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 3

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Syllabus
4

Paper-II: Business Mathematics

Max. Marks : 100
Time : 3 Hours
Note : Ten questions shall be set in the question paper covering the whole syllabi. The candidates shall be
required to attempt any five questions in all.

Unit-I Calculus (Problems and theorems involving trigonometrical ratios are not to be done).
Differentiation: Partial derivatives up to second order; Homogeneity of functions and Euler’s
theorem; total differentials Differentiation of implicit function with the help of total differentials.
Manima and Minima; Cases of one variable involving second or higher order derivatives; Cases
of two variables involving not more than one constraint.
Integration: Integration as anti-derivative process; Standard forms; Methods of integration-by
substitution, by parts, and by use of partial fractions; Definite integration; Finding areas in
simple cases; Consumers and producers surplus;
Nature of Commodities learning Curve; Leontiff Input-Output Model.

Unit-II Matrices and Determinants: Definition of a matrix; Types of matrices; Algebra of matrices;
Properties of determinants; calculation of values of determinants upto third order; Adjoint of a
matrix, through adjoint and elementary row or column operations; Solution of system of linear
equations having unique solution and involving not more than three variables.

Unit-III Linear Programming-Formulation of LPP: Graphical method of solution; Problems relating

to two variables including the case of mixed constraints; Cases having no solution, multiple
solutions, unbounded solution and redundant constraints.
Simplex Method—Solution of problems up to three variables, including cases of mixed
constraints; Duality; Transportation Problem.

Unit-IV Compound Interest and Annuities: Certain different types of interest rates; Concept of present
value and amount of a sum; Types of annuities; Present value and amount of an annuity,
including the case of continuous compounding; Valuation of simple loans and debentures;
Problems relating to sinking funds.
vodyu 5

(Differentiation)

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Differentiation is the technique of determining the derivatives of continuous functions and
derivative is the limit of average rate of change in the dependent function following a change in
the value of the variable. Very small changes in the value of independent variable is
accompanied by a very small change in the value of dependent variable.

Example
1) Area of a circle depends upon its radius. If r is the radius, area is equal to πr2 where π is a
22
constant ( = ) . So any change in the value of radius will result in a change in area.
7
2) Bill of a telephone call depends upon the duration of the call. Longer the time, greater will
be the bill.
3) Total variable cost depends upon the number of units of a product.
In all these examples, the value of one variable, called dependent variable (Area, Bill,
Cost) and represented by y depends upon the value of other variable called independent variable
(radius, time, number of units) represented by x.
Mathematically we say that y is a function of x or
y = f(x).
The set of all permissible values of x is called Domain of the function and the set of
corresponding values of y is called the Range of the function.
Derivative of a function −
ekuk y = f(x), x dk ,d lrar Qyu gSA ekuk x esa nh x;h vYi o`f) δx rFkk y eas gksus
δy δy
okyh laxr vYi o`f) δy gSa] rks fHkUu dh lhek (vFkkZr o`f) vuqikr ) dks tc δx → y
δx δx
dk x ds lkis{k vody xq.kkad ;k vokyt (Differential coefficient or derivative) dgrs gSaA bl lhek
dy
dks ladsr ls fu:fir fd;k tkrk gS rFkk bls i<++++k tkrk gS “dy ckbZ dx vFkkZr dy by
dx
dx”
vr,o] ;fn y = f(x), rks
y + δy = f(x+δx)
∴ δy = f(x+δx) − y
;k δy = f(x + δx) − f(x)
6 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

nksuksa i{kksa dks δx ls Hkkx djus ij

δy f ( x + δx ) − f ( x )
=
δx δx
vr% vody xq.kkad dh ifjHkk"kk ls]
dy δy
= lim
dx δx →0 δx
dy f ( x + δh ) − f ( x )
;k = lim … (1)
dx δx →0 δx
mijksDr (1) dks izFke fl)kUr ls Qyu dk vodyt (the derivative of a function from the first
principles) ;k MsYVk fof/k (Delta method) dgk tkrk gSA
Theorem 1. The derivative of xn is nxn−1 where n is fixed number, integer or rational.
Proof. Let y = xn .
We have y + ∆y = (x+ ∆x)n .
∆ y (x + ∆ x) n − x n
=
∆x ∆x
As ∆x → 0, we obtain
dy (x + ∆x)n − x n
= lim
dx ∆x →0 ∆x
( x + ∆x) n − x n
= lim
∆x → 0 ( x + ∆x ) (( x − ∆x ) − x

xn − an
Using lim = nan−1 , we get
x →a x − a
dy
= nxn−1 .
dx
d
Hence (xn) = nxn−1, where n is an integer or rational.
dx
Example 1. Find the derivatives of the functions
(i) x20 (ii) x−9 (iii) x7/3 (iv) x−2/3
Solution.
dy
(i) Let y = x20 ∴ = 20. x20−1 = 20. x19
dx
dy
(ii) Let y = x−9 ∴ = (−9). x−9−1 = −9x−10
dx
7
dy 7 −1 7
(iii) Let y = x7/3 ∴ = . x3 = x4/3
dx 3 3
2 5
dy 2 − −1 2 −
(iv) Let y = x−2/3 ∴ =− . x 3
=− x 3.
dx 3 3
Theorem 2. The derivative of the constant function f(x) = c is zero.
dy f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
Proof. = lim
dx ∆x →0 ∆x
vodyu 7

c−c
= lim = 0.
∆x → 0∆x
Hence, the derivative of a constant function is zero.
df
Theorem 3. The derivative of k . f(x) = k. .
dx
Let y = kf (x) = kxn
So kf(x+h) = k(x+h)n
d f (x + h ) − f (x )
∴ kf(x) = lim k
dx h →0 h
d (x + h) n − x n
or (kxn) = lim k
dx h →0 h
= k.nxn−1 (From Theorem 1).
dy
∴ (kxn)k = nxn−1 .
dx
3. Derivative of Sum. The derivative of the sum of two functions is the sum of their
derivative if these derivatives exist.

Solution. Let f and g be two differentiable functions and let f be the function defined by
the relation
F(x) = f(x) + g(x)
F(x + h) − F(x)
∴ F′(x) = lim
h →0 h
[f (x + h) + g(x + h)] − [f (x) + g(x)]
= lim
h →0 h
f (x + h) − f (x ) g(x + h) − g(x)
= lim + lim
h →0 h h →0 h
= f ′ (x) + g′(x).
d d d
Hence [f(x) + g(x)] = [f(x)] + [g(x)].
dx dx dx
Cor. 1. The above result can be extended to the sum of any number of finite functions.
d
Thus, [f(x) + g(x) + h(x) + ……]
dx
= f ′ (x) + g′(x) + h′(x) + …..
i.e., the derivative of the sum of any number of functions is equal to the sum of their derivatives
provided these derivatives exist.
Cor. 2. If f(x) and g(x) are differentiable function, then f(x) −g(x) is also differentiable and
d d d
[f(x) − g(x)] = f(x) − g(x) .
dx dx dx
Example 2. Differentiate the following using first principle.
(i) y = 3x3 (ii) y = 2x2 − 7x + 6
1
(iii) y = (iv) y = 2x−2
x
8 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

Solution.
(i) y = 3x3 …(1)
Put (x + h) for x in equation (1)
f(x+h) = 3(x+h)3
dy 3(x + h)3 − 3x3
∴ = lim
dx h →0 h
3[ x 3 + 3x 2 h + 3xh 2 + h 3 − x 3 ]
= lim
h →0 h
3h(3x 2 + 3xh − h 2 )
= lim
h →0 h
= lim 3(3x2 − 3xh−h2)
h →0
= 3(3x2)
= 9x2 .
(ii) Let y=f(x) = 2x2 − 7x+6 ….(1)
put (x + h) for x in equation (1)
f(x+h) = 2(x+h)2 − 7(x+h) + 6
dy [2(x + h)2 − 7(x + h) + 6] − [2x 2 − 7x + 6]
∴ = lim
dx h →0 h
[2x 2 + 2h 2 + 4xh − 7x − 7h + 6 − 2x 2 + 7x − 6]
= lim
h →0 h
(2h 2 + 4xh − 7h)
= lim
h →0 h
= 4x−7
1
(iii) Let y = and suppose that x increases by a very small amount δ x and y also increases by a
x
very small amount δy. Therefore.
1
y + δy =
x + δx
1 1 (−δx)
∴ δy = − =
x + δx x x(x + δx)
δy 1
∴ =− 2
δx x + x.δx
dy 1
∴ = lim − 2
dx δx → 0 x + x.δx
1
=− 2
x
−2 2
(iv) Let y = 2x = 2
x
vodyu 9

2 2 2
∴ y + δy = or δy = −
(x + δx)2 (x + δx)2 x2
x 2 − ( x + δx ) 2 [−2xδx − (δx)2 ]
=2 = 2
x 2 ( x + δx ) 2 x 2 (x + δx)
δy 2[−2x − δx] dy 2(−2x − δx )
∴ = or = lim
δx x 2 (x + δx)2 dx δx → 0
x 2 ( x − δx ) 2
4x 4
= − 4
= −
x x3
Example 3. Differentiate the following functions w.r.t. x
x5 7 1
(i) 3x4 (ii) (iii) (iv) 6
2 x x
1 1
(v) 3
(vi) 3x − x4 (vii) 4x3 − 2 (viii) 7x11 + 3x4−4
4x x
d d 4
Solution. (i) (3x4) = 3 (x ) = 3.4x3 = 12x3 .
dx dx
d x5 1 d 5 1 5
(ii) = (x ) = .5x4 = x4
dx 2 2 dx 2 2
d 7 d 1 d
(iii) = 7 = 7 (x−1) = −7x−2
dx x dx x dx
d 1 d
(iv) = (x−6) = −6x−7
dx x 6 dx
d 1 1 d 1 3
(v) 3
= (x−3) = − .3x−4 = − x−4
dx 4x 4 dx 4 4
d d d
(vi) (3x−x4) = (3x) − (x4) = 3−4x3
dx dx dx
d 1 d d
(vii) 4x 3 − = (4x3) − (x−2) = 12x2 + 2x−3
dx x2 dx dx
d d d d
(viii) (7x11 + 3x4−4) = (7x11) + (3x4) − (4)
dx dx dx dx
= 77x10 + 12 x3
4. Differentiation of product of two functions
Let y = f(x). φ(x) , then
d d d
[f(x).φ(x)] = f(x). φ(x) + φ(x). f(x).
dx dx dx
Let y = f(x).φ(x)
Therefore , y + δy = {f(x+δx)}.{φ(x+δx)}
or δy = {f(x+δx)}.{φ(x+δx)} − f(x).φ(x) [Add and subtract f(x + δx).φ(x)
10 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

= f(x+δx)[φ(x+δx) − φ(x)] + φ(x)[f(x+δx)−f(x] subtract f(x + δx).φ(x)

δy φ(x + δx) − φ(x) f (x + δx) − f (x)
or = f(x+δx). + φ(x) .
δx δx δx
dy d d
or = f(x). φ(x) + φ(x). f(x) .
dx dx dx
So differentiation of product of two functions = First function × Derivative of second function +
second function × Derivative of first function.

5. Differentiation of quotient of two functions

f (x )
Let y = . Then
φ(x)
d d
dy d f (x ) φ(x) f (x) − f ( x) φ(x)
= = dx dx
dx dx φ(x) [φ(x)]2
f (x )
y =
φ(x)
f (x + δx) f (x + δx) f (x )
Therefore y+δy = or δy = −
φ(x + δx) φ(x + δx) φ(x)
f (x + δx).φ(x) − f (x).φ(x + δx)
=
φ(x + δx).φ(x)
δy f (x + δx).φ(x) − f (x).φ(x + δx)
or =
δx φ(x + δx).φ(x).δx
f (x + δx) − f (x) φ(x + δx) − φx
φ(x) − f (x) In Numerator
δx δx
= Add & Subtract
φ(x).φ(x + δx)
f ( x ).φ( x )
d d
dy φ( x ). f ( x ) − f ( x ) φ( x )
or = dx dx [ δx → 0]
dx [φ( x )]2
i.e., the derivative of the quotient of two functions is the fraction having as its denominator, the
square of the original denominator and as its numerator, the denominator times the derivative of
the numerator minus the numerator times the derivative of the denominator, if these derivatives
exits.
In words :
Numerator
Derivative of
Denominator
Denom. × Derivative of num. − Num. × Derivative of denom.
=
(Denom.)2
Example 4. Differentiate the following w.r.t. x
vodyu 11

1 1
(i) (2x3 + 3) (3x2 + 2x + 9) (ii) (x+ ) (x2 − 2 )
x x
(iii) (2x3 − 3x2 +1) (3x4 + 5x3 + 2) (iv) (2x+1) (3x2 +7x+2) (5x3+ 2x−4)
Solution. (i) Let y = (2x3+3) (3x2+ 2x + 9)
dy d
Then = (2x3 + 3) (3x2 + 2x+9)
dx dx
d d
= (2x3 + 3) (3x2 + 2x+9) + (3x2+2x+9) (2x3+3)
dx dx
= (2x3+3)(6x+2) + (3x2+ 2x+9) (6x2)
= 30x4 + 16x3 + 54x2 + 18x+6
1 1
(ii) Let y = x+ 2 x− 2
x x
dy d 1 1 1 d 1 1 d 1
Then = x+ x2 − = x+ x2 − + x2 − x+
dx dx x x2 x dx x2 x 2 dx x
1 1
= x+ (2x+2x−3) + x 2 − (1−x−2)
x x2
1 2 1 1
= x+ 2x + + x2 − 1−
x x3 x2 x2
(iii) Let y = (2x3 − 3x2 +1)(3x4+5x3+2)
dy d d
∴ = (2x3−3x3+1). (3x4+ 5x3+2) +(3x4+5x3+2). (2x3−3x2+1)
dx dx dx
= (2x3−3x2+1)(12x3+15x2 )+ (3x4+5x3+2)(6x2−6x)
= (24x6−36x5+ 12x3+ 30x5−45x4+ 15x2) + (18x6 +30x5+12x2−18x5−30x4−12x)
= 42x6 + 6x5−75x4+12x3+27x2−12x.
(iv) Let y = (2x+1)(3x2+7x+2)(x3+2x−4)
dy d d
∴ = (3x2+7x+2)(5x3+2x−4) (2x+1) +(2x+1)(5x3+2x−4) (3x2+7x+2)
dx dx dx
d
+ (2x+1) (3x2+7x+2) (5x3+2x−4)
dx
= (3 x 2 + 7 x + 2)(5 x 3 + 2 x − 4) : 2 + (2 x + 1) (5 x 3 + 2 x − 4) (6 x + 7) + (2 x + 1) (3 x 2 + 7 x + 2) (15 x + 2)
= 2(15 x 5 + 6 x 3 − 12 x 2 + 35 x 4 + 14 x 2 − 28 x + 10 x 3 + 4 x − 8) +
[( ) (
+ (2 x + 1) 30 x 4 + 35 x 3 + 12 x 2 + 14 x − 24 x − 28 + 45 x 3 + 105 x 2 + 30 x + 6 x 2 + 14 x + 4 )]
= 30 x + 70 x + 32 x + 4 x − 48 x − 16 + (2 x + 1) (30 x + 80 x + 123x + 34 x − 24)
5 4 3 2 4 3 2

= 30 x 5 + 70 x 4 + 32 x 3 + 4 x 2 − 48 x − 16 + 60 x 5 + 210 x 4 + 326 x 3 + 191x 2 − 14 x − 24

= 90 x 5 + 280 x 4 + 358 x 3 + 195 x 2 − 62 x − 40

Example 5. Differentiate the following w.r.t. x

3x 2 + 1 5x + 6 2x 3 + x + 7
(i) (ii) (iii)
x 3 + 2x x −2 3x 2 + 5
12 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

1
x3 −
x3 x2 + 1
(iv) (v) , x ≠ − 2.
1 x+2
x−
x
3x 2 + 1
Solution. (i) Let y =
x 3 + 2x
d d
dy ( x 3 + 2 x ) (3x 2 + 1) − (3x 2 + 1) ( x 3 + 2x )
Then = dx dx
dx ( x 3 + 2x ) 2
( x 3 + 2 x (6x ) − (3x 2 + 1)(3x 2 + 2)
=
( x 3 + 2x ) 2
− 3x 4 + 3x 2 − 2
=
(x 3 + 2x) 2
5x + 6
(ii) Let y =
x −2
d d
dy ( x −2 ) (5x + 6) − (5x + 6) ( x −2 )
Then = dx dx
dx ( x −2 ) 2
5 x −2 − (5 x + 6)(−2 x −3 )
=
x −4
5x + 2x (5x + 6) 5x −2 + 10x −2 + 12 x −3
−2 −2

= =
x −4 x −4
15x −2 + 12x −3 x −2 (15 + 12x −1 )
= =
x −4 x −4
15 + 12x −1
=
x −2
= x (15+12x−1)
2

= 15x2 + 12x
2x 3 + x + 7
(iii) Let y =
3x 2 + 5
d d
dy (3x 2 + 5) (2x3 + x + 7) − (2x 3 + x + 7) (3x 2 + 5)
Then = dx dx
dx (3x 2 + 5)2
(3x + 5)(6x + 1) − (2x3 + x + 7)(6x)
2 2

=
(3x 2 + 5)2
6x 4 + 27x 2 − 42x + 5
=
(3x 2 + 5)2
vodyu 13

1
x3 −
x3
(iv) Let y =
1
x−
x
1 1
x− x2 +1+
x x2
or y =
1
x−
x
1
= x2 +1+
x2
dy d 2 d d 1
∴ = ( x ) + (i ) +
dx dx dx dx x 2
2
= 2x − 3
x
x2 + 1
(v) Let y = , x ≠ −2 .
x+2
d d
dy (x + 2) (x 2 + 1) − (x 2 + 1) (x + 2)
Then = dx dx
dx (x + 2)3
(x + 2)(2x) − (x 2 + 1).1 2x 2 + 4x − x 2 − 1
= =
(x + 2) 2
(x + 2)2
x 2 + 4x − 1
= .
(x + 2)2
6. Differentiation of function of a function (Chain rule)
If y is a function of u and u is a function of x, then y is called ‘a function of a function’ or ‘a
composite function’.
If y = f(u) and u = g(x), then y is a function of x .
y = f{g(x)} = (fog)(x).
Theorem (Chain rule) : If f and g are differentiable functions, then fog is also
differentiable, and
(fog)′(x) = f ′ (g(x))g′(x).
f (u + k) − f (u)
= lim
h →0 h
[where u = g(x) and u + k = g(x+h)
so that k = g(x+h) − g(x). As h → 0 , k → 0 ]
f (u + k) − f (u) k
= lim ×
k →0 k h
f (u + k) − f (u) g(x + h) − g(x)
= lim ×
k →0 k h
14 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

f (u + k) − f (u) g(x + h) − g(x)

= lim × lim
k →0 k h →0 h
= f ′ (u).g′(x) = f ′ (g(x)).g′(x).
Remember. This rule is called ‘chain rule’.
It can be written as follows :
If y = f(u) and u = g(x)
dy dy du
Then = f ′ (u)g′(x) = ×
dx du dx
d
i.e., [f{g(x)}] = f′{g(x)} × g′(x)
dx
This rule can be extended.
If y is a function of u, u is a function of v and v is a function of x, then
dy dy du dv
= × × .
dx du dv dx
Example 6. Differentiate the following
(i) (3x2+2x+4)5 (ii) (2x3−8)−3
Solution. (i) Let y = (3x2+2x+4)5
Put 3x2+2x+4 = u
∴ y = u5
dy du
and = 5.u4.
du dx
d
= 5(3x +2x+4)4.
2
(3x2+2x+4)
dx
= 5(3x2+2x+4)4(6x+2)
= 10(3x+1) (3x2+2x+4)4
(ii) Let y = (2x3−8)−3
Put u = 2x3−8
∴ y = u−3
dy du
and = −3.u − 4 .
du dx
d
= −3(2x −8)−4.
3
(2x3−8)
dx
= −3(2x3−8)−4.6x2
− 18x 2
=
(2x 3 − 8)4

dy
Example 7. Find for the following cases :
dx
4
(i) y = u and u = 2x−1 (ii) y = 5u8 and u = 4x + 3
3 2
(ii) y = 3u +u and u = 1−4x (iv) y = √(3x2−4)
Solution.
(i) y = u4 and u = 2x−1
vodyu 15

dy du
∴ = 4u3 and =2
du dx
dy dy du
∴ = ×
dx du dx
= 4u3.2 = 8u3
= 8(2x−1)3 [Putting u = 2x −1]
(ii) Given y = 5u8 and u = 4x+3
dy du
∴ = 40u7 and = 4
du dx
dy dy du
∴ = ×
dx du dx
= 40u7.4 = 160u7
= 160 (4x+3)7 [Putting u = 4x+3]
(iii) Given y = 3u3 + u and u = 1 −4x2
dy du
∴ = 9u2 +1 and = −8x
du dx
dy dy du
∴ = ×
dx du dx
= (9u2+1) (−8x)
= −8x[9(1−4x2)2+1] [Putting u = 1−4x2]
= −8x(144x4 − 72x2 + 10)
(iv) Let u = 3x2−4, ∴ y = √u = u1/2 .
du dy 1
∴ = 6x and = u −1 / 2
dx du 2
dy dy du
∴ = ×
dx du dx
1
= ( u −1 / 2 )(6x)
2
= 3x(3x2−4)−1/2 [Putting u = 3x2−4]
3x
=
(3x 2 − 4)
Example 8. Differentiate w.r.t. x
1
(x 2 + a 2 ) + (x 2 + b 2 )
1
Solution. y =
(x + a ) + (x 2 + b 2 )
2 2

Rationalizing the denominator

(x 2 + a 2 ) − (x 2 + b 2 ) 1
y= .
2 2
(x + a ) + (x + b ) 2 2 (x + a ) − (x 2 + b 2 )
2 2
16 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

(x 2 + a 2 ) − (x 2 + b 2 )
=
a 2 − b2
dy d 1
∴ = [ (x 2 + a 2 ) − (x 2 + b 2 ) ]
dx (a − b ) dx
2 2

1 2x 2x
= −
a − b2
2
2
2 (x + a ) 2
2 (x 2 + b 2 )

x 1 1
= −
a 2 − b2 2 ( x 2 + a 2 ) 2 ( x 2 + b 2 )

1− x dy
Example 9. If y = prove that (1−x2) +y=0.
1+ x dx
dy d 1− x
Solution. =
dx dx 1+ x
d d
(1 + x ) (1 − x ) − (1 − x ) (1 + x )
= dx dx
( (1 + x ) )2
1 1
(1 + x)[− (1 − x)−1 / 2 ] − (1 − x)[ (1 + x)−1 / 2 ]
= 2 2
(1 + x)
(1 + x) (1 − x)
− −
2 (1 − x) 2 (1 + x)
=
1+ x
− 1(1 + x ) − (1 − x )
2 (1 − x 2 )
=
1+ x
−1− x −1+ x −1
= =
2
2(1 + x ) (1 − x ) (1 + x ) (1 − x 2 )
dy − (1 − x 2 )
or =
dx (1 + x)(1 − x 2 )
dy − (1 − x 2 )
or (1−x2) =
dx 1+ x
dy (1 − x 2 )
or (1−x2) + =0
dx 1+ x
dy (1 + x) (1 − x)
or (1−x2) + =0
dx 1+ x
vodyu 17

dy (1 − x )
or (1−x2) + =0
dx 1+ x
dy (1 − x)
or (−x2) +y =0 [ =y
dx (1 + x)

Exercise 1.1
(1) Find the derivatives of the following function using first principle :
(i) y = 6x3 (ii) y = ax2 + bx + c
1
(iii) y= (iv) y = x−3/2
x
(2) Differentiate the following w.r.t. x
1 1
(i) + +1 (ii) 3x2 + 5x−1
x2 x
(iii) (x+a) (x+x) (x+c) (iv) (3x2+1) (x3+ 2x)
2
3x + 5 x (2x + 1)(3x + 1)
(v) (vi)
7x + 4 4x + 1
5x 4 − 6x 2 − 7x + 8
(vii) (viii) (√x + 2 3 x ) ( 4 x − 2 5 x )
5x − 6
1
(ix) (5x3+ 6x2 + 11x+ 7)11 (x)
3
2x + 3x 3 − 5x + 6
4

1 x + x2 + x
4

(xi) (xi)
3
6x5 − 7x 3 + 9 x2 − x − 1

(3) Calculate dy/dx for the following cases :

(i) y = 3u9 , u = 2x−5 (ii) y = 4−3t2 , t = x2−x+1
1 1 1
(iii) y = 1− , t = 2 (iv) y = 4u2 + , u = 2x2 + 1
t x u
Differentiation of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
Memorise the following formulae :-
1. lim (1+h)1/h = e
h →0
2. log mn = log m + log n
m
3. log = log m−log n
n
4. log mn = n log m .
log m
5. logn m = [Base changing formula]
log n
6. loge e = loga e = 1 .
7. loga 1 = 0 for a ≠ 0 .
Whenever no base is mentioned in the logarithmic function, it is understood to be the base e.
18 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

Caution. Log(m+n) ≠ log m+ log n.

Article 1. Derivative of Logarithmic Function
Let f be the function defined by the rule f(x) = loga x.
f (x + h) − f (x )
f ′ (x) = lim
h →0 h
1
= lim [loga (x+h) − loga x ]
h →0 h

1 x+h m
= lim loga [ log m −log n = log ]
h →0 h x n
1 h
= lim loga 1 +
h →0 h x
1 h h
= lim . .loga 1 +
h →0 h x x
x/h
1 h h
= lim . loga 1 + [Note this step n log m = log mn]
h →0 h x x
x/h
1 h
= lim loga 1 +
h →0 x x
x/h
1 h
= lim loga 1 +
x h →0 x
1
= loga e [ lim (1+θ)1/θ = e ]
x θ→0

d 1
Hence (loga x) = loga e
dx x
d d
Corollary. If a = e, then (loga x) = [ loge e = 1]
dx dx
1 1
= loge e = .
x x
Article 2. Derivatives of Exponential Functions
(a) Find the differential co-efficient of
f(x) = ax (a > 0)
(b) Find the differential co-efficient of f(x) = ex .
Solution. (a) Here f(x) = ax
f (x + h) − f (h) a x+h − a x
∴ f ′ (x) = lim = lim
h →0 h h →0 h
x +h −x
a − 1 a h
−1
= lim ax = lim ax
h →0 h h →0 h
vodyu 19

ah − 1 a x −1
= ax lim = ax log a Lt = log a
h →0 h x →0 x
d
∴ (a x ) = a x log a ; (a > 0)
dx
(b) Here f(x) = ex
Then f(x+h) = ex+h = ex . eh
f (x + h) − f (x ) ex .eh − ex
∴ lim = lim
h →0 h h →0 h
e −1
h
eh − 1
= lim ex = ex lim
h →0 h h →0 h

eh −1
= ex.1 lim =1
h →0 h

= ex
d x
Hence (e ) = e x .
dx
Example 10. Differentiate x log x w.r.t. x .
Solution. Let y = x log x
dy d d
∴ =x (log x) + log x. (x)
dx dx dx
1
=x× + log x × 1
x
= 1+ log x
d
Example 11. Find (2x) .
dx
d
Solution. We know that (ax) = ax . log a
dx
d x
∴ (2 ) = 2x. log 2
dx
Example 12. Differentiate log 5x w.r.t. x
Solution. Let 5x = u
du
So that y = log u and =5.
dx
dy dy du
We know that = ×
dx du dx
Since y = log u
dy 1
∴ =
du u
dy 1 5 5 1
Hence = ×5 = = =
dx u u 5x x
20 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

Logarithmic Differentiation
The process of taking logarithms before differentiation is called Logarithmic
Differentiation. When the function consists of a single term which is a variable raised to a
variable power, we first take logarithms and then differentiate.

Article. Differentiate uv when u and v are both functions of x.

Solution. Let y = uv .
Taking logarithms of both sides,
log y = log uv = v log u
Differentiating w.r.t. x
1 dy 1 du dv
. = v. . + log u .
y dx u dx dx
dy v du dv
or = y . + log u.
dx u dx dx
v du dv
= uv . + log u.
u dx dx
Logarithmic differentiation can also be applied to a function which is again the product or
quotient of two or more functions.

