CEN443: Transportation Engineering II

Highway Location and

Geometric Design

Required Reading: MW Chapter 3

Geometric Alignment
of Highways

3
 Principles of Highway Alignment
• In general, highway alignment analysis occurs
in three dimensions

4
Principles of Highway Alignment (cont.)
• The analysis is converted from a 3-D to two 2-D
alignment problems:
– Horizontal Alignment (plan view)
– Vertical Alignment (profile view)
In addition to the cross sectional view

5
Plan View – Horizontal Alignment

6
Profile View – Vertical Alignment

7
Cross Sectional View

8
 Horizontal Alignment
Motivation
• A straight line between terminal points is most
economical for highways

9
 Horizontal Alignment
Motivation
• But obstacles / terrain conditions / topography /
man-made features require “bends” in the route

10
 Horizontal Alignment
Motivation
• Straight (tangent) sections of roadway are connected
by curves
• Objective:
– Geometry of directional transition to ensure:
• Safety
• Comfort

11
 Horizontal Alignment
• Consider highway: i.e.
– Along highway centerline (x) consider 2D plane (x, z) &
– Across centerline (z) ignore changes in elevation (y)

• Represented in a PLAN VIEW (~ aerial view)

12
 Highway Positioning and Length
• Defined as distance along highway centerline (on a
horizontal constant-elevation plane) from a specified
point
• Distance is measured:
– in terms of stations, where each station constitutes 1 km (or 100 m, 20 m, ….)
of highway alignment distance.
e.g: station 1+258.5 ⇔ 1258.5 m from a specified origin point (0 + 000)

• Measure the
distance between
any 2 points by
counting stations

• Local Reference
Point (LRP)
13
Horizontal Curve
Fundamentals

14
 Types of Horizontal Curves
• Simple curves:
– With single constant radius –
arc of a circle
• Reverse curves:
– Two consecutive curves that
turn in opposite directions
• Compound curves:
– Two or more simple curves of
different radii in succession/
tangent to each other
15
Source: web
 Types of Horizontal Curves (cont.)
• Spiral curves (or transition curves):
– Curves with a continuously changing radius from  at
tangent to R at curve
– Reduce sudden change in curvature at junction of tangent
and circular curve
– Provide a rational basis for superelevation transition
Without Transition Curves

With Transition Curves

16
Spiral Transition Curves

17
 Horizontal Alignment
Design Requirements
• Vehicle cornering (superelevation)
V2
Rv =
g ( f s + e)

Rv = radius defined to vehicle’s traveled path

• Stopping sight distance

18
Simple Circular Horizontal Curve
R = curve radius
(to centerline of road)
∆ = central angle of curve
(in degrees)
T = tangent length
E = external distance
M = middle ordinate
PC = point of curve
(beginning of horizontal curve)
PI = point of tangent
intersection
PT = point of tangent
(ending point of horizontal curve)
L = length of curve 19
• Length of the Road = “DistA,PC” + L + “DistPT,B”
• station of PC = station of PI – T
• station of PT = station of PC + L
• Δ = 180 – “Opposite Angle”
20
 Circular Curve Formulas
Degree 90
Radian
60

30

180 0


π  180 
1 = radians = 0.0174533 radians 1 radian =   = 57.2958


180  π 

L = Arc length = Angle (in Radians) × R

π
L= R∆ (∆ in degrees)
180
21
 Circular Curve Formulas (cont.)
D = degree of curve
– Angle subtended by a 100-ft (30.5-m) arc along the horizontal curve
– Measures sharpness of the curve

 180 
30.5 
π  5490
[ 180/π converts from radians to degrees ]
D=  =
R πR

∆ ∆  ∆
T = R tan M = R − R cos = R1 − cos 
2 2  2

 
R  1 
E= − R = R − 1
∆  ∆ 
cos  cos 
2  2  22
 Notes
• Horizontal curve stationing, R –vs- Rv
curve length, and curve radius
“R” are usually measured to
the centerline of the road

• Radius “Rv” determined based

on centripetal and centrifugal
forces is measured from the
innermost vehicle path R
(assumed to be the midpoint of the innermost vehicle lane)

EXAMPLES: Assume lane width is 3 meters

4 lanes road 2 lanes road Single lane ramp

Rv = R – 3 – 1.5 Rv = R – 1.5 Rv = R 23
 Notes (cont.)
• Usually  (the central angle) and the station of the PI
are known
• Curve selection:
– Any two given tangents can be connected by many circular
arcs
– We can assume one of the following quantities:
• R  usual
• T, E  possible
• L  unusual
– Assuming one quantity ⇒ others are computed based on
derived relations
– E.g. to provide for a certain design speed, may require R >
Rmin; or field conditions may dictate a certain controlling
quantity 24
 Example 1
• A horizontal curve is to be designed for a case
whereby  = 22.6˚ and the station of the PI is
10 + 300.0.
• The curve radius has been set at 600 m.
• Determine the stationing of the PT.

25
  180 
30.5 
D=  π  = 5490
R πR
Next

Lecture 2

26
 Solution
• Station of PC = station of PI – T
Find T and L
• Station of PT = station of PC + L
∆ 22.6°
T = R tan = 600 tan = 119.9 m
2 2
π π
L= R∆ = × 600 × 22.6° = 236.7 m
180 180

• Station of PC = 10300 – 119.9 = 10180.1 m =

10 + 180.1
• Station of PT = 10180.1 + 236.7 = 10416.8 m =
10 + 416.8 27
Stopping Sight Distance and
Horizontal Curve Design

28
 Stopping Sight Distance
• Restrictions in sight distances on horizontal curves due to
obstructions
• Sight distance is measured along centerline of travel lane
• For a certain SSD, a clearance Ms (middle ordinate of a
curve that has SSD as arc length) must be provided

29
Stopping Sight Distance (cont.)
R = curve radius (to centerline
of road)
Rv = radius to the vehicle’s
traveled path (usually
measured to the center of
the innermost lane of the
road)
∆ = central angle of curve in
degrees
s = angle (in degrees)
subtended by an arc of
length equal to SSD

30
 SSD Equations
• Assuming that the length of the horizontal curve exceeds
the required SSD, we have the following set of equations:
π 180 SSD
SSD = Rv ∆ s ⇒ ∆ s =
180 π Rv
• The middle ordinate necessary to provide adequate SSD:
 ∆s   90 SSD 
M s = Rv 1 − cos  = Rv 1 − cos 
 2   π Rv 
• The available sight distance with a given Ms and Rv:
π Rv  -1  Rv − M s 
SSD = cos  
90   Rv  31
 Example 2
• A horizontal curve on a two-lane highway is
designed with:
610-m radius
3.6-m lanes
100 km/h design speed
• Determine the distance to be cleared from
the inside edge of the inside lane to provide
sufficient SSD.

