Return on investment consideration deals with the establishment of the amount-in rands-and
timing or years of the return expected on the investments made in particular projects. The
return on investment information serves as a measurement of the degree to which degree
has, in fact, met its objectives, through comparisons of the return on investment actually
achieved in the project with that which had been established in the original request. The first
way to established return on investments is to do with the use of expected improvements in
quality costs-together with improvements in other costs such as production and engineering.
The second way quality costs have become basic in return on investment determination has
to do with economic evaluation of total quality programs themselves [18, 19 and 20].
According to [20] investors belief that return on investment must be at least 20 percent
before they even consider investing. The proposal must pay back within eighteen months.
Maintenance evaluation should follow the same set of rules for consistency and help achieve
management support. Studies have shown that if good preventative maintenance
management practices are applied and integrated with other maintenance strategies cost
reductions of 35 percent or more are possible [16, 20].

4.4 Support Systems for Maintenance

“Information and communications technology unlocks the value of time, allowing and
enabling multi-tasking, multi-channels, multi-this and multi-that” [Li Ka-Shing, Hong Kong
richest man and founder of Hutchison Whampoa].

For Li KaShing, information and communication technology systems are available tools that
handle time-consuming tasks so companies can use the time for other activities that add
value for companies. Information technology helps business keep track of transactions,
historical data and documentation. Some systems also learn from human being and even
take over some decision making tasks. These experts are based both logical sequence and
on fuzzy logic that mimics the way humans process information [20, 21]. These tools and
systems can help make managing the maintenance function much simpler and more
efficient, freeing up valuable time and revealing developing failures that can be managed
prior complete loss of function [22]. The systems are not a complete solution to management
problems, nor are they a substitute for people. Their greatest value is that they provide
complementary support. Condition monitoring makes up the lion’s share of successful
proactive maintenance programs. Many conditions can be monitored with human senses-
touch, smell, sight and sound, but these are consistent of monitoring devices. What one may

37
considers abnormal my sound normal to someone else. These technology systems can
assist to get around these weaknesses. Most condition monitoring devices come with
software for recording and analysing the signals. The user can interpret what is being
observed so that diagnosis of problems is more accurate. The data that is collected can be
used in fault diagnosis and in decision making about what maintenance intervention is
appropriate and when. By correlating past functional and potential failures with condition
monitoring data signals indicating data can be identified. Other experts systems help
operators and maintenance engineers make decision that would normally require the inputs
of experts or consultants [23]. The integration of condition-based monitoring data with fault
diagnostic and prognostic tools is areas of current research and significant development
effort. The tools rely heavily on accurate input of the right data. Needless to say if the data is
in accurate or incomplete, then the result will confirm the familiar garbage in-garbage-out
saying.

4.5 Types of Maintenance Overview

Maintenance activities do not only affect the availability of the single piece of equipment but
they have significant impact on the overall efficiency of production [24]. Improvement in the
management of operations , and more efficient and cost effective maintenance practices,
have gone hand in hand with other significant developments in the safety of employees and
the public at large, reliability of electricity supply and conservation of the environment. The
nuclear industry has taken a giant step forward by implementing a programme for
establishing system reliability [25]. Discovering critical components assists in determining
those that are requiring special maintenance attention. The maintenance philosophies
adopted by industry can be categorised as belonging to one of the following: traditional
maintenance, planned maintenance, condition-based maintenance, reliability based
maintenance, forced or breakdown maintenance and predictive maintenance.

4.5.1 Planned Maintenance

Planned maintenance has been in the past and perhaps still is the predominant
maintenance philosophy in maintaining critical plant component such as generators. Planned
maintenance is governed by predetermined maintenance schedules. The maintenance
schedules are based on many years of experience and expertise acquired during many
years of plant operations, reliability of the equipment, personnel availability and load
demand. In nuclear plants, refuelling cycles are a major determinant when maintenance of
major equipment such as a generator is performed. Due to these strong constraints, even if

38
the plant follows strict predictive or condition-based maintenance, the required maintenance
timing and scope is adjusted to accommodate the timing of the refuelling outage.

4.5.2 Traditional Corrective Maintenance

Early maintenance resources were used to react to equipment breakdowns that caused
huge operational losses and revenue or due to personnel safety. From these practices or
constraints, descriptive terms such as: corrective maintenance, breakdown maintenance and
run-to-failure maintenance were created [25 and 26]. Traditional maintenance is time-based
and break-down oriented. The turbo-generator rotor is taken of service for offline testing and
subsequent maintenance. Though these tests and maintenance strategies are deemed
necessary, they are often time consuming and costly and sometimes superfluous, as they
incapable of finding most problems affecting the turbo-generator rotor.

Table 3: Breakdown or Corrective maintenance advantages and disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages

Least expensive maintenance approach. Generator failure becomes costly to repair.

Saves manpower. Failure may be catastrophic and beyond

repairs.

Spares the system from unnecessary shut- May result in complete shutdown of the
down. production supply.

Maintenance is performed only when its Loose of revenue.

needed.

It’s widely accepted by the personnel. may require expensive spare parts.

In order to accurately diagnose the condition of the generator rotor, some tests need to be
conducted under normal operating voltage, thermal, mechanical stress conditions. This
effectively allows for planning for off-line tests, inspections and maintenance at the proper
and convenient time such as outage. Due to power plant de-regulation, ageing fleet, and
increased in power demand, there is a demand to extend time between outages, and thus
routine plant maintenance is severely compromised. Corrective maintenance can be
extremely costly and catastrophic to the plant component.

39
4.5.3 Condition-based Maintenance
The term condition monitoring was born around the 1970s, when the usefulness of this
process of continuous recording operational data became apparent, subsequent to
dependability analysis, to obtain information on the total population of components in
service, on the basis of which to undertake possible maintenance programme. Condition-
based maintenance is the most recent approach type of maintenance to guide personnel in
determining when to perform inspection, maintain and refurbish a generator. It can only be
administered when the equipment concerned is monitored by a number of on-line, real-time
sensors as well as off-line periodic inspection routines. In conditional maintenance
equipment is not replaced unless it is showing signs of ageing or the wear arte is likely to
impact on performance [27]. Although requiring an initial higher capital investment, this type
of maintenance is perceived as providing, in the long-term, a more reliable and less
expensive operation. Other types of maintenance take a snap shot of the machine rather
than continuous assessment. The full operational condition assessment is not possible.

Though, nothing will ever replace a thorough visual inspection to identify problems at an
early stage. It is a systematic approach to determining the need for equipment repair or
replacement limiting the need to only those activities that are required to prevent major
repairs or unscheduled downtime [26, 27]. The basic premise and approach to this is to use
condition monitoring, testing and operating data and past maintenance history to establish
and to estimate the health condition for the generator rotor and then base the maintenance
requirement and timing on this knowledge. The maintenance is based on detected or known
machine defect. This affords operators with known requirement for maintenance. This
approach only works well, if there is sufficient information and knowledge regarding the
generator rotor. The information gathered during operation and maintenance history is
crucial for this purpose. Parameters that lend themselves to favourable continuous
monitoring in a large turbo-generator rotor include: currents, voltages, vibration, and partial
discharge density, winding temperature, humidity, hydrogen purity and air gap flux. The
approach is to trend key design or operating parameters and perform appropriate
maintenance to address a deviation as communicated by non-compliance. Other data
analysis methods used encompass pattern recognition, correlation, test against limits and
statistical analysis. This method is intended to reduce outages, minimise costs related to
unnecessary tests and repairs, and the elimination of unexpected failures. Though no
maintenance approach is full proof, this method is intended to give most information in an
economical way. In a true condition-based maintenance program all the available
information and costly specialised testing and maintenance is only performed when the
condition of a generator rotor warrants it.