Example 13. Differentiate w.r.t. x

x
(i) xx (ii) x x

Solution. (i) Let y = xx

Taking logarithms of both sides
log y = x log x
Differentiating w.r.t. x
1 dy 1
. = x. + log x. 1 = 1+ log x
y dx x
dy
∴ = y(1+log x) = xx (1+log x).
dx
x
(ii) Let y = x x
x
∴ log y = log x x = xx log x
Taking logarithms again
log (log y) = log (xx log x) = log xx + log (log x)
or log (log y) = x log x + log (log x)
Differentiating w.r.t. x

1 1 dy 1 1 1
. . = x × + log x × 1 + ×
log y y dx x log x x
1
= 1+ log x +
x log x
vodyu 21

dy 1
or = y log y (1+ log x + )
dx x log x
x) 1
= x (x . xx log x [1+ log x + ]
x log x
x 1
= x x . xx [log x + (log x)2 + ]
x
dy
Example 14. If x y = yx, find .
dx
y x
Solution. x = y
Taking logarithms, we get
y log x = x log y
Differentiating w.r.t. x ,
1 dy 1 dy
y× + log x × = x× × + log y × 1
x dx y dx
x dy y
or log x − = log y −
y dx x
y log x − x dy x log y − y
or =
y dx x
dy y( x log y − y)
∴ =
dx x ( y log x − x )
Example 15. Differentiate eax+b w.r.t. x
Solution. Let y = eax+b
Put ax + b = u
du
∴ =a
dx
Now y = eu
dy du
∴ = eu .
dx dx
= eax+b . a
Example 16. Differentiate log (1+x2) w.r.t. x
Let y = log (1+x2)
and u = 1+x2
du
∴ = 2x
dx
Now y = log u
dy 1 du
∴ = .
dx u dx
1 2x
= × 2x =
1+ x 2
1 + x2
Example 17. Differentiate log (emx + e−mx) w.r.t. x
22 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

Let y = log (emx + e−mx)

and u = emx + e−mx
du
∴ = emx. m+e−mx (−m)
dx
Now y = log u
dy 1 du m
∴ = .
dx u dx
1
= mx [m.emx − m.e−mx]
e + e− mx
Differentiation of implicit functions
In such functions, y is not directly expressed in terms of x. Derivatives can be found by
dy
differentiating the given equation and then separating .
dx

dy
Example 17. Find if x3 + y3 = 3axy .
dx
Solution. X3 + y3 = 3axy
Differentiating with respect to x,
dy dy
3x2 + 3y2. = 3a x. + y
dx dx
dy
= 3ax. + 3ay
dx
dy dy
or 3y2. − 3ax. = 3ay − 3x2
dx dx
dy 2
3. (y − ax) = 3(ay−3x2)
dx
dy ay − x 2
or = 2
dx y − ax
dy
Example 19. Find in terms of t when
dx
2bt a(1 − t 2 )
y= and x =
1 + t2 1 + t2
2bt
Solution. y =
1 + t2
dy (1 + t 2 ).2b − 2bt.2t
=
dx (1 + t 2 )2
2b[1 + t 2 − 2t 2 ] 2b(1 − t 2 )
= =
(1 + t )
2 2
(1 + t 2 )2
vodyu 23

a(1 − t 2 )
and x =
1 + t2
dx (1 + t 2 ).a(−2t) − a(1 − t 2 ).2t
= 2
dt (1 + t 2
− 2at − 2at3 − 2at + 2at3 − 4at
= =
1+ t )
2 2
(1 + t 2 )2
dy dy dt 2b(1 − t 2 ) (1 + t 2 )2 b(1 − t 2 )
Now = × = × - .
dx dt dx (1 + t ) 2 2
− 4at 2at

Differentiation of a function w.r.t. another function

dy
If f(x) and g(x) are two functions of x, then to find we put y = f(x) and z = g(x) and
dx
dy
determine in the following way
dx
dy
dy
= dx
dz dz
dx
x2
Example 20. Differentiate w.r.t. x2
1 + x2
x2
Let y = and z = x2
1 + x2
dy (1 + x 2 ).2x − x 2 (2x) 2x
∴ = =
dx (1 + x ) 2 2
(1 + x 2 )2
dz
and = 2x
dx
dy
dy 2x 1 1
∴ = dx = × =
dz dz (1 + x )
2
2x (1 + x 2 )2
dx

Exercise 1.2
dy y2
(1) If y = xy prove that =
dx x(1 − y log x)
(2) Differentiate the following w.r.t. x
x 2 +a 2
(i) ex loge x (ii) elog( x + (iii) log ( x + a + x + b)
24 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

1 − x2 1

(iv) log (v) xx (vi) xx + x x

x
dy
(3) Find if x3 − xy2 + 3y2 + 2 = 0
dx
x...∞ dy y2
(4) If y = x x , prove that x. =
dx 1 − y log x
dy
(5) Find if (x+y)m+n = xm.yn
dx
(6) Differentiate :
1
(i) x2 w.r.t x3 (ii) log x w.r.t.
x
(iii) x + 1 w.r.t.
3 3
x +1
2

3/ 4
x−2
(7) Differentiate w.r.t. x log eh
x+3

Answers
Exercise 1.1
1 3
1. (i) 18x2 (ii) 2ax+b (iii) − .x −3 / 2 (iv) − .x −5 / 2
2 2
2 1
2. (i) − − (ii) 6x+5 (iii) 3x2+ 2ax + 2bx + 2cx + ab+bc+ca
x3 x2
21x 2 + 24x + 20 24x 2 + 12x + 1
(iv) 15x4+21x2+2 (v) (vi)
(7x + 4)2 (4x + 1)2
75x − 120x − 30x + 72x + 2
4 3 2

(vii)
(5x − 6)2
1 2 1 −1/ 2 2 −2 / 3
(viii) (x1 / 2 + 2x1/ 3) x −3 / 4 − x −4 / 5 + (x4−2x1/5) x + x
4 5 2 3
3 2 10 2
(ix) 11(5x + 6x + 11x+7) (15x + 12x+1)
8x3 + 9x 2 − 5 1
(x) − (xi) − (6x5−7x3 +9)−4/3 . 30x4−21x2)
3. (2x + 3x − 5x + 6)
2 4 3 4 3
6x5 − 5x 4 − 4x3 − 4x 2 − 4x − 1
(xii)
(x 2 − x − 1)2
−2
3. (i) 54(2x−5)8 (ii) −6(x2−x+1) (2x−1) (iii)
x7
1
(iv) 84x [16(2x2+1)3 − ]
(2x 2 + 1)2
vodyu 25

Exercise 1.2

1 x 1
2. (i) ex ( + loge x) (ii) 1 + (iii)
x x +a
2 2
2 x −a x −b
1 1
1 − log x
(iv) − (v) xx (1+log x) (vi) xx (1+ log x) + x x
x(1 − x ) 2
x2
y2 − 3x 2
3.
2y(3 − x)
y
5.
x
2 9x(x 2 + 1)2 / 3
6. (i) (ii) −x (iii)
3x 4 x3 + 1
3 3
7. 1+ −
4(x − 2) 4(x + 3)
26 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

(Partial Differentiation)

! !" # $ %"& ! # '(

)*& + %"# $ ) ! # )

In previous chapter, we differentiated functions involving one variable only i.e. we

differentiated function of the form y = f(x). In this y is a function of one independent variable x
only. However many times there are situations when one dependent variable is a function of
many independent variables. In such situations, we determine partial differentiation.
For example, demand for a product not only depends upon its price but also on the income of the
individuals and price of the related goods. Consider another example. The volume V of a right
circular cylinder is a function of its radius r, and height h.
Mathematically V = π r2h
Let height remains constant while radius changes. Since value of h does not change it can be
considered a constant, first like π and differentiating V w.r.t r, we have
d
(V) h constant = (πh).2r
dr
This derivative gives the rate of change of v w.r.t r when h remains constant.
Similarly when r is constant and h varies then
dv
= (πr2).1 = πr2
dh (r constant)
This derivative gives the rate of change of V w.r.t. h when r remains constant.
This type of differentiation, when in one situation, only one independent variable changes
while others remain constant, is called partial differentiation. It is denoted by
∂u ∂f
or or fx
∂x ∂x
where u = f (x, y)
Similarly if x is held constant and y changes then we find out
∂u ∂f
or or fy
∂y ∂y
∂u f ( x + δx , y) − f ( x , y)
= lim is the partial derivative of u w.r.t. x
∂x δx → 0 δx
∂u f (x, y + δy) − f (x, y)
and = lim is the partial derivative of u w.r.t y
∂y δy →0 δy

Rules of partial differentiation

1. If z = u ± v where u, v are functions of x and y then
vkaf'kd vodyu 27

∂z ∂u ∂v ∂z ∂u ∂v
= ± and = ±
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y
2. If z = u v then
∂z ∂v ∂u ∂z ∂v ∂u
= u. + v. and =u +v
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y
u
3. If z = then
v
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
v − u v −u
∂z ∂z ∂y ∂y
= ∂x 2 ∂x and =
∂x v ∂y v 2

4. If z = f(u) where u is a function of x and y, then

∂z ∂z ∂u ∂z dz ∂u
= . and = .
∂x ∂u ∂x ∂y du ∂y
Example 1. Find the first order partial derivative of
x3 + 6x2y + 4xy2 + y3
Solution Let z = f(x, y) = x3 + 6x2 y + 4xy2 + y3
∂z
∴ = 3x2 + 12 xy + 4y2
∂x
∂z
and = 0 +6x2 + 8xy + 3y2
∂y
= 6x2 + 8xy + 3y2
∂u ∂u
Example 2. If u = exy , find and
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂ xy
Solution = (e ) = exy. y = y.exy
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂ xy
and = (e ) = exy. x = x.exy
∂y ∂y
∂u ∂u ∂u
Example 3. If u = x2 y3 z4 + 6x + 7y + 9z, find , ,
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂u
Solution = 2x. y3z4 + 6
∂x
∂u
= x2. 3y2. z4 + 7
∂y
∂u
= x2 y3. 4z3 + 9
∂z

nqljs Øe ds vakf'kd vodyt

(Partial derivatives of second order)
28 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

The derivatives, discussed above, are of first order. From them we can obtain second order
derivatives.
For the function u = f(x, y), there are four second order derivatives
∂2u ∂ ∂u
(i) = = fxx
∂x 2 ∂x ∂x
∂ 2u ∂ ∂u
(ii) = = f yy
∂y 2 ∂y ∂y
∂2u ∂ ∂u
(iii) = = fyx
∂x∂y ∂x ∂y
∂ 2u ∂ ∂u
(iv) =
= fxy
∂y∂x ∂y ∂x
Example 4. Find second order partial derivatives of
u = 4x2 + 9xy −5y2

Solution. First we find first order derivatives

∂u
= 8x + 9y
∂x
∂u
and = 9x − 10y
∂y
∂2u ∂ ∂u ∂
Now = = (8x + 9y) = 8 ( y is a constant)
∂x 2
∂x ∂x ∂x
∂ 2u ∂ ∂u ∂
= = (9x − 10y) = −10 (x is a constant)
∂y 2
∂y ∂y ∂y
∂ 2u ∂ ∂u ∂
= = (9 x − 10 y) = 9 (y is a constant)
∂x.∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x
∂ 2u ∂ ∂u ∂
and = = (8x + 9 y) = 9 (x is a constant)
∂y.∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z x2
Example 5. Find and when z =
∂x ∂y x − y +1
2
x
Solution. z =
x − y +1
∂ ∂
∂z (x − y + 1) (x 2) − x 2 (x − y + 1)
So = ∂x ∂x
∂x (x − y + 1)2

2x(x − y + 1) − x 2
=
(x − y + 1)2
2x 2 − 2xy + 2x − x 2 x 2 − 2xy + 2x
= =
(x − y + 1)2 (x − y + 1)2
vkaf'kd vodyu 29

∂ ∂
(x − y + 1) (x 2) − x 2 (x − y + 1)
∂z ∂y ∂y
and =
∂y (x − y + 1) 2

0 − x (−1)
2
x2
= =
(x − y + 1)2 (x − y + 1)2

Example 6. If z = log (x2−y2) show that

∂2z ∂ 2z
=
∂x∂y ∂y∂x

Solution. z = log (x2 − y2)

∂z 1 2x
= 2 2 x =
∂x x − y2 x 2 − y2
∂z 1 2y
= 2 2 (−2y) = − 2
∂y x − y x − y2
∂ 2z ∂ ∂z ∂ 2y ∂
Now = = − 2 = (−2 y( x 2 − y 2 ) −1 )
∂x∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x x −y 2 ∂x
= (−2y) (−1) (x2 − y2)−2 (2x)
4xy
= 2
(x − y2)2
∂ 2z ∂ ∂z ∂ 2x
and = = = 2 x ( x 2 − y 2 ) −1
∂y∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y x 2 − y 2
= 2x (−1) (x2−y2)−2 (−2y)
4xy
= 2
(x − y2)2
Hence the result
Example 7. If f(x, y, z) = x3 + y3 + z3 − 3xyz show that
∂f ∂f ∂f
x +y +z = 3f(x, y, z)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Solution. f(x,y,z) = x3+y3+z3 − 3xyz
∂f
∴ = 3x 2 − 3yz
∂x
∂f
= 3y2 − 3xz
∂y
∂f
= 3z2 − 3xy
∂z
∂f ∂f ∂f
Now x. +y + z. = x(3x2 −3yz) + y(3y2 − 3xz) +z (3z2 − 3xy)
∂x ∂y ∂z
30 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

= 3x3 − 3xyz + 3y3 −3xyz + 3z3 − 3xyz

= 3x3 +3y3 + 3z3 − 9xyz
= 3(x3 + y3 + z3 − 3xyz)
= 3 f(x, y, z)
Hence the result.
Homogeneous functions
A function f(x, y) is said to be a homogeneous function of order n if sum of powers of x and
y in each term is equal to n.
In general, it is represented as
a0xn + a1 xn−1y + a2 xn−2 y2 + …+ an−1 x. yn−1 + an yn
2 n −1 n
n y y y y
x [a0 + a1 + a2 + …+ an−1 + an ]
x x x x
y
In other words, we can say that any function which can be expressed in the form xn f is a
x
homogeneous function of nth order.
For example the function x3 + 3x2y − xy2 − y3 is homogeneous function of degree 3 and the
x3 + y3 x3 + y3
functions and one of degree 2 and 1 respectively.
x−y x 2 + y2
3 3
y 2y
x 1+
3
x 1+
x 3 + y3 x x
Now = = (Degree 2)
x−y y y
x 1− 1−
x x
3 3
y y
x3 1+ 1+
x 3 + y3 x x
and = =x (Degree 1)
x 2 + y2 y
2
y
2
x 2 1+ 1+
x x
∂u ∂u
Theorem. If u is a homogeneous function of degree n in x and y, and are also
∂x ∂y
homogeneous functions of degree (n−1) each in x and y.
y
Proof. Now u = xn f
x
∂u y y −y
∴ = n. xn−1 f + xn. f ′ .
∂x x x x2
y y y
= xn−1 n.f − f'
x x x
vkaf'kd vodyu 31

y
= xn−1 g (say)
x
which is homogeneous function of degree (n−1) in x and y
∂u y 1 y
Also = x n.f ' . = x n −1f '
∂y n x x
y
= xn−1 h (say)
x
which is also a homogeneous function of degree n−1 in x and y.
Hence the result
Euler’s Theorem on Homogeneous functions
If f(x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree n in x and y then
∂f ∂f
x. + y = n.f
∂x ∂y
Proof. f (x, y) being a homogeneous function of degree n in x and y can be written as
y
f(x, y) = xn f
x
∂f y y −y
∴ = n. xn−1 . f + xn. f ′
∂x x x x2
or
∂f y y
x. = nxn f − yxn−1 f ′ …(1)
∂x x x
∂f y 1 y
and = xn. f ′ . = xn−1 f ′
∂y x x x
or
∂f y
y = y xn−1 f ′ …(2)
∂y x
∂f
Substituting the value of y. in equation (1) we get
∂y
∂f y ∂f
x. = n. xn f −y
∂x x ∂y
or
∂f ∂f
x +y = n. xn f(y/x)
∂x ∂y
y
= n. f(x, y) [ f(x, y) = xn .f
x
Hence proved
Example 8. Show that x4 + x3y + x2y2 + xy3 + y4 is a homogeneous function in x and y.
32 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

Solution. Let f(x, y) = x4 + x3 y + x2 y2 + xy3 + y4

y y2 y3 y4
= x4 1 + + 2 + 3 + 4
x x x x
2 3 4
4 y y y y
=x 1+ + + +
x x x x
which shows that x4 + x3 y + x2y2 + xy3 + y4 is a homogeneous function in x and y of degree 4.
Example 9. Verify Euler’s theorem for the function
x 4 + y4
u=
x+y
x 4 + y4
Solution. u = f(x, y) =
x+y
∂ ∂
(x + y) (x 4 + y4) − (x 4 + y4 ) (x + y)
∂u ∂x ∂x
∴ =
∂x (x + y)2
4x3(x + y) − (x 4 + y4)
=
(x + y)2
3x 4 + 4 x 3 y − y 4
=
( x + y) 2
Similarly we can find that
∂u 3y 4 + 4 xy 3 − x 4
=
∂y ( x + y) 2
Then
∂u ∂u 3x 5 + 4 x 4 y − xy 4 + 3y 5 + 4 xy 4 − yx 4
x +y =
∂x ∂y ( x + y) 2
3x 5 + 3x 4 y + 3xy4 + 3y5
=
(x + y)2
3x 4 ( x + y ) + 3 y 4 ( x + y )
=
( x + y) 2
3(x 4 + y4)(x + y) 3(x 4 + y4 )
= =
(x + y)2 (x + y)
= 3f
Thus Euler’s Theorem is verified

Example 10. If z = xy f(x/y), show that

∂z ∂z
x + y = 2z.
∂x ∂y
Solution. z = F (x, y) = xy f(x/y)
vkaf'kd vodyu 33

λx
F(λx, λy) = λx λy f
λy
= λ2 xy f(x/y)
= λ2 F(x, y)
Hence z is a homogeneous function in x and y, of degree 2
By Euler’s Theorem therefore,
∂z ∂z
x +y = 2z.
∂x ∂y
x 2 + y2
Example. 11. If u = log
x+y
∂u ∂u
Prove that x +y = 1.
∂x ∂y
x 2 + y2
Solution. Here u(x, y) = log
x+y
λ2x 2 + λ2 y2
u (λx, λy) = log
λx + λy
λ(x 2 + y2 )
= log
(x + y)
This shows that u (x, y) is not a homogeneous function of x and y.
x 2 + y2
However, if we put z = eu =
x+y
then clearly z is a homogeneous function of x and y, of degree 1.
So by Euler’s Theorem
∂z ∂z
x +y =z
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂Z ∂u ∂Z
or x +y =z
∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u
dZ
But = eu = z
du
∂u ∂u
So we get zx + zy =z
∂x ∂y

∂u ∂u
or x +y =1
∂x ∂y
Exercise 2.1
∂z ∂z
1. Compute and for functions
∂x ∂y
(i) z = (x+y)2 (ii) z = log (x+y)
34 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

x y
(iii) z = (iv) z = ex
x +y 2 2

2. If v = r where r2 = x2 + y2 + z2, show that

m

∂ 2v ∂ 2 v ∂ 2v
+ 2 + 2 = m(m+1) rm−2
∂x ∂y ∂z
2

3. If u = f (ax2 + 2hxy+by2), v = φ (ax2 + 2hxy + by2)

∂ ∂v ∂ ∂v
prove that u = u
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y
2 −1/2
4. If u (1 − 2xν + y ) prove that
∂ ∂u ∂ ∂u
(1 − x 2 ) + y2 =0
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
1
5. If u = , show that
x 2 + y2 + z2
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
+ + = 0.
∂x 2 ∂y2 ∂z2
6. Verify Euler’s Theorem for the functions
(i) z = (x2 + xy + y2)−1
x 3 / 4 + y3 / 4
(ii) z = 3 / 5
x + y3 / 5
y
(iii) z = x−3 log
x
7. Prove that z = x f(y/x) +g(y/x)
∂ 2z ∂ 2z ∂ 2z
satisfies the relation x2 2 + 2xy + y2 2 = 0,
∂x ∂x∂y ∂y
8. If u is homogeneous function of degree n in x and y, prove that
2∂ z ∂ 2z ∂ 2z
2

x + 2xy +y 2
= n(n − 1)z
∂x 2 ∂x∂y ∂y2
2 2 2
∂u ∂u ∂u
9. If u = x + y + z prove that
2 2 2
+ + =1
∂x ∂y ∂z
x 4 + y 4 + x 2 y2 ∂u ∂u
10. If u = log prove that x +y =3
x + y + xy ∂x ∂y
Total Differentials
Partial differentiation tells us about the change in value of dependent variable (u) when
there is a change in the values of one of two independent variable (x, y).
Total differential tells us about the change in the value of u when values of both x and y
change.
Let u = f(x, y) …(1)
Further assume δx, δy and δu be the small changes in the values of x, y and u respectively.
So u + δu = f (x + δx, y + δy) …(2)
vkaf'kd vodyu 35

Subtracting (1) from (2)

δu = f(x+δx, y + δy) − f(x, y)
or δu = f(x+δx, y+δy) −f(x, y + δy) + f(x, y + δy) − f(x,y)
f (x + δx, y + δy) − f (x, y + δy)
= × δx
δx
f (x, y + δy) − f (x, y)
+ ×δ y
δy
Let du, dx, dy be the limiting values of δu, δx and δy respectively
∂u ∂u
du = .dx + .dy ,
∂x ∂y
du is called the total differential of u.
Example 12. Find the total differential of the following functions
2 2 x 2 − y2
(i) u = 5x −2y + 3xy (ii) u = 2
x + y2
Solution. (i) u = 5x2 − 2y2 + 3xy
∂u
= 10x + 3y
∂x
∂u
= −4y + 3x
∂y
∂u ∂u
∴ du = .dx + .dy
∂x ∂y
= (10x+3y) dx + (3x − 4y) dy
x 2 − y2
(ii) u= 2
x + y2
∂u (x 2 + y2 ).2x − (x 2 − y2 )2x 4xy2
= =
∂x (x 2 + y 2 ) 2 (x 2 + y 2 )2
∂u (x 2 + y2 ).(−2y) − (x 2 − y2 )(2y) − 4x 2 y
= =
∂y (x 2 + y 2 )2 (x 2 + y 2 )2
4xy2 4x 2 y
∴ du = dx − .dy
(x 2 + y2 ) 2
(x 2 + y2 )2

Composite functions
In the relationship u = f(x, y), u is a function of x and y. But if both x and y are functions of
another variable (say t) then u is called the composite function of t.
Differentiation of a composite function
Let u = f(x, y), x = φ (t) and y = ψ (t)
du ∂u ∂x ∂u dy
Then = . + .
dt ∂x ∂t ∂y dt
36 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

du
Here is the total derivative of u w.r.t. t
dt
If u = f(x, y) and y = φ(x) then u is a composite function of x. In this case
du ∂u ∂x ∂u dy
= . + .
dx ∂x ∂x ∂y dx
∂u ∂u dy
= + .
∂x ∂y dx
du
Example 13. Find the total derivative if
dt
u = x2 + y2, x = at2, y = 2at
Solution. u = x2 + y2
∂u ∂u
∴ = 2x and = 2y
∂x ∂y
Also x = at2 and y = 2 at

dx dy
So = 2 at and = 2a
dt dt
So substituting these values in the formula
du ∂u dx ∂u dy
= . + .
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
du
we get = 2 x × 2 at + 2y × 2a
dt
= 4 x at + 4ya
= 4 at. at2 + 4a. 2at [ x = at2, y = 2at]
= 4 a2 t3 + 8a2 t
= 4a2t (t2 + 2)
Example 14. Find the differential coefficient of x2 y w.r.t. x when x and y are connected by
the relation x2 + xy + y2 = 1

Solution. Let u = x2y

∂u ∂u
∴ = 2 xy and = x2
∂x ∂y
Now x + xy + y2 = 1
2

Differentiating w.r.t. x we get

dy dy
2x + x . + y + 2y. =0
dx dx
dy 2x + y
or =−
dx x + 2y
du ∂u ∂u dy 2x + y
So now = + . = 2 xy + x 2 −
dx ∂x ∂y dx x + 2y
vkaf'kd vodyu 37

x 2(2x + y)
= 2 xy −
x + 2y
2x y + 4xy2 − 2x 3 − x 2 y
2
x 2 y + 4xy2 − 2x 3
= =
x + 2y x + 2y
2 2
x (4 y + xy − 2 x )
=
x + 2y
Example 15. If f(x,y) = 0 prove that
2
∂ 2f ∂ 2f dy ∂ 2f dy ∂f d 2 y
+ 2 . + + . =0 (M.D.University, 1993)
∂x 2 ∂x∂y dx ∂y2 dx ∂y dx 2

Solution. Let f(x, y) be a composite function of x

∂f ∂f dy
∴ + . =0.
∂x ∂y dx
Differentiating this differential w.r.t. x , we get
d ∂f d ∂f dy
+ . =0
dx ∂x dx ∂y dx
∂ ∂f ∂ ∂f dy ∂ ∂f ∂ ∂f dy dy ∂f d 2 y
or + . + + . − + . =0
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂x dx ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y dx dx ∂y dx 2
2
∂ 2f ∂ 2 f dy ∂ 2 f dy ∂ 2 f dy ∂f d 2 y
or + . + . + + . =0
∂x 2 ∂y∂x dx ∂x∂y dx ∂y 2 dx ∂y dx 2
2
∂ 2f ∂ 2 f dy ∂ 2 f dy ∂f d 2 y
or +2 . + . + . =0
∂x 2 ∂x∂y dx ∂y 2 dx ∂y dx 2
Hence proved.
Differentiation of implicit functions
For an implicit function, we have the following differentials :
If f(x, y) = 0 or f(x, y) = c, then
∂f
dy f
(i) = − ∂x = − x
dx ∂f fy
∂y
d2y [f xx (f y ) 2 − 2f x f y f xy + f yy (f x ) 2
(ii) = .
dx 2 (f y ) 3
dy
Example 16. If x5 + y5 − 5a3xy = 0 find
dx
Solution. Let f(x,y) = x5 + y5 − 5a3xy
Then fx = 5x4−5a3y and fy = 5y4 − 5a3x
fxx = 20x3 and fyy = 20y3
fxy = −5a3 , fx2 = 20x3, fy2 = 20y3
38 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

dy − fx 5x 4 − 5a 3 y x 4 − a 3 y
Now = =− 4 =
dx fy 5 y − 5a 3 x y 4 − a 3 x

Exercise 2.1
1. Find the total differentials of the following functions :
(i) u = 5x2−2y2 + 3xy (ii) u = (x2+y2)(2x2−y)
x 3 + y2
(iii) u = (iv) u = log (x2−2y)
x−y
2
(v) z = u3 and u = x2+y2 (vi) u = ex + y
du
2. Find when u = 3x2−2xy + 5y and x = 3t2 + 2t, y = 5t+7
dt
dz 1
3. Find if z = ewxy where w = et, x = t3, y =
dt t
du du
4. Find and if u = x2 + xy + y2, x = 2r+s, y = r−2s
dr ds
du
5. If u = xyz, x = s2t2 , y = st2 , z = st find
ds
dy
6. If x2+y3 = 100, find
dx
∂v ∂v ∂v
7. If v = f(y−z, z−x, x−y) prove that + + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
dy d2 y
8. Find and for the following implicit functions :
dx dx 2
(i) x2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3 (ii) xy2 + x2y − x3−y3 = 0 .
Answer
Exercise 2.1
1 y2 − x 2 − 2xy
1. (i) 2(x+y) (ii) (iii) 2 ,
x+y (x + y2 )2 (x 2 + y2)2
(iv) y exy x y−1 , xy . exylogx

Exercise 2.1

1. (i) (10x + 3y) dx + (3x−4y)dy (ii) (8x3+4xy2−2xy)dx +(4x2y−x2−2y3)dy

(2 x 3 + 3x 2 y − y 2 )dx + (2 xy − y 2 + x 3 )dy 2(xdx − dy)
(iii) (iv)
( x − y) 2 x 2 − 2y
2. (18t2 + 2t−14) (6t + 2) + 5(5−4t−6t2)
wxy et 3t 2 1
3. wxy e + − 4. −3y
w x yt 2
vkaf'kd vodyu 39

2s 2 t 2st s
5. + +
x y z
2x
6. − 2
3y
y1 / 3 a2 / 3
8. (i) − ,
x1 / 3 3x 4 / 3y1 / 3
(2 y − 6 x )(2 xy + x 2 − 3y 2 ) 2 + 2(2 x + 2 y)( y 2 + 2 xy + 3x 2 )
y 2 + 2 xy − 3x 2 (2 xy + x 2 − 3y 2 ) − (2 x − 6 y)( y 2 + 2 xy − 3x 2 ) 2
(ii) − ,
2 xy + x 2 − 3y 2
(2 xy + x 2 − 3y 2 ) 3
40 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

(Maxima and Minima)

dy
tSlkfd ge igys i<+ pqds gSa ;fn y = f(x) rks blds fy, ge fudky ldrs gaS tks fd izFke Øe dk vodyt
dx
dgykrk gSaA blh rjg ls ge f}rh;] r`rh; rFkk vU; mPp Øe ds vodyt Hkh fudky ldrs gSaA
dy
As we have already studied that if y = f(x), we can calculate and it is called first order
dx
derivative. In the same way, we can calculate second, third and other higher order derivates. For
example.
Let y = 15x4 − 3x2
dy
Now = 60x3 − 6x
dx
d dy d2y d
Second order derivative = or 2 = (60x3 − 6x) = 180x2 − 6
dx dx dx dx
and
d d2y d
Third order derivative = 2
= (180x2 − 6) = 360 x
dx dx dx
In the same way, we can obtain higher order derivatives.

4 3 dy d 2 y d3y d 4 y
2
Example 1. If y = x + x + x + x, find , , ,
dx dx 2 dx 3 dx 4
Sol. y = x4 + x3 + x2+ x (gives)
dy
Then = 4x3 + 3x2 + 2x+1 …(i)
dx
d2 y
2
= 12x2 + 6x + 2 …(ii)
dx
d3y
= 24x + 6 …(iii)
dx 3
d4y
= 24 …(iv)
dx 4

3 d2v
Example 2. If v = 14t − 8t, then find at t = 1
dt 2
Sol. v = 14t3 − 8t (given)
mPp"B vkSj fufEu"B 41

dv
Then = 42 t2 − 8
dt
d2v
= 84t.
dt 2
d2v
, 2 = 84×1 = 84 .
dt
dy
vodyt dk fpUg (Sign of Derivative) ;fn x dk fn;k x;k Qyu y gS] rks x ds lkis{k ] y dh o`f) dh
dx
nj (rate of increase) n'kkZrk gSA
dy dy
vr% ;fn /kukRed gS rks tSls&tSls x c<+rk gS oSls&oSls y c<+rk gS] rFkk] ;fn _.kkRed
dx dx
gS rks tSls&tSls x c<+rk gS oSls&oSls y ?kVrk gSA
d2 y dy d2 y
blh izdkj] x ds lkis{k dk vody xq.kkad gS] rFkk ;fn /kukRed gS rks tSls&tSls x
dx 2 dx dx 2
dy d2 y
c<+rk gS oSls&oSls c<+rk gS] rFkk] ;fn 2 ]_.kkRed gS rkS tSls&tSls x c<rk gS oSls&oSls
dx dx
dy
!
dx
dy dy
If y is a function of x, then the derivative measures the rate of increase of y. So if is
dx dx
dy
positive, y will increase with increase in the values of x and if is negative, y will decrease when
dx
x increases.
d2 y dy d2 y dy
Similarly, is a derivative of . So, if is positive then increase with increase in x and
dx 2 dx dx 2 dx
d2 y dy
if 2
is negative, value of decreases with increase in values of x.
dx dx
mfPp"B rFkk fufEu"B fcUnq (Maximum and Minimum points)
" # $ % ! & '() #
! ' * ')
' +, * '
' +,
dy
$- .
/ !
dx

dy
0
12! $ 34
0 ! ! ' 56.
/ $27 $ 32
0 ! & '() 8 ' 9
dx
dy
$2: .
/ ! & $ "12'! ' ; 0
12< 1$1 $1 '
= ' "! ! % '
dx
< $1" /= % /%
> ' <1/$% $1 $1" /= ' 9 7! & /.
/ 0
12< ")$
42 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

$1 = 9 % ' % /%
> ' ' / 9 7 & / 0
12< $1$
$1 = !"

y
y

O
A O
A
X
X O

12<Maxima and Minima)

0

$ ( <?/$1$ $ 1=6 ) ';@ <)= ) "

' /%> /'
" " ! 7 <"=
/ 9 <)= / A/ // <",
%
= / <"= 'B' C, ' ' D
= %
/ ';(% '9 . / 56.
/ 1 ) 9
' ' 6 7B' < 8$= 34
0
' %
" ' !
'
dy
Consider the graph given above. For part XA, y increases with increase in x, so is positive.
dx
dy dy dy
At point A, = 0 and for part AB, is negative and at B it is again zero. For BY,
is again
dx dx dx
positive. The points A and B are called turning points. Ordinate at A is more than that at any
neighbouring ordinate. So A is called maximum point while ordinates of B are less than any
neighbouring ordinates. So B is called minimum point.