32
  180 
30.5 
D=  π  = 5490
R πR

33
 Solution
• Rv has to be measured to the centerline of the inside
lane ⇒ Rv = 610 - 3.6/2 = 608.2 m
• Minimum SSD at 100 km/h is 185 m (AASHTO 2011,
Table 3-1 see next slide)
 90 SSD 
M s = Rv 1 − cos 
 π Rv 
 90 × 185 
= 608.21 − cos  = 7.021 m
 π × 608.2 
• Ms is measured from the centerline of inside lane
⇒ clearance from inside edge of inside lane
= 7.021 - 3.6/2 = 5.221 m 34
AASHTO 2011, Table 3-1

35
 Example 3
• A horizontal curve is being designed through
mountainous terrain for a four-lane road with lanes that
are 3 m wide.
• The central angle ∆ is 40 degrees.
• The tangent distance is 155 m.
• The stationing of the tangent intersection (PI) is 82 + 300.
• Under specified conditions and vehicle speed, the
roadway surface is determined to have a coefficient of
side friction of 0.08, and the curve’s superelevation is
0.09 m/m.
• What is the stationing of the PC and PT?
• What is the safe vehicle speed? 36
  180 
30.5 
D=  π  = 5490
R πR

37
 Solution
• Curve radius:
∆ 40°
T = R tan ⇒ 155 = R tan ⇒ R = 425.859 m
2 2
• Curve length:
π π
L= R∆ = × 425.859 × 40° = 297.306 m
180 180
• Station of PC = station of PI – T = 82300 – 155
= 82145 m = 82 + 145
• Station of PT = station of PC + L = 82145 +
297.306 = 82442.31 m = 82 + 442.31 38
 Solution (cont.)
• Superelevation equation:
2
V
Rv =
g ( f s + e)
• But Rv = R − (3 + 1.5) = 425.859 − 4.5 = 421.359 m
2
V
⇒ 421.359 =
9.81(0.08 + 0.09 )
⇒ V = 26.5 m/s = 95.4 km/h ~ 95 km/h
39
PSD on Horizontal Alignment

40
Vertical Alignment

41
 Vertical Alignment
• Consider highway:
– Along highway centerline
– Account for elevations
• Represented by a PROFILE VIEW
– Elevations of all points along highway centerline (y coordinates)

Horizontal Alignment
Plan View

Vertical Alignment
Profile View

L 42
 Highway Positioning and Length
Stationing concept, horizontal
Profile
alignment given in plan view,
and elevation corresponding to
stations given in profile view
(vertical alignment):
⇒ uniquely identifies all
highway points (along
centerline)

L
Length of Vertical Curve is
projected on X-axis to have
consistent stationing between
plans and profiles.

In non-flat terrains, the Real

Length is longer in 3D.
Plan

43
 Vertical Alignment

• Objective: determine the elevation of highway points in order

to ensure the following:
– Follow topography and reduce earthwork
– Acceptable grades
– Acceptable safety level
– Roadway drains properly

• Primary task: provide transition of roadway elevations

between two successive grades, relying on vertical curves (vc)

44
 Vertical Curves
Components and Terminology
• G1 = initial roadway / tangent grade
• G2 = final roadway / tangent grade
• A = absolute value of difference in grades
• PVC = point of vertical curve (initial point of the curve)
• PVI = point of vertical intersection (intersection of initial and final grades)
• PVT = point of vertical tangent (final point of vertical curve )
• L = length of vertical curve, measured in horizontal plane

45
 Types of Vertical Curves
• Two types:
– Crest vc:
• Decrease in grade (G1 > G2)
Convention:
• PVI is above curve
left to right
– Sag vc
• Increase in grade

46
 Connecting Roadway Grades
• A parabolic function is used to define roadway
elevations at every point / station along the
vertical curve
• Advantages of parabolic functions:
– Provide a constant rate of change of slope
– Result in equal tangent curves (property of parabola)
• The horizontal distance from the center (PVI) of the curve
to the end of the curve is identical
in both directions

47
 Vertical Curves
Components and Terminology
• G1 = initial roadway / tangent grade
• G2 = final roadway / tangent grade
• A = absolute value of difference in grades
• PVC = point of vertical curve (initial point of the curve)
• PVI = point of vertical intersection (intersection of initial and final grades)
• PVT = point of vertical tangent (final point of vertical curve )
• L = length of vertical curve, measured in horizontal plane

3
 Parabolic Function Applied to VC’s

y = ax 2 + bx + c
where
y = roadway elevation (in m) at distance x from the PVC in stations or m
x = distance from the PVC in stations or m;
x(PVC ) = 0; x(PVT ) = L
a, b, c = unknown parameters

4
 Parabolic Function Applied to VC’s (cont.)

y = ax 2 + bx + c
When x = 0, y (0) = c = y (PVC )

5
 Parabolic Function Applied to VC’s (cont.)

y = ax 2 + bx + c
When x = 0, y (0) = c = y (PVC )
dy
Slope (of tangent to curve) = = 2ax + b
dx
dy
Slope ( x = 0) = ( x = 0) = b ⇒ b = G1
dx

6
 Parabolic Function Applied to VC’s (cont.)

y = ax 2 + bx + c
When x = 0, y (0 ) = c = y (PVC )
dy
Slope (of tangent to curve) = = 2ax + b
dx
dy
Slope ( x = 0) = ( x = 0) = b ⇒ b = G1
dx
d2y G2 − G1 G2 − G1
Rate of change of slope = 2 = 2a = ⇒ a=
dx L 2L