40
Table 4: Time-based or Preventative maintenance advantages and disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages

Incipient fault can be detected if the Repairs are expensive due non irregular
inspection time is reduced. inspections.

Life cycle of the generator is improved due Large number of maintenance staff is
to regular inspection. needed during outage.

Its well understood by technicians and Unable to detect faults especially for longer
system engineers. inspection intervals.

Repairs are performed during the outage. Timing for the outage may not be optimal.

Turn are around are detected by other Faults may develop during that window
machine. period.

Table 5: Condition-based or Preventative maintenance advantages and disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages
Maintenance is performed when it is Continuous monitoring is expensive.
necessary.

Saving cost due to unnecessary Less understood by maintenance and

inspections. system engineers.

Saving human resources Needs fast data communication and

manipulation facilities for successful on-line
monitoring.

Reduces unnecessary shutdown. Experience personnel required to design the

monitoring system, select collect monitoring
parameters to be monitored and suitable
frequency of data collection

Guarantees low possibility of catastrophic Need for large amount of data about failure
failures. rates, modes and consequences.

41
4.6 Frequency of Maintenance
In a planned or condition-based maintenance, the frequency of maintenance becomes
critical to overall plant operation and to the availability of individual pieces of the equipment.
Due to de-regulation and cost conservation programs, there is a growing trend to increase
the time between inspections and overhauls [1]. Maintenance of the equipment needs to be
done on the equipment without failing. It is therefore important to determine when will the
required maintenance be carried out and the best start is to use OEM’s recommendations.
The OEM recommendations are normally based on time, operating hours and known
generator issues. The equipment manufacturer has already known-history for given
generator design and experiences from other utilities. From the power producers
themselves, there are other considerations when it comes to the frequency of maintenance.
The equipment operating hours have been used to schedule major outages. The operational
requirement such as two-shifting or cyclic operation is used to decide on the frequency of
maintenance. The grid system requirement seems to have more dominant influence on the
maintenance due to dwindling capacity, as the generator rotor is required to run at higher
capacity.. The extent of maintenance is also scrutinised to minimise the outage time. This is
a premise on which condition-based maintenance allows the understanding of the plant
condition and increases equipment availability and maintenance interval.

4.7 Extent of Maintenance

Another important factor in planning generator maintenance is the extent of the maintenance
being performed. Most utilities exercise two types of outages for generator work (i.e. minor
and major outages). A minor outage generally implies no generator rotor dismantling. The
generator rotor is not removed from the stator and sometimes the stator end doors and end
shields are not removed. For the minor outage, it is possible that the rotor is not even
accessible for minimal inspection. A major outage indicates that the generator rotor is
removed for both stator and rotor inspection. Generally, the generator rotor is available for
longer, at least two months in which major repairs and replacements can be undertaken.
Performing turbo-generator maintenance according to the original equipment manufacturer’s
recommended maintenance interval does not account for the condition under which each
Unit operates. The OEM’s accommodates these operational uncertainties by scheduling
maintenance intervals conservatively.

Routine interval maintenance practices lack the robustness to accommodate Unit specific
operating condition and component condition. These routine maintenance practices are
likely to result in wasted resources when equipment is not ageing as rapidly as expected. As

42
utilities strived to maximise the profitability and safety of their equipment, the benefit of
extending maintenance interval needs to be weighed against the associated risk of
unplanned maintenance outages. By scheduling maintenance too frequently, the utility
incurs unnecessary expenses in labour, spare parts and replacement power associated with
the replacement. Also excessively long maintenance intervals expose the utility to high
repair cost and peak replacement power cost associated with corrective maintenance. In
ensuring that maintenance is performed when needed, shorter outage duration, increasing
generator rotor availability, reliability, less maintenance cost, a systematic approach to
determining the need for rotor maintenance is critical. With condition-based maintenance
program, resources can be utilised on only those generator rotors that require immediate
attention to prevent major repairs or unscheduled downtime.

4.8 Conclusion
Productivity is simply what an organisation gets compared to what it invested. With
maintenance, what an organisation gets is better equipment performance, usually measured
in production output time. Most literature defines maintenance as the combination of
technical, administrative and managerial actions during the life cycle of an intended to retain
in it, or restore it to a state in which it can perform the require task. Maintenance
management is a business process with inputs and outs. The inputs are costs; the output is
the equipment performance and productivity. Between the two comes the complex job of
ensuring the equipment performs at top performance. Total productive maintenance (TPM)
programs promote a holistic approach that includes equipment performance as a major
enhancement to productivity. It is a well-defined and organised maintenance programme,
which places a high value on teamwork and continuous improvement. Quality is becoming
an increasing central factor in the determination of return on investment. Condition-based
maintenance is the most recent type of maintenance to guide personnel in determining when
to perform inspection, maintain and refurbish a generator. The idea is to keep the machine
running for as long as possible with economical monitoring and maintenance and to only
perform testing and maintenance on the generator rotors that need the most attention.
Studies have shown that if good preventative maintenance management practices are
applied and integrated with other maintenance strategies cost reductions of 35 percent or
more are possible. Chapter five of this mini-dissertation discusses some of the operational
case histories of Eskom Units that utilised condition-based technology to influence
maintenance and plant operational decisions.

43
 CHAPTER 5: CASE STUDIES

5 Case Studies: Application of Condition Monitoring and

Diagnostic Techniques to Reduce Outage Duration by
Optimisation of Time-Based Maintenance

5.1 Operational Experience: Impact of Cyclic Operation on Turbo-generator

Company: Eskom

Station: Eskom Station

Units: 6

Manufacturer: GEC_Alstom

Capacity: 4110 MW, 3000 RPM, 22 kV, Hydrogen cooled @ 520 K pa

Commissioned: 1989-1994

Mode of operation: Designed for base load but operated on two shift regime.

This power station is considered to be a relatively new station. All six Units were
commissioned between 1989 and 1994. Regular cycle of maintenance intervention has not
been established due to the two-shifting regime [29]. Units typical undergo 200 starts per
Unit per year. Due to start-up and shut-down operational requirements, these generators
undergo detrimental temperature cycles. The generator mechanical components such as
wedges, slip rings, rotor teeth, copper windings and coil retaining rings are mechanically
cycled. Regular inspection is conducted as per OEM recommendation, which requires major
generator inspection every 6 years. In line with the two-shifting operational regime, the start
and stop limits recommended by the OEM have been exceeded. The operational history,
since the generators were commissioned in 1994 to 2006 is indicated in Figure 16. The red
solid line represents design inspection limit. It can be established that Units 2, 3 and 5 have
surpassed the design inspection limit. The OEM design inspection limit is stipulated at 600
but most Units have exceeded the requirement and some are fast approaching it. Figure 17
indicates number of starts performed and starts available as recommended by the OEM. For
Unit 1, 4, 5, and 6 it can be seen that the number of starts performed have exceeded OEM
recommendations. The effect of two-shifting on these generators is presented in Table 6.