Maxima and Minima

Let y = f(x), a function of x, be continuous near x = a so value of f (a) is called the minimum or
maximum value of f(x) accordingly as value of f (a+h) is less than or greater than f(a). Value of h
(increase or decrease) is taken to be small in magnitude but it is never equal to zero.
mfPp"B rFkk fufEu"B ekuksa ds fy, vko';d izfrcU/k (Necessary condition for maximum
or minimum values) x = " $ <)= ' ' 3 $- 0 7
d dy
f(a) = 0 or f ( x) = 0 or =0
dx at x = a
dx x =a

' ' & (Working rule for maximum and minimum of y).
dy
1. Find i.e. f′(x) for the function f(x)
dx
2. Put f′(x) = 0 and solve this equation to obtain various values of x ( say a1, a2, a3…) these are
the only points at which f (x) will have minimum or maximum value
d2 y
3. Find i.e. f′′(x) and find its value by substituting the values of a1, a2, a3… in f′′(x).
dx 2
mPp"B vkSj fufEu"B 43

d2 y d2 y
4. If is negative then f(x) is maximum at x = a1. If is positive then f(x) is minimum at
dx 2 dx 2
x = a1. Similarly, we can check for other values a2, a3…
d2 y d3y d3y
5. If = 0 at x = a , find and put x = a1 in it. If at x = a1 , ≠ 0, then f(x) is neither
dx 2 dx 3 dx 3
d3y d4 y d4 y
maximum nor minimum at x = a1. If = 0, then find and put x = a1 in it. It is
dx 3 dx 4 dx 4
negative at x = a1, then f(x) is maximum at x = a1 and if it is positive, f(x) is minimum at x =
a1

Local Maxima and Local Minima

Definition 1. Let f be a real function and let x0 be an interior point in the domain of f. We say
that x0 is a local maximum of f, if there is an open interval containing x0 such that f(x0) > f(x) for
ever x in that open interval
Y

1′(x)>0 1′(x)<0

O x0−h x0 x0 +h X

Fig. 3.1
If x0 is a point of local maximum of f(x), then the graph of f(x) around x0 will be a shown in Fig.
Here f(x) is increasing in the interval (x0−h,x0) and decreasing in the interval (x0,x0+h).
∴ In (x0−h, x0), f′(x) > 0 and in (x0, x0+h), f′(x) < 0. This suggests that f′ (x0) must be zero
Definition 2. Let f be a real valued function and x0 be an interior point, in the domain of f. We
say that x0 is a local minimum of f if there is open interval containing x0 such that f(x0) < f(x) for
every x in that open interval.
If x0 is a point of local minimum of f(x), then the graph of f(x) around x0 will be as shown in Fig.
44 O;kolkf;d xf.kr
Y

1′(x)<0
1′(x)>0

O X
x0−h x0 x0 +h

Fig. 3.2
Here f(x) is decreasing in (x−h, x0) and increasing in (x0, x0 + h). So f′(x) < 0 in (x0−h,x0)
suggesting that f ′(x0) must be zero.
Note. The end points of the interval cannot be the points of local extremum.
Theorem (without proof) : Let f be a differentiable function. Then f′ vanishes at every local
maximum and at every local minimum.
Note. When x0 is a point of local minimum or local maximum, the tangent at x0 parallel to the x-
axis.
Working Rule. For finding the points of local maxima or point of local minima.
(1) First Derivative Test. Let f(x) be a differentiable function on I and let x0∈I. Then
(a) x0 is a point of local maximum of f(x) if
(i) f ′(x0) = 0.
(ii) f ′(x) > 0 at every point close to and to the left of x0 ; and f′(x) < 0 at every point close to
and to the right of x0.
(b) x0 is a point of local minimum of f(x) if
(i) f′ (x0) = 0.
(ii) f′(x) < 0 at every point close to and to the left of x0 ; and f′(x) > 0 at every point close to and
to the right of x0.
(c) If f′ (x0) = 0, but f′(x) does not change sign as x increase through x0 is neither a point of
local minimum nor a point of local maximum.
Remark. If f′(x0) = 0 and x0 is neither a point of local minimum nor a point of local maximum,
then x0 is called a point of inflexion.
Example 1. Find the local maximum and minimum for the following functions using the first
derivative test only.
x 2
(i) x3 −6x2+9x +15 (ii) + , x > 0
2 x
4
(iii) (x−3)
Sol. (i) f(x) = x3−6x2 + 9x +15
∴ f ′(x) = 3x2 − 12x +9 = 3 (x2−4x+3)
= 3(x−1) (x−3)
f ′(x) = 0 3(x−1)(x−3) = 0
∴ x = 1,3
mPp"B vkSj fufEu"B 45

Let us see whether x = 1 is a point of local maximum or minimum. Let us take x = 9 to the left
of the point x = 1, x =1⋅1 to the right of the point x = 1.
f′(9) = (⋅9−1) (⋅9−3) = 0⋅63, which is a positive number.
f′(1⋅1) = 3(1⋅1−3) = − 0.57 which is a negative number.
∴ f′(x) change sign from positive to negative as x increases through x = 1.
Thus from the first derivative test x = 1 is a point of local maximum. Local maximum value
= f(1) =1 − 6+9+15 = 19.
Again, let us see whether x = 3 is a point of local maximum or minimum. Let us take x = 2⋅9 to
the left of the point x = 2⋅9 and x = 3⋅1 to the right of the point.
f ′ (2⋅9) = 3 (2⋅9−1) (2⋅9 −3) = − 0⋅57 which is a negative number.
f ′ (3⋅1) = 3(3⋅1−1) (3⋅1−3) = 0⋅63 which is a positive number.
∴ f ′(x) change sign from negative to positive as x increases through x = 3.
Thus from the first derivatives test x = 3 is point of local minimum.
Local minimum value = f(3) = 27 − 54 + 27 + 15 = 15.
x 2
(ii) f ′(x) = + x>0
2 x
1 2
f ′(x) = − 2
2 x
For local maxima or minima, f ′(x) = 0
1 2
∴ − 2=0 x2 = 4 i.e., x=±2
2 x
But x > 0, x = 2.
Let us see whether x = 2 is a point of local maximum or local minimum. Let us take x = 1⋅9 to
the left of the point x = 2 and x = 2.1 to the right of the point x = 2.
1 2 1 2
f ′(1⋅9) = − = − = 0 ⋅ 5 − 0 ⋅ 554 = −0 ⋅ 054
2 (1 ⋅ 9) 2
2 3 61
1 2 1 2
f ′(2⋅1) = − = − = 0 ⋅ 5 − 0 ⋅ 453 = −0 ⋅ 047
2 (2 ⋅1) 2 2 4 41

∴ f′(x) changes sign from negative to positive as x increases through x = 2

Thus, from first derivative tests, x = 2 is a point of local minimum.
2 2
Local minimum value = f(2) = + = 1 + 1 = 2
2 2
4
(iii) f ′(x) = (x−3)
d
∴ f ′(x) = 4(x−3)3 × (x−3) = 4(x−3)3. 1 = 4(x−3)3
dx
For local maxima or minima f′(x) = 0
∴ 4(x−3)3 = 0 x−3 = 0. i.e., x = 3.
Let us see whether x = 3 is a point of local maximum or minimum. Let us take x = 2⋅9 to the
left of the point x = 3 and x = 3⋅1 to the right of the point x = 3.
Now f ′(2⋅9) = 4 (2⋅9−3)3 = 4 (−0⋅1)3 = −⋅004,
which is a negative number
f ′(3⋅1) = 4(3⋅1−3)3 = 4(0⋅1)3 = ⋅004
46 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

which is a positive number.

Since f ′(x) changes sign from negative to positive as x increases through x = 3.
Thus from the first derivative test x = 3 is a point of local minimum.
Local minimum value = f(3) = (3−3)4 = 0.
Example 2. Examine y = (x−2)3 (x−3)2 for local maximum and minimum values. Also find the
point of inflexion, if any.
Sol. y = (x−2)3 (x−3)2
dy
∴ = (x−2)3 ⋅2 (x−3) + (x−3)2 ⋅3 (x−2)2
dx
= (x−2)2 (x−3) (2x−4 +3x−9)
= (x−2)2 (x−3) (5x−13)
dy
For local maximum or minimum, put =0
dx
∴ (x−2)2 (x−3) (5x−13) = 0 or x = 2,3, 13/5
(i) x = 2. Let us take 1.9 to the left of point x = 2 and 2.1 to the right of point x =2
So f ′(1.9) = (1.9-2)2 (1.9-3)(9.5-13) = 1.2
= 0.01 × (1.1)( 3.5) = 0.0385 (positive in sign)
and f(2.1) = (2.1 2)2(2.1−3) (10.5−13) = 0.01(−0.9) (−2.5)
= 0.0225 (positive in sign)
dy
Since, there is no change in sign of as increases through 2. Hence x = 2 is a point of
dx
inflexion.
(ii) At x = 3 when x is slightly less than 3
dy
sign of = (+) (−) (+) = negative
dx
dy
sign of when x is slightly more than 3 = (+) (+) (+) = positive.
dx
dy
Thus, changes sign from negative to positive as x increases through 3.
dx
So f(x) has local minimum at x = 3.
Local minimum value = (3−2)3(3−3)2 = 0
13
(iii) At x =
5
13 dy
when x is slightly less than . Sign of = (+) (−) (−) = positive
5 dx
13 dy
When x is slightly more than . Sign of = (+) (−) (+) = negative
5 dx
dy 13
Thus sign of changes from positive to negative, as x increases through .
dx 5
13
So f(x) has local maxima at x = and the local maximum value
5
mPp"B vkSj fufEu"B 47

3 2
13 13 27 4 108
= −2 −3 = × = .
5 5 125 25 3125
Example 3. Find the maximum and minimum of value of
f(x) = x3 − 12x2 + 36x + 17 in 1 ≤ x ≤ 10
Sol. We have
f(x) = x3 − 12x2 + 36x + 17
∴ f ′(x) = 3x2 − 24x + 36 = 3(x2−8x+12)
i.e., f ′(x) = 3(x−6)(x−2)
f ′(x) = 0 3(x−6) (x−2) = 0
x = 6, x = 2.
Now f(1) = (1)2 − 12(1)2 + 36(1) + 17
= 1−12+36+17 = 42
f(2) = (2)3 − 12(2)2 + 36(2) + 17
= 8−48 + 72+17 = 49
f(6) = (6)3 − 12(6)2 + 36(6) + 17
= 216−432 + 216+17 = 17
f(10) = (103−12(10)2 + 36(10)+17
= 1000−1200 + 360 + 17 = 177.
Thus, f has the maximum at x = 10 and the minimum at x = 6.
The maximum of f is 177 and the minimum of f is 17.
Example 4. Find the maximum and minimum value of the function
f(x) = 2x3−21x2 + 36x + 20
Sol. f(x) = 2x2− 21x2 + 36x−20
f ′(x) = 6x2−42x+36 = 6(x2−7x+6)
= 6(x−1)(x−6).

For max. or min. value of f(x)

f′(x) = 0 6(x−1)(x−6) = 0
∴ x = 1,6
f ′′(x) = 12x−42 = 6(2x−7)
∴ f′ (1) = 6(2−7) = −30 = 0
f ′′ (6) = 6(12−7) = 30 > 0 .
∴ f(x) has max. at x = 1 and min. at x = 6.
Max. value = f(1) = 2(1) −21(1) + 36(1) − 20
= 2−21+36−20 = −3 .
Min. value = f(6) = 2(216)− 21(36) + 36(6) − 20
= 432−756+216−20 = −228.
Application of Maxima and Minima
Example 4. Find two positive numbers whose product is 64 and their sum is minimum.
Sol. Let x and y be the two positive numbers.
48 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

64
Then xy = 64 or y=
x
Let S denote their sum.
64
∴ S = x+y = x+
x
dS d 64 64
∴ = x+ = 1−
dx dx x x2
dS
For max. or min. =0
dx
64 64
∴ 1− 2
=0, 2
= 1 or x2 = 64
x x
∴ x = + 64 = 8
2
d S d dS d 64
Now = = 1− 2
dx 2
dx dx dx x
128 128
=0+ 3 = 3
x x
2
dS 128 128 1
= 3 = = >0
2
dx x =8 8 8 × 8 × 8 4
∴ S is minimum when x = 8.
64 64
∴ The other number y = = =8
x 8
Hence, the required numbers are 8 and 8.
Example 5. Find the dimensions of a rectangle, having perimeter 40 metres, which has
maximum area. Also find the maximum area.
Sol. Let x and y be dimension of the rectangle.
Perimeter of Rectangle = 2 (x + y)
∴ 2x+2y = 40
or x + y = 20
Area of rectangle, A = xy
∴ A = x(20−x) = 20x−x2
dA
∴ = 20−2x
dx
Now for area to be max. or min.,
dA
=0
dx
2x = 20 or x = 10
d 2A
Again, = −2 = −ve quantity
dx 2
∴ A is max. when x = 10.
Now x = 10 cm
∴ y = 20−x = 20 − 10 = 10 cm.
mPp"B vkSj fufEu"B 49

Thus, of all the rectangles each of which has perimeter 40 cm, The square having a side 10 cm
has the maximum area and required area = 10 × 10 = 100 sq. cm.
Example 6. If 40 square feet of sheet metal are to be used in the construction of an open tank
with a square base, find the dimensions so that the capacity is greatest possible.
Sol. Let each side of the base, depth and the volume (capacity) of the tank be x, h and v
respectively.
Whole surface area = 40 sq. feet
Also whole surface are a = x2 + 4xh
∴ x2+4xh = 40
40 − x 2
or h =
4x
40 − x 2 1
Now v=x×x× = x(40 − x 2) = 0
4x 4
For max. or min.,
dv 1 1 1
= (40 − x 2 ) − x 2 = (40 − 3x 2 ) = 0
dx 4 2 4
i.e., 40−2x2 = 0
40
or x=
3
d2 y 3 40
Again 2
=− = −ve when x =
dx 2 3
and therefore, it gives a maximum.
40
40 −
Also h= 3 =1 40
40 2 3
4.
3
∴ The required dimensions are
40 40 1 40
. and . .
3 3 2 3
(Important Formula for Geometrical Figures).
(1) For a rectangle − Area = Length × Breadth
Perimeter = 2(Length + Breadth)
(2) For a circle − Area = πr2 and circumference = 2πr
22
where π = or 3.1428 and r is the radius of the circle.
7
(3) For a square Area = a2 and Perimeter = 4a
where a is the side of the square.
4
(4) For a sphere, Volume = πr3 and surface are a = 4πr2
3
where r is the radius of the sphere.
50 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

(5) For a right circular cylinder volume = πr2h.

Surface area = 2πrh + 2πr2, or 2πr (h + r) Curved Surface = 2πrh
where r is the radius at base and h is the height.
(6) For a right circular cone
1
Volume = πr2h, Total surface Area = πr2 + πrl or π r(r+l) where l = h 2 + r 2 , Curved
3
Surface Area = πrl
where h is the height, l is the slant-height and r is the radius at base.
(7) For a cube − Volume = x3, Surface area = 6x2
where x is the side (edge) of the cube.
(8) For a cuboid volume = xyz, Surface area = 2(xy + yz + zx)
(9) For a triangle are = S(S − a)(S − b)(S − c) (Hero’s Formula) and perimeter = a+b+c
a+b+c
where S= and a,b, c are the three sides of the triangle.
2
Example 7. Find the radius of closed right circular cylinder of volume 100 cubic centimeters
which has the minimum total surface area.
Sol. Let r and h be the radius and height of the cylinder.
Now volume = πr2h = 100
100
h= 2
πr

Let S be the total surface area of the cylinder

∴
S = 2πrh + 2πr2
∴
100
= 2πr +2πr2
πr 2

200
S= + 2πr 2
r
dS 200
=− + 4πr
dr r2
− 200 + 4πr 3 Fig. 3.3
=−
r2
dS
For max, or min., =0
dr
200 + 4πr3
=0
r2
200
or 4πr3 − 200 = 0, πr3 = = 50
4
mPp"B vkSj fufEu"B 51

1/ 3
50
r=
π
2
dS 400
= + 4π
dr 2 r3
1/ 3
d 2S 50 400
∴ r= = + 4π = 12π > 0
dr 2 π 50 / π
1/ 3
50
∴ S is minimum when r =
π
1/ 3
50 100 100
When r= ,h = =
π πr 2 1/ 3 2
50
π
π
1/ 3
100 2 ⋅ (50)1 / 3 50
= 1/ 3 = =2 = 2r
π (50) 2/3
( π)1/ 3
π
Hence the total surface area is minimum when radius
1/ 3 1/ 3
50 50
r= cm and height = 2 cm.
π π
Example 8. A cylinder is such that sum of its height and the circumference of its base is 10
meters. Find the greatest volume of the cylinder.
Sol. Let V and r be the volume and radius of base of the cylinder then circumference of base is
2πr. If h is the height of the cylinder, then
h + 2πr = 10, ∴ h = 10 − 2πr …(1)
2 2
∴ V = πr h = πr (10−2πr) [Using (1)]
= 10πr2 − 2π2 r3
Differentiating w.r.t. r,
dV
= 10π(2r) − 2π2 (3r2)
dr
= 20πr − 6π2 r2
dV
For max. or min. volume, =0
dr
20πr − 6π2r2 = 0
∴ 2πr (10−3πr) = 0
10
r=0 or 10 − 3πr = 0, i.e., r =
3π
Since r ≠ 0, as it makes V = 0
10
∴ r=
3π
d 2V d dV d
Again, 2
= = (20πr − 6π2r2)
dr dr dr dr
52 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

= 20π − 12π2r
d 2V 10
Now = 20π − 12π2,
dr 2
10 3π
r=
3π

= 20π − 40π = − 20π < 0

10
∴ V is maximum when r =
3π
and maximum volume, V = πr2h
2
10 10
=π 10 − 2π
3π 3π
100 20 100 10 1000 2
= 10 − = × = m.
9π 3 9π 3 27π
Example 9. The perimeter of a triangle is 8 cm. If one of the sides is 3cm, what are the other
two sides for maximum area of the triangle ?
a+b+c
Sol. We know that S
2
∴ 25 = a + b + c = 8
∴ s = 4.
Let a=3
∴ b+c=8−3=5
Now or ∆ = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
Then or ∆2 = s(s−a)(s−b)(s−c)
= 4(4−3)(4−b) (4−c) = 4 (4−b) (4−c)
= (4−5+c) (4−c) (∴ b +c = 5)
2 .
∴ ∆ = 4(c−1)(4−c) = 4(5c−4−c+2)
When ∆ is maximum , ∆2 is also maximum.
d(∆2)
Now =4(5−2c).
dc
d(∆2)
For max. or min. =0
dc
5
∴ 5−2c = 0 or c =
2
d (∆ )
2 2

= 4(0−2) = −8 = − ve quantity
dc2
5
∴ Area is max. when c = .
2
5 5
Now b+c = 5, ∴ b = 5− =
2 2
5
Thus area is max. when b = c = .
2
mPp"B vkSj fufEu"B 53

For maximum area of the triangle, it must be isosceles.

Example 10. Cost and revenue functions of a company are as given below :
Total cost C = 100 + 0.015x2
Total revenue R = 3x where x are the number of units produced. Find the production rate which
will maximise the profit. Also find that no profit.
Sol. Profit (P) − total revenue − Total cost
= 3x − (100 + 0.015x2)
dP
∴ =3 − 0.030x
dx
dP
For max. or min values =0
dx
or −0.030x + 3 = 0
3 3 × 100
∴ x= = = 100 units.
.03 3
d2 y
Also = −0.03x which is negative
dx 2
Hence profit is maximum at x = 100
and maximum profit = 3×100−100−.015(100)2 = 50 Rs.
Exercise 3.1

2 2 d2y dy
1. If y = 3x +6x prove that x 2
− 2x +2y = 0
dx dx
2. Find the local maximum and local minimum values of the following functions.
(i) 2x3−9x2+12x+4 (ii) x2−3x+2
(iii) x3−3x (iv) 2x2 − 3x3
3 2
(v) x (x−1) (vi) x5−5x4+5x3−1
x
(vii) (x+3)3 (x−4)4 (viii) (1 < x < 4)
(x − 1)(x − 4)
3. Find the maximum and minimum values of the following functions.
x +1
(i) f(x) = 2 . 0≤ x ≤ 2 (ii) f(x) = (x−1)2+3 [−3< x < 1]
x +1
(iii) f(x) = x4 − 62x3 + 120x + 9 (iv) f(x) = 41 + 24x − 18x2
(v) f(x) = 3x4−8x3 + 12x2 − 48x + 25 on the interval (0, 3)
1 + x + x2
(vi) f(x) = −2≤x≤2
1 − x + x2
4. A wire of length 4 cm is to form a rectangle. Find out the dimensions of the rectangle so that it
has maximum area.
5. Show that of all the rectangles having the same area, square has the least perimeter.
6. Prove that the perimeter of a right angled triangle of given hypotenuse is maximum when it is an
isosceles triangle.
7. An open box is to the made out of a piece of cardboard measuring 24cm × 24cm by cutting off
equal squares from the corners and turning up the sides. Find the height of the box for
maximum volume.
54 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

24 cm
fig 3.4
8. Determine two positive numbers whose sum is 30 and whose product is maximum.
9. Find two numbers whose sum is 12 and sum of whose cubes is minimum.
10. A metal wire 36cm long is bent to form a rectangle. Find the dimensions when its area is
maximum.
11. A close cylindrical can is to have a volume 1024π cm3. Find the radius of the can so that the
area of metal used will be as small as possible.
12. A right circular cylinder is to be made so that the sum of its radius and its height is 6 meters.
Find the maximum volume of the cylinder.
13. Show that x3−3x2 + 3x+7 has neither maximum nor minimum value
14. For a product total, revenue function is shown as
R = 4000000 − (x − 2000)2
Where x is the number of units sold
For what value of x :
(i) Total revenue is maximum
(ii) Total profit is maximum when total cost function is given by
C = 1500000 + 400x also find the max. Revenue & max profit

Answers
1 32 108 3
2. (a) 9, 8 (ii) Min − (iii) 2, −2 (iv) ,0 (v) at x = & 0 at x = 1
4 27 3125 5
(vi) 0 at x = 1 and −28 at x = 3 (vii) 6912 at x = 0 &0 at x = 4
1
(viii) −1 at x = 2 & − at x = −2
9
3. (i) 1 at x = 0 and 1.34 at x = 2 (ii) 19 at x = −3 and 3 at x = 1 (iii) 68 at x = 1 & −1647 at x =
1
−6 (iv) 49 (v) 16 at x = 3 & −39 at x = 2 (vi) 3,
3
4. Length = 1 cm, Breath = 1cm. The rectangle is a square
7. 4 8. 15,15 9. 6,6
10. It is a square whose each side is 9 cm 11. 8 cm
12. 32 π cubic metres 14. (i) 2000 (ii) 1980.
vfuf'pr lekdyu 55

(Indefinite Integral)

!" # $ "
" # $% &
' $% ( ) $
Now we will consider the inverse process of differentiation. In differentiation, we find the
differential co-efficient of a given function while in integration if we are given the differential
co-efficient of a function, we have to find the function. That is why integration is called anti-
dy dy
derivative i.e. in differentiation if y = f(x) we find . In integration, we are given and we
dx dx
have to find y. This integration is also called indefinite integral.
Definition of Integration
Integration is the inverse process of differentiation.
d
If [φ(x)] = f(x) then
dx
φ(x) is called the integral or anti-derivative or primitive of f(x) with respect to x.
Symbolically, it is written as
f(x) dx = φ(x)
The symbol -----dx denotes integration w.r.t. x. Here dx conveys that x is a variable of
integration. The given function whose integral is to be found, is known as integrand.
d 2
Example. (x ) = 2x
dx
∴ 2x dx = x2

Constant of integration
d
We know that (x3) = 3x2
dx
Therefore integral of 3x2 may be x3, x3 + 1 or x3 + C where C is any arbitrary constant, Thus
3x2 dx = x3+C
Example. Find 5x6 dx
x7 5
Solution. 5x . dx = 5 x dx = 5× +C = x7+C
6 6
7 7
O;kid lq= (Standard Formulae)
x n +1 d x n +1
1. x dx =
n
+ C, n ≠ −1 = xn
n +1 dx n + 1
1 d 1
2. dx = loge x + C (loge x ) =
x dx x
56 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

d
3. exdx = ex + C (ex ) = ex
dx
ax d ax
4. a xdx = +C = ax
loge a dx loge a

e ax + b d
5. e ax + b
dx =
a
+C
dx
(e ) = ae
ax + b ax + b

(ax + b) n +1
n d (ax + b)n +1
6. (ax + b) dx = +C = (ax + b)n (if n ≠ −1)
a (n + 1) dx a(n + 1)
dx 1 d log | ax + b | 1
7. = log |ax + b|+C =
ax + b a dx a ax + b
nks lkekU; izes; (Two general Theorems)
Theorem 1. The integral of the product of a constant and a function is equal to the product
of a constant, and integral of the function i.e.,
kf(x) dx = k f(x) dx, ‘k’ being a constant.
d
Proof. Let f(x) dx = φ(x), ∴ [φ(x)] = f(x)
dx
d d
Now [kφ(x)] = k. [φ(x)]
dx dx
[ The derivative of the product of a constant and a function is equal to the product of the
constant and the derivative of the function]
d
= kf(x) | [φ(x)] = f(x)
dx
∴ By definition,
k. f(x) dx = k. φ(x) = k. f(x) dx.
Theorem 2. The integral of the sum or the difference of two functions is equal to the sum or
difference of their integrals i.e.,
[f1(x) ± f2(x)] dx = f1(x) dx ± f2(x) dx.
Proof. Let f1(x) dx = φ1(x) and f2(x) dx = φ2(x)
d d
∴ [φ1(x)] = f1(x) and [φ2(x)] = f2(x)
dx dx
d d d
Now [φ1(x) ±φ2(x)] = [φ1(x)] ± [φ2(x)]
dx dx dx
= f1(x) ±f2(x)
[ The derivative of the sum or difference of two functions is equal to the sum or difference of
their derivatives].
∴ By definition of the integral of a function
[f1(x) ± f2(x)] dx = φ1(x) ± φ2(x)
= f1(x) dx ± f2(x) dx.
vfuf'pr lekdyu 57

Remark. We can extend this theorem to a finite number of functions and can have the
following result.
[f1(x) ±f2(x) ±…… ± fn(x)] dx
f1(x)dx ± f2(x) dx ± ….. ± fn(x) dx.
Example 1. Write down the integral of
(i) x2 (ii) x−9 (iii) 1
1
(iv) √x. (v) 2 (vi) x−2/3.
x
Solution.
x 2 +1 1
(i) x2 dx = 2 + 1 + C = 3 x3 + C

x −9 +1 x −8 1
(ii) x−9 dx = +C = +C= − 8 +C
− 9 +1 −8 8x
x 0 +1
(iii) 1. dx = x0 dx = +C= x+C
0 +1
x 1 / 2 +1 x3 / 2 2
(iv) x1/2 dx = +C = + C = x3/ 2 + C
1 3/ 2 3
+1
2
1 −2 x −2 +1 x −1 1
(v) dx = x dx = + C = +C =− +C
x 2
− 2 + 1 − 1 x
−2 / 3+1
x x1 / 3
(vi) x−2/3 dx = = + C = 3x1/3 + C.
2 1
− +1
3 3
Example 2. Find the integrals of the following
1 (1 + x)2 x4
(i) x − (ii) (iii) 2
x x3 x +1
(iv) x x + 2 (v) (1+x) 1− x

Solution.
1
(i) x− dx = (x1/2 − x−1/2) dx
x
x 3 / 2 x1 / 2 2x 3 / 2
= − = − 2x1 / 2 + C
3 1 3
2 2
2
(1 + x ) 1 + 2x + x 2 1 2 1
(ii) dx = dx = + 2 + dx
x 3
x 3
x 3
x x
1
= x−3 dx +2 x−2 dx + dx
x
58 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

x −2 x −1
= +2 + log x + C
(−2) (−1)
1 2
=− 2
− + log x + C .
2x x
4
x ( x 4 − 1) + 1
(iii) dx = dx
x 2 +1 x2 +1
x 4 −1 1 2 1
= dx + dx = ( x − 1) dx + dx
x 2 +1 x2 +1 1+ x2
d 1
= (x3/3) − x + tan−1 x + C (tan −1 x ) =
dx 1+ x2
(iv) I= x x + 2dx
= [(x+2)−2] x + 2dx
= (x+2) x + 2dx − 2 x + 2dx
= (x+2)3/2 dx −2 (x+2)1/2 dx
(x + 2)5 / 2 (x + 2)3 / 2
= −2 +C
5 3
2 2
2 4
= (x + 2)5 / 2 − (x+2)3/2 + C.
5 3
(v) I = (1+x) 1− x dx
= [2−(1−x)] 1− x dx
= 2 (1−x)1/2 dx− (1−x) (1−x)1/2 dx
= 2 (1−x)1/2 dx− (1−x)3/2 dx
(1 − x ) 3 / 2 (1 − x ) 5 / 2
=2 − +C
3 5
(−1) (−1)
2 2
4 2
= − (1 − x ) 3 / 2 + (1 − x ) 5 / 2 + C .
3 5
3x+3
Example 3. Integrate a dx, a ≠ −1
Solution. I= a3x+3 dx = a3x. a3 dx
= a3 a3x dx
= a3. e3x log a dx elog f(x) = f(x)
a 3x
∴ elog = a 3x
3x
Also elog a = e3x log a
∴ a3x = e3x log a
3 (3 log a)x
=a e dx
(3 log a )x
e ekx
= a3. +C ekxdx =
3 log a k
vfuf'pr lekdyu 59

e 3x log a a 3 .a 3x
= a3.
3 log a
+C=
3 log a
+C [ e3x log a = a 3x ]
a 3x +3
= +C.
3 log a
(Integration by Substitution)
" * &+, - . ! . /0 $
, % & " $
(Method of substitution)
&+, 1 , # $, 2 3 ! $
* &+, $ !" , ,4 - $, , (
) $
By substitution, many functions can be converted into smaller functions which can be
integrated easily.
When we apply method of substitution for finding the value of f(x) dx and if x = f(t) where
t is a new variable then f(x) is converted into F[f(t)] and also dy/dx.
Now x = f(t)
dx
∴ = f ′ (t) or dx = f ′ (t) dt .
dt
Two important forms of integrals :
f'(x)
(i) dx = log|f(x)| + C
f (x)
[f (x)]n +1
(ii) [f(x)]n . f ′ (x) dx = when n ≠ −1 .
n +1
Example 4. Evaluate the following :
2x + 9 6x − 8
(i) dx (ii) dx
x + 9x + 10
2
3x − 8x + 5
2

2
2 x3
e1/ x
(iii) 3x . e dx (iv) dx
x3
log x dx
(v) dx (vi)
x x loge x
x3 1
(vii) dx (viii) dx
1 + x3 x+ x
2x + 9
Solution. (i) I = dx
x + 9x + 10
2

Put x2+9x+10 = t
dt
∴ 2x+9 = or (2x+9) dx = dt
dx
dt
∴ I= = log|t| + C = log |x2+9x+10| + C
t
60 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

6x − 8
(ii) I= dx
3x 2 − 8x + 5
Put 3x2 −8x + 5 = t
dt
∴ 6x−8 = or (6x−8) dx = dt
dx
dt
= = log|t| + C = log |3x2−8x+5| + C.
t
(iii) Put x3 = t
dt
∴ = 3x2 or 3x2.dx = dt
dx
3 3 3
∴ 3x2. ex dx = ex 3x2 dx = et dt = et + C = ex + C
1
(iv) Let = t or x−2 = t
x2
2 1 1
∴ − 3 dx = dt or 3 dx = − dt
x x 2
2
e1 / x t 2 1 1
∴ dx = e1 / xe (− dt ) dx =
x3 x3 2
1 t 1 1 2
=− e dt = − e t + C = − e1 / x + C
2 2 2
(v) Let log x = t . So (1/x)dx = dt
log x 1 t2 (log x 2)
∴ dx = log x. dx = t dt = + C = +C
x x 2 2
(vi) Let loge x = t , so (1/x)dx = dt
dx 1 1 1
∴ = . dx = dt
x loge x loge x x t
= loge t + C = loge(loge x) + C
(vii) Let 1+x = t2 or x3 = t2−1
3

2
Differentiating we get 3x2 dx = 2t dt or x2 dx = t dt
3
x3 x3 t 2 −1 2
∴ dx = .x 2 dx = . tdt
(1 + x3) (1 + x 3 ) t 3

2 2 1 3
= (t2−1) dt = ( t − t) + C
3 3 3
2 2
= ( ) (1+x3)3/2 − ( )(1+x3)1/2 + C
9 3
1 1
(viii) dx = dx
x+ x x ( x + 1)
Let x = t , so
vfuf'pr lekdyu 61