 G2 − G1  2
⇒ y=  x + G1 x + y (PVC ) (Elevation of any point on the vertical curve)
 2L  7
 Example 4
• A 200-m equal-tangent sag vertical curve has
the PVC at station 3+700.0 and elevation 321
m.
• The initial grade is –3.5% and the final grade is
0.5%.
• Determine the elevation and stationing of the:
– PVI
– PVT
– Lowest point on the curve
8
 Solution
• Equal tangent curve ⇒
– PVI is at 100 m from PVC, and
– PVT is at 200 m from PVC

• Stationing of PVI = 3 + 800.0

• Stationing of PVT = 3 + 900.0

• Elevation of PVI = 321 -0.035×100 = 317.5 m

• Elevation of PVT = 317.5 +0.005×100 = 318.0 m
9
 Solution (cont.)
• To find the minimum point (x*, y*), set first derivative
to zero:
y = ax 2 + bx + c
dy
= 2ax + b
dx
dy b
= 0 ⇒ 2ax + b = 0 ⇒ x = −
* *

dx 2a
G − G1 0.005 − (− 0.035)
But b = G1 = −0.035; a = 2 = = 0.0001
2L 2 × 200
b − 0.035
⇒x =−*
=− = 175 m
2a 2 × 0.0001
Station of lowest point on curve = 3 + 875.0
( )
y * = y x* = 0.0001×1752 + (− 0.035)×175 + 321 = 317.94 m
10
 Notes
• Elevation of the PVI cannot be found from the
equation of the vertical curve.

• Some sag vertical curves will have their lowest

point at PVT since 1st derivative may not
vanish for x between that of PVC and PVT
(e.g. a sag vertical curve with G1= -0.02 and G2 = -0.01)

11
 Example 5
Curve-Through-a-Point

• An equal-tangent vertical curve is to be

constructed between grades of -2.0% (initial)
and +1.0% (final).
• The PVI is at station 3 + 350.000 and at
elevation 130 m.
• Due to a street crossing the roadway, the
elevation of the roadway at station 3 +
415.000 must be 131 m.
• Design the curve.
12
 Solution
• Need to find the length of the curve such that
station 3 + 415.000 is at elevation 131 m.
y = ax 2 + bx + c
G2 − G1 0.01 − (− 0.02 ) 0.015
a= = =
2L 2L L
b = G1 = −0.02

( ) ( ) L
( ) L
c = y PVC = y PVI − G1 × = 130 − − 0.02 × = 130 + 0.01L
2 2
Therefore :
0.015 2
y= x − 0.02 x + 130 + 0.01L
L 13
 Solution (cont.)
Station 3 + 415.000 at elevation 131 m is a point on the curve.
Since x is measured from the PVC, then :
the given point has x = 0.5 L + (3415.000 - 3350.000 ) = 0.5 L + 65,
and y = 131 m.
Substitute these values of x and y in the curve equation to find L :
0.015 2
y= x − 0.02 x + 130 + 0.01L
L
⇒ 131 =
0.015
(0.5L + 65)2 − 0.02(0.5L + 65) + 130 + 0.01L
L
⇒ 131L = 0.00375 L2 + 0.975 L + 63.375 − 0.01L2 − 1.3L + 130 L + 0.01L2
⇒ 0.00375 L2 − 1.325 L + 63.375 = 0

14
 Solution (cont.)
L1 = 296.30 m; L2 = 57.04 m
Since the distance between the PVI and the given point is 65 m,
L2 = 57.04 m is infeasible.
Choose L = L1 = 296.30 m.
Elevation of PVC = c = 130 + 0.01L = 130 + 0.01× 296.30 = 132.96 m
296.30
Station of PVC = 3350.000 − = 3201.85 m = 3 + 201.850
2
L 296.30
Elevation of PVT = Elevation of PVI + G2 × = 130 + 0.01× = 131.48 m
2 2
296.30
Station of PVT = 3350.000 + = 3498.15 m = 3 + 498.15
2
For the given point : x = 0.5 L + 65 = 0.5 × 296.30 + 65 = 213.15 m from the PVC.

15
Other Properties of Vertical Curves
• Offsets are vertical distances from initial tangent to the curve.
• They are important for vertical curve design and construction

Can be done in both directions

• Y = offset at a distance x from PVC
• Ym is the mid-curve offset
• Yf is offset at end of vertical curve (at PVT) 16
Offset Formulas

17
 Derivation of the Offset Formula
y2

At any point x, Y = y2 − y1 , y1

where
y1 = elevation of a point on the curve at a distance x from PVC
y2 = elevation of a point on the initial tangent at a distance x from PVC

 G2 − G1  2
y1 = ax + bx + c =   x + G1 x + y (PVC )
2

 2L 
y2 = G1 x + d ; y2 (0 ) = y (PVC ) = d ⇒ y2 = G1 x + y (PVC )
G1 − G2 2
Y = y2 − y1 = x
2L

G1 − G2 2 A 2
If G1 and G2 are expressed in %, then Y = x = x
200L 200L
18
 K Values
• The rate of change of grade along a parabolic curve is
constant
• The L/A ratio is the horizontal distance required to
effect a 1% change in gradient and is, therefore, a
measure of curvature.
• The quantity L/A is termed ‘K’
L
K=
A
where
A = absolute value of difference in grades G1 − G2 expressed in %
L = length of vertical curve
K = horizontal distance in m required to effect a 1% change
in slope of vertical curve
19
 Use of K Values
The K-value can be used directly to compute the high/low points for
crest/sag vertical curves (provided the high/low point does not occur at
curve’s end, PVC or PVT, i.e. provided G1 and G2 have opposite signs) as follows:

Let x* = xhl denote distance from the PVC to the high/low point of the curve
b G1 G1 L
x* = − =− =−
2a  G − G1  G2 − G1
2 2 
 2 L 
G1 L
Since G1 and G2 have opposite signs, x* =
G2 − G1
Let A = G1 − G2 expressed in %, then :
L
x* = xhl = G1 = K × G1 , where G1 is also expressed in %.
A
Additionally, K-values have important applications in the design of VC
– Minimum lengths of vertical curves for various design speeds 20
 Example 6
• A curve has initial and final grades of +3% and
-4% and is 210 m long.
• The PVC is at elevation 100 m.
• Compute the K-value and use it to locate the
high point of the curve (distance from the
PVC)