44
 1000
930
No of starts as of 31 December 2005 900 864

800 Unit 1-6 Turbo-generator

709
700 rotors inspection limits

600
578 589
604
500
LP Turbine inspection limits
400
Units 4-6
300

200

100

0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Unit
Figure 16: OEM Generator inspection limits [30]

The table shows that most of the generator Units experience slot liner migration. Utilities
experiences are documented in appendix D.

1000 No starts exceeded Unit 4 -6 LP turbine limits 1000

900 designed allowance 900
800 800
700 700
600 600
500 538 674 500
400 400
300 300
200 200
100 10 47 100
19 -12
0 0
-100 1 2 3 4 5 6 -100

Starts done Available Starts Unit 1,2 & 4 Limit Unit 5 & 6 Limit

Figure 17: Plant components design start limitations [30]

The two-shifting regime has an adverse impact on the life expectancy of the machine as
mentioned in this mini-dissertation. According to [29,31 and 32] the movement of slot liners
is attributed to ratchetting axial forces due to long barring hours when machine is not on-
load. Inspection also found imprint and indentation on the slot liner wall. There was also

45
evidence of cracking on copper strand and pole-to-pole flexible connections. All Units show
signs of copper dusting, excessive wedge cracking, partial shorted turns, and coil retaining
arcing damage and rotor teeth cracking. Table 6 Illustrates defects only observed on t these
Units.

Table 6: Impact of cyclic operation on a turbo-generator rotor

Generator Generator Problem Has the problem Remarks

Component been experienced

Copper Winding Copper dusting, All Units affected. Unconsolidated

distortion, and fore windings.
shortening.
Links and Cracks in damper All Units except Unit Pole –pole being
Connections links, crack in pole- 5. replaced with
to-pole connection, omega type on all
main lead fatigue Units.
and coil-coil
dampers jumper
distortion.
Winding Insulation Partial shorted turns All the Units are Insulation migration.
at speed, Insulation affected.
deterioration.
Coil Retaining rings Arcing damage, Evident on Unit 5 Fretting due
stress corrosion rotor. wedges.
cracking, pitting,
seating cracks.
End Winding Missing block, All Units. Inspection required
blocking loosened blocks after 1000 starts.
and cracked block.
Cooling Thermal instability, All Units. Inspection required
blocked cooling every 6/12 years.
ducts by migrated
slot liners.
Rotor Shaft Cracked shaft, key Not witnessed on Requires full
way cracking. these Units. revalidation.
Slot Liners Migration and All Units. 1000 inspection
degradation. every 12 years or
1000 starts.
Rotor Tooth Dovetail cracking, High due to two- Inspection required
galling of the slot shifting. every 6/12 years.
dovetail during
wedge fitment.
Inertia Slots Cracking due cyclic All Units. Inspection required
operation. every 6/12 years.
Slot Wedges Packing clearances Not identified on this Inspection required
excessive, cracking. Units. every 6/12 years.
Shaft Stray flux currents. Not identified on this Inspection required
Units. every 6/12 years.

46
5.1.1 OEM Recommendations on Mitigation Impact of Cyclic-Operation
In resolving problems associated with two-shifting practice, the OEM process called coil
consolidation, during rewinds or refurbishment. Coil consolidation seeks to address three
main turbo-generator rotor problems due to cyclic operation, copper dust occurrence due
fretting, slot liner migration due to barring and inter-turn shorts. During this process, copper
turns are manufactured, consolidated and assembled outside the turbo-generator rotor slot.
Moulded epoxy glass boards, separators and epoxy resin bonding techniques are used. The
entire turn is then cured, pressed and electrically tested prior to slot insertion. The
consolidated turns are pre-manufactured to the exact dimension of the slot section. The
consolidated turns are then lowered into the rotor slot to allow connection and wedging with
only the overhang winding requiring insulation and brazing. In order to provide for snug fit
into the generator slot, the winding is configured in a wedge shape to match the machined
slot into the rotor shaft, with narrow dimensions at the bottom of the slot.

The practice has departed from norm, where the windings were prepared and assembled
inside the generator slots during a rewind. Some of the generator Units that have been
rewound using the new approach have been to the workshop for maintenance after five
years in operation. The benefits of the coil consolidation have not been fully realised. It is
hoped that with many of these turbo-generators coming back for inspection a new pattern
indicating improvement will emerge.

5.1.2 Application of Vibration Measurement System to Detect Early Anomalies

Routine partial discharge tests have indicated large activities on the overhang of the
generator on all Units. The partial discharge findings have prompted the station to install
accelerometers to measure vibration on the overhang. The trending of the results depicts
insulation deterioration, fretting and contamination. Problems related to stator windings are
the measure cause of generator forced outages. Most winding problems originate from
vibration of the end windings or bars in the slot. Voltage stresses, mechanical and thermal
effects continuously undermine insulation integrity, end-windings bracing and stator
wedging. As shrinkage and looseness occur, winding vibration develops. Being able to easily
monitor and detect end windings vibration from the on-set permits prevention of such
destructive effects. On-line monitoring of end-winding and in-slot bar vibration clearly
indicates if the levels are acceptable or not. Eskom has recognised the impact of two-shift
operation on the turbo-generator plants and there is a drive to install fibre sensors. The
move to install copper based wires was considered a plant safety risk. The fibre optic sensor
technology sees to overcome that risk. The efficacy of this technology is still to be monitored.

47
5.2 Application of Stray Flux Techniques to Continuously Monitor a Turbo-
generator Shorted-Turn

In January 2009, during the return-to-service of a 700 MW Eskom generator rotor, a stray
flux test was conducted to determine turn insulation condition. A shorted turn of less than
three percent was documented. The shorted turn percentage deviation was considered
acceptable and the generator was allowed to run “as is”. The one–month and two-month
follow up tests confirmed these results. Again on the 8th August 2010, another once-off test
was performed with maximum deviation of less than two percent. Due to high partial
discharge activity noted on this Unit, a follow up stray flux test was conducted on 19th
November 2010. The maximum nonconformity recorded had increased to ten percent. The
result indicated the short to be on coil five, leading. This ten percent deviation was
considered serious in that it might initiate thermal hot spot in the rotor leading to additional
insulation degradation, loss of efficiency and eventually to a rotor earth-fault. It was
recommended that additional trending to confirm high stray flux reading and determination of
the rate of insulation degradation be done. The stray flux results are depicted in Figure 18.