1 1
dx = dt or dx = 2dt
2 x x
1 7 1
∴ dx = 2 = dx
x+ x x ( x + 1) t +1
( )
= 2 log (t+1) + C = 2log x + 1 + C .
Example 5. Integrate the following :
2 + 3x (x + 1)(x + log x)2
(i) x x + 2 (ii) (iii)
3 + 2x x
1
(iv) x
e −1
Solution. (i) I = x x + 2dx
Putting x+2 = t x = t−2
∴ dx = dt
I = (t−2) t1/2 dt = t3/2 dt −2 t1/2 dt
t5 / 2 t3 / 2 2 4
= −2 + C = t5 / 2 − t3/ 2 + C
5 3 5 3
2 2
2 4
= ( x + 2) 5 / 2 − ( x + 2) 3 / 2 + C.
5 3
2 + 3x
(ii) I = dx
3 − 2x
3− t
Let t = 3−2x 2x = 3 − t x=
2
dt
∴ dt = −2dx dx = −
2
3− t
2+3
1 2
I =− dt
2 t
9 3
2+ − t
1 2 2 dt
=−
2 t 2
dt 9 dt 3
=− − + dt
t 4 t 4
9 4
= −log|t| − log | t | + t + C
4 3
9 3
= −log |3−2x| − log |3−2x| + (3−2x) + C
4 4
3 9
= (3−2x)−log |3−2x| − log |3−2x| + C
4 4
( x + 1)( x + log x ) 2
(iii) I= dx
x
62 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

1
Put x+log x = t , ∴ 1+ dx = dt
x
x +1
or dx = dt
x
x +1
∴ I = (x+log x)2 dx = t2 dt
x
t3 1
= + C = ( x + log x ) 3 + C .
3 3
1 ex
(iv) dx = dx
ex −1 e x (e x − 1)
Let ex = t , then on differentiation ex.dx =dt
1 dt 1 1
∴ dx = = − dt
ex −1 t ( t − 1) t −1 t
= log(t−1) − log t + C
t −1 ex − 1
= log = log +C
t ex
Exercise 4.1.
1 2
Q.1. Evaluate (i) (4x3+3x2 − 2x+5)dx (ii) x − x+ dx
2 x
3
x4 + 1 1
(iii) dx (iv) x− dx
x2 x
1 4 1 x
(v) 2x + e− x + − 3 dx (vi) dx
2 x x x −3
1
(vii) (ea log x + ex log a) dx (viii) dx
5x + 3 + 5x + 2
1 ( x 3 + 1)( x − 2)
(ix) e 3 x − 2e x + dx (x) dx
x x2 − x − 2

(a x + b x ) 2 1
(xi) dx (xii) dx
a x bx x +1 + x −1
3x + 5 2 + log x
Q.2. Evaluation (i) dx (ii) dx
(3x 2 + 10 x + 2) 2 / 3 x
e x − e−x dx
(iii) x −x
dx (iv)
e +e x − a2
2

8x 2
(v) x(x2+4)5 dx (vi) dx
( x 3 + 2) 3
vfuf'pr lekdyu 63

x3 x+2
(vii) 2 3
dx (viii) dx
( x + 1) x 2 + 4x + 5
( x + 1)( x + log x ) 3 e x −1 + x e −1
(ix) dx (x) dx
3x ex + xe
1 2 + 2x
(xi) dx (xii) (x+1). 2x dx
(1 + e )(1 + e − x )
x

Answers

4 3 2 2 1 1 x3
1. (i) x + x −x + 5x + C − x +4 x +C
(ii) x 3/ 2
(iii) − +C
2

3 4 3 x
4 x
x 3 2 1 2 1 3
(iv) − x + 3logx + 2 +C (v) − e − x + 4 log x − x 2 / 3 +C
4 2 2x log 2 2 2
x a +1 ax
(vi) x+log |x−3|+C (vii) + +C
a + 1 log a
2 e 3x
(viii) [(5x + 3) 3 / 2 − (5x + 2) 3 / 2 ] + C (ix) − 2e x + log | x | + C
15 3
x x
a b
x3 x2 b a
(x) − +x+C (xi) + 2x + +C
3 2 a b
log log
b a
1 1
(xii) ( x + 1) 3 / 2 − ( x − 1) 3 / 2 + C
3 3
3 2
2. (i) (3x 2 + 10x + 2)1 / 3 +C (ii) (2 + log x ) 3 / 2 + C (iii) log|ex + e−x|+ C
2 3
1 x −a 1 2 6 4
(iv) log +C (v) (x +4) (vi)
2a x+a 12 3(x 2 + 2)2
1 2x 2 + 1 1 1
(vii) − . 2 (viii) (1 + x 6 ) 5 / 2 + C (ix) (x+log x)4 + C
4 (x + 1)2 15 12
2 + 2x
1 x e 1 2x
(x) log|e + x |+ C (xi) − +C (xii) +C
e 1+ ex 2 log2

" " 5 6(7 % 1

$
! "# ! $ (To find the integral of the product of two
functions)
64 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

If u and v be two functions of x, then

d dv du
(uv) = u. + v.
dx dx dx
dv d du
u. = (uv) − v
dx dx dx
Integrating both sides w.r.t x, we get
dv du
u. dx = uv − v dx …(1)
dx dx
dv
Let u = f1(x) and = f 2 ( x)
dx
dv
Since = f2(x), ∴ f2(x)dx = v
dx
Hence (1) becomes
f1(x). f2(x)dx = f1(x) f2(x)dx − [f1′(x) f2(x)dx] dx .
In words, this rule of integration by parts can be stated as :
Integral of the product of two functions

= First function × Integral of the second

− Integral of [diff. coeff. of the first × Integral of the second)
Integral of the product of two functkions
In finding integrals by this method proper choice of Ist and 2nd function is essential.
Although there is no fixed law for taking Ist and 2nd function and their choice is possible by
practice, yet following rule is helpful in the choice of functions 1st and 2nd.
(i) If the two functions are of different types take that function as Ist which comes first in
the word ILATE.
Where I, stands for Inverse circular function.
L, stands for Logarithmic function.
A, stands for Algebraic function.
T, stands for Trigonometrical function.
and E, stands for Exponential function.
(ii) If both the functions are trigonometrical take that function as 2nd whose integral is
simpler.
(iii) If both the functions are algebraic take that function as 1st whose d.c. is simpler.
(iv) Unity may be taken as one of the functions.
(v) The formula of integration by parts can be applied more than once if necessary.
Example 6. Evaluate xnlog x dx
Solution. Let I = xn log x = (log x) .xn- dx
x n +1 1 x n +1
So I = (log x). − dx
n +1 x x +1
x n +1.(log x) 1
= − x ndx
n +1 n +1
n +1
x .(log x ) 1 x n +1 x n +1. log x x n +1
= − +C= − +C
n +1 n +1 n +1 n +1 (n + 1) 2
vfuf'pr lekdyu 65

Example 7. Evaluate x ex dx
Solution. Let I = x ex dx
[Here x is algebraic function and ex is exponential function and A occurs before T in
ILATE, therefore, we take x as 1st and ex as 2nd functions].
d
I = x ex dx = x ex dx − ( x ). e x dx dx
dx
= x e − 1.e dx = x e − e + C = ex (x−1) + C.
x x x x

Example 8. Evaluate x3 e−x dx

I = x3 e−x dx = x3 (−e−x) − 3x2 (−e−x)dx
= − x3 e−x + 3 x2 e−x dx
= −x3 e−x + 3[x2(−e−x) − 2x.(−e−x) dx]
= − x3e−x − 3x2e−x + 6 x e−x dx
= − x3e−x − 3x2e−x + 6 [x.(−e−x)− 1.(−e−x)dx]
= −x3e−x − 3x2 e−x − 6 e−x + 6x e−x + C
= − e−x(x3 + 3x2 − 6x + 6) + C
2
Example 9. Integrate x3. ex
2
Solution. I = x3 ex dx.
dt
Put x2 = t , ∴ 2x dx = dt or x dx =
2
3 x2 2 x2
I = x e dx = x e x dx
dt 1
= t et = t et dt
2 2
1
= [tet − (1.et) dt]
2
1 1 1 2 1 2
= te t − e t + C = x 2 e x − e x + C.
2 2 2 2
Example 10. Evaluate x3 eax dx

Solution. Let I = x2 e ax dx
e ax e ax
= x2 − 2 x. dx
a a

x a e ax 2 e ax e ax
= − x. − 1. dx
a a a a

x 2 e ax 2 e ax 1 ax
= − x. − e dx
a a a a

x 2 2x 2
= e ax − + + C.
a a2 a2
Example 11. Evaluate log x dx
66 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

Solution. Let I = log x = (log x). 1 dx .

Integrating by parts, taking log x as the 1st function
1
= log x (x) − . x dx = x log x − 1. dx
x
= x log x−x + C = x(log x −1) + C.

Example 12. Evaluate (log x)2 .x dx

Let I = (log x)2 . x dx
2
2 x 1 x2
= (log x) . − (2 log x). × dx
2 x 2
x2
= (log x)2 − (log x).x dx
2
x2 x2 1 x2
= (log x ) 2 − (log x. − . dx
2 2 x 2
x2 x2 1
= (log x)2 − log x + x dx
2 2 2
x2 1
= (log x)2 − log x + +C
2 2
Example 13. Evaluate ex(1+x) log (x ex) dx
Solution. I = ex (1+x) log (x ex) dx.
Put x ex = t, ∴ ex(1+x) dx = dt
∴ I = log t . 1 dt
1
= log t. (t) − .t dt
t
= t log t− 1. Dt = t log t −t + C
= t (log t −1) + C = (x ex) [log (x ex) − log e] + C
xe x
= (x ex) log +C
e
log x
Example 14. Evaluate dx
(x + 1)2
1
I = log x. dx .
(x + 1)2
Now integrating by parts, taking log x as first function
−1 1 −1 log .x log x 1
I = log x . − . dx = − dx = − + dx
1+ x x 1+ x 1+ x 1+ x x (1 + x )
log x 1 1
=− + + dx
1+ x x 1+ x
log x
=− + log | x | − log | 1 + x | + C
1+ x
vfuf'pr lekdyu 67

log x x
=− + log +C.
1+ x 1+ x

vkaf'kd fHkUuks ls lekdyu (Integration by partial fractions )

f (x )
Rational Function. An expression of the form where f(x) and φ(x) are rational
φ(x)
integral algebraic functions or polynomials.
f(x) = a0xm + a1xm−1 + … + am−1x+am
φ(x) = b0xn + b1xn−1 + … + bn−1x+bn .
Where m, n are positive integers and a0, a1, a2,…, am, b0, b1, b2,…, bn are constants is called
a rational function or rational fraction. It is assumed that f(x) and φ(x) have no common factor.
x +1 x −1
e.g., , are rational functions.
x 2 + x 2 − 6x (x + 1)(x 2 + 1)
Such fractions can always be integrated by splitting the given fraction into partial fractions.
Note on Partial Fractions
1. Proper rational algebraic fraction. A proper rational algebraic fraction is a rational
algebraic fraction in which the degree of the numerator is less than that of the denominator.
2. The degree of the numerator f(x) must be less than the degree of denominator φ(x) and if
the degree of the numerator of a rational algebraic fraction is equal to or greater than, that of the
denominator, we can divide the numerator by the denominator until the degree of the remainder
is less than that of the denominator.
Then
Given fraction = a polynomial + a proper rational algebraic fraction.
For example, consider a rational algebraic fraction.
x2 x2
=
(x − 1)(x − 2) x 2 − 3x + 2
Hence the degree of the numerator is 3 and the degree of the denominator is 2. We divide
numerator by denominator.
x2−3x+2)x2 (x+3
2 2
x −3x +2x
− + −
3x2−2x
+3x2−9x+6
− + −
7x−6
x 2
7x − 6
∴ = x +3+
(x − 1)(x − 2) (x − 1)(x − 2)
Working rule. (i) The degree of the numerator (x) must be less than the degree of
denominator φ(x) and if not so, then divide f(x) by φ(x) till the remainder of a lower degree than
φ(x).
(ii) Now break the denominator φ(x) into linear and quadratic factors.
68 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

(iii) (a) Corresponding to non-repeated linear factor of (x−α) type in the denominator φ(x).
A
Put a partial fraction of the form .
x −α
x2
Therefore, the partial fraction of are of the form
(x + 2)(x − 4)(x − 5)
A B C
+ +
x + 2 x −4 x −5
(b) Corresponding to non-repeated quadratic factor (ax2 + bx + c) of φ(x), partial fraction
will be of the form
Ax + b
ax 2 + bx + c
For example, the partial fraction of
2x − 3 A B C D
= + + + 2
(x − 1)(x − 4) (x − 5x + 10)
2 2
x − 1 x − 4 (x − 4) x − 5x + 10
2

(c) Corresponding to a repeated quadratic factor of the form (ax2+b+c)m in φ(x), there
corresponds m partial fractions of the form
A1x + B1 A 2x + B2 Am x + Bm
+ + ...... +
(ax + bx + c) (ax + bx + c)
2 2 2
(ax 2 + bx + c)m
Therefore the partial fractions of
3x − 5 A Bx + C Dx + E
= + 2 + 2
(x + 5)(x + 7x + 8)
2 2
x + 5 x + 7x + 8 (x + 7x + 8)2
Thus we see that when we resolve the denominator φ(x) into real factors, they can be of four
types :
(a) Linear non-repeated.
(b) Linear repeated.
(c) Quadratic non-repeated.
(d) Quadratic repeated.
f (x )
The proper fraction is equal to the sum of partial fractions as suggested above. After
φ(x)
this, multiply both sides by φ(x). The relation, we get will be an identity. So the values of the
constants of R.H.S. will be obtained by equating the coefficients of like powers of x, and then
solving the equation so obtained. Sometimes we can get the values of constants by some short
cut methods i.e., by giving certain values to x etc.

Example 15. Evaluate the following :

3x + 2 3x − 1
(i) dx (ii) dx
(x − 2)(2x + 3) (2x + 1)(3x + 2)(6x − 1)
3x + 2 A B
Solution. (i) Let = +
(x − 2)(2x + 3) x − 2 2x + 3
vfuf'pr lekdyu 69

Multiplying both sides by (x−2) (2x+3)

3x+2 = A(2x+3) + B(x−2)
3 3 3
Put x = − , 3 × − + 2 = A(−3+3) + B (− − 2)
2 2 2
5 7 5 2 5
or − = − B or B = × =
2 2 2 7 7
Put x= 2 3 × 2 + 2 = A(2 × 2 + 3) + B(2−1)
8
8 = 7A or A =
7
3x + 2 8 5
∴ = +
(x − 2)(x − 3) 7(x − 2) 7(2x + 3)
3x + 2 8 1 5 1
∴ dx = dx + dx
(x − 2)(2x + 3) 7 x−2 7 2x + 3
8 5
= log | x − 2 | + log | 2x + 3 | +c
7 7
3x − 1 A B C
(ii) Let = + +
(2x + 1)(3x + 2)(6x − 5) 2x + 1 3x + 2 6x − 5
Multiplying both sides by (2x+1) (3x+2) (6x−5)
(3x−1) = A(3x+2)(6x−5)+B(2x+1)(6x−5) + C(2x+1(3x+2)
1 3 3
Put x = − ,− − 1 = A − + 2 (−3−5)
2 2 2
5 5
or − = −4A A=
2 8
2 4
Put x = − , −2−1 = B − + 1 (−4−5)
3 3
or −3 = 3B B=−5
5 5 5 5
Put x = −1 = C +1 +2
6 2 3 2
3 1
= 12C C=
2 8
3x − 1 5 1 1
∴ = − +
(2x + 1)(3x + 2)(6x − 5) 8(2x + 1) 3x + 2 8(6x − 5)
5 dx dx 1 dx
∴ I= − +
8 2x + 1 3x + 2 8 6x − 5
5 log | 2x + 1 | log | 3x + 2 | 1 log | 6x − 5 |
= . − + .
8 2 3 8 6
5 1 1
= log | 2x + 1 | − log | 3x + 2 | + log | 6x − 5 | +C .
16 3 48
Example 11. Evaluate
 70 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

17x − 2 dx
(i) dx dx(ii)
4x 2 + 7 x − 2 x − x3
17x − 2
17x − 2 A B
Solution. (i) = = +
4x + 7x − 2 (x + 2)(4x − 1) x + 2 4x − 1
2

17x−2 = A(4x−1) + B(x+2)

1
Put x=
4
17 1
∴ −2=B +2
4 4
9 9
=B , or B = 1 .
4 4
Put x = −2
−34−2 = A(−8−1) or A = 4.
17x − 2 4 1
∴ = +
4x + 7 x − 2
2
x + 2 4x − 1
17x − 2 dx dx
∴ dx = 4 +
4x + 7 x − 2
2
x+2 4x − 1
1
= 4 log |x+2| + log |4x−1| + c.
4
dx dx dx
(iii) = =
x − x2 x(1 − x 2) x(1 − x)(1 + x)
1 A B C
Let = + + …(i)
x(1 − x)(1 + x) x 1 − x 1 + x
Multiplying both sides by x(1−x)(1+x), we get
1 = A(1−x)(1+x)+Bx(1+x)+Cx(1−x) …(ii)
Putting x= 0 , 1 and −1 in (ii), we get
1
1 = A, ∴ A = 1 and 1 = 2B ∴ B =
2
−1
and 1 = −2C ∴ C = .
2
Putting these values of A, B and C in (i) , we get
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + × − ×
x(1 − x)(1 + x) x 2 1 − x 2 1 + x
dx 1 1 1
∴ = + − dx
x−x 2
x 2(1 − x) 2(1 + x)
1 1
= log |x| − log | 1 − x | − log | 1 + x | +c
2 2
1
= [2 log | x | − log | 1 − x | − log | 1 + x | +c
2
vfuf'pr lekdyu 71

1 x2 1 x2
= log +c= log + c.
2 (1 − x)(1 + x) 2 1 − x2
dx dx
Example 12. Evaluate (i) (ii)
1 + 3ex + 2e2x x[6(log x)2 + 7 log x + 2
(i) Put ex = t , ∴ ex dx = dt
dt dt
∴ I= =
e (1 + 3t + 2t )
x 3
t(2t + 1)(t + 1)
1 1 1 4
Now = + −
t(2t + 1)(t + 1) t t + 1 2t + 1
dt dt 4
∴ I = + − dt
t t 2t + 1
1
= log |t| + log |t+1| − 4 × log |2t+1|+ c
2
= log |ex| + log |ex +1| − 2 log | 2ex + 1| + c
= x+ log |ex+1| − 2 log | 1|2e2x| + c .
dx
(ii)
x[6(log x)2 7 log x + 2]
1
Put log x = t, then dx = dt
x
dt dt
I= =
6t + 7t + 2
2
(2t + 1)(3t + 2)
2 3
= − dt [By Partial Fraction]
2t + 1 3t + 2
dt dt
= 2 − 3
2t +1 3t + 2
1 1
=2× log |2t+1| − 3 × log |3t +2| + c
2 2
2t + 1 2 log x + 1
= log + c = log + c.
3t + 2 3 log x + 2

Exercise 4.2
1. Evaluate : (i) x2 e3xdx (ii) xn log x dx
xex
(iii) dx (iv) (log x) dx
(x + 1)2
dx
(v) 4x 2 − 9 dx (vi)
(x + 1) x + 2
72 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

dx dx
(vii) (viii)
(x + 1) x 2 + x + 1 (x 2 − 1) x 2 + 1
2
(ix) x log (1+x) dx (x) x3 a x dx

x 2x
2. Evaluate : (i) dx (ii) dx
(x − 1)(x − 2) (x + 1)(x 2 + 3)
2

3x + 5 x2 + 1
(iii) dx (iv) dx
x 2 − x3 − x 2 + 1 (2x + 1)(x + 1)(x − 1)
26x + 6 2x 3 − 3x 2 − 9x + 1
(v) dx (vi) dx
8 − 10x − 3x 2 2x 2 − x − 10
dx dx
(vii) (viii)
(x + 1)2 )(x 2 + 1) (ex − 1)2
x2 + x + 1 9x 2 + bx + c
(ix) (x) dx
(x − 3)3 (x − a)(x − b)(x − c)
Answers
x 2e3x 2xe3x 2 x n +1 x n +1 1
1. (i) − + e3x (ii) log x. − (iii) .ex
3 9 27 n + 1 (n + 1) 2
x +1

2 4x 2 − 9 9
(iv) x(log x) − 2x log x + 2x (v) − log | 2x + 4x 2 − 9 | +c
2 4

x + 2 −1 1 1 x2 + x + 1
(vi) log +c (vii) 1−log − + +c
x + 2 +1 x +1 2 x +1

1 2x + x 2 + 1 1 1 1
(viii) − log +c (ix) (x 2 − 1) log(1 + x) − x 2 + x + c
2 2 2x − x 2 + 1 2 4 2

2 2
x 2a x ax
(x) − +c
2 log a 2(log a)2

1 x2 + 1
2. (i) −log |x−1| +2 log|x−2| +c (ii) log +c
2 x2 + 3

1 x +1 4 5 1
(iii) log − +c (iv) − log | 2x + 1 | + log | x − 1 | + log | x + 1 | +c
2 x −1 x −1 6 3

5 x2 x+2
(v) − log | 3x − 2 | −7 log+ x + 4 | +c (vi) − x + log +c
3 2 2x − 5
vfuf'pr lekdyu 73

1 1 1
(vii) log | x + 1 | − − log | x 2 + 1 | +c
2 2(x + 1) 4

ex 1 7 13
(viii) log − +c (ix) log|x−3| − − +c
e −1
x
e −1
x
x −3 2(x − 3)2

3 ab2 + b 2 + c c(ac + b + 1)
(x) a + ab+c log |x−A| + log(x − b) + log |x−c| + k.
(b − a)(b − a) (c − a)(c − b)
74 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

Chapter-5

(Definite Integral and Area)

!
" # $ % & ' ! #
( (& ( & %! ) ! & '
! *&
b
a
f ( x )dx
! (+,& - ! ) (. /'
0 & f(x)dx = F(x), vr%
f ( x )dx = [F( x )] ab = F(b) − F(a ),
b
a
tgk¡ a rFkk b Øe'k% fuEu rFkk mPp lhek,a dgykrh gSaA
Sometimes, in geometry and other branches of integral calculus, it becomes necessary to
find the differences in two values (say a and b) of a variable x for integral values of function f(x).
This difference is called definite integral of f(x) within limits a and b or b and a.
This definite integral is shown as follows :
b
a
f ( x )dx
and is read as integration of f(x) between limits a and b. As we know that if f(x)dx = F(x)
f ( x )dx = [F( x )] ab = F(b) − F(a ),
b
So a
where a and b are called lower and upper limits.
(General Properties of Definite Integral)
b b
Property 1. a
f ( x )dx = a f ( t )dt
b a
Property 2. a
f ( x )dx = − b f ( x )dx
b c b
Property 3. a
f ( x )dx = a f ( x )dx + c f ( x )dx ,
where a < c < b .
a b
Property 4. 0
f ( x )dx = 0 f (a − x )dx .
a
Property 5. −a
f ( x )dx = 0 if f(x) is an odd function of x
a
= 2 0 f (x)dx if f(x) is an even function of x
Note : (i) f(x) is called odd function
if f(−x) = −f(x)
(ii) f(x) is called even function
if f(−x) = f(x)
2a a a
Property 6. 0 f (x)dx = 0 f (x)dx + 0 f (2a − x)dx
Example 1. Find the values of
1 2 2 1
(i) 0
x dx (ii) −1 (3x − 1)(2x + 1)dx (iii) −1
(x + 1)dx
3 dx 4 4
(iv) 2 2 (v) 0 (t 2 + 1)dt (vi) 0
( x − −2x + x 2 )dx
x −1
fuf'pr lekdyu rFkk {ks=kQy 75

b 1 2 e x − e− x 1 2x
(vii) a
dx (viii) 0
dx (ix) 0
e (e2x + 3)dx
x 5
1 −x
1 1 dx 1 dx
(x) 0
dx (xi) 0 (xii) 0
1+ x x +1 + x [ax + b)(1 − x)]2
1
1 x3 1 1 1
Solution. (i) I = x dx =
2
= [ x 3 ]10 = [13 − 0] =
0
3 0
3 3 3
2 2
(ii) I = −1
(3x − 1)(2x + 1)dx = −1
(6x 2 + x − 1)dx
2 2
2 2 2 x3 x2
= 6 x dx +
−1
2
−1 xdx − −1 dx = 6 + + [ x ]−21
3 −1
2 −1
1
= 2 [x 3]−21 + [x 2]−21 − [x]2−1
2
1
= 2[23 − (−1)3] + [22 − (−1)2] − [2−(−1)]
2
1 1
= 2(9) + (3) − (3) = 16
2 2
1
1 x2 1 (−1)2
(iii) I = −1
(x + 1)dx = +x = +1 − −1
2 2 2
−1

3 1 3 1
= − − = + =2
2 2 2 2
3 dx 3 dx
(iv) I = 2
= 2
x −1
2
x 2 − 12
3
1 x −1 1 2 1
= log = log − log
2 ×1 x +1 2
2 4 3
1
1 1 1 1
= log − log = log 2
2 2 3 2 1
3
1 1 3 1 3
= log × = log .
2 2 1 2 2
4
4 t3
(v) I= ( t + 1)dt =
2
+t
0
3
0
3
4 64 76 1
= +4 −0 = +4= = 25
3 3 3 3

4 4
(vi) I = 0
( x − 2x + x 2)dx = 0 (x1 / 2 − 2x + x 2)dx
4
2 3/ 2 1 2 1
= .x − x 2 + x 3 = .4 3 / 2 − 4 2 + .4 3 − 0
3 3 0 3 3
76 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

2 64 32
= × 8 − 16 + =
3 3 3
1
dx = [log | x |] ab
b
(vii) I= a
x
b
= log b − log a = log
a
e x − e −x 1
(ex − e−x) dx
2 2
(viii) I= 0
dx = 0
5 5
−x 2
1 e
= ex −
5 −1
0
1
5
[ 1
]
= e x + e − x 02 = [(e2+e−2) − (e0+e0)]
5
1 1 2 1
= (e2+e−2−2) = e + 2 −2
5 5 e
2
1 1
= e−
5 e
I = e (e2x+3) dx =
1 2x 1
(ix) 0 0
(e4x + 3e2x )dx
1
e 4x e2 x e4 3 3 e0
= + 3. = + e − + e0 2

4 2 4 2 4 2
0

1 4 3 2 1 3 1 3 7
= e + e − + = e4 + e2 −
4 2 4 2 4 2 4
1 1− x 2 − (1 + x)
(x) I= 0 dx = 1
0 dx
1+ x 1+ x
2
= 1
− 1 dx =| 2 log(1 + x ) − x |10
1+ x
0

= (2 log 2−1) − (2 log 1−0) = 2 log 2−1

[ log 1 = 0]
1
dx
(xi) I = 0
x +1 + x
dx x +1 − x
Now = dx
x +1 + x ( x + 1 + x) ( x + 1 − x)
x +1 − x
= dx = ( x + 1 − x ) dx
x +1− x
2 2
= (x + 1)3 / 2 − x 3 / 2
3 3
dx 2
= |(x+1)3/2 − x3/2 | 10
1

x +1+ x 3
0
fuf'pr lekdyu rFkk {ks=kQy 77

2
= [23 / 2 − 13 / 2) − (13 / 2 − 0)]
3
2 2 4
= [(23)1/2−2] = (2√2−2) = (√2−1).
3 3 3
dx dx
(xii) I = 1
0 = 1
0
[ax + b(1 − x)] 2
[(a − b)x + b]2
1
1 −2 [(a − b)x + b]−1
= 0
[(a−b)x+b] dx =
− 1× (a − b)
0
1
1 1 1 1 1
= = −
( b − a ) (a − b ) x + b 0
(b − a ) a − b + b b
1 1 1 1 b−a 1
= − = =
(b − a ) a b (b − a ) ab ab

3x2 dx = 8, find the value of a.

a
Example 2. If 0

3x2 dx = 3 x2 dx
a a
Solution. 0 0
a
x3
=3 = [a3−0] =a3
3 0
a 2
Since 0
3x dx = 8 (Given)
a2 = 8
∴ a = (8)1/3 =2.
Example 3. Show that when f(x) is of the form
a + b x +c x2
1 1 1
f(x) dx = f ( 0) + 4f + f (1)
0
6 2
Solution. f(x) = a + bx + cx2
1 1 1 1 1
f(0) = a, f = a+b × +c× = a + b+ c
2 2 4 2 4
f(1) = a+b+c
1 1
R.H.S. = [f(0) + 4f +f(1)]
6 2
1 1 1
= [a+4×(a+ b+ c) + a + b + c]
6 2 4
1 b c
= [6a + 3b + 2c] = a+ +
6 2 3
L.H.S. = 0 f(x) dx = 0 (a+bx + cx2) dx
1 1

bx 2 cx 3 1 b c
= |ax + + |0 = a + +
2 3 2 3
Hence L.H.S. = R.H.S.
78 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

Example 4. Evaluate the following definite integrals

1/ 2 x 2 2
(i) 0
dx (ii) 1 3x 5 − x 2 dx (iii) 1
x 3 x − 4dx
1− x 2

b log x 2 dx 15 dx
(iv) a dx (v) 0 (vi) 8
x 4 + x − x2 (x − 3) x + 1
1/ 2 x
Solution. (i) I = 0 dx
1 − x2
1
Put 1−x2 = t , ∴ −2xdx = dt or x dx = − dt
2
when x=0,t= 1
1 1 3
when x = , t = 1− =
2 4 4
1
x − dt
∴ I =
1/ 2 3/ 4
dx = 1 2 =− 1 3 / 4 −1 / 2
t dt
0 1
1− x 2 t 2
3/ 4

t1 / 2
1 3 3
=− . =− −1 = 1−
2 1 4 2
2 1
2
(ii) I = 1
3x 5 − x 2 dx
1
Put 5−x2 = t ∴ −2x dx = dt
or x dx = − dt
2
when x = 1, t = 5−1 = 4, when x = 2, t = 5 − 4 = 1
2 1 3 3 1
∴ I = 1 3x 5 − x 2 dx = 4 − t dt = − 4 t1/ 2
2 2
1

3 t3 / 2
= −
2 3
=− × t
2 3
[ ]
3 2 3/ 2 1
4 = [1 − 4 3 / 2 ] .