21
 Solution

L 210
K= = = 30 m (needed to effect a 1% change of grade)
A 3 − (− 4 )
High point of the curve :
x* = K × G1 = 30 × 3 = 90 m
Elevation of high point of curve :
y * = a(90 ) + b(90 ) + c
2

 − 0.04 − 0.03 
=  × 90 + 0.03 × 90 + 100
2

 2 × 210 
= 101.35 m

22
Solution (cont.)

23
 Stopping Sight Distance
and Vertical Curve Design

24
Stopping Sight Distance & VC Design
• When designing a vertical curve, consider both cost
and safety

• An appropriate level of safety means providing

sufficient sight distance to allow drivers to safely stop
their vehicles without hitting an object on the road

25
 Stopping Sight Distance (cont.)

V2
SSD = V × t +
 a  
2 g    ± G 
 g  
Distance traveled during
P-R time (brake reaction distance) Braking distance

26
Assistant with Target Rod
(2ft object height)

Observer with Sighting

Rod (3.5ft)
Design Guidelines for Stopping Sight Distance
Level Road (G = 0)
(AASHTO 2011 – Equation 3-2 and Table 3-1)

Deceleration rate of 3.4 m/s2 used to determine

calculated braking distance.

28
Design Guidelines for Stopping Sight Distance
Accounting for Grade
(AASHTO 2011 – Equation 3-3 and Table 3-2)

Equation for braking distance Stopping sight distance

+ G for uphill
- G for downhill

(Note: considered for wet pavement conditions with same speeds

and brake reaction times as level roads in Table 3-1) 29
 Consideration of Slopes in SSD
Calculation for VC’s
• If positive slope, smaller SSD (compared to
level road) is required because uphill
• If negative slope, larger SSD is required
because downhill
• Which slope to use in calculation of SSD?
– If we know exactly when vehicle begins to brake,
we could use first derivative of parabolic curve to
get G and then apply SSD equation.
30
 Consideration of Slopes in SSD
Calculation for VC’s (cont.)
• In practice, policies vary as to how grade issue is
handled:
– Since sight distance is greater on downgrades (which require
longer SSD), a self-correction is generally provided
– Some design agencies ignore the effect of grades completely
– Some assume G = 0 for grades less than 3%

• We will ignore the effect of grade in calculation of SSD

for VC’s
31
 How to Provide Sufficient SSD on VC’s?
• Curves of longer lengths L provide more SSD, but are more costly
to construct

• Shorter curves are less expensive to construct but may not

provide adequate SSD

• We need an expression for minimum curve length L as a

function of required SSD’s (basically a function of speed)
– Consider crest and sag vertical curves separately

• Passing sight distance is rarely used as the design sight distance,

because it demands long, gentle curvatures that are expensive
to construct
32
 Stopping Sight Distance
and Vertical Curve Design
• Crest vertical curves
• Sag vertical curves

33
 Crest Vertical Curves
Sight Distance

S = Sight distance
L = Curve length
H1= height of driver’s eye
H2= height of roadway object
34
 Crest Vertical Curves
Minimum Curve Length
• Using properties of a parabola for an equal-tangent
curve:

Lmin = minimum vertical curve length required for a sight distance S (in m)
A = absolute value of difference in grades ( |G1 - G2| ) expressed in %

35
 Crest Vertical Curves
Minimum Curve Length (cont.)
• For sight distance needed to provide adequate SSD,
AASHTO 2011 uses H1 = 1.08 m; H2 = 0.60 m
• Minimum curve length to provide adequate SSD:

36
 Crest Vertical Curves
Minimum Curve Length (cont.)
• To calculate minimum value of L that satisfies
previous equations:
– Assume either that S < L or that S > L,
– Solve corresponding equation, then
– Check whether assumption was valid

37
 Example 7
• A highway is being designed to AASHTO
standards with a 120 km/h design speed.
• At one section an equal-tangent vertical curve
must be designed to connect grades of +1.0%
and –2.0%.
• Determine the minimum length of vertical
curve necessary to meet SSD requirements.

38
 Solution
• From Exhibit 3-1, for design speed = 120
km/h, SSD = 250 m.
• Assume SSD < L:

• Since 250 m < 284.95 m, the assumption that

SSD < L is correct.
39
 Crest Vertical Curves
Simplifying the Calculation of Lmin
• Using
where K is distance in meters required to
effect a 1% change in grade along the VC

• For

• Use the same value of K derived with SSD < L

for the case of SSD > L without significant
error 40
 Crest Vertical Curves
Simplifying the Calculation of Lmin (cont.)
• Use Table 3-2 in MW textbook (or Table 3-34 in
AASHTO 2011)
– Gives for each design speed the SSD and the K values
rounded for design
– Then calculate

Design Controls for Crest

Vertical Curves
Based on SSD (AASHTO
2011 – Exhibit 3-34) 41
 Crest Vertical Curves
Smallest Allowable Length
• Very short vertical curves can be difficult to
construct, so for small values of A, required
Lmin is small

• Set a minimum value of L as 30-100 m or 0.6

times the design speed (in km/h)

42
 Crest Vertical Curves
Drainage Considerations
• Drainage criterion for crest vertical curves (in
the case where the initial grade and the final
grade are opposite in sign) where curbed
sections are used:
– For K > 51 ⇒ drainage may be of concern since
the curve is rather flat

43
 Example 8
• Same data as Example 4 but use K values from
Exhibit 3-72 (slide 12)
V = 120 km/h, G1 = +1.0%, G2 = -2.0%
• Determine the minimum length of vertical
curve necessary to meet SSD requirements.