Test three
Test one Test indicating
result two
fault

Figure 18: Stray flux test result [32]

A 24 hour condition monitoring regime was initiated and performed on the 2-3 December
2010 to investigate whether the fault was trending upwards. The maximum deviation during
the 24 hour investigation was over eight percent and was still on coil five leading. The test
was conducted under similar load condition at 691 MW. On the 19th May 2011, another test
was conducted at a load of 586 MW. The maximum deviation recorded during this test was

48
again over ten percent. Due to on-line condition monitoring the Unit was no taken off-line as
it could be closely monitored while running. By using condition monitoring information on this
Unit the fault is being trended and evaluated for risk. To date the Unit is closely monitored
and has been operating with a shorted turn fault for more than a year. In this instance,
condition monitoring was used to evaluate the risk until an outage opportune time and
proved vital in ensuring continued supply. It is also indicated that a correct parameter was
being monitored and that, when the machine is shut-down, the maintenance requirement will
be specific.

5.3 Application of Condition Monitoring Techniques to Detect a 95% Stator

Earth Fault
On the 21st October 2010, an Eskom turbo-generator was synchronised on load after an
interim inspection had been performed [32]. Run-down and run-up on-line partial discharge
monitoring tests were conducted to detect any developing faults or defect on the 22 kV IPB
(insulated phase bus) ducting and internal to the generator. On the 23rd October 2010, the
Unit was shut down due to bearing problems. The Unit was synchronised back on load after
the maintenance on the bearing had been performed. On the 26th October 2010, the Unit
tripped on ninety nine percent stator earth faults. At the time of trip, the Unit was generating
680 MW to the national grid. The national generating capacity was put under pressure, as a
result. Prior to synchronising, the system engineer was informed of the possible high partial
discharge activities recorded on the system side of the generator. The system side of the
generator refers to the 22 kV IPB ducting including 22 KV voltage, current transformers and
22 kV GCB (generator circuit breakers). The high PD activities which manifested as corona
were believed to be caused by a loose wire connection inside the VT cubicle. The generator
system engineer requested the VT cubicle to be inspected prior to Unit synchronisation. The
cubicle was inspected by maintenance personnel without involvement of generator
specialists and found no anomaly. The Unit was synchronised back on load and the high PD
activities were still evident on the white phase.

5.3.1 Failure Investigation

On the 26th October 2010 the Unit tripped again at 680 MW, as a result of a cable
connection that made contact with the live 22 kV VT cubicles. On the 22 kV cubicles, PD
cables run above the 22 KV bus bars. On the CT, the cables are routed on the surface of the
cubicle away from the live terminals and there is minimum risk of electrical contact onto the

49
live 22 kV terminals. When PD couplers are installed, the coaxial cables are glued to the
cubicle with track resistant high quality grade epoxy that has a dielectric strength of 25 kV.

During an investigation, it was found that the generator protection relay had not detected the
stator earth fault but had mini-dissertationed an overload condition. The protection relay had
picked up the 95 percent earth-fault along with the earth-fault protections on each 22/11 kV
Unit transformer. The 95 percent stator earth-fault is designed to time out first and trip the
turbine and 22 kV breaker in case of severe fault. The fault recorders indicated the earth
fault to be on the white phase and had remained solid during the voltage decay after the
generator experienced the trip. During an inspection, the white phase VT cubicle was
opened. The instrumentation cable used for partial discharge measurement device had
fallen onto the 22 kV bus-bar. During installation, this cable had been affixed to the sides of
the cubicle with cable clips using double-sided tape. The length of the cable was made long
and loops had been secured with cable clips on the panel roof and then routed over the live
terminal of the bus bar before exiting to the adjacent VT cubicle. It appeared that the cable
clip had become loose and the loops undone, resulting in the electrical contact of the cable
and 22 kV bus-bar causing the earth-fault. The impact of this generator failure is outlined in
appendix B. It can be seen that the failure of this generator had a severe impact on the
national electrical power supply

5.4 Application of Various Condition Monitoring and Diagnostic Techniques

to Commission a Generator after a Tool was Found Missing during a
Routine Maintenance
During December 2005 an Eskom generator underwent stator and exciter inspection and
maintenance. Whilst the generator assembly was in progress, it was discovered that a drill
bit was missing. The Power Station management was confronted with the decision of
whether to remove the rotor to allow for the inaccessible areas to be searched for or to bring
back the Unit to service and manage the risk. The clean condition procedure had been
breached. The probability that this foreign material might be inside the generator could not
be ruled out. There was a concern that should the missing object not found, various machine
faults could result during start-up and commissioning. Inter-turn faults could be initiated by
the thermal expansion and contraction, blockage in the stator cooling system, bars
overheating and seal oil failure. The organisation could not afford to dismantle the machine
and conduct a search due to national electricity supply constraints. It was recommended by
generator specialist to deploy condition monitoring tools during commissioning. During the
RTS, the machine was monitored by applying a number of enhanced generator condition
monitoring tools. Follow-up tests were also scheduled for the months following the return-to-

50
service (RTS). Eskom test section was tasked to perform EMI (electromagnetic interference)
test on-line at full voltage open circuit prior to synchronisation, and again at various load
steps until full-load was reached. During the run-up, the EMI spectra showed healthy and
normal trend, with some exception of broad band high level discharges seen at times. This
was evident on the blue phase but disappeared once full load was reached. The high level
discharge on the blue phase was evident at the two-month follow-up test. The follow-up tests
performed after three-months of the Unit returned to service showed no partial discharge
indication. The data could not provide full evidence of foreign object presence. Also, the
shaft voltages were generally and consistent with this typical design. The Unit was declared
fit for service but was continuously monitored for possible abnormalities. The tangible benefit
for on-line condition monitoring in this instance was to reduce the risk associated with the
generator exposure as well as ensuring availability of supply. Table 7 depicts a process
followed to mitigate the risk of foreign object ingress inside the machine after maintenance
was conducted. The audit findings for the failure of this Unit due to violation of the above-
mentioned clean condition procedure recommended the implementation of generator
monitor during RTS.

Table 7: Risk management using condition monitoring

Probable Verification method Probability of Probability of Probability Risk

location of being there [%] Retrieve [%] factor
item

Main Visual inspection on 100 100 1 Lo

Exciter all accessible areas. w
Casing (EE)
Endoscopic
inspection.

Magnetic sweep.

Main Visual inspection on 100 100 1 Lo

Exciter all accessible areas. w
Casing (TE)
Endoscopic
inspection.

Magnetic sweep.

Main Visual inspection on 100 75 0.75 Lo

Exciter all accessible areas. w
Overhang
(TE) Endoscopic
inspection.

51
 Magnetic sweep.

Electrical test i.e. IR &

ELCID.

Main Visual inspection on 100 75 0.75 Lo

Exciter all accessible areas. w
Overhang
(EE) Endoscopic
inspection.

Magnetic sweep.

Electrical test i.e. IR &

ELCID.

Main Visual inspection on 100 75 0.75 Lo

Exciter all accessible areas. w

(Belly of Endoscopic
Core) inspection.

Magnetic sweep.