2 4
= −(1−8) = 7
8 8
(iii) I = 4 x 3 x − 4dx = 4 x ( x − 4)1 / 3 dx
Put x−4 = t , ∴ dx = dt
when x = 4 , t = 0 and when x = 8 , t = 4
4 4 4 1/ 3
∴ I = (t + 4)t1 / 3dt = 0 t 4 / 3dt + 4 0 t dt
0

3 7/3 4 3 4 3
= t + 4 × t 4 / 3 = [(4) 7 / 3 − 0] + 3[(4) 4 / 3 − 0]
7 0 4 0 7
3 3 33
= (4) 7 / 3 + 3(4) 4 / 3 = (4) 4 / 3 × 4 + 3 = × 4 × (4)1 / 3
7 7 7
132 1 / 3
= (4) .
7
fuf'pr lekdyu rFkk {ks=kQy 79

b log x
(iv) I = a
dx
x
1
Put log x =t, ∴ dx = dt
x
when x = a, t = log a
when x = b , t = log b
log b
t2 1
[(log b)2 − (log a)2]
log b
∴ I = log a
tdt = =
2 2
log a

1 1 b
= (log b + log a )(log b − log a ) = log(ab) log
2 2 a
2 dx dx
(v) I = 0 = 09
x +4−x 2
4 − (x 2 − x )
2 dx
= 0
1 1
4 − (x − )2 +
2 4
2 dx 2 dx
= 0 2
= 0 2 2
1 17 1
17 / 4 − x − − x−
2 2 2
2
1 17
x− +
1 2 2
= log
17 1 17
2 −x+ +
2 2 2 0

1 17 1 17
2− + − +
1 2 2 − log 2 2
= log
17 1 17 1 17
−2+ + +
2 2 2 2
1 17 + 3 17 − 1
= log − log
17 17 − 3 17 + 1

1 17 + 3 17 − 1
= log ÷
17 17 − 3 17 + 1
1 17 + 3 17 + 1
= log ×
17 17 − 3 17 − 1
1 17 + 3 + 4 17 1 20 + 4 17
= log = log
17 17 + 3 − 4 17 17 20 − 4 17
1 4(5 + 17 ) 1 5 + 17 5 + 17
= log = log ×
17 4(5 − 17) 17 5 − 17 5 + 17
80 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

1 25 + 5 17 + 5 17 + 17
= log
17 25 − 17
1 42 + 10 17
= log
17 8
1 21 + 5 17
= log
17 4
dx
Put x + 1 = t2, then x = t2 − 1 , ∴ dx = 2t dt
15
(vi) I = 8
( x − 3) x + 1
2
when x = 8, t = 9, ∴ t= 3
when x = 15, t2 = 16 , ∴ t = 4
4
4 dt 1 t−2
I =2 3 2 = 2. log
t − 22 2(2) t +23
1 4−2 3− 2
= log − log
2 4+2 3+ 2
1 2 1 1 1
= log − log = 2 log − log
2 6 5 3 5
1/ 3 5
= 2 log = 2 log
1/ 5 3
Example 5. Evaluate the following
(i) 0 x 2 e2x dx (ii) 0(x − 2) (2x+3) ex dx
1 1

4 x2 + x e ex
(iii) dx (iv) (1+x log x) dx
2
2x + 1
1
x

x 2 e2x dx
1
Solution. (i) I = 0
1
2x
2 e 1 1
= x 2 − 0 (2 x ). e 2 x dx
2
0

1 1
= | x 2e2x |10 − 0 xe2xdx
2
1
1 2 xe2x 1 e2x
= (e −0) − − 01. dx
2 2 2
0

1 1 1 1 2x 1 1 2x
= e2 − e2 − 0 e dx = 0 e dx
2 2 2 2
1
1 1 1
= e 2x
= (e2 − 1).
2 2 0
4
( x−2)(2x+3) ex dx
1
(ii) I = 0
fuf'pr lekdyu rFkk {ks=kQy 81

= 0 ( 2x2−x−6) ex dx.
1

Integrating by parts, we get

[
= ( 2 x 2 − x − 6) e x ] 1
0 − 0 ( 4x−1) ex dx
1

( 4x−1) ex dx
1
= (2−1−6) e−(−6) − 0
1 1
= − 5e+6− (4 x − 1)e x − 0 4.e x dx
0

1
= −5e+6− (4 − 1)e − (−1) − 4 e x
0

= −5e+6−[3e+1−4(e−1)]
= −5e+6−3e−1+4(e−1) =−5e+6−3e−1+4e−4
= 1−4e .
4 x + x
2

(iii) I = 2 dx
2x + 1
1
Integrating by parts taking x2+x as first function and as the 2nd function.
2x + 1
4
dx 4 dx
I = (x + x )
2
− 2
(2x + 1). dx
2x + 1 2 2x + 1
1
− +1
dx (2x + 1) 2
Now = = 2x + 1
2x + 1 1
2.
2
4
4
∴ I = (x 2 + x). 2x + 1 − 2 (2x + 1) 2x + 1dx
2

= (60−6 √5) − ( 2x+1)3/2 dx

4
2
4

(2x + 1) 5/ 2

= (60−6√5) −
5
2.
2 2

1 243
= 60−6√5 − (95/2−55/2) = 60−6√5 − + 5 √5
5 5
57
= −√5.
5
ex 1
(iv) (1 + x log x)dx = ex + log x dx
x x
= ex [f′(x) + f(x)] dx where f(x) = log x
= ex f(x) = ex log x
x
ee
∴ 1 (1+x log x) dx = e x log x
x
[ ] e
1 = ex loge −e log 1

log e = 1
= ex
log1 = 0
82 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

Exercise 5.1
Q. 1. Evaluate the following:
dx
( 3x−2)2 dx
4 10 11
(i) 2
(ii) 6
(iii) 3
2x + 3dx
x+2
2 x dx 2 dx 3x3 − 4x 2 + 1
1
(iv) 0
(v) 0 (vi) 0 dx
x + 2−x (x + 1) x 2 − 1 x
Q. 2. Evaluate the following :
1 x
5
2 4 6x 2 − 1
(i) 0 dx (ii) 1
x 3x − 2dx (iii) 2
dx
1 + x6 2x 3 − x − 2
2 (log x)2
(iv) 1
dx
x
Q. 3. Evaluate the following :
x
x ex dx x 2 ex dx
1 1 1
(i) 0
(ii) 0
x log 1 + dx (iii) 0
2
b log x
(iv) a
dx
x2
Definite Integral as area under the curve
Let f(x) be finite and continuous in a ≤ x ≤ b. Then area of the region bounded by x−axis, y
b
= f(x) and the ordinates at x = a and x = b is equal to a f (x) dx.
Proof. Let AB be the curve y = f(x) and P(x, y) be any point on the curve such that a≤
x ≤ b. Let DA and CB be the ordinates x = a and x = b
Take point Q(x+δx, y + δy) near to the point P(x, y). Draw PS and QT parallel to x-axis.
Clearly PS = δx and QS = δy.
Let S represent the area bounded by the curve y = f(x), x-axis and the ordinates AD (x =
a) and the variable ordinate PM.

Q B
T
A (x,y) δy
P δx S
x=b
x=a

X′ D M N C X
Y′ Fig. 1
∴ If δx is increment in x, then δS is increment in S.
It is clear from figure that δS is the area that lies between the rect. PMNS and rect. TQNM.
Also area of rect. PMNS = y. δx and area of rect. TQNM = (y + δy) δx
∴ yδx < δS < (y+δy) δx
δS
or y < <(y+δy)
δx
when Q→P, δx →0, δy→0
fuf'pr lekdyu rFkk {ks=kQy 83

δS dS
and lim → , we get
δx →0 δx dx
dS
= y = f(x)
dx
b b ds b b
∴ a
f (x) dx = a
. dx = a
dS = S a
dx
=(S)x=b −(S)x=a
But it is clear from the figure, when x = a, S = 0, because then PM and AD coincide
and then x = b, S = area ABCD = reqd. area.
b
∴ f (x) dx = Area ABCD.
a

Thus the area bounded by the curve y = f(x), the x axis and the ordinates x = a and x =
b is
b
a
f (x) dx
Remarks. In the figure given, we assumed that f(x ≥ 0) for all x in a ≤ x ≤ b. However, if
(i) f(x) ≤ 0 for all x in a ≤ x ≤ b, then area bounded by x-axis,
Y
D C
X
O

A
Y′

Fig. 2

the curve y = f(x) and the ordinate x = a to x = b is given by

b
= − a f (x) dx.
(ii) If f(x) ≥ 0 for a ≤ x ≤ c and f (x) ≤ 0 for c ≤ x ≤ b, then area bounded by x = f(x), x-axis
and the ordinates x = a, x = b, is

f(x)≥0
C N
M X
O f(x)≤0

B
84 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

Y′
Fig. 3
c b
= a
f (x) dx + − f (x) dx
c
c b
= f (x) dx − f (x) dx
a c
(iii) The area of the region bounded by y1 = f1(x) and y2 = f2(x) and the ordinates x = a and x = b is
given by
b b
= a 2
f (x) dx − a f1(x) dx

Y y2= f2(x)

y1= f1(x)
x=a

x=b
X
O M N
(a,0) (a,0)
Y′
Fig. 4
where f2(x) is y2 of upper curve and f1(x) is y1 of lower curve i.e.,
b b
Required area = a
[ f2(x) − f1(x)] dx = a
( y2 − y1) dx
Example 5. (a) Calculate the area under the curve y = 2 x included between the lines x = 0 and x
= 1.
(b) Find the area under the curve y = 3x + 4 between x = 0 and x = 4.

Solution. (a) y = 2 x y2 = 4x
y=2 x is the upper part of the parabola y2 = 4x. We have to find the area of the
shaded region OAB.

B
y = 2√x

X′ O A X

1 Y′ Fig. 5
Required area = 0
ydx
1
1 x3 / 2
= 0
2 x dx = 2
3/ 2
0

4 4
= [(1)3 / 2 − 0] = (1 − 0)
3 3
fuf'pr lekdyu rFkk {ks=kQy 85

4
=
sq. units.
3
(b) y = 3x + 4 , ∴ y2 = 3x+4. y = 3x + 4 is the upper part of the parabola y2 = 3x+4.
We have to find the area of the shaded region.
Required area OABC
4 4
= 0
ydx = 0
3x + 4dx
4

(3x + 4)3 / 2 2 4 Y
= = (3x + 4)3 / 2
3 9 0
3. y = 3x + 4 B
2 0

2 2 112 C x=4
= [64 − 8] = × 56 =
9 9 9
4
= 12 sq. units. O A X
9
Example 6. Find the area bounded by Fig. 6.
x = loge x, y = 0 Y y= logex
and x = 2 .
B
Solution. Required area ABC
2 2
= 1
ydx = 1 log x dx
2
= x log x − x 1

= 2 log 2−2−(0−1) X′ O A C X
(1,0) (2,0)
= 2 log 2−1 = log 22−1
Y′
= log 4−1 . Fig. 7
Example 7. Find the area included between two curves y2 = 4ax and x2 = 4 ay.

Solution. As shown in the figure, we have to find the area OAPBO.

Solving the given two equations simultaneously, we have

x4 = 16a2y2 = 16a2(4ax)
Y
4 3
or x = 64a x
x2=4ay
x4−64a3x = 0 , 4a, 4a
A P y2=4ax
or x(x3 − 64a3) = 0
B
86 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

x = 0, x3 = 64a3 X′
O
X
M(4a,0)
x3 = (4a)3 x = 4a
∴ x = 0 at O
and x = 4a at B. Y′ Fig. 8

Now Area OAPBO = Area OAPMO − Area OBPMO

2
4a 4a 4a 4a x
= 0 y1dx − 0 y 2 dx − 0 2a 1/ 2 x 1 / 2 dx − 0 dx
4a
1 4a 2
2a1/2 0 x1 / 2 dx −
4a
= x dx
4a 0
2 4a 1 1 4a
= 2a1/2 × x 3 / 2 − × x 3
3 0 4a 3 0
4 1/ 2 1
= a [(4a)3 / 2 − 0] − [(4a)3 − 0]
3 12a
4 1/ 2 1
= a × 8a 3 / 2 − × 64a 3
3 12a
32 16 32a 2 − 16a 2 16
= a2 − a2 = = a2 sq. units.
3 3 3 3
Example 8. Find the area cut-off from the parabola 4y = 3x2 by the straight line 2y =
3x+12.
Solution. Let the points of intersection of the parabola and the line be A and B as shown
in the figure. Draw AM and BN ⊥ s to x-axis.
3
Now putting y = x 2 in 2y = 3x+12
4 Y
3 2
we set x = 3x + 12 A
2
or 3x2 − 6x + 24 = 0
or x2−2x − 8 = 0 B
(x−4)(x+2) = 0
or x = 4, x = −2 X′ X
3 N O M
∴ y = × 16 = 12 ,
4
3 Y′
y = ×4 =3 . Fig. 9
4

The co-ordinates of the point A are (4, 12) and co-ordinates of B are (−2, 3).
Now Required ares AOB
= Area of trapezium BNMA − [Area BNO + Area OMA]
But area of trapezium
1
= (sum of || sides) × Height
2
fuf'pr lekdyu rFkk {ks=kQy 87

1
= × (12 + 3) × 6 = 15 × 3 = 45
2
4
Area BNO + Area OMA = − 2 ydx
3
But 4y = 3x2 , ∴ y = x 2
4
4
3 4 3 x3 3 3 3
∴ Area = x dx =
2
= [(4)3 − (−2)3] = (64 + 8) = × 72 = 18
4 −2
4 3 12 12 12
−2

Hence required area = 45 − 18 = 27 sq. units.

Example 9. Find the area bounded by the parabola y2 = 2x and the ordinates x = 1 and x
= 4.
Solution. The equation of the parabola is y2 = 2x which is of the form y2 = 4ax. The
parabola is symmetrical about x-axis and opens towards right.
In the first quadrant y ≥ 0. Required Area = PMM′P′
= 2 area ABMP Y
4 4 x=4
= 2 1 ydx = 2 1 2 x dx
1/ 2

4
x3 / 2 y = 2x
= 2 2 P M
3/ 2
1
2 X′ X
= 2 2 × [4 3 / 2 − 1] A B
3
4 2 P′
= (8 − 1) M′
3
4 2 28 2
= ×7 = sq. units. Y′ Fig. 10
3 3
4
Example 10. Make a rough sketch of the graph of the function y = , (1 ≤ x ≤ 3), and
x2
find the area enclosed between the curve, the x-axis and the liens x = 1 and x = 3.

Solution. Given equation of the curve is

4 4 Y
y = 2 , (1 ≤ x ≤ 3 ) >0 ,
x x2
∴ y>0
i.e., the curve lies above the x-axis.
Table of Values 4
x 1 2 3 3

2
4 4
y= 2 4 1 = 0.44
x 9 1
3
Required area = 1 ydx
0 X
1 2 3
Fig. 11
88 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

3
3 4 1 1 2 8
Required area = 1 2
dx = 4 − = 4 − +1 = 4 = sq. units.
x x 1
3 3 3
Example 11. Find the area of the region
{(x,y) : x2 ≤ y ≤ x} .
Solution. Let us first sketch the region whose area is to be found out.
The required area is the area included between the curves

x2 = y and y = x.
Solving these two equations simultaneously,
we have Y
x2 = x x2−x = 0
x(x−1) = 0 x2 =y
x=0,x= 1
when x=0,y= 0 A
y=x (1,1)
when x = 1 , y = 1.
∴ These two curves
intersect each other at two X
X′
points O(0, 0) and A(1.1). O B
Required area
1 1
= 0 xdx − 0 x 2dx Y′
2 1 3 1
x x 1 1 1 1
= − = −0 − −0 = − Fig. 12
2 3 2 3 2 3
0 0

3− 2 1
= = sq. units.
6 6
Example 12. Find the area of the region
{(x, y) : x2 ≤ y ≤ |x| } .
Solution. Let us first sketch the region whose area is to be found out.

The required area is the area included between the curves

x2 = y and y = |x| .
The graph of x2 = y is a parabola with
vertex (0, 0) and axis y-axis as shown in figure. Y
The graph of y = |x| is the union of lines y x2 =y
= x, x ≥ 0 and y = −x, x ≤ 0 .
y=x y=x
The required region is the shaded region. (1,1)
A (−1,1)
∴ The required area = Area OAB+Area OCD C
= 2 Area OCD
1 1 B D
= 2 0 xdx − 2 0 x 2dx
X′ X
21 31
x x
=2 −2
2 3
0 0 Y′
fuf'pr lekdyu rFkk {ks=kQy 89

1 1 Fig. 13
=2 − 0) − 2 −0
2 3

1 1 3− 2
=2 − =2
2 3 6
1 1
=2× = sq. units.
6 3
Example 13. Using integration find the area of the triangular region whose sides have the
equation
y = 2x+1 …(1)
y = 3x+1 …(2)
and x=4 …(3)
Solution. Solving (1) and (3), we get x = 4, y = 2×4+1 = 9.
∴ (4, 9) is the point of intersection of lines (1) and (3).
Solving (1) and (2), we get x = 0, y = 1.
∴ (0, 1) is the point of intersection of lines (1) and (2).
Solving (2) and (3), we get x = 4, y = 3 × 4 + 1 = 13 .
(4, 13) is the point of intersection of lines (2) and (3)
Required area ABC Y
4
= 0 (3x + 1)dx C(4,13)

x=4
4
− 0
(2x + 1)dx y = 3x+1
4 4 B(4,9)
3x 2 2x 2
= +x − +x
2 2 y = 2x+1
0 0
(0,1)A
3
= (4)2 + 4 − [(4)2 + 4] X′
O
X
2 (4,0)

= (24+4) − (16+4) = 28 − 20
Y′
= 8 sq. units. Fig. 14
Example 14. Using integration, find the area of the region bounded by the triangle whose
vertices are (−1, 1), (0, 5) and (3,2).
Solution. Let A(−1, 1), B(0, 5) and C(3, 2) Y
are three given vertices of a triangle, as shown
in the figure. Equation of AB B(0,5)
5 −1
y−1 = (x + 1)
0 +1
y−1 = 4(x+1)
∴ y = 4x+5 …(i) C(3,2)
Equation of BC (−1,1)A
2−5
y−5 = (x − 0) X′ O X
3− 0
3y − 15 = −3x Fig. 15
3y = 15−3x Y′
i.e., y = 5−x …(ii)
Equation of AC
90 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

2 −1
y−1 = (x + 1)
3 +1
or 4y−4 = 1.(x+1)
4y−4 = x+1 4y = x+5
x 5
i.e. y = + …(iii)
4 4
Area of ∆ ABC
0 3 3 1 5
= −1 (4 x + 5)dx + 0 (5 − x )dx − −1 x + dx
4 4
0 3 3
4x 2 x2 x2 5
= + 5x + 5x − − + x
2 2 8 4
−1 0 −1

0 9 9 15 1 5
= 2x 2 + 5x + 15 − − 0 − 0 − + − +
−1 2 8 4 8 4
21 9 + 30 − 1 + 10
= (0+0−2+5) + −
2 8
21 48 21 21 15
= 3+ − = 3+ −6 = −3 =
2 8 2 2 2

Exercise 5.2
3
1. Find the area of the region included between the parabola y = x 2 and the line 3x−2y+12 =
4
0.
2. Find the area bounded by the curve y = x2 and the line y = x.
3. Make a rough sketch of the graph of the function y = 9−x2, 0 ≤ x ≤ 3 and determine the area
enclosed between the curve and the axis.
4. Using integration, find the area of the region bounded by the triangle whose vertices are (1,
0), (2, 2) and (3.1).
5. Find the area of the region bounded by
y = −1
y= 2
x = y2
x=0
6. Find the area between the parabola y2 = x and the line x = 4
7. Find the area bounded by the curve y = x2−4 and the lines y = 0 and y = 5.
8. Find the area of the region enclosed between the curve y = x2+1 and the line y = 2x+1.
9. Find the area bounded by the curve x = at2, y = 2at between the ordinates corresponding to t
= 1 and t = 2.
10. Find the area of the region enclosed by the parabola y2 = 4ax and chord y = mx.

Answers
Exercise 5.1
fuf'pr lekdyu rFkk {ks=kQy 91

3 98 1 52
1. (i) 104 (ii) log (iii) (iv) 1 (v) (vi) −
2 3 3 15
1 326 1
2. (i) log 2 (ii) (iii) 2( 122 − 12 ) (iv) (loge 2)3
6 135 3
3 2 2 log a + 1 log b + 1
3. (i) 1 (ii) + log (iii) e−2 (iv) −
4 3 3 log a log b

Exercise 5.2
1 3
1. 27 2. 3. 18 4.
6 2
15 32 76 4
5. 6. 7. 8.
4 3 3 3
56a 2 8a 2
9. 10.
3 3m2
!" (Learning Curve)
%1 & 23( 23
( %4 *
' 023
( %4 ( (5% & % 6 6 ( ( '
! 5 $ %7 23( ! !*)
& % 6 & '
Learning curve is a technique with the help of which we can estimate the cost and time of
production process of a product. With passage of time, the production process becomes
increasingly mature and reaches a steady state. It so happens because with gain in experience
with time, time taken to produce one unit of a product steadily decreases and in the last attains a
stable value.
The general form of the learning curve is given by
y = f(x) = ax−b
where y is the average time taken to produce one unit, and x is the number of units produced, a
and b are the constants.
a is defined as the time taken for producing the first unit (x = I) and b is calculated by using
the formula
log(learning rate)
b= −
log 2
If the learning curve is known, then total time (labour hours) required to produce units
numbered from a to b is given by
b b
L = a f (x)dx = a A.x a dx (another form of learning curve)
Example 1. The first batch of 10 dolls is produced in 30 hours. Determine the time taken
to produce next 10 dolls and again next 20 dolls, assuming a 60% learning rate. Estimate the
time taken to produce first unit.
New Time taken to produce one batch = Previous time taken to produce one batch ×
learning rate
92 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

No. of dolls Total time (hours) Total increase in time Average time
(hrs/doll)
0 0 - -
10 30 30 3
30 × 60
20 20 = 36 6 1.8
100
36 × 60
40 20 = 43.2 7.2 1.08 Now
100
log(0.6)
β=− = −0.7369
log 2
when x = 10 , y = 3 , then 3 = a.10−0.7369
Solving the equation, we get
A = 16.38 hours.
Example 2. Because of learning experience, there is a reduction in labour requirement in a
firm. After producing 36 units, the firm has the learning curve f(x) = 1000 x−1/2. Find the labour
hours required to produce the next 28 units.
64
Solution L = 361000x −0.5 dx
[ ]
64
= 1000 2x1 / 2 36 = 2000[x1 / 2 ]64
36
= 2000 [ 8-6] = 4000 hours
Example 3. A firm’s learning curve after producing 100 units is given by f(x) = 2400
x−0.5 which is the rate of labour hours required to produce the xth unit. Find the hours
needed to produce an additional 800 units.
900
Solution. Labour hours required L = 100 f (x)dx
900
900 − 0.5
x1 / 2
= 100
2400 x dx = 2400
1/ 2
100

= 2400 × 2 x [ ]
= 4800[30 − 10] 1 / 2 900
100
= 96000 hours.
MiHkksDrk rFkk mRiknd cpr (Consumer and Producer Surplus) # !$ % %
& # ' !$ ! ! '( ) *+ , & #
- ' % !$ . / % !'0 . '1

Consumer surplus is the difference between the price that a consumer is willing to pay and the
actual price he pays for a commodity. The degree of satisfaction derived from a
commodity is a subjective matter.
fuf'pr lekdyu rFkk {ks=kQy 93

If DD1 is the market demand curve then demand x0 corresponds to the price p0. The
consumer surplus is given by DD1p0.

DD1p0 = Area DD1x00 − φ0D1 x0O

X
= 0 0 f (x)dx − p0x 0
where f(x) is the demand function.
It is assumed that the area is defined at x = 0

Price
and that the satisfaction is measurable in terms
of price for all consumers. In other words, we
assume that utility function is same for all
consumers and marginal utility of money is
constant.
Demand
Example. Find the consumer surplus if the demand function is p = 25−2x and the surplus
function is 4p = 10+x.
Solution. First find the equilibrium price p0 and equilibrium demand, x0 by solving the
above two equations simultaneously.
p = 25−2x
or 4p = 100−8x
4p = 10 + x
− − −

0 = 90−9x
or 9x = 90
or x = 10
So x0 = 10 units.
Substitute the value in first equation
p0 = 25 − 2x0 = 25 − 20
= 5
x
Now consumer surplus = 0 o f (x)dx − p0x0
10
= 0
(25 − 2x)dx − 5 × 10
[
= 25x − x 2 ]10
0 − 50
= [250−100] − 50 = 100
mRiknd cpr (Producer Surplus) fdlh Hkh oLrq ds fy, ,d mRiknd tks dher pkgrk gS rFkk
okLrfod dher tks mls feyrh gS] muds vUrj dks mRiknd cpr dgrs gSaA
Producer surplus is the difference in the prices a producer expects to get and the price
which he actually gets for a commodity.
If SS1 is the market supply curve and if x0 is the supply at the market price p0, the producer
surplus is the area PS.

x
PS = Area SS1P0 = p0x0 − 0 g(x)dx
where g(x) is the supply function.
Example. Find the producer surplus for the supply function
p2 − x = 9 when x0 = 7
94 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

Solution. We are given p2−x = 9

or p02 − x0 = 9
Also given x0 = 7
∴ p0 2 − 7 = 9
or p02 = 16
or p0 = 4
x
∴ PS = p0x0 − 0 0 g(x)dx
7
=4× 7− 0
(x + 9)1/ 2dx
7
2
= 28 − (x + 9) 3/ 2

3 0

2
= 28 −
3
[(16) 3/ 2
− (9)3 / 2 ]
2
= 28 − [64 − 27]
3
74
= 28 −
3
10
=
3
vkO;wg 95

Chapter-6

MATRICES
! "
#! $
%& ' ( ) * $
# + ,- . /
0 # % /
1/ 2 * ! ,
& ! '34 ! # 56
+ 4 - '34 # 4 %! 4
73 / ! ,
&
(Definition)
# ' - 58 # " 4! 9 " , '5
" * ! " '- " × : ; "
× , 4 -
,
a11 a12 a13 ... a1j ... a1n
a 21 a 22 a 23 ... a 2 j ... a 2n
a 31 a 32 a 33 ... a 3j ... a n
... ... ... ... ... ... ...
a i1 a i2 a i3 ... a ij ... a in
... ... ... ... .... ... ...
a m1 a m 2 a m3 ... a m j ... a mn
× ,
4 ! < / # ,! = - '5 '- ,
&
# >> ?** !" &
,
*- 7 @A BC - DE BC < ,
4 7 DA BC - @A BC < ,
- 7 F@ BC - >G BC < ,
& % BC 5 # H /
'$
I
,
BC BC <
izFke d{kk 40 35 → /
- =
nwljh d{kk 30 30 → J =
rhljh d{kk 24 16 → =
↓ ↓
izFke f}rh;
LraHk i LraHk
K 5 / ,
I
[ ] , ( ), || ||
+* BC , ; 7 '! !! " & L ,! %
M; , ; 7 -% 7 '- $ , !, >> >F >D &
/
0 × # 4 × ,! &
,
! " &
,
! " # $
#%# (Square matrix). ! ≠ - ! = # -' #
4 !,
,
−3 2 4
2×3 ; ,
&
1 −4 6
!&' (# " # &$* 3 - ! = # 4 '5 #
4 !,
,
96 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

5 2 −3
0 4 2 , 3×3 ; ,
&
−3 6 0

)# (Row matrix) = - 3>" =

4 !,
,
[1 −3 2] 1×D ; &
,
*#+ (Column matrix). '5 '5
,
4 !,
10
− 5 3×1 ; ,
&
8

, (Null or Zero matrix). /

0 6 6
,- % / 4 !,
,
O = 00 00 00

+- (Unit matrix). 5 /
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
! $
# * " > - N 6 4
3 - % % ,- % O ,
&
" . (Sub-matrix$* $
% ! = <-
'5 MBC 4 1 ,!,
2 1 5 3 2
0 3 2 1 5 1 ,
&
3 5 1

( (Equal matrix). & 3# 4 - L 3 #% 4 , -

3% - & 0
/ 4L K
*
2 −3 a b
A= rFkk B = 3 F % 3 −D 3@ - 3E
4 5 c d
= N 'N; ,

(i) & % , A = A (LorqY;rk reflexitivity)

(ii) A = B rc B = A ( ] Symmetric)
( /% ! 0' Basic operations on Matrices)
>* $
* B !P ! ! % "* & 3#4 ×
: ,- λ $! ! " , & λ $
* ,! /
0
& λ $ * , - % λ& Q ! &,
4 A = [aij] rc λA = [λaij], ! <
λ % # , &
1 3 5 3 9 15
* (a) If A = 2 4 6 , then 3A = 6 12 18
7 9 11 21 27 33
vkO;wg 97

3 6 9 1 1 2 3
(b) If A = 12 18 15 , then A = 4 6 5
27 21 6 3 9 7 2
1 /, , &2 ( % !, # 3(Properties of Multiplication of a matrix by a
scalar)
(i) & -L × ; , &C L" 3 & CL - $
*R
,
&
If A and B are two matrices each of the type m × n, then k(A+B) = kA+kB i.e., the scalar
multiplication of matrices distributes over the addition of matrices.
Proof. Let A = [aij]m×n and B = [bij]m×n
then k(A+B) = k[aij]m×n + [bij]m×n
= k[aij + bij]m×n [By def. of addition of two matrices]
= [k(aij+ bij)]m×n [By def. of scalar multiplication]
= [kaij+kbij]m×n [By distributive law of numbers]
= [kaij]m×n + [kbij]m×n
= k[aij]m×n +k[bij]m×n= kA+kB.
(ii) - <, - & × ; ,
4
(k+l) A = kA + lA
If k and l are two scalars and A is any m × n matrix, then
(k+l)A = kA + lA .
Proof. Let A = [aij]m×n
Then (k+l) A = (k+l) [aij]m×n
= [(k+l)aij]m×n = [kaij + laij]m×n
= [kaij]m×n + [laij]m×n = k[aij]m×n + l[aij]m×n
= kA+lA .
(iii) - <, - & × ; ,
k(lA) = (kl) A
If k and l are two scalars and A is any m × n matrix, then
K(lA) = (kl)A .
Proof. Let A = [aij]m×n. Then
k(lA) = k(l[aij]m×n) = k(laij)m×n
= [(kl) aij]m×n =(kl) [aij]m×n (kl)A .
[ Multiplication of numbers is associative]
(iv) & × ; ,- ,
−k(A) = −(kA) = k(−A)
If A be any m ×n matrix and k be any scalar, then
(−k) A = −(kA) = k(−A) -----
Proof. Let A = [aij]m×n. Then
(−k)A = [(−k) aij]m×n = [−(kaij)]m×n
= [kaij]m×n = − (kA)
Also (−k) A = [(−k) aij]m×n = [k(−aij)]m×n
= k[−aij]m×n = k(−A)
(v) (a) 1. A = A (b) (−1) A = −A
Proof. 1. A = 1 [aij] = [1.aij] = [aij] = A
98 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

(−1) A = −1 [aij] = [(−1)aij] = [−aij] = −A

2. (a) (Addition of matrix). , / × A =[aij] - B =[bij]
0 /O , - % A+B /S ! ,
4 -
A+B = [aij+bij]
a1 b1 c1 a 3 b 3 c3
*K A= -4 B =
a 2 b 2 c2 a 4 b4 c4
a1 + a 3 b1 + b3 c1 + c3
rc A+B =
a2 + a4 b 2 + b 4 c2 + c4
6.3. & & 2 (Properties of Matrix addition)
(i) 4 ! ( ( (Commutative law).
- 4 [aij] + [bij] = [bij] + [aij]
Proof. Let A = [aij]m×n and B = [bij]m×n
Then A+B = [aij]m×n + [bij]m×n
= [aij + bij]m×n [By definition of addition of two matrices]
= [bij + aij]m×n [Since aij and bij are numbers and addition
of numbers is commutative]
= [bij]m×n + [aij]m×n [By definition of addition of two matrices]
= B + A.
(ii) & ' (Matrix Addition is Associative.)
If A, B, C be three matrices each of the type m×n, then
(A+B) + C = A +(B+C).
Proof. Let A = [aij]m×n, B = [bij]m×n, C = [cij]m×n
Then (A+B) +C = ([aij]m×n +[bij]m×n) + [cij]m×n
= [aij +bij]m×n + [cij]m×n [By definition of A +B]
= [(aij + bij) + cij]m×n [By definition of addition of matrices]
= [aij +(bij +cij)]m×n [Since aij, bij, cij are numbers and addition of
numbers is associative]
= [aij]m×n + [bij + cij]m×n [By definition of addition of two matrices]
= [aij]m×n + ([bij]m×n, + [cij]m×n) = A + (B + C).
(iii) 5 ( (Existence of Additive Identity).
If O be the m×n matrix each of whose elements is zero, then
A + O = A = O + A for m×n matrix A.
Proof. Let A = [aij]m×n
Then A + O = [aij + 0]m×n = [aij]m×n = A
Also O + A = [0 + aij]m×n = [aij]m×n = A
Thus the null matrix O of the type m×n acts as the identity element for addition in the set
of all m×n matrices.
(iv) 5 6 (Existence of additive inverse). ;fn vkO;wg A ds fy, ,d vkO;wg −A bl
izdkj gks fd A + (−A) = O rks −A & $
0/ &
,
Let A = [aij]m×n. Then the negative of the matrix A is defined as the matrix [−aij]m×n and is
denoted by −A.
vkO;wg 99

The matrix −A is the additive inverse of the matrix A. Obviously, −A + A = O = A +(−A).