44
Solution

45
 Example 9
• Same data as Examples 4 and 5
V = 120 km/h, G1 = +1.0%, G2 = -2.0%
• The grades intersect at station 3 + 000
• For the minimum curve length based on SSD
requirements, determine the stationing of:
– PVC
– PVT
– Curve high point

46
Solution

47
 Stopping Sight Distance
and Vertical Curve Design
• Crest vertical curves
• Sag vertical curves

4
 Sag Vertical Curves
• Determine minimum length of sag vertical
curve to provide:
– Necessary sight distance

• Check drainage

5
 Sag Vertical Curves
Sight Distance
• In daylight, the sight distance is not restricted
on sag vertical curves
• Critical concern here is with the headlight
sight distance at night, or length of road
illuminated by vehicle’s headlights
– i.e. sight distance is controlled by:
• Position of headlight
• Direction of headlight beam

6
 Sag Vertical Curves
Sight Distance (cont.)

H: height of headlight above roadway

β: angle of inclination of headlight beam w.r.t.
longitudinal axis of vehicle 7
 Sag Vertical Curves
Minimum Curve Length
• Minimum curve length Lmin for a required sight
distance S (using the properties of a parabola
for an equal-tangent curve):

8
 Sag Vertical Curves
Minimum Curve Length (cont.)
• For sight distance needed to provide adequate SSD,
AASHTO 2011 uses H = 0.6 m; β = 1˚
• Minimum curve length to provide adequate SSD:

9
 Sag Vertical Curves
Minimum Curve Length (cont.)
• As was the case for crest vc’s, can compute K
by assuming that SSD < L:

SSD 2
K=
120 + 3.5 × SSD

• Then use:
Lmin = KA

10
 Sag Vertical Curves
Design Controls Based on SSD
(AASHTO 2011, Exhibit 3-36)

11
 Sag Vertical Curves
Smallest Allowable Length
• Same as for crest curves

12
 Sag Vertical Curves
Drainage Considerations
• Need to set a maximum length for sag vertical
curve or K-value
• AASHTO requirements: provide a minimum
grade of 0.3% within 15 m of level point
(lowest point) i.e. Kmax = 51 or else the curve
will be too flat

13
 Sag Vertical Curves
Drainage Considerations (cont.)
• Drainage criterion for sag vertical curves (in the case where
the initial grade and the final grade are opposite in sign)
where curbed sections are used:
– For K > 51 ⇒ drainage may be of concern since the curve is rather flat

Source: Iowa Department of Transportation, “Effects of Roadway

Geometrics on Urban Pavement Drainage”, Design Manual.
14
 Example 10
• Tunnel needs to be connected to a bridge with (equal-
tangent) sag and crest vertical curves.

• Determine the highest possible common design speed for

curves.
• Compute the stationing and elevations of the PVC, PVI, and
PVT of both curves. 15
 Solution
• Let s denote sag and let c denote crest
• We have: G1s = 0%; G2c = 0%
• Highest possible design speed ⇒ use all
horizontal distance available
– i.e. connect the curves such that PVTs = PVCc
– Therefore:

16
 Solution (cont.)
• Horizontal distance between tunnel and bridge:

• Summation of end-of-curve offset for sag and

beginning-of-curve offset (relative to final
gradient) for crest:

17
 Solution (cont.)
• Now find the K values that satisfy:

• Find the highest possible design speed which

satisfies above equation by referring to Exhibits 3-72
and 3-75
18
 Solution (cont.)
Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves
Based on SSD Based on SSD
(AASHTO 2011 – Table 3-34) (AASHTO 2011 – Table 3-36)

19
 Solution (cont.)
• From tables, V = 70 km/h

• Stationing:
– PVCs : 0 + 000 (given)
– PVIs : 0 + 089
– PVTs = PVCc : 0 + 178
– PVIc : 0 + 244
– PVTc : 0 + 310 20
 Solution (cont.)
• Elevation:
– PVCs = PVIs : 30 m (given)

– PVTs = PVCc :

– PVTc = PVIc : 42 m (given)

21
Passing Sight Distance for
Crest Vertical Curves

22
 Passing Sight Distance on VC’s
• May be desirable sometimes to provide an
adequate PSD, especially on two-lane
highways
• PSD only relevant for crest vc’s:
– For sag vc’s, there is no need to design for PSD
since opposing vehicle can be seen:
• During day: no restriction on sight distance
• At night: headlights will appear from a distance

23
 Crest Vertical Curves
Minimum Curve Length
• Using properties of a parabola for an equal-tangent
curve:

Lmin = minimum vertical curve length required for a sight distance S (in m)
A = absolute value of difference in grades ( |G1 - G2| ) expressed in %

24
 Crest Vertical Curves
Minimum Curve Length (cont.)
• For sight distance needed to provide adequate PSD,
AASHTO 2004 uses H1 = 1.08 m; H2 = 1.08 m (related
to opposing vehicle’s height)
• Minimum curve length to provide adequate PSD:

25
 Crest Vertical Curves
Minimum Curve Length (cont.)
• As was the case for SSD, can compute K by
assuming that PSD < L:

• Then use:

26
 Crest Vertical Curves
Design Controls Based on PSD
(AASHTO 2004, Exhibit 3-73) (AASHTO 2011, Table 3-35)

27
 Crest Vertical Curves
SSD Versus PSD
Design Speed K / Table 3-34 K / Table 3-35
(km/h) SSD PSD
30 2 17
40 4 23
60 11 38

• The lengths of crest vc’s required to provide

for minimum PSD are substantially longer than
those for SSD
28
 Example 11
• An equal-tangent crest vertical curve is 1200
m long.
• It connects a +2.5% and a -1.5% grade.
• The design speed of the roadway is 90 km/h.
• Does this curve have adequate passing sight
distance?

29
 Solution
• Method 1
– For V = 90 km/h, K = 91 (Table 3-36)
– Curve length required to provide adequate PSD:

– Since the curve length is 1200 m > 364 m, it does

have adequate PSD.

30
 Solution (cont.)
• Method 2
– K value of existing design:

– K value needed to provide adequate PSD is K = 91.

– Since 300 > 91, the curve length does provide
adequate PSD.