Electrical test i.e. IR

5.5 Application of Condition Monitoring and Techniques to Continuously

Monitor a Generator with Two Negative Phase Sequence Trips

Company: Eskom

Station: Eskom Power Station

Units: 6

Manufacturer: GEC_Alstom

Capacity: 3654 MW, 3000 RPM, 22 kV, Hydrogen cooled @ 520 K pa

Commissioned: 1989-1994

Mode of operation: Base load.

An Eskom Power Station generator tripped at approximately 6 pm on the 11th May 2011 on
negative phase sequence protection. All external electrical connections were inspected for
defects. During the inspection, no abnormalities were identified and the Unit was returned to

52
service. On the 12th May 2011 the Unit tripped again due to negative phase sequence
protection. Again, all external electrical connections were inspected and no irregularity was
identified and the Unit was return-to-service.

Like most Eskom Power Station, an on-line generator system is attached to this Unit. This
system has the capability to monitor partial discharge, EMI and stray flux on-line. The stray-
flux results showed no indication of turn-to-turn short. The partial discharge scatter plots for
all three phases showed a signature for an open arc. The white phase signature was clipped
which indicated the open arc was on the white phase. The partial discharge activities for the
capacitive couplers closer to the machine and the capacitive couplers closer to the system
were different. The result clearly indicated that the capacitive closer to the machine had
considerable larger activity than those on the system side. Trending of the signal indicated
that the signal had been present for more than a month. The open arc was situated closer to
the machine side coupling capacitor. The peak discharge values associated with the open
arc showed a tendency to increase when the power was decreased, indicating a
temperature related phenomena. It was recommended by the Eskom generator condition
monitoring specialist that the generator could be run with the open arc. However, the source
of the open arc needed to be investigated and repaired at the next outage. On the 20th May
2011, at approximately 7h40 the Unit was returned to service. Stray-flux, partial discharge
and EMI condition monitoring tests were performed to ascertain the condition of the
generator.

Figure 19: Stray flux signature indicating shorted turn

53
Figure 20: EMI test results

The stray-flux results indicted a 5 percentage turn-to-turn short on coil 7 leading. The
deviation was deemed too low and that it would disappear as the generator achieved
operating temperature. The stray-flux signature indicating shorted turn is shown in Figure 19.

The partial discharge scatter plots for all three phases indicated some crossover discharges.
The most likely cause of that was that the machine had not attained stable operating
conditions. The negative and positive partial discharge activities were once again observed
on the white phase. This indicated that the open arc was present while the machine ran up,
but disappeared once full-load was attained. The results were in line with previous
observation. The EMI results showed the white phase with elevated peaks at 2.5 M Hz and
60 M Hz. The frequency distribution was consistent with the open arc observed. Again, it
was recommended that based on condition monitoring results the generator could be run
with the fault. However, the source of the open arc needed to be investigated and repaired at
the next outage. Figure 20 illustrates the electromagnetic interference signatures for all three
phases. After considering the stray flux, partial discharge and the electromagnetic
interference results, it was decided to leave the Unit “as is” but continue monitoring the
condition. The progress of the fault is detected continuous monitoring using these
parameters.

54
5.6 Use of Condition Monitoring Technology to Validate a 40 Year Old, 120
MW Class B Stator for Return to Service after 15 Years in Mothballs
Eskom is main electricity supply is South Africa. It supplies 95% of the country’s demand,
and generates approximately 80% of the total electricity supply in the Southern African
region. It generates approximately half the on the continent of Africa. Due to increased
growth in the country, Eskom is in the process of gearing up for major investment in new
plant. As interim measure, three mothballed power stations are being brought back into
service. This is intended to provide an additional 3780 MW of power, available in the short
term to fill the gap while the new plant is being built. One of these stations consists of 9
Units, 5 of 100 MW and 4 of 120 MW. The station is approximately forty, but has been
mothballed since 1991. At the time it was never anticipated to run again, so the mothballing
process was not applied rigorously at it possible should have been. Rotek Engineering was
mandated to carry out the initial testing and investigation into the possibility of returning this
station to service. Consequently, a series of inspections and tests were carried out on the
turbine, the generator and associated auxiliaries. To return the Units to service, a number of
off-line and on-line tests were carried and the life span of these machines was determined.

5.7 Conclusions
The case studies cited in this research have shown how Eskom plant custodian, has applied
condition monitoring and diagnostic techniques to make crucial generator decisions. The
decision to run or not to run a generator is provided by rigorous programme using a
combination of advanced and normal condition monitoring techniques. Most power stations
are fitted with these techniques to assist in making informed decision. If the information
received is not acted upon immediately, the risk on the generator, personnel and
environmental safety is enormous.

In the case of the Unit that experienced 95% stator earth fault, the eminent fault was
detected early and reported. Though the condition monitoring recommendations were not
implemented, it does indicate that the Unit could have been saved. This Unit failed
subsequently which resulted in considerable down time. For the generator Unit with shorted
turns, is it currently running and producing electricity notwithstanding the shorted turn
indication. In this case, the Unit is under constant surveillance through the use of on-line
stray-flux monitoring system. Until such time that an opportune outage opportunity is
available, the station cannot afford to bring the Unit down for maintenance due to pressure
on the electricity supply. The generator Unit that had inter-turn short is continuously
monitored and has not been taken off-line for maintenance. Units previously mothballed are
now fitted with condition monitoring tools to aid condition based maintenance.

55
A study designated by EPRI indicated that a substantial amount of generator outages for
cycle operated generators are corrective. It was established that generator running hours
were determinant factors in planning maintenance. This practice is in-line with Eskom
current two-shift maintenance practices. The existing condition monitoring information is
utilised only to substantiate outage extension. The maintenance is in most practices
performed for statutory requirement. In order to meet the demand of cyclic-operation, various
improvements have been implemented. In Eskom two-shift regime environment, the OEM
recommended and implemented a process called coil consolidation during rewinds or
refurbishment. Coil consolidation seeks to address three main turbo-generator rotor
problems due to cyclic operation, copper dust occurrence due fretting and slot liner migration
due to barring and inter-turn shorts. This modification has not yielded positive results despite
being on all Units affected by the operation regime. There have been a number of changes
to generator design and material of construction to mitigate the impact. The 18-5 stress
prone coil retaining rings have replaced with Fe-18Mn 18-Cr composition which exhibits
reduced stress corrosion cracking as a problem.

Eskom has a major investment in generators. Failing of these turbo-generators has severe
financial impact and an increase in unplanned capability loss factor (UCLF). In 1990’s and
during 2005 Eskom suffered a number of catastrophic failures of generating Units at a
number of its plants due to foreign object ingress that were not detected during outage work
on the machine. In most cases, the failure could have been averted. The condition
monitoring system has been applied to turbo-generator following invasive maintenance work
on Eskom plant. During this time, the risk on the machine increases due to foreign material
ingress resulting from undesirable working practices. Even though, utmost care is taken
when carrying out maintenance, Eskom is always faced with difficult decision once a tool has
been lost inside the machine during maintenance. The implementation of online condition
monitoring during return-to-service is part of the decision taken after the utility experienced a
number foreign object ingress related failures.