Here O is the null matrix of the type m×n. It is the identity element for matrix addition.
2 (b) ! ( (Subtraction of matrices). ;fn A= [aij] rFkk B = C rc A = C
( / 4 transitive) - B = [aij] :/ , A− B, ,!
/
0 4 & ,L 6 4 - A − B = [aij−bij]
,
a1 b1 c1 a3 b3 c3
*K A= and B =
a 2 b2 c2 a4 b4 c4
a1 − a 3 b1 − b 3 c1 − c 3
A−B=
a2 − a4 b2 − b4 c2 − c4

1 5 6 1 −5 7
Example 1. If A = and B =
−6 7 0 8 −7 7
Then find the value A + B and A−B
1 5 6 1 −5 7
Sol. A+B= +
−6 7 0 8 −7 7
1+ 1 5 − 5 6 + 7 2 0 13
= =
− 6+ 8 7 − 7 0 + 7 2 0 7
1 5 6 1 −5 7
and A −B = −
−6 7 0 8 −7 7
1 − 1 5 − (−5) 6 − 7
=
− 6 − 8 7 − (−7) 0 − 7
0 10 − 1
=
− 14 14 − 7

2 3 1 1 2 −6
Example 2. If A = and B = then find the values of 3A −4B
0 −1 5 0 −1 3

2 3 1 1 2 −6
Sol. 3A − 4B = 3 −4
0 −1 5 0 −1 3
6 9 3 4 8 − 24
= −
0 − 3 15 0 − 4 12
6− 4 9 −8 3 − (−24)
=
0− 0 − 3 − (−4) 15 − 12
2 1 27
=
0 1 3
Example 3. Solve the following equations for A +B
3−3 0 4 1 5
2A − B = , 2B + A =
3 3 2 −1 4 − 4
100 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

3 −3 0
Sol. 2A − B =
3 3 2
Multiplying both sides by 2
3 −3 0 6 −6 0
4A − 2B = 2 = …(i)
3 3 2 6 6 4
4 1 5
Also it is given 2B + A = …(ii)
−1 4 −4
Adding (i) and (ii)
6 −6 0 4 1 5
5A = +
6 6 4 −1 4 −4
6 + 4 − 6 +1 0 + 5 10 − 5 5
= =
6 −1 6+4 4−4 5 10 0
1 10 − 5 5 2 −1 1
or A = =
5 5 10 0 1 2 0
Again from (ii)
1 1 2
B=
−1 1 − 2

x+y y−z 3 −1
Example. 4. If = = find x, y, z
z − 2x y−x 1 1
Sol. Using equality of matrices
x+y=3 …(i)
z −2x = 1 …(ii)
y−z = − 1 …(iii)
y−x = 1 …(iv)
Adding (i) and (iv)
x+y=3
− x+y= 1
2y = 4
y =2
From (i) x+2 = 3 or x = 3− 2 = 1
From (ii) z−2x = 1 or z − 2 = 1 or z = 3
∴ x =1,y= 2, z= 3

Example 5. (a) A = 2 −1 , B = 4 3
and C = −− 12 −
−3
4 2 −2 1 2
Find each of the following :
(i) A + B + C (ii) 2B + 3C .
(b) If A = 13 04 , B = 02 53 , C = 63 5
4
show that (A+B) +C = A+(B+C) .
1 2 −3 3 −1 2
(c) Given A = 5 0 2 and B = 4 2 5
1 −1 1 2 0 3
vkO;wg 101

Find the matrix C, such that A + 2C = B .

Sol.
2 −1 + 4 3
(a) (i) A+B+C= 4 2 + −− 12 −
−3
2
−2 1
= 24 +− 42 −− 12 −21++13−−23 = 4 −1
1 1
4 3
(ii) 2B + 2C = 2 + 3 −− 12 −
−3
2
−2 1
8 6 −6 −9
= +
−4 2 −3 −6
8−6 6−9 2 −3
= =
−4−3 2−6 −7 −4

(b) A + B = 13 04 + 02 53 = 13 ++ 02 04 + 3 1 3
+5 = 5 9

∴ (A + B) + C = 15 93 + 63 54

= 51 + 3 3+ 5 4 8
+ 6 9 + 4 = 11 13

Again B+C = 02 53 + 63 54 +3 3+5 = 3 8

= 20 + 6 5+4 8 9

∴ A+(B+C) = 13 04 + 83 89 = 13 ++ 38 40 +
+8 4 8
9 11 13
∴ (A+B) + C = A + (B+C)
(c) Given that A + 2C = B, or 2C = B − A
3 −1 2 1 2 −3
∴ 2C = 4 2 5 − 5 0 2
2 0 3 1 −1 1
3 −1 −1− 2 2 − (−3) 2 −3 5
= 4−5 2−0 5−2 = −1 2 3
2 − 1 0 − (−1) 3 −1 1 1 2
2 −3 5 1 − 3/ 2 5/ 2
1
C= −1 2 3 = −1/ 2 1 3/ 2
2 1/ 2 1/ 2 1
1 1 2
Example 6. (a) If a matrix has 12 elements, what are the possible orders it can have?
What if it has 7 elements.
Sol. (a) The possible orders of a matrix having 12 elements are 2 × 6, 6 × 2, 4 × 3, 3 × 4, 12
× 1, 1 × 12.
When a matrix has 7 elements, the possible orders are 7 × 1 and 1 × 7 .
Example 7. Is it possible to define the matrix A+B, when
(i) A has 3 rows and B has 2 rows.
(ii) A has 2 columns and B has 4 columns.
(iii) A has 3 rows and B has 2 columns.
102 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

(iv) Both A and B are square matrices of the same order.

Sol. (i) No, because A+B is defined only if A and B are of the same order.
(ii) No. As above.
(iii) Yes, only when A has 2 columns and B has 3 rows for in that case both will be of the
same order.
(iv) Yes. Always.

Example 8. Construct a 3 × 4 matrix whose elements are

(i) aij = i+j (ii) aij = i−j
i
(iii) aij = i.j (iv) aij =
j
Sol. aij denotes the element of a matrix which lies in the ith row and jth column.
(i) aij = i+j
a11 = 1+1 = 2, a12 = 1+2 = 3, a13 = 1+3 = 4, a14 = 1+4 = 5
a21 = 2+1 = 3, a22 = 2+2 = 4, a23 = 2+3 = 5, a24 = 2+4 = 6
a31 = 3+1 = 4, a32 = 3+2 = 5, a33 = 3+3 = 6, a34 = 3+4 = 7
2 3 4 5
∴ The required matrix is 3 5 5 6
4 4 6 7 3×4

(ii) aij = i−j

a11 = 1−1 = 0, a12 =1−2 = −1, a13 = 1−3 = −2, a14 = 1−4 = −3
a21 = 2−1 = 1, a22 = 2−2 = 0, a33 = 2−3 = −1, a24 = 2−4 = −2
a31 = 3−1 =2, a32 = 3−2 = 1, a33 = 3−3 = 0, a34 = 3−4 = −1
0 −1 −2 −3
∴ The required matrix is 1 0 −1 − 2
2 1 0 −1

Exercise 6.1
1. (a) If a matrix has 10 elements what are the possible dimensions (order) it can have
(b) Construct a 2×3 matrix whose elements aij are given by
(i) aij = i+j (ii) aij = i−j
i
(iii) aij = ij (iv) aij =
j
(c) Construct a matrix 3 × 4 whose aij = i+j .
(d) What is the type of the matrix given below :
2 3 0 1
A = −4 2 1 0 ?
7 1 −3 1
Write the elements a11, a12, a34 from this matrix.
(e) Are the following matrices equal ?
6 2
A = [2 3 5]1×3, B =
6 1 2×2
vkO;wg 103

2. It is possible for the following pair of matrices to be equal and, if so, for what values of ‘a’
does equality occur.
5 a3 5 − 27
A= 2 ,B=
a 1 9 1
3. Find the additive inverse of the matrix
1 2 3
A= 6 6 8
−9 −4 2 3×3

1 5 3
1 2 3
4. Does the sum 4 2 6 + make sense ? If so, find the sum and if not, point out the
4 5 6
7 8 9
reason.
5. Find the value of a, b, c, d from the matrix equation
a + 3 2b − 8 0 −6
=
c + 1 4d − 6 − 3 2d
6. Solve the matrix equation
x y 1 3 0 2
2 −4 =
z t 5 0 4 3
7. Find a matrix B, if A + B − 4I = O, where
2 3 5
A= 1 0 2
3 4 5
8. Prove that
(A +B)+C = A + (B +C), when
0 −1 2 −2 0 3
A= , B=
3 4 −5 4 −5 6
4 7 −2
C=
0 −5 1
9. Choose the correct alternative
x y −2 3
(i) If 2 −9 = 18I, then
z p 1 0
9 9
(a) x = 18, z = (b) x = 0, z = −
2 2
9
(c) x = 0, z = (d) None of these.
2
1 2 3 4 5 6
10. If A = − 1 0 2 , B = −1 0 1
1 −3 1 2 1 2
104 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

−1 − 2 1
C = −1 − 2 3
−1 − 2 2
Find (i) A − 2B + 3C,
5 3 2 −2 4 −6
11. If A = 4 1 0 and B = 3 − 3 9 then find
5 2 3 4 2 −5
(i) A + B (ii) A −B (iii) 2A +5B (iv) 3B−2A.
12. Solve the following equations for A and B
0 1 2 1 0 0
2A+3B = 2 3 4 and 3A − 4B = 0 1 0
4 5 6 0 0 1

3. & 2 (7 (Multiplication of Matrices)

A -B % / , A '5 #4B = # ,
4 -
A = [aij] - [bjk], A - B * AB = [cik] J
$ / ! ,
&
! < cik = a ij bjk .
j=1

Let A = [aij]m×n and B = [bjk]n×p be two matrices such that the number of columns in A is
equal to the number of rows in B. Then m × p matrix C = [cik]m×p such that
cjk = a ij bjk [Note that the summation is with respect to the
j=1

repeated suffix]
is called the product of the matrices A and B in that order and we write C = AB.
mnkgj.k ds fy,
a 1 b 1 c1 x x 1 2
A = a2 b2 c2 , B = y1 y2 rc
a3 b3 c3 z1 z2 3×2
3×3

a1x1 + b1y1 + c1z1 a1x 2 + b1y2 + c1z2

AB = a 2x1 + b2 y1 + c2z1 a 2x 2 + b2 y2 + c2z2 …(1)
a 3x1 + b3y1 + c3z1 a 3x 2 + b3y2 + c3z2 3×2

(Explanations). vkO;wg (1) /

- 4 A = /
0 B
'5 /
0 $
*R /
O ! ,
&
& : m ×n - L : n× k ,
4 % * R AB
$ m×k :
&
"8 .& 2 ( #9 !'. & 2 (
(Post multiplication and pre-multiplication of matrices)

AB 4 B A $
* /
O 4 - AB
, 4 B AJ
2 $
* /
O ,! BA] L A $
* /
O ,
&
* AB 4
$ A 1$ (pre-factor) -
* #BC B * #B(post-factor)
21 $
&
,
=4 '- * AB - BA
$ 4 - '0 $
M 4
,
vkO;wg 105

- 4 Q ,AB ≠ BA.
= $I 5 / # ! I
,
*9 # : & : × -L : × % * R AB
$ '0 #
, 6$BA ' 0 ,
4 = ! , AB $
*R 5 ,! A ' 5 #
B = # ,
&
*9 # :: & : × - B: × ,
4 AB - BA '0 ,
&
AB / × - BA / × ,&
Q AB ≠ BA ! AB - BA A
'0 ,
Matrix AB is obtained by multiplying pre factor A with post. factor B while matrix BA is
obtained by multiplying A with pre factor B
In product AB, matrix A is called prefactor and matrix B is called post-factor.
In both the above situations, AB and BA can be equal, unequal or non defined.
Note I. If A is of order m×n and B is of order n×k e then product AB exists but not BA.
Note II. If A is of order m×n and B is of order n×m then both AB and BA are defined.
Order of AB will be m×m while that of BA will be n×n
2 1 0 1 2 3 4
Example 9. If A = 3 2 1 and B = 2 0 1 2
1 0 1 3 1 0 5
Then find AB. Does BA exist ?
Sol. Here the matrix A is of the order 3×3 and the matrix B is of the order 3×4. Since the
number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B, therefore AB is defined i.e., the
product AB exists and it will be a matrix of the order 3×4.
2 1 0 1 2 3 4
AB = 3 2 1 2 0 1 2
1 0 1 3 1 0 5
2 × 1 + 1× 2 + 0 × 3 2 × 2 + 1× 0 + 0 × 1 2 × 3 + 1×1 + 0 × 0 2 × 4 + 1× 2 + 0 × 5
= 3 × 1 + 2 × 2 + 1× 3 3 × 2 + 2 × 0 + 1× 1 3 × 3 + 2 × 1 + 1× 0 3 × 4 + 2 × 2 + 1× 5
1 × 1 + 0 × 2 + 1× 3 1× 2 + 0 × 0 + 1 × 1 1× 3 + 0 × 1 + 1× 0 1× 4 + 0 × 2 + 1× 5
4 4 7 10
= 10 7 11 21
4 3 3 9 3×4
BA does not exist because number of columns of B are 4 and number of rows of A and 3.
Hence they can’t be multiplied.

&2 ( % !, # 1 ( Properties of Multiplication of Matrices)

1. &2 ( ' # ; (Multiplication of matrices is associative).
Let A = [aij], B = [bjk] and C = [ckr] be three matrices of order m × n, n ×p rFkk p×l
respectively, then
(AB). C = A. (BC).
106 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

n
Proof. Let AB = [dik] tgkW dik = a ij b jk …(i)
j=1

∴ (AB). C = [dik] × [ckr] = [eir],

p p n
where eir = d ik c kr = a ij b jk c kr [Using (i) ]
k =1 k =1 j=1
p n
or (ir)th element of (AB).C = a ij b jk c kr …(ii)
k =1 j=1
p
and let BC = [gjr], gjr = b jkckr …(iii)
k =1
∴ A. (BC) = [aij] × [gjr] = [hir],
n
where hir = a ij g jr
j=1
n p
= a ij b jk c kr [(iii) 4
j=1 k =1
p n
or (ir)th element of A. (BC) = a ij b jk c kr …(iv)
k =1 j=1

From (iii) and (iv) we see that (ir)th element of matrices

∴ (AB).C and (A. (BC) are same and they are of same order.
vr: (AB). C = A (BC).
2. vkO;wg ;ksx ds lkis{k] vkO;wgksa dk xq.kuQy forj.k fu;e dk ikyu djrk gS
(Multiplication of matrices is distributive with respect to matrix addition).
Let A = [aij], B = [bjk] and C = [cik] be three matrices of orders, m × n, n × p and n × p
respectively. Therefore,
A.(B+C) = AB + AC .
Proof. A.(B+C) = [ajk] × {[bik] + [cjk]}
= [aij] [bjk + cjk] = [djk] (Assumption)
n
tgkWa djk = a ij (bjk + cjk)
j=1
n n
or (jk)th element of A.(B+C) = a ij bjk + a ij cjk …(i)
j=1 j=1

Again AB = [aij] [ bjk] = [eik] (assumed)

n n
where eik = a ij bjk , or (ik)th element of AB = a ij bjk. …(ii)
j=1 j=1

We can also show that

n
(ik)th element of AC = a ij cjk …(iii)
j=1
n n
From (ii) and (iii) (ik)th element of AB + AC = a ij bjk = a ij cjk …(iv)
j=1 j=1

Hence from (i) and (iv) we get

A.(B+C) = AB + AC

3. & 2 (7 /! 4 !( ( ( ( % #
(The multiplication of matrices is not always commulative)
vkO;wg 107

(a) ! AB '0 , , BA '0 & * A

: 6×7 , - B : 7×8 AB ' 0 , 6$ BA '0 &
,
(b) ! AB - BA '0 , : &
(c) ! AB - BA - '0 - : ,
' &
(a) whenever AB exists, it is not always necessary that BA should also exist. For example if
A be a 6×7 matrix while B be 7×8 matrix, then AB exists while BA does not exist.
(b) Whenever AB and BA both exist, it is always not necessary that they should be matrices of
the same type. For example if A be a 4×3 matrix while B be a 3×4 matrix then AB exists
and it is a 4×4 matrix. In this case BA also exists and it is a 3×3 matrix. Since the matrices
AB and BA are not of the same order, therefore we have AB ≠BA.
(c) Whenever AB and BA both exist and are matrices of the same type, it is not necessary that
AB = BA. For example, if
1 0 0 1
A= and B = , then
0 −1 1 0
1 0 0 1
AB =
0 −1 1 0
1 .0 + 0 .1 1 .1 + 0 .0 0 1
= =
0 .0 − 1 .1 0 .1 − 1 .0 −1 0
0 1 1 0
and BA =
1 0 0 −1
0 .1 + 1 .0 0 .0 − 1 .1 0 −1
= =
1 .1 − 0 .0 1 .0 − 0 .1 1 0
Thus AB ≠ BA.
(d) It however does not imply that AB is never equal to BA
1 2 1 10 − 4 − 1
For example if A = 3 4 2 and B = − 11 5 0
1 3 2 9 −5 1
1 2 1 10 − 4 − 1
Then AB = 3 4 2 − 11 5 0
1 3 2 9 −5 1
1(10) + 2(−11) + 1(9) 1(−4) + 2(5) + 1(−5) 1(−1) + 2(0) + 1(1)
= 3(10) + 4(−11) + 2(9) 3(−4) + 4(5) + 2(−5) 3(−1) + 4(0) + 2(1)
1(10) + 3(−11) + 2(9) 1(−4) + 3(5) + 2(−5) 1(−1) + 3(0) + 2(1)
10 − 22 + 9 − 4 + 10 − 5 −1 + 0 +1 −3 1 0
= 30 − 44 + 18 − 12 + 20 − 10 − 3 + 0 + 2 = 4 − 2 −1
10 − 33 + 18 − 4 + 15 − 10 − 1 + 0 + 2 −5 1 1
10 − 4 −1 1 2 1
Also BA = − 11 5 0 3 4 2
9 −5 1 1 3 2
108 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

10(1) − 4(3) − 1(1) 10(2) − 4(4) − 1(3) 10(1) − 4(2) − 1(2)

= − 11(1) + 5(3) + 0(1) − 11(2) + 5(4) + 0(3) − 11(1) + 5(2) + 0(2)
9(1) − 5(3) + 1(1) 9(2) − 5(4) + 1(3) 9(1) − 5(2) + 1(2)
10 − 12 − 1 20 − 16 − 3 10 − 8 − 2 −3 1 0
= − 11 + 15 + 0 − 22 + 20 + 0 − 11 + 10 + 0 = 4 − 2 −1
9 − 15 + 1 18 − 20 + 3 9 − 10 + 2 −5 1 1

Hence AB = BA
Example 10. Find A2−4 A−5I, where
1 2 2 1 0 0
A = 2 1 2 and I = 0 1 0
2 2 1 0 0 1

1 2 2 1 2 2
2
Sol. A = 2 1 2 × 2 1 2
2 2 1 2 2 1
1 .1 + 2 .2 + 2 .2 1 .2 + 2 .1 + 2 .2 1 .2 + 2 .2 + 2 .1
= 2 .1 + 1 .2 + 2 .2 2 .2 + 1 .1 + 2 .2 2 .2 + 1 .2 + 2 .1
2 .1 + 2 .2 + 1 .2 2 .2 + 2 .1 + 1 .2 2 .2 + 2 .2 + 1 .1
1+ 4 + 4 2 + 2 + 4 2 + 4 + 2 9 8 8
= 2 + 2 + 4 4 +1+ 4 4 + 2 + 2 = 8 9 8
2 + 4 + 2 4 + 2 + 2 4 + 4 +1 8 8 9
∴ A2 − 4A − 5I
9 8 8 1 2 2 1 0 0
= 8 9 8 −4 2 1 2 −5 0 1 0
8 8 9 2 2 1 0 0 1
9 8 8 − 4 −8 −8 −5 0 0
= 8 9 8 + −8 − 4 −8 + 0 −5 0
8 8 9 −8 −8 − 4 0 0 −5
9 − 4−5 8−8+ 0 8−8+ 0 0 0 0
= 8 − 8 + 0 9 − 4 − 5 8 − 8 + 0 = 0 0 0 = O,
8−8+ 0 8−8+ 0 9 − 4−5 0 0 0
! < S6 &
,
1 2 2 1 −3 1
Example 11. If A = ,B= and C verify
−2 3 2 3 2 0
that (AB) C = A (BC) and A(B+C) = AB + BC.
1 2 2 1
Sol. (i) AB =
−2 3 2 3
vkO;wg 109

2+4 1+ 6 6 7
= =
−4+6 −2+9 2 7
6 7 −3 1
∴ (AB) C =
2 7 2 0
− 18 + 14 6 + 0 −4 6
= =
− 6 + 14 2 + 0 8 2
2 1 −3 1
BC =
2 3 2 0
−6+2 2+0 −4 2
= =
−6+6 2+0 0 2
1 2 −4 2
∴ A(BC) =
−2 3 0 2
−4+0 2+4 −4 6
=
8+0 −4+6 8 2
Hence (AB)C = A(BC)
2 1 −3 1
(ii) B + C = +
2 3 2 0
2 − 3 1+1 −1 2
= =
2+ 2 3+0 4 3
1 2 −1 2
∴ A(B+C) =
−2 3 4 3
−1 + 8 2+6 7 8
= =
2 + 12 − 4 + 9 14 5
1 2 −3 1
AC =
−2 3 2 0
− 3 + 4 1+ 0 1 1
= =
6+6 −2+0 12 − 2
6 7 1 1
∴ AB +AC = +
2 7 12 − 2
6 +1 7 +1 7 8
= =
2 + 12 7 − 2 14 5
Hence A (B+C) = AB +AC
0 1 0 −1
Example 12. If A = and B =
, show that
1 1 1 0
(A+B) (A−B) ≠ A2 − B2
0 1 0 −1 0 + 0 1 −1 0 0
(d) A+B = + = =
1 1 1 0 1+1 1+ 0 2 1
110 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

0 1 0 −1 0 − 0 1 − (−1) 0 2
A−B = − = =
1 1 1 0 1−1 1− 0 0 1
0 0 0 2 0 0
∴ (A+B) (A−B) = =
2 1 0 1 0 5
0 1 0 1 0 +1 0 +1 1 1
A2 = = =
1 1 1 1 0 +1 1+1 1 2
0 −1 0 −1 0 −1 0−0 −1 0
B2 = = =
1 0 1 0 0 + 0 −1 + 0 0 −1
1 1 −1 0
∴ A2 − B2 = −
1 2 0 −1
1+1 1− 0 2 1
= = ≠ (A+B) (A−B)
1− 0 2 +1 1 3
Notes (1) & -L :/ ,
If A and B are two nth order square matrices then
(i) (A+B)2 = A2 + AB + BA +B2
(ii) (A−B)2 = A2 − AB − BA + B2
(iii) (A+B) (A−B) = A2 − AB +BA −B2
(2) If A and B commute i.e. AB = BA then
(A+B)2 = A2 + 2AB +B2
(A−B)2 = A2−2 AB +B2
(A+B) (A−B) = A2 −B2
1 2 2 1
Example 13. A = B=
−2 1 2 4
2
2 1+ 2 2 +1 3 3 3 3 9 24
(A+B) = = =
− 2 + 2 1+ 4 0 5 0 5 0 25
1 2 1 2 −3 4
A2 = =
−2 1 −2 1 −4 −3
2 1 2 1 6 6
B2 = =
2 4 2 4 12 18
1 2 2 1 6 9
AB = =
−2 1 2 4 −2 2
2 1 1 2 0 5
BA = =
2 4 −2 1 −6 8
Now (i) To prove (A+B) = A + AB + BA + B2
2 2

9 24
(A+B)2 =
0 25
−3 4 6 9 0 5 6 6
A2 + AB+BA +B2 = + + +
−4 −3 −2 2 −6 8 12 18
vkO;wg 111

−3+6+ 0+6 4+9+5+6 9 24

= = = (A+B)2
− 4 − 2 − 6 + 12 − 3 + 2 + 8 + 18 0 25
Hence proved.
(ii) (A−B)2 = A2 − AB − BA +B2
1 2 2 1 1 − 2 2 −1 −1 1
(A−B) = − = =
−2 1 2 4 − 2 − 2 1− 4 −4 −3
−1 1 −1 1 −3 −4
Now (A−B)2 = =
−4 −3 −4 −3 16 5
−3 4 6 9 0 5 6 6
A2 − AB − BA +B2 = − − +
−4 −3 −2 2 −6 8 12 18
−3−6−0+ 6 4−9−5+6 −3 −4
= = = (A−B)2
− 4 + 2 + 6 + 12 − 3 − 2 − 8 + 18 16 5
Hence proved.
(iii) (A+B) (A−B) = A2 −AB +BA −B2
3 3 −1 1
(A+B) = , (A−B) =
0 5 −4 −3
3 3 −1 1 − 15 −6
∴ (A+B) (A−B) = =
0 5 −4 −3 − 20 − 15
−3 4 6 9 0 5 6 6
A2 −AB + BA − B2 = − + −
−4 −3 −2 2 −6 8 12 18
−3−6+0−6 4−9+5−6 − 15 −6
= =
− 4 + 2 − 6 − 12 − 3 − 2 + 8 − 18 − 20 − 15
= (A+B)(A−B)
Hence proved.
Example 14. ST 4 R% 6 5 /
0 ! 4 /
0 '4 /
0
U ,& !4 $ 5 ! ] 30 ' - FAA U ,
& /
0 BC
#!P
- ,P
& ! <R 4 = = +7
;% '; - 4 P & '
, R U <R =
- P ,
& P 5 / ,I
+7 VWEAA4 BC VWFAA4 #!P VW>XE4 - ;% '; /
0 /
0 VW>EA4
-P VW>AA4
!< =# 1 3
(i) Y 0 /
/ #
(ii) /
0 Y
(iii) Y $
In a State in India, a finance company has its offices in every district, town and village. Suppose
there are 5 districts, 30 towns and 200 villages. Each office has 1 head-clerk, 1 cashier, 1 clerk
and 1 peon. In addition, each district office has 1 office superintendent, 2 clerks, 1 typist and 1
peon. Each town office has, in addition to village office staff, 1 clerk and 1 peon. Basic salary
of all the employees is as follows:
112 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

Office superintendent Rs. 500, Head clerk Rs. 200, Cashier Rs. 175, Clerk and typist Rs. 150
each and peon Rs. 100. Using the matrix notation, find :
(i) Total number of posts of each kind in all the offices;
(ii) Monthly basic salary bill for each office and
(iii) Total of salary bills of all the offices.
Sol. Let matrix A represent the number of offices in district, towns and villages
∴ A = [ 5 30 200]
Let matrix B represent the number of posts in the three offices.
O.S. HC Cr. Cl. T. P. where
District office 1 1 1 3 1 2 OS → Office Superintendent
Town office 0 1 1 2 0 2 HC → Head Clerk
Village office 0 1 1 1 0 1 Cr → Cashier
Cl → Clerk
T → Typist
P → Peon
1 1 1 3 1 2
So B= 0 1 1 2 0 2
0 1 1 1 0 1
Further let matrix C represent basic salary of each kind post

So
500 − OS
200 − HC
C = 150 −− Cr
175
Cl
150 T
100 P
Now answer to part (i)
Total number of posts of each kind in all the offices
1 1 1 3 1 2
= A × B = [5 30 200] 0 1 1 2 0 2
0 1 1 1 0 1
= [5 235 235 275 5 270]
Part (ii) Monthly basic salary bill for each office
500
1 1 1 3 1 2 175 200 500 + 200 + 175 + 450 + 150 + 200
= B × C = 0 1 1 2 0 2 150 = 0 + 200 + 175 + 300 + 0 + 200
0 1 1 1 0 1 150 0 + 200 + 175 + 150 + 0 + 100
100
1675
= 875
625
Part (iii) Total monthly salary bills of all offices
1675
= A(BC) = [5 30 200] 875
625
= [8375 + 26250 + 125000] = [159625] .
vkO;wg 113

Example 15. If A = 23 10
3 and I, the identity matrix of order 2 show that

(2I − A) (10I − A) = 9I ,

Sol. 2I−A = 2 10 10 − 23 10
3

= 20 02 − 23 10
3

0 −3
= 20 − 2 0−3
− 3 2 − 10 = − 3 − 8

10I−A = 10 10 10 − 23 10
3

= 10 0 2 3 10 − 2 0 − 3
0 10 − 3 10 = 0 − 3 10 − 10
8 −3
=
−3 0
0 −3 8 −3
∴ (2I−A) (10I−A) =
−3 −8 −3 0
0+9
= − 24 0+0 9 0
+ 24 9 + 0 = 0 9

= 9 10 10 = 9I .
Hence proved.

Example 16. If A = −34 − 25 , find A2−5A−14I.

3 −5 3 −5
Sol. A2 = A.A =
−4 2 −4 2
+ 20 − 15 − 10 = 29 − 25
= −912 − 8 20 + 4 − 20 24
Now A2−5A − 14I
29 − 25 3 −5
= − 5 − 14 10 10
− 20 24 −4 2
29 − 25 15 − 25 14 0
= − −
− 20 24 − 20 10 0 14

= −29 − 15 − 14 − 25 + 25 + 0 0 0
20 + 20 − 0 24 − 10 − 14 = 0 0 = O .

5 3 2
Example 17. If the matrix A = 12 7 , then verify that A −12A −I = O , where I is a
unit matrix of order 2.