31
Underpass Sight Distance
for Sag Vertical Curves

32
 Sag VC’s and Overhead Structures
• Consider sag curves being built under an
overhead structure
– Line of sight may be restricted
– Entire curve length may not be visible

33
Sag VC’s and Overhead Structures (cont.)

S = Sight distance
L = Curve length
H1 = height of driver’s eye
H2 = height of roadway object
Hc = clearance height of overpass structure above roadway
34
Sag VC’s and Overhead Structures (cont.)
• Using properties of a parabola for an equal-tangent
curve:

35
Sag VC’s and Overhead Structures (cont.)
• For sight distance needed to provide adequate SSD,
AASHTO 2011 uses:
– H1 = 2.4 m (for a truck driver / conservative);
– H2 = 0.6 m (for the taillights of a vehicle)

• Minimum curve length to provide adequate SSD:

36
Sag VC’s and Overhead Structures (cont.)
• If sag vertical curve already exists and a new overpass
is going to be built, previous equations can be used to
solve for clearance height Hc

• Hc determined from equations should also be checked

against minimum clearance heights

37
 Sag VC’s and Overhead Structures (cont.)
Minimum clearance heights are based on:
• Maximum vehicle height regulations (4.1-4.4 m)
• AASHTO recommendations
– Minimum structure clearance height: 4.4 m
– Desirable clearance height: 5.0 m
– Clearance heights not less than 0.3 m
greater than the maximum allowable
vehicle height

Salim Salam Tunnel March 2019

38
Mar Mikhael Train Bridge 30/8/2019
 Example 12
• An equal-tangent sag curve has an initial
grade of -4.0%, a final grade of +3.0%, and a
length of 385 m.
• An overhead guide sign is being placed
directly over the PVI of this curve.
• At what height above the roadway should the
bottom of this sign be placed?

39
 Solution
• Find Hc from equations on slide 51
• Need to find SSD ⇒ need to find the design
speed
• K value:

• From Exhibit 3-75, this K value corresponds to

a design speed of 110 km/h.
• Required SSD is 220 m.
40
 Solution (cont.)
Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves Based on SSD (AASHTO 2011 – Exhibit 3-36)

41
 Solution (cont.)
• Since SSD = 220 m < L = 385 m, find Hc from:

• Solution from Lmin Equation: Hc = 2.6 m

• But AASHTO recommends a minimum clearance
height of 4.4 m.
– Place bottom of sign at least 4.4 m above roadway
surface (at the PVI) and preferably at a height of 5 m.
– Why was the structure placed at PVI point? Mid/Flat? 42
 Example 13
• A vertical curve crosses a 1-m diameter pipe at right angles.
• The pipe is located at station 3 + 420 and its centerline is at
elevation 333 m.
• The PVI of the vertical curve is at station 3 + 400 and elevation
335 m.
• The curve is equal tangent, 180 m long, and connects an initial
grade of +1.20% and a final grade of -1.08%.
• (a) Using offsets, determine the depth, below the surface of
the curve, of the top of the pipe.
• (b) Determine the station of the highest point on the curve.
• (c) Does this curve have adequate stopping sight distance for
a design speed of 100 km/h?
43
PVI 3+400
335.0

20m

333.0

44
L = 180m
PVI 3+400
335.0 ?

?
B

90m 20m ?

333.5

333.0

45
46
 Solution
Part a
• Elevation of the initial tangent above the pipe =
Elevation of PVI + G1 × 20 = 335 + 0.012 × 20 = 335.24 m
• Denote the point on the curve above the pipe as B
• Offset at point B:
A 1.20 − (− 1.08)
YB = xB =
2
×110 2 = 0.77 m
200 L 200 ×180
• Elevation of point B = 335.24 – 0.77 = 334.47 m
• Elevation of top of pipe = elevation of centerline +
diameter/2 = 333 + ½ = 333.5 m
• Therefore, the top of the pipe is 334.47 – 333.5 =
0.97 m below the surface of the curve. 47
PVI 3+400
335.0 335.24

0.77
B

20m 0.97

333.5

333.0

48
 Solution (cont.)
Part b
• To find station of highest point on curve, find K
value first
L 180
K= = = 78.95
A 1.20 − (− 1.08)

• Horizontal distance of highest point from PVC:

xhl = K × G1 = 78.95 × 1.20 = 94.74 m
• Station of PVC = Station of PVI – L/2 = 3400 –
180/2 = 3310 m = 3 + 310
• Station of highest point = station of PVC +
94.74 = 3310 + 94.74 = 3404.74 = 3 + 404.74 49
 Solution (cont.)
Part c
• K value needed at a
speed of 100 km/h is 52
• Since the K value of the
existing design is 78.95,
the curve has adequate
stopping sight distance
for a design speed of
100 km/h

Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves

Based on SSD (AASHTO 2011 – Exhibit 3-34)
50
Combined Horizontal and
Vertical Alignments

3
 Example
• A two-lane highway (two 3.6-m lanes) has a posted
speed limit of 80 km/h.
• On one section, it has both horizontal and vertical
curves (see next slide).
• A recent daytime crash (driver traveling eastbound
and striking a stationary roadway object) resulted
in a fatality and a lawsuit alleging that the 80 km/h
posted speed limit is an unsafe speed for the
curves in question and was a major cause of the
crash.

• Evaluate and comment on the roadway design.

4
5
 Solution
Assessment of Horizontal/Vertical Alignment
Need to check if following minimum
requirements are met:
– Minimum Radius of HC (cornering)
– Minimum SSD (with obstruction on HC)
– Minimum length of VC to provide sufficient SSD

6
 Solution (cont.)
Horizontal Alignment:
Adequacy of Curve Radius
and Superelevation

Minimum Radius
Using Limiting
Values of e and f
(AASHTO 2011,
Table 3-7)
7
 Solution (cont.)
Horizontal Alignment:
Adequacy of Sight Distance

Design Guidelines for Stopping Sight Distance on Level Road

(AASHTO 2011, Exhibit 3-1) 8
 Solution (cont.)
Vertical Alignment

Design Controls for

Sag Vertical Curves
based on SSD
(AASHTO 2011, Table 3-36)

9
 Minimum Requirements

Need to check if following minimum requirements

are met (at design speed of 80 km/hr):

– Min. horizontal curve radius (cornering): 229 m

– Min. SSD (with obstruction on HC): 130 m
– Min. length of VC to provide sufficient SSD: K = 30