56
 CHAPTER 6:DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS

6 Discussion

6.1 Introduction
One of the key questions posed at the beginning of this mini-dissertation was in regard to the
utilisation of condition-based technology to optimise turbo-generator maintenance strategies
Through the review of literature regarding currently practiced maintenance strategies and the
large investment that utilities, particularly Eskom have put into condition monitoring, the mini-
dissertation sought to investigate how the technology is being managed to yield desired
results. Industry implementation of concepts such of total productive maintenance (TPM),
technology management and support systems, return on investment (ROI) and maintenance
management was investigated to compare Eskom’s implementation of the technology to
other utilities. The mini-dissertation culminated in the compilation of case histories based on
Eskom turbo-generator fleet where the technology is being deployed.

6.1.1 Alignment of Eskom Rolled out Condition-Based Monitoring

Technology to Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) Practices
As discussed earlier in this mini-dissertation total productive maintenance objective is to
promote a holistic approach in equipment performance as a major enhancement to
productivity. It is a well-defined and organised maintenance programme developed in
Japan, which places a high value on team, consensus building and continuous improvement.
The concept of TPM was implemented to eliminate breakdowns entirely by ensuring that
operators are responsible for their own machines, maintenance engineers, as specialists
undertake only the more complex tasks and that small group of staff are informed to quality
circles, to discuss maintenance problems and suggest improvement. There are number of
stages that the concept introduces, such as training of the operators in the light of their new
task, adaptation of management to the new system of maintenance thinking. The key
requirements for the success are the training and motivation of the staff affected by the
change. Caring about the job cannot be taught but TPM seeks to create an environment that
encourages that kind of atmosphere.

57
Training of artisans and other maintenance employees how to carry out maintenance without
causing any damage will help them understand how their actions can affect the equipment.
The case studies mentioned a number of human related failures that have affected Eskom
machinery. One of these cases indicated how Eskom suffered billion of rand due to human
error. Eskom’s Power stations have been financially impacted due to tools left inside the
machine during maintenance. This highlights the importance of TPM to grant the employees
autonomy, along with responsibility. The integration of skilled workers with not so skilled
workers promotes product awareness and multiskilling and training in the various aspects of
the machine and ownership. In the case where a drill bit was lost inside the machine and the
incident was not reported by the individual clearly indicates lack of caring about conditions
and causes and effects. The case studies have illustrated how condition-base maintenance,
if utilise properly, can enhance time-based maintenance when the outage opportune comes,
the system engineer is well aware about which generator component needs attention. The
case studies have also indicated how condition monitoring programs have assisted, to
channel resources only to those generator rotors that require immediate attention to prevent
major repairs or unscheduled downtime.

6.1.2 Management and Support Systems for Eskom Condition-based

Monitoring Technology
The condition-based maintenance technology can help make managing the turbo-generator
maintenance function easier and more efficient, freeing up valuable time and incipient fault
can be identified. Condition-based maintenance approach is computerised management
system. These are software packaged tools designed specifically to support turbo-generator
maintenance process. Some of these of systems are quite simple and others are very
complex and prices accordingly. If there are implemented and utilised as intended, they help
manage plant maintenance more efficiently. They are not a complete solution to
management problems, nor are they a substitute for skill or process. This is a technological
arena that is constantly changing and evolving as computers and processing chips
capabilities grow exponentially. In addition to the software tools used with condition
monitoring devices, there an array of software that manage data storage, analyse the data
and perform reliability analysis that facilitate decision about equipment inspections.
Understanding the ways that data can be stored and will be used is very important and helps
determine what data needs to be stored as well as how and where to store it. If one does not
know does not know what to do with the data then no need to collect it. Adding technology
for the sake of technology adds little value and creates a technology management

58
challenges. Moreover, while condition monitoring data are readily available, the sheer
volume can pose data storage problems.

In line with these thoughts, Eskom communication infrastructure is old and volume of
condition monitoring data adds problems to the system. To do life assessment of generator
requires trending of information and uses memory. There is an inherent problem with system
where people feel that are not empowered in terms of how the system is supposed to help
them. There is a general lack of skill in interpreting the data and turn it into an effective
decision making tool. In most cases skill does not exist within the station and has to be
sought from outside. People do not like to be controlled in terms of managing their plant and
that someone more experience tells them what to do their machine. When the technology is
imposed on them, the feeling is that someone has power over them. That kind of thinking
and behaviour stifles creativity and initiatives as well as the well-meaning intention of the
technology. In instances where the maintenance technology does not work compatibly with
people, potential benefit is minimal and even difficult to achieve.

…”this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing
man on the moon and returning him safely to the earth…But in a very real sense , it will be
not one man going to the moon-if make this judgement affirmatively, it will be an entire
nation. For all us must work to put him there” John .F Kennedy

This was demonstrated in the study case where a turbo-generator Unit experienced an earth
fault. The abnormality was detected by the condition monitoring technique put in place but
not only no proper action was taken but there was no authority based on the serious of
condition monitoring displayed.

6.1.3 Return on Investment on Eskom Condition-based Monitoring

Technology Investment
Eskom has invested lot money on maintenance of its generator assets. It makes little sense
to invest heavily in maintenance if this investment does not increase sellable outputs,
improve safety and improve generator reliability and availability. Most maintenance
engineers are technical people with technical background and they seldom think in terms of
return-on-investment. The return-on-investment culture needs to be instilled that he or she
must understand and live the concept and pay strict attention to the business aspect of their
role. There is an inherent culture of operating in silos where system engineers feel that they
only concentrate on the life management of the machine not on the investment made as an

59
enabler to carry out proper condition monitoring. In any investment, financial rules require
justification of capital expenditure.

In 1990’s, and during 2005 Eskom suffered a number of catastrophic failures of generating
Units at a number of its plants due to foreign object ingress that were not detected during
outage work on the machine. Benefits of condition monitoring and diagnostic technology
have been derived by Eskom during return-to-service (RTS) of generator Units after routine
maintenance. During this time, the risk on the machine increases due to foreign material
ingress resulting from undesirable working practices. Even though, utmost care is taken
when carrying out maintenance, Eskom is always faced with difficult decision once a tool has
been lost inside the machine during maintenance. The decision has severe revenue,
customer relation and the safety of the equipment and personnel consequences. If the
station decides to open the machine to locate the missing tools, it has to contend with
rework, extended or new deadlines as well as loss of revenue. If the decision is to go ahead
and commission the Unit despite the problem, the personnel and machine are placed in
serious danger.

6.1.4 Lessons Learnt from the Eskom Condition-Based Condition

Monitoring Technology
Establishing a good relationship between system engineers, maintenance personnel and the
technology provider is critcal to achievement of successful and lasting results. This
relationship must go deeper than the mere technology provider and end user of technology
service agreement. The maintenance engineers are taking key business decision for the
well-being of machines and maintenance technology needs to demonstrate that it is creating
value for the business. From the people perspective attention is required to staff motivation
and providing balanced job satisfaction, whilst ensuring that employees feel part of an
integrated organisation maintenance strategy rather than of being under thread of
disempowered. Equally important utilities are faced with challenges to ensure that there is
consistent message and common objective avoiding the potential of maintenance and
system engineers playing off against the provider of the technology to gain advantage. The
health of the machine, reliability, availability and reputation of the utility is reliant on
corporation of stakeholders.