Sol. 5 3
A2 = A.A.= 12 5 3
7 12 7
114 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

= 25 + 36 15 + 21 61 36
60 + 84 36 + 49 = 144 85
Now A2−12A−I
61 36 5 3 1 0
= −12 −
144 85 12 7 0 1
61 − 60 − 1 36 − 36 − 0 0 0
= = =O
144 − 144 − 0 85 − 84 − 1 0 0
Exercise 6.2
1. Find the matrix AB and BA, whichever possible, if
0 1
0 1 2
(i) A= 1 0 , B=
2 1 0
0 1
0 1 2 1 −2
(ii) A = 1 2 3 , B = −1 0
2 3 4 1 1
2 −1 0
2 1 2 1 0 4 −1
(iii) A= ,B=
1 1 1 1 −2 1 0
1 −3 2
1 −1 1 1
2. If A = and B = show that AB is a null matrix
−1 1 1 1
1 4 0 3 2 1 3 2 1
3. If A = 2 5 0 , B = 1 2 3 and C = 1 2 3
3 6 0 4 5 6 7 8 9
then find AB − AC
1 −1 1 1 2 3
4. ;fn A = − 3 2 − 1 rFkk B = 2 4 6 , rks nÓkZb;s fd
−2 1 0 1 2 3
AB ≠ BA.
1 2 −1 3 −1 1
5. If A = 2 0 3 ,B= 0 0 2
0 1 2 4 −3 2
verify that
(A+B) (A−B) = A2 − AB + BA − B2.
0 1 0 −i
6. If A = and B =
1 0 i 0
where i = − 1
verify that (A+B)2 = A2+B2.
vkO;wg 115

1 −1 1 0
7. If A= and B =
0 2 1 2
verify that
(i) (A+B)2 ≠ A2 + 2AB +B2
(ii) (A+B) (A−B) ≠ A2 −B2.
1 0 −2
8. Show that A = 2 2 4 satisfies the equation
0 0 2
2
A − 3A + 2I = O.
9. A fruit seller has in stock 20 dozen mangoes, 16 dozen apples and 32 dozen bananas. Suppose
the selling prices are Rs. 0.35, Rs. 0.75 and Rs. 0.80 per mango, apple and banana respectively.
Find the total amount the fruit seller will get by selling his whole stock.
10. A firm has in stock 12 dozen blankets, 10 dozen coats and 5 dozen gowns. The selling prices
are Rs. 200, Rs. 160 and Rs. 100 each respectively. Find the total amount the firm will receive
from selling all the items.

11. In a development plan of a city, a contractor has taken a contract to construct certain houses
for which he needs building materials like stones, sand etc. There are three firms, A, B, C that
can supply him these material. At one time these firms A, B, C supplied him 40, 35 and 25 truck
loads of stones and 10, 5 and 8 truck loads sand respectively. If the cost of one truck load of
stone and sand is Rs. 1,200 and Rs. 500 respectively then find the total amount paid by the
contractor to each of these firms, A, B, C respectively.
12. A man buys 8 dozens of mangoes, 10 dozens of apples and 4 dozens of bananas. Mangoes
cost Rs 18 per dozen, apples Rs. 9 per dozen and bananas Rs. 6 per dozen. Represent the
quantities bought by a row matrix and the prices by a column matrix and hence obtain the total
cost.
13. A store has in stock 20 dozen shirts, 15 dozen trousers and 25 dozen pairs of socks. If the
selling prices are Rs. 50 per shirt, Rs. 90 per trouser and Rs. 12 per pair of socks, then find the
total amount the store owner will get after selling all the items in the stock.
14. A trust fund has Rs. 50,000 that is to be invested into two types of bonds. The first bond
pays 5% interest per year and the second bond pays 6% interest per year. Using matrix
multiplication determine how to divide by Rs. 50,000 among the two types of bonds so as to
obtain an annual total interest of Rs. 2780.
15. The following matrix gives the proportionate mix of constituents used for three fertilizers.
A B C D
I 0.5 0 0.5 0
Fertilizer II 0.2 0.3 0 0.5
III 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.5
(i) If sales are 1000 tins (of 1kg) per week, 20% being fertilizer I,30% being fertilizer
II and 50% fertilizer III, how much of each constituent is used.
(ii) If the cost of each constituent is Rs. 0.50, 0.60, 0.75 and Rs. 1 per 100 gms.
respectively, how much does a one kg. tin of each fertilizer cost.
(iii) What is the total cost per week.
Answers
Exercise 6.1
1. (a) 1×10, 10×1, 2×5, 5×2.
116 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

2 3 4 0 −1 − 2
(b) (i) (ii)
3 4 5 1 0 −1
1 1
1 −
1 2 3 2 3
(iii) (iv)
2 4 6 2
2 1
3
2 3 4 5
(c) 3 4 5 6
4 5 6 7
(d) 3×4, a11 = 2 ; a12 =3 ; a24 = 0
(e) A ≠B, because they are not of the same type.
2. a = −3.
−1 2 −3
3. −A = − 6 − 7 − 8
9 − 4 − 2 3×3
4. Since the two matrices are of different types, therefore their sum cannot be obtained.
5. a = −3, b = 1, c = −4, d = 3.
6. x = 2, y = 11, z = 20, t = 7.5
2 −3 −5
7. B = −1 4 2
−3 −4 −4
− 10 − 4 − 6 − 2 −1 0
10. (i) − 2 6 9 (ii) − 1 0 − 7
− 6 − 11 1 0 3 −4
3 7 −4 7 −1 8 0 20 − 26 − 16 6 14
11. (i) 6 − 2 9 (ii) 2 4 − 9 (iii) 18 − 13 45 (iv) − 2 − 11 27
9 4 −2 1 0 8 30 14 − 19 2 2 − 21
3 4 8 −2 3 6
1 1
12. A = 8 15 16 ,B= 6 7 12
17 17
16 20 27 12 15 16

Exercise 6.2
2 1 0
1 2
1. (i) AB = 0 1 2 , BA =
1 2
2 1 0
3 −2
(ii) AB = 5 − 5 , BA is not defined
7 −8
vkO;wg 117

1 1 1
(iii) AB = , BA is not defined.
0 1 1

3. Null matrix 9. Rs 535.20 10. Rs. 54000

11. Rs 53000 to A, Rs 44500 to B and Rs 34000 to C 12. Rs. 258
13. Rs 31800
14. Rs. 22000 in first type of bond and Rs. 28000 in 2nd type of bond
lkjf.kd 119

Chapter-7
    

(Determinants)

!" " #$$ % & ' (# $ )' &* $

!+ # ) , !+ ) % $
!-$ .' % /! ! )0
)& $ $ % 1$$ $ .
a 11 a 12 a 13 ... a 1n
a 21 a 22 a 23 ... a 2 n
|A| = a 31 a 32 a 33 ... a 3n

a n1 a n2 a n 3 ... a nn
! /! (Determinant of first order)
A = |a11|
2$% /! (Determinant of second order)
a a12
|A| = 11
a 21 a 22
$3
$% /! (Determinant of third order)
a11 a12 a13
|A| = a 21 a 22 a 23
a 31 a 32 a 33
%4%/! !+ ) &) & ! 5 6×6 ! $$ ) !)
! %
78 ) & $ 9 5' &
a11 a12
A= = a11 × a22 − a12×a21
a 21 a 22
, !+ ) &) & ! :& (#$ 5) ; # '* $ 9 $% /!
!+ ! , <$ $ 9
a11 a12 a13 a 22 a 23 a a 23 a 21 a 22
A = a 21 a 22 a 23 = a11 − a12 21 + a13
a 31 a 32 a 33 a 32 a 33 a 31 a 33 a 31 a 32
= a11(a22 × a33 − a23 × a32) − a12 (a21 × a33 − a23 × a31) + a13(a21 × a32 − a22 × a31)
∆ 4%#$$
120 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

Example 1. Find the value of

2 4 4 2 5 48
(i) (ii) (iii) aa ++ 12 aa −− 12 (iv)
3 6 −2 5 3 45

Solution.
(i) 2 4 = 2 × 6 − 3 × 4 = 12−12 = 0
3 6
4 2
(ii) = 4×5 − 2(−2) = 20+4 = 24
−2 5
a +1 a − 2
(iii) a + 2 a − 1 = (a+1)(a−1) − (a−2)(a+2)
= a2−1 − a2+4 = 3
5 48
(iv) = 5 × 45 − 3 × 48
3 45
= 225 − 144 = 15−12 = 3 .
Example 2. Solve for x
2x + 3 x − 3 x − 3 x +1
(i) =0, (ii) =0
2x + 1 x + 2 x + 2 x −1
2x + 3 x − 3
Solution. (i) =0
2x + 1 x + 2
or (2x+3)(x+2) − (2x+1)(x−3) = 0
or 2x2+7x+6 − 2x2+5x+3 = 0
12x+9 = 0
9 3
or x=− =−
12 4
(ii) x − 3 x +1 = 0
x + 3 x −1
or (x−3)(x−1) − (x+2)(x+1) = 0
or x2−4x+3−x2−3x−2 = 0
or −7x+1 = 0
1
or x=−
7
1 2 3
Example 3. Evaluate 4 5 6
7 8 9
1 2 3
Solution. ∆ = 4 5 6 = 1 85 69 −3 74 96 + 74 58
7 8 9
= 1(45 − 48) − 2(36−42) + 3 (32−35)
= −3 + 12 − 9 = 0
lkjf.kd 121

Notes −
(1) %4%' % /! ! & % ! $% ' /! ! 66 $=
6
$ $ $% /! !> ) $
Total number of elements in a determinant of rth order is n2. Number of elements in a
second order determinant is 22 (4) and for a 3rd order determinant number of elements is
32 (9).
(2). %4% 1$ ) & ! %4% ?$ 1$4 & $ &$ !
!+
We can expand a determinant by taking any one row or one column. In every case, the
value of the determinant will remain the same.
3. 1$ $ ! ! & ;- ) &$ (−@* ## $ $ 5
?$ $ 1$4 ' $ )! 5' & !) & $% % ?$ $ '
1$4 $ 5 ;- (−@*>6 ) A B
Example 4. Evaluate the determinant
b2 + c 2 ab ac
ab c +a
2 2
bc
ca cb a 2 + b2
Solution. Expanding along Ist row
∆ = (b2+c2) c + a − ab ab 2 ac 2 + ca 2 ab 2 ac
2 2
bc
cb a 2 + b2 cb a + b c + a bc
= (b +c ) [(c +a )(a +b )−b c ] − ab[ab(a +b )−abc ] + ca[ab2c−ac(c2+a2)]
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

= (b2+c2)(a4+a2b2+a2c2) − a2b2(a2+b2−c2)+ c2a2(b2−c2−a2)

= a4b2+a2b4+a2c2b2+a4c2+a2b2c2+a2c4 −a4b2−a2b4+a2b2c2+ a2b2c2−a2c4−c2a4
= a2b2c2 + a2b2c2+ a2b2c2+a2b2c2
= 4 a2b2c2 .
1 1 1
Example 5. Show that a b c = (a−b) (b−c) (c−a)
bc ca ab
Solution.
1 1 1 b c −1 a c + 1 a b
∆ = a b c = 1 ca ab bc ab bc ca
bc ca ab
= 1(ab2−ac2) − (a2b − bc2) + 1(a2c − b2c)
= ab2−ac2−a2b+bc2+a2c−b2c
= (ab2−ac2)−(a2b−a2c)−(b2c−bc2)
= a(b+c)(b−c)−a2(b−c)−bc(b−c)
= (b−c)[ab+ac−a2−bc]
= (b−c)[(ac−bc)−(a2−ab)]
= (b−c) [c(a−b) − a(a−b)]
= (b−c) (c−a) (a−b)
= (a−b) (b−c)(c−a)
Hence proved.

lgxq.ku rFkk lgxq.ku[kaM (Minors and Co-factors)

122 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

%4% ) ?$ $ 1$4 C) #' #;$ % ;-

) ) $
Minor of an element aij is the determinant left after deleting the ith row and jth column
from the original determinant. A minor with proper sign is called co-factor. For example in the
determinant
a1 a 2 a 3
∆ = b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
a1 a 2
Minor of the element b3 =
c1 c2
Now minor with proper sign (−1)i+j is the cofactors. The sign can be either positive or
negative.
a1 a 2
Now co-factor of element b3 = (−1)2+3
c1 c2
a1 a 2
=
c1 c2
Example 6. Find the minors of all the elements of the determinant
a11 a12 a13
a 21 a 22 a 23
a 31 a 32 a 33
Let minor of an element aij be represented by Mij
a 22 a 23 a 21 a 23 a 21 a 22
∴ M11 = , M12 = , M13 =
a 32 a 33 a 31 a 33 a 31 a 32
a 12 a 13 a 11 a 13 a 11 a 12
M21 = , M22 = , M23 =
a 32 a 33 a 31 a 33 a 31 a 32
a 12 a 13 a 11 a 13 a 11 a 12
M31 = , M32 = , M33 =
a 22 a 23 a 21 a 23 a 21 a 22

Example 7. Find the co-factors of the elements a22, a12, a31 in the determinant
a11 a12 a13
a 21 a 22 a 23
a 31 a 32 a 33
Co-factor of a22
a a
C22 = (−1)2+2 11 13 = (a11 × a33 − a13 × a31)
a 31 a 33
a 21 a 23
Co-factor a12 = C12 = (−1)1+2 = −(a21 × a33 − a23 × a31)
a 31 a 33
a12 a13
Co-factor of a31 = C31 = (−1)3+1 = (a12 × a23 − a13 × a22)
a 22 a 23

Example 8. Write the minors and co-factors of each element of the first column of the
following determinant and evaluate the determinant in each case.
lkjf.kd 123

1 −3 2
(i) 5 20 (ii) 4 −1 2
0 −1
3 5 2
Solution. (i) M11 = −1
C11 = (−1)1+1 (−1) = 1(−1) = −1
M21 = 20
C21 = (−1)2+1(20) = (−1)(20) = −20 .
−1 2
(ii) M11 = = −1(2) −5(2) = −2−10 = −12
5 2
C11 = (−1)1+1 − 1 2 = 1 (−2−10) = −12
5 2
M21 = − 3 2 =(−3)(2) − 5(2) = −6−10 = −16
5 2
C21 = (−1)2+1 − 3 2 = (−1) (−6−10) = 16
5 2
M31 = − 3 2 = (−3)(2) − (−1)(2) = −6+2 = −4
−1 2
C31 = (−1)3+1 − 3 2 = (1) (−6+2) = −4.
−1 2
$% /! )! 1$
(Expansion of determinant of third order by Sarrous rule)
a 11 a 12 a 13
Let ∆ = a 21 a 22 a 23
a 31 a 32 a 33
Sarraus rule is written in the following way
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12
a 21 a 22 a 23 a 21 a 22
a 31 a 32 a 33 a 31 a 32
5) ):& %7 ( * $ D)E ! ;) 5) ):& C%
, (F * $ G E ! ;) 9
Add the product of elements which lie on continuous line, by a positive sign and those on
the dotted line by a negative sign.
So ∆ = a11 a22 a33+ a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32 − a13 a22 a31 − a11 a23 a32 − a12 a21 a33
Example 9. Evaluate by Sarraus diagram
5 15 − 25
7 21 30
8 24 42

Solution. Writing in form of Sarraus diagram

124 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

5 15 25 5 15
7 21 30 7 21
8 24 42 8 24
∆ = 5×21 × 42 + 15 × 30 × 8 + (−25) × 7 × 24 − (−25) × 21 × 8 − 5× 30 × 24 − 15 × 7
× 42 = 4410 + 3600 − 4200 + 4200 − 3600 − 4410
=0

(Expansion of a determinant with the help of co factors).

a11 a12 a13
Let ∆ = a 21 a 22 a 23
a 31 a 32 a 33
It’s value can be obtained by expanding by any row or column.
For example if we expand by first row, then
a 22 a 23 a 21 a 23 a 21 a 22
∆ = (−1)1+1 a11 + (−1)1+2 a12 + (−1)1+3
a 32 a 33 a 31 a 33 a 31 a 32
= a11. C11 + a12 . C12 + a13 . C13
Similarly ∆ = a21 . C12 + a22 C22 + a23 . C23 (Expansion by second row)
∆ = a31 . C31 + a32 C32 + a33 . C33 (Expansion by third row)
∆ = a11 . C11 + a21 C21 + a31 . C31 (Expansion by first column)
∆ = a12 . C12 + a22 C22 + a32 . C32 (Expansion by second column)
∆ = a13 . C13 + a23 C23 + a33 . C33 (Expansion by third column)
lkjf.kdksa dh foÓs"krk,W
(Properties of determinants)
% HI J $ K $% ) %!7 ! #) 1$ 5) !+ ) & $
Determinants has same properties with the help of which, we can evaluate then without
expansion
1. If rows are changed into columns and columns into rows, value of the determinant retains
a1 b1 c1
Let ∆ = a 2 b 2 c2
a 3 b3 c3
Expanding by first row
∆ = a1 (b2 c2 − b3 c2) − b1 (a2 c3 − a3 c2) + c1 (a2 b3 − a3 b2 ) …(1)
Let ∆′ be the determinant obtained by changing rows into columns and columns into rows
of determinant.
a1 a 2 a 3
So ∆′ = b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3

Expanding by first column, we get

∆′ = a1 (b2 c3 − b3 c2) − b1 (a2 c3 − a3 c2) + c1 (a2 b3 − a3 b2) …(2)
From (1) and (2) ∆ = ∆′
lkjf.kd 125

2. If any two rows or columns of a determinant are inter changed, the determinant retains its
absolute value but changes in sign.
a1 b1 c1
Let ∆ = a 2 b 2 c2
a 3 b3 c3
Let ∆′ be the determinant from ∆ by interchanging the first and third row, then
a 3 b3 c3
∆′ = a 2 b2 c2
a1 b1 c1
Then we are to prove that ∆′ = − ∆.
Expanding ∆ with the first columns, we have
∆ = a1 (b2c3 −b3c2) − a2 (b1c3 − b3c1) + a3 (b1c2 − b2c1) …(1)
Expanding ∆′ with the first columns, we have
∆′ = −a3 (b1c2 − b2c1) + a2(b1c3 − b3c1) + a1 (b3c2 − b2c3).
or ∆′ = −a3 (b1c2 − b2c1) + a2(b1c3 − b3c1) − a1 (b2c3 − b3c1).
= −[a1 (b2c3 − b3c2) a2(b1c3 − b3c1) + a3 (b1c2 − b2c1)].
= − ∆.
3. If any two rows or columns of a determinant are identical, the value of the determinant is
zero.
a1 a1 b1
Let ∆ = a 2 a 2 b2 …(1)
a 3 a 3 b3
Expanding by first row
∆ = a1 (a2b3 − b2a3) − a1 (a2 b3 − b2 a3) + b1 (a2a3 − a2a3)
=0
4. If all the elements of one row, or of one column, multiplied by the same quantity, the
determinant is multiplied by that quantity.
a1 b1 c1
Let ∆ = a 2 b 2 c2
a 3 b3 c3
Let ∆′ be the determinant from ∆ by multiplying all the elements of the first column by k.
ka1 b1 c1
Then ∆′ = ka 2 b2 c2
ka 3 b3 c3
Expand with first column
∆′ = ka1A1 − ka2 A2 + ka2A3
= k[a1A1 − a2A2 + a3A3]
=k ∆. Hence the result.
ka1 lb1 mc1 a1 b1 c1
Corollary 1. ka 2 lb2 mc2 = klm a 2 b2 c2
ka 3 lb3 mc3 a 3 b3 c3
ka1 kb1 kc1
= la 2 lb2 lc2
ma3 mb3 mc3
126 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

Corollary 2. If each element of one column or one row, is the same multiple of corresponding
elements of another column or row, the determinant vanishes.
a1 ka1 c1 a1 a1 c1 a1 b1 c1
i.e., ∆ = a 2 ka 2 c2 = k a 2 a 2 c2 = k×0 = 0 = ka1` kb1 kc1
a 3 ka 3 c3 a 3 a 3 c3 a 3 b3 c3
5. If each element of one row or any column be the sum of two quantities, the determinant
can be expressed as the sum of the two determinants of the same order.
a1 + α1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1 α1 b1 c1
i.e., ∆ = a 2 + α 2 b 2 c2 = a 2 b 2 c2 + α 2 b 2 c2
a 3 + α3 b3 c3 a 3 b3 c3 α3 b3 c3
a1 + α1 b1 c1
a 2 + α2 b 2 c2 = (a1 + α1) (b2c3 − b3c2) − (a2 + α2) (b1c3 − b3c1)
a 3 + α3 b3 c3
+ (a2 +α3) (b1c2 − b2c1)
= [a1 (b2c3 − b3c2) − a2 (b1c3 − b3c1) + a3 (b1c2 − b2c1)]
+ α1 (b2c3 − b3c2) − α2 (b1c3 − b3c1) + α3 (b1c2 − b2c1)]
a1 b1 c1 α1 b1 c1
= a 2 b 2 c2 + α 2 b 2 c2
a 3 b3 c3 α3 b3 c3
Remember. If each element of a row or column consists of m terms, the determinant can
be expressed as the sum of m determinants.
6. A determinant remains unaltered in value, by adding to all the elements of any column or
of any row the same multiple of the corresponding elements of any number of other columns or
of rows.
a1 b1 c1 a1 + mb1 + nc1 b1 c1
i.e., ∆ = a 2 b2 c2 = a 2 + mb2 + nc2 b2 c2
a 3 b3 c3 a 3 + mb3 + nc3 b3 c3
a1 + mb1 + nc1 b1 c1
R.H.S. = a 2 + mb2 + nc2 b2 c2
a 3 + mb3 + nc3 b3 c3
a1 b1 c1 b1 b1 c1 c1 b1 c1
= a2 b 2 c2 + m b 2 b 2 c2 + n c2 b2 c2 (By property 5)
a3 b3 c3 b3 b3 c3 c3 b3 c3
= ∆ + m × 0 + n× 0 (By property 4)
=∆
1 1 1
Example 10. Show that a 2
b 2
c 2 = (a−b) (b−c) (c−a) (ab+bc+ca)
a3 b3 c3

1 1 1
∆ = a2 b2 c2
a 3 b3 c3
Applying C2 → C2 − C1 and C3 → C3 − C1
lkjf.kd 127

1 0 0 (b + a)(b − a) (c + a)(c − a)
∆ = a2 b2 − a2 c2 − a2 =
a3 b3 − a c3 − a
3 3 (b − a)(b + a + ab) (c − a)(c2 + a 2 + ac)
2 2

b+a c+a
= (b − a) (c − a)
a 2 + b2 + ab c2 + a 2 + ac
Applying C2 → C2 − C1
∆ = (b−a)(c−a) a+b c−b
a 2 + b2 + ab c2 + ac − b2 − ab
= (b−a)(c−a) a+b c−b
a 2 + b2 + ab (c − b)(c + b) + a(c − b)
a+b 1
= (b − a )(c − a )(c − b)
a + b + ab a + b + c
2 2

= (b−a)(c−a)(c−b) [a +ab+ac+ab+b2+bc−a2−b2−ab ]
2

= [−(a−b)] (c−a)(−(b−c))(ab+bc+ca) = (a−b)(b−c)(c−a)(ab+bc+ca)

1 w w2
Example 11. Evaluate w w2 1
w2 1 w
where w is one of the imaginary cube roots of unity.
Solution. Applying C1→ C1+C2+C3, we get
1 + w + w2 w w2 0 w w2
∆ = 1+ w + w w 2 2
1 = 0 w2 1 = 0 [ 1+w+w2 = 0]
1+ w + w 2
1 w 0 1 w
Example 12. Without expanding, prove that

a b c y b q
x y z = x a p
p q r z c r
a b c
Solution. ∆= x y z
p q r
Changing rows into columns and columns into rows
a x p
∆= b y q
c z r
Applying C1 ↔ C2
x a p
∆ = (−1) y b q
z c r
Applying R1 → R2
y b q y b q
2
= (−1) x a p = x a p .
z c r z c r
a b c
Example 13. Show that a 2 b 2 c2
a3 b3 c3
128 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

= abc(a−b)(b−c)(c−a) .
Solution. Taking a, b, c common from C1, C2 and C3 respectively, the given determinant
1 1 1
∆ = abc a b c
a2 b2 c2
Applying C2 → C2 − C1 and C3 → C3 − C1, we get
1 0 0
= abc a b−a c − a = abc b2 − a 2 c2 − a 2
a 2 b 2 − a 2 c2 − a 2 b −a c −a
(Expanding along R1)
= abc(b−c)(c−a) b + 1 1
a c+a
= abc(b−a)(c−a)(c+a−b−a) = abc(b−a)(c−a)(c−b)
= abc(a−b)(b−c)(c−a) .
1 1 1
Example 14. Sow that a b c
a 3 b3 c3
= (a−b)(b−c)(c−a)(a+b+c) .
Solution. Applying C2→ C2 − C1 and C3 → C3−C1, we get
1 0 0
∆ = a b−a c − a = b3 − a 3 c3 − a 3
a 3 b3 − a 3 c3 − a 3 b −a c −a
(Expanding along R1)
= (b−a)(c−a) 2 1 1
b + ab + a 2 c2 + ca + a 2
= (b−a)(c−a)[(c2+ca+a2) − (b2+ab+a2)]
= (b−a)(c−a)[(c2−b2)+a(c−b)]
= (b−a)(c−a)(c−b)(c+b+a)
= (a−b)(b−c)(c−a)(a+b+c) .

Example 15. Prove that

b+c c+a a+b
a b c
q+r r+p p+q = 2 p q r .
y+z z+x x+y x y z

b+c c+a a+b

Solution. ∆ = q+r r+p p+q
y+z z+x x+y
b c+a a+b c c+a a +b
= q r+p p+q + r r+p p+q [Note]
y z+x x+y z z+x x+y
lkjf.kd 129

b c+a a b c+a b
c c a+b c a a+b
= q r+p p + q r+p q + r r p+q + r p p+q
y z+x x y z+x y z z x+y z x x+y

b c+a a c a a+b
= q r+p p + r p p+q
y z+x x z x x+y
[Second and third determinants vanish as two columns in each are identical]
c a a c a b
b c a b a a
= q r p + q p p + r p p + r p q
y z x y x x z x x z x y
c a b
b c a
= q r p + r p q
y z x z x y
[Second and third determinants vanish as two columns in each are identical]
b a c a c b
=− q p r − p q r
y x z x y z
[Interchanging C2 and C3 in first determinant and C1 and C2 in second]
a b c a b c
= p q r + p q r
x y z x y z
[ Interchanging C1 and C2 in first and C2 and C3 in second determinant]
a b c
=2 p q r .
x y z
Example 16. Prove that
a 2 a 2 − (b − c) 2 bc
b 2 b 2 − (c − a ) 2 ca = (a−b)(b−c)(c−a)(a+b+c)(a2+b2+c2)
c 2 c 2 − (a − b) 2 ab

Solution. Applying C2→ C2 − 2C1−2C3 , we get

a 2 − (a 2 + b2 + c2 bc
∆ = b2 − (a 2 + b2 + c2 ca
c2 − (a 2 + b2 + c2 ab
a 2 1 bc
2 2 2
= −(a +b +c ) b2 1 ca
c2 1 ab
Interchanging C1 and C2
1 a2 bc
2 2 2
= (a +b +c ) 1 b2 ca
1 c2 ab
Multiplying R1, R2 and R3 by a, b and c respectively,
130 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

a a2 1 abc
2 2 2
= (a +b +c ) × b b2 abc
abc c c2 abc
3
2 2 abc a a 3 1
2
= (a +b +c ) × b b 1
abc c c3 1

1 a a3
2 2 2
= (a +b +c ) × 1 b b3
1 c c3
Now proceed as in Example 14
∆ = (a2+b2+c2)×(a−b)(b−c)(c−a)(a+b+c)
∆ = (a−b)(b−c)(c−a)(a+b+c)(a2+b2+c2) .
Exercise 7.1
Q. 1. Evaluate the following determinants
18 8 15 − 12
(i) 7 13 (ii)
−9 10
13 16 19 a 0 0
(iii) 14 17 20 (iv) 0 b 0
15 18 21 0 0 c
Q. 2. Write the minors and co-factors of each element of the following determinants
1 2 5 5 1 −3
(i) −4 3 4 (ii) 0 3 1
2 − 10 9 −2 −4 2
Q. 3. Evaluate the following determinants by Sarraus method :
2 −3 4 4 7 8
(i) 5 1 − 6 (ii) − 9 0 0
−7 8 −9 2 3 4

Q. 4. Evaluate
a b c
x+λ x x
(i) x x+λ x (ii) b c a
x x x +λ
c a b
a 2 + b2
c c
c
b 2 + c2 19 17 45
(iii) a a (iv) 7 9 5
a 9 3 4
c2 + a 2
b b
b
Without expanding, prove the following :
Q. 5. Prove that
x+a b c
a x+b c = x2(a+b+c) .
b b x+c
Q. 6. Prove that
lkjf.kd 131

1+ i 1− i i
1− i i 1 + i = 4+7i , where i = −1
i 1+ i 1− i
− 2a a + b a + c
Q. 7. Prove that b + a − 2b b + c = 4(b+c)(c+a)(a+b)
c + a c + b − 2c
Q. 8. Prove that
b+c a−b a
c + a b − c b = 3abc−a3−b3−c3 .
a+b c−a c
x y z
Q. 9. Prove that x2 y2 z2 = xyz(x−y)(y−z)(z−x).
x3 y3 z3
1 b + c b 2 + c2
Q. 10. Prove that 1 c + a c2 + a 2 = (a−b)(b−c)(c−a) .
1 a + b a 2 + b2
(b + c)2 a2 bc
Q. 11. Prove that (c + a)2 b2 ca = (a2+b2+c2)(a+b+c)(b−c)(c−a)(a+b) .
(a + b)2 c2 ab
a 3 2ab b4
Q. 12. Prove that b2 a 2 2ab is a perfect square.
2ab b3 a2
(a + b)2 ca cb
Q. 13. Prove that ca (b + c)2 ab = 2abc(a+b+c)3 .
bc ab (c + a)2
Q. 14. Prove that
a+b b+c c+a a b c
b+c c+a a+b =2 b c a
c+a a+b b+c c a b

Q. 15. Prove that

1+ a 1 1 1 1 1
1 1+ b 1 = abc 1 + + + = abc+bc+ac+ab .
1 1 1+ c a b c

(Solution of linear equation using determinants)

' $% ) $ !% & & ! /! ) ! (L
$55!$ $) !* )$ )!
7 $
1- ' <$ !+ ! % !% & (Solution of linear equations in two unknowns) :
Let the equation be
a1x + b1y = c1
a2x + b2y = c2
132 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

Values of x and y are calculated by the following formula

D1 D2
x= and y =
D D
where
a b1 c1 b1 a c
D= 1 , D1 = , D2 = 1 1 , D ≠ 0
a 2 b2 c2 b2 a 2 c2
In this case
D is the determinant showing co-efficients of x and y .
D1 is the determinant obtained by replacing elements of first column of D by constant
values on the Right Hand Side of the equations.
D2 is the determinant obtained by replacing elements of 2nd column of D by constant
values on the Right Hand Side of the equations.
Example 17. Solve the following set of linear equations using Crammer’s rule :
4x−3y = 7
2x+5y = 23
Solution.
4 − 3 = 4 × 5 − 2(−3) = 20 + 6 = 26
D=
2 5
7 − 3 = 7 × 5 − 23(−3) = 35 + 69 = 104
D1 =
23 5
4 7 = 4 × 23 − 2 × 7 = 92 − 14 = 78
D2 =
2 23
D1 104
∴ x = = =4
D 26
D2 78
y = = =3
D 26