10
 Solution (cont.)
Horizontal Alignment: Adequacy of Curve
Radius and Superelevation

𝐿𝐿 = station of PT − station of PC = 4600−4160 = 440 m

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
𝐿𝐿 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅 ⇒ 440 = 𝑅𝑅 × 80° ⇒ 𝑅𝑅 = 315.13 m
180 180

3.6
𝑅𝑅𝑣𝑣 = 𝑅𝑅 − = 315.13−1.8 = 313.33 m > 229 m ⇒ OK
2

11
 Solution (cont.)
Horizontal Alignment: Adequacy of Sight Distance
• SSD for current design:
π Rv  -1  Rv − M s 
SSD = cos  
90   Rv 
3.6
where M s = 6 + = 7.8 m
2
π × 313.327  -1  313.327 − 7.8 
⇒ SSD =  cos   = 140.119 m
90   313.327 
• Required SSD for a speed of 80 km/h is 130 m
(AASHTO 2011, Exhibit 3-1)
• Therefore, SSD for current design is sufficient. 12
 Solution (cont.)
Vertical Alignment
• Curve length:
L = station of PVT - station of PVC = 4290 - 4140 = 150 m
• K value for existing design:
L 150
K= = = 25
A − 2 − (4 )
• Required K value at a speed of 80 km/h is 30
(AASHTO 2011, Exhibit 3-36)
• Thus, the curve is inadequate for the 80 km/h
speed. However … 13
 Solution (cont.)
Vertical Alignment

• Crash occurred in daylight when sight distance

is not an issue on sag vertical curves.
• Therefore, the design did not contribute to the
crash.

14
15
Traffic Volumes and
Level of Service

18
 Traffic Volumes and Level of
Service
• Current and future traffic demand
• Capacity analysis: to determine Level of Service (LOS)
associated with anticipated demand
• LOS range:

A F
(Best) (Worst)
(low volume, high speed) (stoppages, unstable flow)

19
 LOS Concept
• Objective: practical method of quantifying level of
congestion and overall performance of roadway

• Operational performance measures:

– Speed
– Flow
– Density

• Drivers evaluate quality of service in terms of:

– Speed and travel time
– Freedom to maneuver
– Traffic interruptions
– Comfort and convenience 20
 LOS Concept (cont.)
• LOS encompasses some or all of these factors
– Describes operational conditions within a traffic
stream
– Does not include safety
– Different measures for different facilities

• Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) concept of

LOS:
– Qualitative ranking along 6 levels of service A
through F 21
 Notes
• When volume is near roadway
capacity, roadway is operating at
LOS E

• This is not a desirable condition

– Considerable driver discomfort 
higher likelihood of vehicular
crashes and overall delay

• In design, LOS E should be avoided

• This is not always possible due to

financial and environmental
constraints

22
Guidelines for Selection of Design LOS

Source: AASHTO 2004, Exhibit 2-32

23
 Design Traffic Volumes
• Operational analysis
– Given an hourly volume, determine the LOS of the
facility
• Planning analysis
– Need procedure for selecting an appropriate
hourly volume to determine number of lanes to
be provided in a new roadway design to achieve
some specified level of service
– Selection of an appropriate hourly volume is
complicated by temporal variation in traffic
volume 24
 Temporal Variation in Traffic Volume
• Traffic fluctuates by time of day

• Traffic fluctuates from month to month during

the year

25
 Temporal Variation (cont.)
Example

Source: MW Fig. 6.6

26
 Temporal Variation (cont.)
Example

Source: MW Fig. 6.7

Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT, veh/day) is total annual

traffic volume divided by 365 27
 ATC1 Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
TIME EB WB Total EB WB Total EB WB Total EB WB Total EB WB Total EB WB Total EB WB Total
00:00 - 01:00 89 56 145 103 59 163 96 57 153 105 65 170 77 70 147 92 72 164 114 70 183
01:00 - 02:00 56 37 93 59 39 98 51 37 88 64 40 104 61 42 104 74 45 119 88 48 136
02:00 - 03:00 35 16 51 39 17 55 33 16 49 37 21 59 37 23 60 44 26 71 56 26 82
03:00 - 04:00 21 13 34 21 10 30 18 13 31 22 11 33 23 15 38 29 15 44 43 22 65
04:00 - 05:00 22 13 35 17 14 30 19 13 32 21 14 35 22 14 35 29 14 43 34 19 53
05:00 - 06:00 23 26 50 23 31 54 24 30 55 24 30 53 27 29 56 27 23 50 31 19 51
06:00 - 07:00 59 116 175 64 120 184 59 118 176 64 117 182 67 118 185 61 86 147 37 40 77
07:00 - 08:00 151 274 425 169 276 445 154 295 450 169 303 472 163 289 452 132 185 317 53 49 102
08:00 - 09:00 200 298 498 214 315 529 210 322 532 229 301 530 208 310 518 178 207 385 73 66 138
09:00 - 10:00 235 272 507 243 266 509 244 262 506 238 277 516 226 268 494 210 199 409 90 90 180
10:00 - 11:00 238 228 466 260 250 510 250 244 494 255 252 506 253 235 488 217 196 413 118 97 215
11:00 - 12:00 256 229 485 267 246 513 255 237 492 257 228 485 291 233 524 242 205 447 134 110 244
12:00 - 13:00 255 212 467 277 223 500 258 221 479 261 221 482 267 234 500 271 194 465 145 119 264
13:00 - 14:00 287 219 506 295 234 528 286 231 517 286 227 513 289 207 497 311 178 489 173 131 304
14:00 - 15:00 314 204 518 322 206 529 304 211 515 317 209 526 284 202 486 261 176 437 144 126 270
15:00 - 16:00 326 204 530 302 199 500 318 202 520 302 202 503 318 194 511 219 155 374 153 118 272
16:00 - 17:00 341 190 531 336 191 527 342 195 537 343 213 555 310 206 516 210 165 375 151 122 273
17:00 - 18:00 335 191 527 326 194 520 348 202 550 354 196 550 289 217 505 206 158 364 181 139 320
18:00 - 19:00 297 188 485 298 188 486 326 186 512 311 181 493 242 195 437 211 156 367 185 167 352
19:00 - 20:00 253 179 432 261 176 436 263 173 437 251 164 415 256 150 406 206 156 363 184 160 344
20:00 - 21:00 217 168 385 217 160 377 220 159 380 212 168 380 217 151 368 177 147 323 171 145 315
21:00 - 22:00 167 143 310 173 128 301 165 137 302 174 127 301 158 129 287 145 127 272 145 126 272
22:00 - 23:00 149 115 264 162 110 272 155 122 277 148 129 277 151 121 272 140 121 261 143 106 249
23:00 - 24:00 142 89 231 136 80 217 133 90 223 140 93 233 136 95 231 131 96 227 115 81 197
TOTAL 4,468 3,680 8,148 4,584 3,731 8,314 4,531 3,775 8,305 4,585 3,786 8,371 4,372 3,744 8,116 3,824 3,101 6,925 2,761 2,196 4,957