6.2 Limitation of the Study

The mini-dissertation looked at the management of Eskom turbo-generator fleet condition-
based maintenance technology implementation. The study relied heavily on qualitative

60
approach primarily because of Eskom information being and intellectual property (IP). It
must also be noted that condition-based maintenance is in a deployment phase and not all
Units are installed with this technology. A more comprehensive picture will emerge once the
system is fully functionally.

6.3 Future Research

A myriad of considerations have been identified to affect the effective execution of condition-
base maintenance strategy on Eskom generator fleet. There are multiple dashboards or
standards indicators that can be used for maintenance management improvement. The
success of the implementation of condition-based maintenance rests in the concept of total
productive maintenance approach. Within the ambit of TPM, the entire process of
maintenance must be managed on the basis of maintenance programmes plan, which will
have function of connecting the various maintenance programmes, through which it will
provide for management of maintenance intervention on systems that are already
operational, plant characteristics that will determine the project requirement for
implementation to support logistics systems, which are deemed crucial elements for passage
from planned to realised maintenance.

6.3.1 Technology Performance Assessment

Once there is an increasing awareness that the technology creates value for the
organisation process, the performance of the condition-based technology within Eskom must
be assessed. This will ensure long-term profitability and sustainability of the maintenance
intervention by Eskom.

6.3.2 Evaluation of Condition Monitoring Economic Benefits

In general, what can be found in maintenance budget are just cost when breakdown occurs,
it often easy to pinpoint lack of maintenance. In instance where breakdown does not occur or
occurs less frequently, it is difficult to prove that condition-based technology assisted
maintenance to prevent or reduced it. So in the absence of quantitative parameters that are
required for assessing performance contribution in company profit, maintenance will be
deemed as a cost not profit. In order for management to realise the economic benefit a
study linking condition monitoring and derived benefit needs to be undertaken.

61
 REFERENCES

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EPRI 1004951, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA, November 2004.
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1013458, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA, November 2006.
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Refurbishment Options”, GER 4223 Report (01/04).
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Edition,2008
6. Stone G.C, Boulter E. A, Dhirani H, 2004. “Electrical Insulation for Machinery, Design
Evaluation, Aging, Testing and Repair”, IEEE Press, A John Willey &Sons, INC.,
Publication 2004.
7. Klempner G, Kerszenbaum I, 2004. “Operation and Maintenance of Large Turbo-
generators”, IEEE Press, A John Willey &Sons, INC., Publication 2004.
8. Say M.G, “Alternating Current Machines”.
9. De Swardt H, 2009. “Turbo Machinery Repair Case Study: 36 MW Rotors”, January
2009. This article was published in Vector, January 2009 and in Energiser December
2008.
10. Nelson J.K, 2004. “Main Generator On-line and Condition Monitoring and
Diagnostics, Partial Discharge and Electromagnetic Interference ”, Technical Report
EPRI 1004958, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA, November 2004.
11. Bruck R. H, McCormack R.G, 1989. “Hydro Generator and Generator Motor
Insulation” Repair, Evaluation, Maintenance and Rehabilitation Research Program
US Corps of Engineers, Final Report 8992808, September 1989.
12. Coetzee G, 2008. “Plant Knowledge Manual, Generator Systems, Power Station
Electrical Revision 1, Module 3, 4 and 6-7”, Generation Technology Department,
Eskom Megawatt Park, 2008.
13. Colsher R, Vollmer W, Decoster M, 2000. “Plant Maintenance Optimisation
Assessment Guideline”, Technical Final Report EPRI 1000321, Electric Power
Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA and CSI Services Eddystone, PA, December 2000.
14. Report EPRI 1007423, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA, July 2003.
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16. John D. Campbell James V. Reyes-Picknell, 2006. “Strategies for excellence in
Maintenance Management”, UPTIME, 2nd Edition 2006.
17. Feigenbaum, A. V, 1991. “Total Quality Control”, Third edition revised
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Investment in Maintenance and Repair of Federal Facilities”, 2012 Edition.
19. Fedele F,2011.“Methodologies and Techniques for Advanced Maintenance”,Springer
London Dordrecht Heidelberg New York, 2011, DOI 10.1007/978-085729-103-5,
20. Patton J.D, 1995. “Preventative Maintenance”, 1995, 2nd Edition.
21. Sao Palo “Application of Artificial Intelligence to Condition-based Maintenance”, Vol...
4,n.2,p. 102-107.
22. Telli vand Lei, Erder Paulien Herder, Ype Wijnia, 2012. “Asset Management”, The
state of the Art in the Europe from a Life Cycle Management, Springer London
Dordrecht Heidelberg New York, 2012. DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-2724-3,
23. Fernandez J.F.G, Marquez A C, 2012. “Maintenance Management in Network
Utilities”, Framework and Practical Implementation. Springer London Dordrecht
Heidelberg New York, 2011, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4471-2757-4, 2012.
24. Koochack J, Bokhorst J, Wortmann H, Klingenberg W, 2011. “Evaluation Condition
Based Maintenance For Processes in Series” Journal of Quality in Maintenance
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http://dx.doi.org/110810/13552511111180195, Viewed on 3rd October 2012.
25. Kapler P.E, 2003. “ Life Cycle Management”, Vol. 5, Main Generator Rotor, Technical
26. Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), “Cyclic of fossil Fuelled Power Plant”, GS-
7219-Volume 6, September 1993. Technical Report EPRI GS 7219, Vol. 6, Electric
Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA, September 1993.
27. Lyonnet P, 1991. “Maintenance Planning (Methods and Mathematics)”, Chapman
and Hall, 1991.
28. Sherwin J, 2005. “Generator Forum Care Group Presentation”, Westward Electrical,
May 2005. Venue: Eskom Megawatt Park.
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30. Shibli A, “Guideline on Effects of Cyclic Operation on Maintenance Activities”,
Technical Report EPRI 1004017, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA,
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31. Dladla J, Singh S, Jonker M, Goatley P, 2006. “Short to Medium Term Impact of
Two-shifting at Majuba Power Station”, GENOP/TECHOPS, Majuba Power Station
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and 190511.

63
33. Ahmed E.B, Salama M.M.A “Asset Management Techniques for Transformers”
Electric Power Systems Research, 2009 Elsevier, journal
homepage:www.elsevier.com

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 APPENDICES
Appendix A:

South Africa’s Capacity Expansion and Demand Forecast for 2005-2025.

65
Appendix B:

Impact of Majuba Unit 3 Generator Failure on National Electricity Plan Capacity

Based on a 32485 MW (20h00) national capacity forecast, the Majuba Unit 4 trip (17h46 –
21h54) resulted in an immediate dire outlook from Red (-2151 deficit) to Red (-2820 deficit)
and required two OCGT’s and ILS support (446 MW) to prevent further frequency decay.
However, Lethabo Unit 3 tripped shortly thereafter (18h21) and forced EL1 which released
532 MW in capacity reductions and approximately 180 MW in further emergency reserve.
The Kriel Unit 6 RTS (return-to-service) at 18h46 was only a theoretical relief as it had then
gradually loaded positively only after the peak hour.

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Appendix C:

Condition-Based Maintenance
An example of improvement that can be achieved by implementing condition-based
maintenance in extending preventative maintenance threshold is shown below. This is
performed by extending the alarm fault period.

The advantages of condition-based maintenance, which can be extend the preventative

maintenance threshold available to maintenance stuff by expanding the fault warning period

Long term deteriorating effects that can avoid by c-based maintenance

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Appendix D:

Literature Survey of two-shift Operated Units

Introduction
EPRI conducted surveys in which it was found that, for cyclic operated generators, 40-60
percent of the outages were due to corrective maintenance. In the survey, responses
suggested that the type and frequency of condition monitoring of rotating machinery
operated in cyclic mode is quite variable. For major outages, turbine plant cover the major
scope of work based on equivalent running hours, (i.e. run hours plus number of start ×
factor). The factor varied between 20-25 for all starts and 70 for cold and hot starts
respectively. An actual interval in terms of running is 65,000 to 85,000 hours. It was noted
that condition monitoring was used to justify extending intervals between outages. Minor
overhaul intervals are scheduled between 2-3 years to cover the boiler statutory requirement
and turbine stop and control valve maintenance requirement.

Cyclic Operation Failure Mechanisms and Monitoring Techniques

According to operational experience mechanical problems introduce low-cycle fatigue at the
rotor teeth and slots areas of the generator. The copper dust manifestation on Units that
follow load demand is also an indicator of low speed or turning-gear operation. During
copper dust occurrence, the copper windings rub against one another given the low
centrifugal force. During operation, at 3000 rpm, coils are locked against the wedges by
centrifugal force and movement between individual copper strands is restricted. The end-
turns suffer from elongation as a result of low-cycle operation due to copper windings under
compression. Electrical complications result in arcing between the coil retaining rings,
wedges and rotor body. Inertia slots endure cracking and corners experience fretting due to
rubbing when the Unit is running on a turning-gear. The table below depicts component
failure mechanisms, corrective actions and inspection techniques for a cyclical operated
turbo-generator.

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Cyclic operation and maintenance strategies

Components Types Damage Mechanism Inspection Technique Corrective Action

of Failure

Mechanical Low-cycle fatigue at Non-destructive Repair or replace

Problems cooling holes, in the testing component-with
teeth and slots. upgraded material

Shaft damage due Install-torsional

Perform destructive
torsional vibration. vibration detector
examination of
Copper dusting due journals Lift coils and conduct
windings rubbing a vacuum out of
Check end-turns for
against each other slots. Consider coil
dusting. Review of
consolidation
End-turn elongation turning-gear time
due to low-cycle Replace end-turns if
Check end-turns for
yielding due copper elongation is
elongation
under compression observed

Install generator
monitor

Electrical Problems Copper windings to Discolouration due Install stray flux

rotor body shorts. arcing probe monitor

Windings turn-to- Perform-visual Check the maximum

turn shorts. inspection on temperature reached
insulation for any by insulation and
Arcing-between
scorching due to wedges.
retaining rings and
negative sequence
rotor body, wedges

Gen Rotor Bore Low-cycle fatigue on Carry out ultrasonic Remove indications
shaft extensions or borosonic
inspection

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 Shaft Outside High-cycle fatigue on Material test Repair cracks
Diameter shaft extensions inspection at stress
riser location

Shaft Stray currents, Install shaft voltage Install Shaft and

induced current and and currents brush current monitor
voltages

Inertia Slots Cracking at inertia Carry out non- Repair any crack
slots due to destructive test of the detected
overheating and low- inertia slots
cycle fatigue

Coupling High cycle fatigue, Perform inspection on Eliminate vibration

fretting, fretting fatigue the key way
and foreign object
damage

Coil retaining rings Fatigue at stress riser Moisture ingress, Replace coil retaining
location, corrosion perform magnetic with 18/18 and monitor
cracking inspections on exposed moisture during
surfaces outages.

Wedges Cracking at corners, Examine tooth tip and Replace wedges and
fretting caused by wedges for cracking validate the remaining
rubbing when is on life of tooth tip
turning-gear

Copper Windings Ratchetting effects due Thorough inspection Check vibration during
expansion between the during outages. operation
copper and coil
Install condition
retaining rings
monitoring

On-line Condition Monitoring for Cyclic Operated Machines

Attendant with the current practices of extending periods between outages and running
generators during peak times, there is a need for enhanced condition monitoring. By

70
determining condition of the turbine generator and its suitability for continuous adequate
operation, outages can be scheduled, often averting forced outages.

A relatively new technology in the field of condition monitoring is the shaft condition
monitoring, which also projects the monitoring of the entire centre line train. A turbo-
generator has at least one current sensor for detecting shaft grounding currents in the
rotating machinery, at least one voltage sensor for detecting shaft voltage. Since the shaft
grounding voltages and currents are very sensitive to the changes in the machinery, an
emerging problem can be detected long before there is damage and prior to being detected
by other conservative conditioning monitoring practices.

When flexible load application is applied, the nature of plant fatigue can change. Long-term
plant creep damage can become less of a concern to utilities, but fatigue type problems
become more apparent. In order to meet the demand of cyclic operation, various
enhancements have been implemented. There has been a number of changes to generator
design and material of construction to mitigate the impact, among which has been the switch
to end rings of Fe-18Mn 18-Cr which has reduced stress corrosion, cracking problem.
Although these coil retaining rings are less susceptible to stress corrosion there has been
mini-dissertations where corrosion has been detected associated with copper deposit.
Utilities have been advised to keep the generator enclosed and dry all the time especially
during outages. Improved instrumentations and integrated system to give better condition of
plant and performance are installed. The table below depicts parameters and measuring
techniques currently in practice at some stations operating their Units either as base or cyclic
operation.

Measuring techniques to enhance monitoring for cyclic operated turbo-generators

Measured Parameter Reason For Measuring Measuring Techniques

Rotor Resistance The rotor resistance to earth On-line temperature

gives early warning of measurement
developing rotor earth faults.

Generator Magnetic Field To detects shorted turns in Stray flux coil

the rotor winding as a result
of insulation failure between
individual windings.

Shaft Voltages/Currents Loss of bearing insulation. Shaft earthing brushes

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 Rotor earth ground faults.

Rotor winding shorted turns.

Indications of static or
dynamic eccentricity.

Presence of residual
magnetism in components

Excitation Current Excessive excitation current AVR measurement system

causes field winding
overheating. Too low
excitation current causes the
terminal voltage to decrease
below its minimum allowable
value.

Excitation Voltage Automatic voltage regulator AVR measurement system

problems can cause the
excitation voltage to become
too high and in turn cause
the excitation to increase
beyond design limits.

Rotor Temperature The rotor temperature is

calculated using the
excitation current and
voltage.

Winding Temperature These monitor the bar Thermocouples

copper temperature and
provide information of the
temperatures to which the
insulation in the slot portion
of the winding is subjected

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