28
 Selection of Hourly Volume for Design and/or Analysis

Source: MW Fig. 6.8

A. Highest traffic flow in this year would have an hourly volume of 0.148 × AADT
(volume exceeded by 0 other hours)
29
B. 60 hrs in a year would have a volume ≥ 0.11 x AADT
 Selection of Hourly Volume for
Design and/or Analysis (cont.)
• US common practice is to use a Design Hour-Volume
(DHV) between 10th and 50th highest volume hours of
the year, depending on the type and location of the
roadway (urban freeway, rural/suburban highway,
etc.), local traffic data, and engineering judgment

• Most common is 30th highest hourly volume (i.e.

volume exceeds DHV for 29 hours in a year)

30
 K-Factor
• K -factor used to convert AADT to a specified annual
hourly volume (e.g. 30th highest)
DHV
K=
AADT

DHV = design hour volume

AADT = roadway annual average daily traffic in veh/day

Ki = K-factor corresponding to the ith highest annual hourly

volume
(e.g. K20= 0.126)
31
 K-Factor (cont.)
• K = DHV as % of Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
12-18% for two-way traffic / rural
8-12% for urban traffic

32
Grades

33
 Grades
• Vertical alignment involves:
– Selection of suitable grades for tangent sections
– Design of VC’s

• Both factors are impacted by terrain:

– Level/flat
– Rolling
– Mountainous

34
 Grades (cont.)
• Speed of a heavy vehicle can be significantly
reduced if grade is steep and/or long

• Grades can also affect the performance of

passenger cars
⇒ need to select maximum grade on any
highway

35
 Grades (cont.)
• Maximum grade depends on design speed and
design vehicle
• Grades < 5% have little effect on passenger cars
(except compact and sub-compact cars)
• Maximum grades, use the following AASHTO
exhibits:
– Local rural roads: Exhibit 5-4
– Rural /urban collectors: Exhibits 6-4 and 6-8
– Rural arterials: Exhibit 7-2
– Urban arterials: Exhibit 7-10
– Urban/rural freeways: Exhibit 8-1 36
 AASHTO 2004, Exhibit 6-4. Maximum Grades for Rural Collectors

AASHTO 2004, Exhibit 6-8. Maximum Grades for Urban Collectors

Note: Short lengths of grade in rural/urban areas, such as grades less than 150 m
[500 ft] in length, one-way downgrades, and grades on low-volume rural/urban
collectors may be up to 2 percent steeper than the grades shown above.
37
 Maximum Grades
• In general:
– Max. grade = 6% for design speed = 100 km/h - level terrain
– Max. grade = 7-12% for design speed = 50 km/h on
collectors
[7%: rural /level terrain - 12%: urban /mountainous
terrain]
– Max. grade = 17% for design speed = 20 km/h - local rural/
mountainous
• These are the maximum values, and are not to be
used frequently especially when grades are long and
traffic includes a high % of trucks!
38
 Minimum Grades
• Depend on drainage conditions:
– On uncurbed pavement with adequate cross-
slopes to laterally drain surface water
⇒ 0% (longitudinal) grades may be used
– On curbed pavement: to facilitate longitudinal
flow of surface water
⇒ Typically 0.5% grade is to be maintained

39
 Minimum Length of Grade
• Should maintain the same grade for a
minimum distance (120-150 m)

40
 Critical Length of Grade
• Maximum length of upgrade on which a loaded truck
may operate without unreasonable reduction of
speed

(to be considered as a guide, not a strict control)

• AASHTO recommends a 15 km/h reduction criterion
be used as a general design guide for determining
critical lengths of grade
– Use Exhibit 3-59
• E.g. on a 4% grade the critical length = 350 m

41
Critical Lengths of Grade for Design
Source: AASHTO 2004, Exhibit 3-59
Speed reduction
Percent upgrade %

Length of grade (m)

Note: Assumed typical heavy truck of weight/power ratio of 120 kg/kW,
42
entering speed = 110 km/h
 Climbing Lanes
• Where critical lengths are substantially exceeded,
consider providing climbing lanes
See AASHTO 2004, Exhibit 3-61

43
Arrester Bed

44
Lane Width

45
 Lane Width
• Lane width: 3 - 3.65 m
(2.75 or 3-m lanes are to be used exceptionally and on low
speed facilities)
• A shoulder is the portion of the roadway contiguous
with the traveled way and is required for safety and
capacity considerations
• Greater lane width ⇒ greater design capacity
• Lanes < 3.65 m width:
– Capacity decreases
– Clearances between opposing vehicles likely to be small /
inadequate (undivided highway)
46
 Minimum Width of Traveled Way and Shoulders
for Rural Collectors

Source: AASHTO 2004,

Exhibit 6-5
47
Other Design Controls
(based on experience and
engineering judgment)

48
 Maximum Grade in Proximity to
Existing Intersections
• Grade should be no more than 2% within a distance of about 30 m
from intersection stop line
• E.g. intersection of the proposed highway with existing highways
(at beginning point, at ending point, or along the way)

≤2% ≤2%

49
 Horizontal Approach at Intersections
• Intersection angle:
– To provide suitable intersection configuration for safety and
capacity, provide as nearly as possible right angled intersections
– As close to 90° as possible, but a minimum of 60°.
• Approach intersection with a tangent section for a
distance of at least 30 m to aid driver visibility at
approach

50