2. In case of three equations for three unknowns, the mechanism is as given below :
a1x+b1y+c1z = d1
a2x+b2y+c2z = d2
a3x +b3y+c3z = d3
D1 D2 D3
x= , y= , z=
D D D
a1 b1 c1 d1 b1 c1 a1 d1 c1
D = a 2 b 2 c 2 , D1 = d 2 b 2 c 2 , D2 a 2 d 2 c 2
a 3 b3 c3 d3 b3 c3 a 3 d3 c3
a1 b1 d1
D3 = a 2 b 2 d 2
a 3 b3 d3
Example 18. Solve the following systems of equations by means of determinants.
x+y+z−7 = 0
lkjf.kd 133

x+2y+3z−16 = 0
x+3y+4z−22 = 0 .
Solution. The given system of equation is
x+y+z = 7
x+2y+3z = 16
x+3y+4z = 22
1 1 1 = 1(8 − 9) − 1(4 − 3) + 1(3 − 2) = −1 − 1 + 1 = −1
D= 1 2 3
1 3 4
1
1 1 = 7(8 − 9) − 1(64 − 66) + 1(48 − 44) = −7 + 2 + 4 = −1.
D1 = 16 2 3
22 3 4
1 17 1 = 1(64 − 65) − 7(4 − 3) + (22 − 16) = −2 − 7 + 6 = −3
D2 = 1 16 3
1 22 4
1 17 = 1(44 − 48) − 1(22 − 16) + 7(3 − 2) = −4 − 6 + 7 = −3
D3 = 1 2 16
1 3 22
D1 −1
Now x = =
=1
D −1
D2 − 3
y = = =3
D −1
D −3
z = 3 = =3
D −1
Hence x = 1, y = 3 , z = 3 .
Cramer’s rule can be used in exactly the same way to solve the system of n equations in n
unknowns. Below we state the theorem for the general case.
Theorem. Consider the systems of n linear equations in n unknowns given by
a11x + a12x2+ … + a1nxn = b1
a21x1 + a22x2 + … + a2nxn = b2

an1x1+ an2x2 + … + annxn = bn

a11 a12 ... a1n
a 21 a 22 ... a 2n
Let D =
a n1 a n2 ... a nn
b1
Let Dj be the determinant obtained from D after replacing the jth column by b2
bn
and we can obtain the different values like
D1 D2 D3 Dn
x1 = , x2 = , x3 = ,...x n =
D D D D
134 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

(Consistent and Inconsistent equations)

!% ) ; % ' ) & $ ( $ @ 6 F ' 5) !)
!M; ) ( * ! 5 !% $C $ * $ '% , !% $ &$% -
!% $ &$%
)CB $ !% ) $ & $ )-
$ & $
(Solution of non-homogeneous equations)- !% ) (i) & #m = n $ A E /! %
Consider the system of equations shown above. If this system has a solution, then given
equations are called consistent, otherwise inconsistent.
Note : System of consistent equation has either a unique solution or infinite number of
solutions.
Example 19. Solve the following equations by Cramer’s rule
x+y+z = 1 ; x+2y+3z = 2; x+4y + 9z = 4.
1 1 1
Solution. Here D= 1 2 3
1 4 9
1 1 1
D1 = 2 2 3 = 0 [ C1 and C2 are identical]
4 4 9
1 1 1
D2 = 1 2 3 = D ,
1 4 9
1 1 1
D3 = 1 2 2 = 0 . [ C2 and C3 are identical]
1 4 4
D1 0
x = = =0
D D
D2 D
y = = =1
D D
D3 0
z = = =0
D D
Hence x = 0 , y = 1 , z = 0 .
Example 20. Using determinants, solve the following systems of equations
(a) x−y = 1 (b) 2y−3z = 0
x+z = −6 x+3y = −4
x+y−2z =3 3x+4y = 3
Solution. Rewriting the above equations
(a) x−y+0z = 1 (b) 0.x+2y−3z = 0
x+0y+z = −6 x+3y+0z = −4
x +y−2z = 3 3x+4y+0z = 3 .
1 −1 0
Solution. (a) Here D = 1 0 1
1 1 −2
Expanding along R1, we have
D = 1(0−1)+1(−2−1) + 0(1−0)
= −1−3+0 = −4
lkjf.kd 135

1 −1 0
= 1(0 − 1) + (12 − 3) + 0
D1 = − 6 0 1
= −1 + 9 = 8[Expanding along R 1 ]
3 1 −2
1 1 0
= 1(12 − 3) − 1(−2 − 1) + 0
D2 = 1 − 6 1
= 9 + 3 = 12[Expanding along R 1 ]
1 3 −2
1 −1 1
= 1(0 + 6) + 1(3 + 6) + 1(1 − 0)
D3 = 1 0 −6
= 6 + 9 + 1 = 16[Expanding along R1]
1 1 3
D1 8
x= = = −2
D −4
D2 12
y= = = −3
D −4
D3 16
z= = = −4
D −4
0 2 −3
= 0 − 2(0 − 0) − 3(4 − 9)
(b) Here D= 1 3 0
= −3(−5) = 15
3 4 0
0 −1 − 3
= 0 − 2(0 − 0) − 3(−16 − 9)
D1 = − 4 3 0
= −3(−25) = 75
3 4 0
0 0 −3
D2 = 1 − 4 0 = −3(3 + 12) = −45
3 3 0
0 2 0
D3 = 1 3 − 4 = −2(3 + 12) = −30
3 4 3
D1 75 D2 − 45 D3 − 30
∴ x= = = 5, y = = = −3, z = = = −2
D 15 D 15 D 15
Hence x = 5, y = −3, z = −2
Exercise 7.2
1. Sum of three numbers is 10. If we multiply the first number by 3 and third number by 4 and
subtract 5 times the second number from this sum we get 11. By adding 2 times the first number
and 3 times the second number and subtract the third number from them we get 8. Find the
numbers.
2. Using determinants solve the following set of linear equations.
x + 2y + 3z = 6
2x + 4y + z = 7
3x + 2y + z = 14
136 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

3. Using determinants solve the following system of equations :

(a) 2x − 4y = −3 (b) 4x + 3y = 3
4x + 2y = 9 8x − 9y = 1.
4. Solve the following system of equations using Cramer’s rule :
(i) x+2y = 1 (ii) 9x + 5y = 10
3x + y = 4 3y − 2x = 8.
(CBSE, 1990) (CBSE, 1991 C)
5. Solve the following system of equations by using Cramer’s rule :
(i) x + y + z = 6 (ii) 3x + y + z = 10
x−y+z = 2 x + y−z = 0
2x+y −z =1 5x−9y = 1
(iii) 2x−y+3z = 9 (iv) 3x + y +2z =3
x +y +z = 6 2x−3y −z = −3
x−y +z =2 x−2y +z =4.
6. Solve the following system of equations by using Cramer’s rule :
(i) x−y + z −4 = 0 (ii) x+y +z =1
2x+y−3z = 0 3x + 5y +6z = 4
x + y +z −2 = 0 9x +2y −36z = 17.
(CBSE, 1985) (A. I. CBSE, 1985)
lkjf.kd 137

Answers
Exercise 7.1
1. (i) 42 (ii) 42 (iii) 0 (iv) abc
2. (i) M11 = 67, M12 = −44, M13 = 34, M21 = 68, M22 = −1, M23, = −14, M31 = −7, M32 =
24, M33 = 11
C11 = 67, C12 = 44, C13 = 34, C21 = −68, C22 = −1, C23 = 14, C31 = −7,C32 = −24, C33 = 11
(ii) M11 = 10, M12 = 2, M13 = 6, M21 = −10, M22 = 4, M23 = −18, M31 = 10, M32 = 5
M33 = 15
C11 = 10, C12 = −2, C13 = 6, C21 = 10, C22 = 4 C23 = 18, C31 = 10, C32 = −5, C33 = 15

3. (i) 5 (ii) 36
4. (i) λ2(3x+λ) (ii) 3 abc − (a3 +b3 +c3) (iii) 4 abc (iv) −2012

Exercise 7.2
1. x =2, y = 3, z = 5
2. x = 1, y = 1, z = 1
3 3 1 1
3. (a) x = , y = (b) x = ,y=
2 2 2 3
7 1 − 10 92
4. (i) x = , y = − (ii) x = , y=
5 5 37 37
5. (i) x = 1, y = 2, z = 3 (ii) x = 2, y = 1, z = 3 (iii) x = 1, y = 2, z = 3
(iv) x = 1, y = 2, z = −1
1 1 1
6. (i) x = 2, y = −1, z = 1 (ii) x = ,y= ,z=−
3 3 3
138 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

Chapter-8

Matrices (Continued)
(Transpose of a matrix)] (Adjoint matrix
(Inverse of a matrix) ! "
# $
1- (Transpose of a matrix)
(Definition). m × n $ % &'
( &'
(
% ") # &'( % % &'
( ") # *
+ n×m $
,
$
AT, At, A′ -. ,/$ (A tranpose 0 ( #1 ,$
Let A = [aij]m×n Then the n×m matrix obtained from A by changing its rows into columns
and its columns into rows is called the transpose of A and is denoted by the symbol A′ or AT.
Symbolically if
A = [aij]m×n
Then A′ = [bij]n×m where bij = aij
i.e., the (j, i)th element of A′ is the (i, j)th element of A.
1 2
For Example. If A = 1 3 5 , then A′ = 3 4
2 4 6 5 6
Note 1. The element aij in the ith row and jth column of A stands in jth row and ith
column of A′.
2. The transpose of an m×n matrix is an n×m matrix.

(Properties of transpose of matrix)

1. 2 & 3 , (A′)′ = A (The transpose of the
transpose of a matrix is the matrix itself, i.e. (A′)′ = A).
2. '# )4 $ ,"
(kA)′ = kA′
If A is any matrix and k is any scalar then
(kA)′ = k. A′
3. A rFkk B vkO;wg ds fy,
(A+B)′ = A′ + B′
For two matrices A and B
(A+B)′ = A′ + B′

4. ) A oB #5 AB 6 #5 "" ,
(AB)′ = B′. A′
The transpose of the product of two matrices is the product in reverse order of their
transpose i.e. (AB)′ = B′ A′.
(Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrices)
vkO;wg ¼tkjh½ 139

) ! "" , ! ,$
A matrix is said to be symmetric if its transpose is equal to the matrix itself i.e. A′ = A
Let A = [aij] be of order m×n
Then A′ = [aji] is of order n×m
Matrix A is symmetric if A′ = A
This is possible only if m = n (the matrix must be a square matrix) and aji = aij for all i
and j
For example
a b c 3 2 5
1 3 , b c a , 2 4 0
3 4 c a b 5 0 7
are all symmetric matrices.
(Skew-Symmetric matrix)
)2 ! 76 "" , ! 8 $
,
A matrix is said to be skew symmetric if its transpose is equal to its negative i.e.
A′ = −A
The skew symmetric matrix is also a square matrix but aij = −aji for all i and j
For example
0 b c 0 h g
0 2 , −b 0 b , −n 0 f are all skew symmetric matrices.
−2 0 −c −b 0 −g −f 0
Example 1. Find the transpose of the following matrices.
5 2 −1 1 0 −2
(i) A = 1 0 3 (ii) A = 2 2 4
2 4 1 0 0 2
5 1 2
Solution. (i) A′ = 2 0 4
−1 3 1
1 2 0
(ii) A′ = 0 2 0
−2 4 2

−1 7 1 1 3 4
Example 2. If A = 2 3 4 and B = 3 2 2
5 0 5 2 4 3
Verify that (i) (A+B)′ = A′ + B′ and (ii) (AB)′ = B′. A′
−1 7 1 1 3 4
Solution. A = 2 3 4 , B = 3 2 2
5 0 5 2 4 3
−1 2 5 1 3 2
A′ = 7 3 0 , B′ = 3 2 4
1 4 5 4 2 3
140 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

−1 + 1 7 + 3 1 + 4 0 10 5
(i) (A+B) = 2 + 3 3 + 2 4 + 2 = 5 5 6
5+2 0+4 5+3 7 4 8
0 5 7
(A+B)′ = 10 5 4
5 6 8
−1 2 5 1 3 2
A′ + B′ = 7 3 0 + 3 2 4
1 4 5 4 2 3
−1 + 1 2 + 3 5 + 2 0 5 7
= 7 + 3 3 + 2 0 + 4 = 10 5 4 = (A+B)′
1+ 4 4 + 2 5 + 3 5 6 8
Hence the result
−1 7 1 1 3 4
(ii) (AB) = 2 3 4 3 2 2
5 0 5 2 4 3
− 1 × 1 + 7 × 3 + 1 × 2 − 1 × 3 + 7 × 2 + 1× 4 − 1× 4 + 7 × 2 + 1 × 3
= 2 ×1 + 3 × 3 + 4 × 2 2 × 3 + 3 × 2 + 4 × 4 2 × 4 + 3 × 2 + 4 × 3
5 ×1 + 0 × 3 + 5 × 2 5× 3 + 0 × 2 + 5× 4 5× 4 + 0 × 2 + 5× 3
22 15 13
= 19 28 26
15 35 35
22 19 15
∴ (AB)′ = 15 28 35
13 26 35
1 3 2 −1 2 5
Now B′.A′ = 3 2 4 7 3 0
4 2 3 1 4 5
1 × −1 + 3 × 7 + 2 × 1 1× 2 + 3 × 3 + 2 × 4 1× 5 + 3 × 0 + 2 × 5
= 3 × −1 + 2 × 7 + 4 × 1 3× 2 + 2 × 3 + 4 × 4 3× 5 + 2× 0 + 4 × 5
4 × −1 + 2 × 7 + 3 ×1 4 × 2 + 2 × 3 + 3× 4 4 × 5 + 2 × 0 + 3× 5
22 19 15
= 15 28 35 = (AB)′
13 26 35
Hence the result
Example 3. If A and B are symmetric matrices prove that AB −BA a skew-symmetric
matrix.
Solution. A and B are symmetric matrices,
A′ = A and B′ = B …(1)
Now (AB − BA)′ = (AB)′ − (BA)′ [∴ (A−B)′ = A′ − B′]
= B′ A′ − A′B′ [(AB)′ = B′A′]
= BA − AB [using (1)]
= − (AB − BA)
∴ (AB − BA) is a skew-symmetric matrix.
vkO;wg ¼tkjh½ 141

Example 4. Express the following matrix as the sum of a symmetric matrix and skew
symmetric matrix
1 2
3 4

Solution. A = 1 2 , A′ = 1 3
3 4 2 4
A + A′ = 1 + 1 2 + 3 = 2 5 is symmetric
3+ 2 4+ 4 5 8
A − A′ = 1 − 1 2 − 3 = 0 − 1 is skew symmetric
3−2 4−4 1 0
A + A' A − A' 1 2 5 1 0 −1
Now + = +
2 2 2 5 8 2 1 0
5 1
1 0 −
= 2 + 2
5 1
4 0
2 2
5 1
1+ 0 −
=
2 2 = 1 2 =A
5 1 3 4
+ 4+0
2 2
Hence the result
Example 5. Show that A + A′ is symmetric where A = 6 5
2 4
A = 6 5 , A′ = 6 2
2 4 5 4
A + A′ = 6 + 6 5 + 2 = 12 7 which is symmetric
2+5 4+4 7 8

lg[k.Mt vkO;wg (Adjoint matrix)

# A = [aij] ,d n × n , # Aij ;k Cij (determinant) |A| aij
[k.M (cofactor) ,$ 9A $ $: *
); , [Aij] $
,

) A = [aij] 2 n × n , $ # (cofactor) [Aij] ;k [Cij]

gS tgkWa Aij, A # , # A #
, $ $ *
); ,
$ 2
A11 A 21 ...A n1
a11 a12 ...a1n
A12 A 22 A n 2
;fn A = a 21 a 22 a 2n rks] adj A =
...... ....... ....... ...... ....... .......
a n1 a n 2 a nn
A1n A 2 n A nn
The adjoint of a square matrix is the transpose of the matrix obtained by replacing each
element of A by its co-factor in A .
142 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

Let A = [aij]n×n be any n×n matrix. This transpose B′ of the matrix

B = [Aij]n×n ,
where Aij denotes the cofactor of the element aij in the determinant |A| is called the adjoint of the
matrix A and is denoted by the symbol Adj. A.
If A be a square matrix of size n × n then A.(adj.A) = (adj.A).A = |A|. In where In is the
identity matrix of the nth order.
A11 A 21 ...A n1
a11 a12 ...a1n
A12 A 22 A n 2
A.(Adj.A) = a 21 a 22 a 2n
...... ....... ....... ...... ....... .......
a n1 a n 2 a nn
A1n A 2 n A nn

|A| 0 0...0 1 0 0...0

0 |A| 0...0 0 1 0...0
= 0 0 | A | ...0 = |A| 0 0 1...0 = |A| In

0 0 0.... | A | 0 0 0....1
If would be noted here that
a11 a11 + c12 A12 + … + a1n A1n = |A|
and a11. A21 + a12 A22 + … + a1n. A2n = 0
So for all cases where i = j, value of product = |A| and for all cases where i ≠ j value of
product = 0
Similarly it can be shown that
Adj A. A = |A|. In
0 1 2
Example 6. Find adjoint of the matrix 1 2 3
3 1 1
0 1 2
0 1 2
Solution. A = 1 2 3 so |A| = 1 2 3
3 1 1
3 1 1

A11 = + 12 13 = 2 − 3 = − 1 A22 = + 03 12 = 0 − 6 = −6

A12 = − 13 13 = − (1−9) = 8 A23 = − 03 11 = − (0−3) = 3

A13 = + 13 12 = 1 − 6 = − 5 A31 = + 12 23 = 3 − 4 = −1

A21 = − 11 12 = − (1−2) = 1 A32 = − 10 23 = − (0−2) = 2

A33 = + 01 12 = 0 − 1 = −1

−1 8 −5
So matrix obtained by cofactors C= 1 −6 3
−1 2 −1
vkO;wg ¼tkjh½ 143

−1 1 −1
∴ Adj. (A) = C′ = 8 −6 2
−5 3 −1
Example 7. For the following matrix A, prove that
A (Adj. A) = O
1 −1 1
A= 2 3 0 .
18 2 10
1 −1 1 1 −1 1
Solution. A= 2 3 0 , ∴ |A| = 2 3 0
18 2 10 18 2 10
3 0 2 0
A11 = = 30 ; A12 = − = −20 :
2 10 18 10
2 3
A13 = = − 50
18 2
−1 1 1 1
A21 = − = 12 ; A22 = =−8;
2 10 18 10
1 −1
A23 = − = − 20
18 2
−1 1 1 1
A31 = =−3; A32 = − =2;
3 0 2 0
1 −1
A33 = =5
2 3
A11 A 21 A31 30 12 − 3
Adj. A = A12 A 22 A32 = − 20 − 8 2
A13 A 23 A33 − 15 − 20 5
1 −1 1 30 12 − 3
A (Adj. A) = 2 3 0 − 20 − 8 2
18 2 10 − 50 − 20 5

30 + 20 − 50 12 + 8 − 20 −3− 2 +5
= 60 − 60 + 0 24 − 24 + 0 −6+6+0
540 − 40 − 500 216 − 16 − 200 − 54 + 4 + 50
0 0 0
0 0 0 = O.
0 0 0

Exercise 8.1
Find the transpose of the following matrices:
1 −2 4
1 0 2
1. (i) 2 1 0 (ii) 2 − 4 5
3 2 1
4 5 −6
2 3
2. If A = 24 − 53 and B =
1 2
144 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

verify that (A+B)′ = A′ + B′ and (AB)′ = B′.A′

3. Express the following matrix as the sum of a symmetric and skew symmetric matrices
−1 7 1
2 3 4
5 0 5
4. Find the adjoint of matrices :
−2 5 2 3 −1
(i) (ii) 0 2 3
4 −1 4 1 4

5. If A = 53 − 2
− 2 verify that A. (Adj. A) = (Adj. A). A = A. I2
1 −1 1
6. If A = 2 3 0 prove that A (Adj. A) = O
18 2 10
vkO;wg dk O;qRØe (Inverse of a matrix)
# A = [aij] 2 ) < ,$ ) |A| = 0 A, 6 (Singular
matrix ) ,$
) |A| ≠ 0, " A, 6 (Non-singular matrix) A
,
O 6 (Invertible matrix). # A ,d n ,$ ) 2 2 B &6
BA = AB = I, =I, ) 6 (unit matrix) , B A 6 ,
,:
B = A−1
Let A = [aij] be a square matrix of nth order. If |A| = 0 then matrix A is called a singular
matrix.
If |A| ≠ 0 then matrix A is called non-singular matrix.
Definition. Let A be an n-rowed square matrix. If there exists an n-rowed square matrix
B such that
AB = BA = I,
where I is the identity matrix of order n, then the matrix A is said to be invertible and B is called
the inverse (or reciprocal) of A.
Note 1. Only square matrices can have inverse.
Note 2. From the definition, it is clear that if B is the inverse of A, then A is the inverse
of B.
Note 3. Inverse of A is denoted by A−1, thus B = A−1 and
AA−1 = A−1 A = I.
The inverse of a square matrix if it exists, is unique
Let A be an invertible square matrix. If possible, let B and C be two inverse of A.
Then AB = BA = I
AC = CA = I (By def. of inverse)
Now B = BI = B (AC)
= (BA) C [∴ Matrix multiplication is associative]
= IC = C.
Hence the inverse of A is unique.
Theorem. The necessary and sufficient condition for a square matrix A to possess
inverse is that | A | ≠ 0 i.e., A is non-singular.
Proof. (a) The condition is necessary :
vkO;wg ¼tkjh½ 145

i.e., Given that A has inverse, to show that | A | ≠ 0.

Let B be the inverse of A, then
AB = BA = I
| AB | = | BA | = | I |
| A | | B| = | B | | A | = 1
| A | ≠ 0.
(b) The condition is sufficient :
i.e., Given that | A | ≠ 0, to show that A has inverse.
∴ | A | ≠ 0.
Adj. A
∴ Consider B =
|A|
Hence A is invertible
or A is non singular
Theorem If A and B are two non-singular square matrices of same order n then
(AB)−1 = B−1. A−1
Proof. | A | ≠ 0 and | B | ≠ 0 (Given)
∴ | AB | = | A | . | B | ≠ 0
or (AB) (B−1. A−1) = A (BB−1) A−1
= A. In. A−1 = A. A−1
= In
Again (B . A ) (AB) = B−1 (A−1A)B
−1 −1

= B−1. In B = B−1. B
= In
Thus
(AB) (B−1 A−1) = (B−1 A−1) (AB) = In
∴ (AB)−1 = B−1. A−1
1 2 3
Example 8. Find the inverse of the matrix 2 4 5
3 5 6

4 5
A11 = = − 1 ; A12 = − 23 56 = 3 ; A13 = 23 54 = − 2;
5 6
A21 = − 52 63 = 3; A22 = 13 63 = − 3; A23 = − 13 52 = 1;

2 3
A31 = = − 2; A32 = − 12 53 = 1 ; A33 = 12 24 = 0
4 5
−1 3 −2
∴ C= 3 −3 1
−2 1 1
−1 3 −2
∴ Adj A = C′ = 3 −3 1
−2 1 1
146 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

1 0 0
1 2 3 C 2 → .C 2 − 2C1
LkkFk gh |A| = 2 4 5 = 2 0 − 1 , rFkk
3 5 6 C 3 → C 3 − 3C1
3 −1 − 3
0 −1
= =−1
−1 − 3
−1 3 −2
Adj.A
−1
∴ A = =− 3 −3 1
|A|
−2 1 0
1 −3 2
= −33 −1
2 −1 0
Example 9. Compute the inverse of the matrix
3 −2 3
A= 2 1 −1
4 −3 2
3 −2 3
Solution. |A| = 2 1 −1
4 −3 2
= 3(2−3)+2 (4+4) +3 (−6−4)
= −3+16−30 = 16−33 = −17 ≠ 0
1 −1
A11 = = 2 −3 = − 1 ; A12 = − 24 −21 = −(4 + 4)
−3 2 = −8
2 1
A13 = = − 6 − 4 = −10
4 −3
−2 3 3 3
A21 = − =−(−4+9) = − 5 ; A22 = = 6 − 12 = − 6
−3 2 4 2

A23 = − 34 − 2
− 3 = − (−9+8) = 1
−2 3
A31 = = (2−3) = 1 ;
1 −1
3 3
A32 = − = −(−3−6) = 9
2 −1
3 −2
A33 = = 3+4 = 7
2 1
A11 A 21 A 31 −1 − 5 −1
Adj. A = A12 A 22 A 32 = − 8 − 6 9
A13 A 23 A 33 − 10 1 7
Adj.A 1 −1 − 5 −1
A−1= = −8 −6 9
|A| − 17 − 10 1 7
vkO;wg ¼tkjh½ 147

1 / 17 5 / 17 1 / 17
= 8 / 17 6 / 17 − 9 / 17 .
10 / 17 − 1 / 17 − 7 / 17
3 −1 2 2
Example 10. If A = −4 0 and B = − 1 − 2 . Find (A′B)−1.
2 1 1 1
3 −4 2
Solution. Here A′ =
−1 0 1
2 1
3 −4 2
Now A′ B = −1 − 2
−1 0 1
2 1
6+ 4+ 2 3+8+ 2 12 13
= =
− 2 − 0 +1 −1− 0 + 1 −1 0
Let C = A′ B
12 13
∴ C=
−1 0
12 13
Now |C| = = 0+13 = 13 ≠ 0 .
−1 0
∴ C is a non-singular matrix and hence C−1 exists. C11 = 0 , C12 = 1, C21 = −13, C22 =
12.
C11 C 21 0 − 13
∴ Adj.C = =
C12 C 22 1 12
Adj.C 1 0 − 13
∴ C−1 = = = 1 /013 12−/113
|C| 13 1 12
Hence , (A′B)−1 = C−1 = 1 /013 12−/113 .

1 2 2
Example 11. Let A = 2 1 2 .
2 2 1
Prove that A2−4A−5I = O. Hence obtain A−1 . (CBSE, 1985C)
1 2 2 1 2 2
Solution. A2 = AA = 2 1 2 2 1 2
2 2 1 2 2 1
1+ 4 + 4 2 + 2 + 4 2 + 4 + 2 9 8 8
= 2 + 2 + 4 4 +1+ 4 4 + 2 + 2 = 8 9 8
2 + 4 + 2 4 + 2 + 2 4 + 4 +1 8 8 9
9 8 8 4 8 8 5 0 0
A2−4A−5I = 8 9 8 − 8 4 8 − 0 5 0
8 8 9 8 8 4 0 0 5
9 − 4−5 8−8−0 8−8−0
0 0 0
= 8−8−0 9 − 4 −5 8−8−0 = 0 0 0 = O
0 0 0
8−8−0 8−8−0 9− 4 −5
∴ A2−4A−5I = O .
148 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

Multiplying both sides by A−1

A−1(A2−4A−5I) = A−1(O)
or A A −4A−1A−5A−1I = O
−1 2

or (A−1A)A−4(A−1A)−5A−1 = O
or IA−4I−5A−1= O or A−4I−5A−1 = O
or 5A−1 = A−4I
1 2 2 1 0 0 −3 2 2
∴ 5A−1 = 2 1 2 − 4 0 1 0 = 2 − 3 2
2 2 1 0 0 1 2 2 −3
−3 2 2 − 3/ 5 2 / 5 2/5
−1
∴ A = 1/5 2 − 3 2 = 2 / 5 − 3/ 5 2/5 .
2 2 −3 2/5 2 / 5 − 3/ 5
1 0 −2
Example 12. Find the inverse of the matrix − 2 − 1 2 and verify that B.B−1= I.
3 4 1

1 0 −2 1 0 0
Solution. Let |B| = − 2 − 1 2 = −2 − 1 − 2 , C3 → C3 + 2C1
3 4 1 3 4 7
Expanding by first row
= −41 − 72
= (−1)(7)−(−2)(4) = −7+8 =1 ≠ 0
lkFk esa]
−1 2 −2 2
C11 = = −9 , C12 = − =8,
4 1 3 1

0 −2
C13 = − 32 − 41 = −5 , C21 = − = −8 ,
4 1
1 0
C22 = 13 − 12 = 7 , C23 = − = −4 ,
3 4
0 −2 1 −2
C31 = = −2, C32 = − = 2,
−1 2 −2 2
1 0
C33 = = −1 .
−2 −1
−9 8 −5
∴ C = −8 7 − 4
− 2 2 −1
−9 −8 −2
∴ Adj.B = C′ = 8 7 2
− 5 − 4 −1
Adj.B −9 −8 −2
B−1 = = 8 7 2 [ |B| = 1]
| B| − 5 − 4 −1
vkO;wg ¼tkjh½ 149

−9 −8 − 2
or B−1 = 8 7 2
− 5 − 4 −1
1 0 −2 −9 −8 −2
Now B.B−1 = −2 −1 2 8 7 2
3 4 1 − 5 − 4 −1
− 9 + 0 + 10 −8+ 0 +8 −2+0+2
= 18 − 8 − 10 16 − 7 − 8 4−2−2
− 27 + 32 − 5 − 24 + 28 − 4 − 6 + 8 −1
1 0 0
= 0 1 0 =I
0 0 1
Hence the result.
!
(Solution of linear equation)
rhu ;qxir lehdj.kksa ds fuEufyf[kr fudk; dks nsf[k,
a1x + b1y + c1z = d1
a2x + b2y + c2z = d2
a3x + b3y + c3z = d3
These equations can be represented in the following form
A.X = B …(i)
where A → Matrix of the coefficients of x, y and z
X → Matrix of the three variables
B → Matrix of the constraints on the right hand side.
a1 b1 c1 x d1
∴ A = a 2 b2 c2 , X = y , B = d 2
a 3 b3 c3 z d3
They can be represented in the following form
a1 b1 c1 x d1
a 2 b2 c2 y = d 2
a 3 b3 c3 z d3
From (1), X = B.A−1
So to find the values of x, y and z, find the value of A−1 and multiply it with constraints matrix.
Example 13. Price of 3 chairs and 2 tables is Rs. 700 and the price of 5 chairs and 3
tables is Rs. 1100. Find the price of a chair and a table.
Solution. Let price of one chair be Rs. x and that of one table be Rs. y
∴ The equations are 3x+2y = 700
5x+3y = 1100
or 3 2 x 700
5 3 y = 1100

A = 53 23 , X = xy , B = 1100
700

Now A11 = 3 , A12 = −5 , A21 = −2 , A22 = 3

150 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

3 −2 Adj.A
∴ Adjoint A = and A−1 =
−5 3 |A|
|A| = 3 × 3 −2×5 = −1
1 3 −2 −3 2
∴ A−1 = =
−1 − 5 3 5 − 3
x −3 2 700
∴ = = − 3 × 700 + 2 × 1100 = 100
y 5 − 3 1100 5 × 700 − 3 × 1100 200
∴ x = Rs. 100, y = Rs. 200.
Example 14. Solve the following system of equations by matrix method
2x + 8y + 5z = 5
x + y+z = − 2
x + 2y −z = 2
Solution. The system can be represented by the matrix equation AX = B
2 8 5 x 5
where A = 1 1 1 X = y , B = − 2
1 2 1 z 2
2 8 5
= 2(−1 − 2) − 8(−1 − 1) + 5(2 − 1)
|A| = 1 1 1
= −6 + 16 + 5 = 15 ≠ 0
1 2 −1
∴ A is non-singular
The system has the unique solution X = A−1 B.
1 1 1 1
Now A11 = = − 3 ; A12 = − =2
2 −1 1 −1

A13 = 11 12 = 1 .

8 5 2 5
A21 = − = 18 ; A22 = =−7
2 −1 1 −1
2 8
A23 = − =4
1 2
8 5
A31 = = 3 ; A32 = − 12 15 = 3 ;
1 1
2 8
A31 = =−6
1 1
A11 A21 A31 − 3 18 3
Adj.= A21 = A12 A22 A32 = 2 − 7 3
A13 A23 A33 1 4 −6
−3 18 3
−1 Adj. A 1
A = = 2 −7 3
|A| 15
1 4 −6
vkO;wg ¼tkjh½ 151

−3 18 3
15 15 15
2 −7 3
=
15 15 15
1 4 −6
15 15 15
−3 18 3
15 15 15 5
1 2 −7 3
∴X=A B= −2
15 15 15
1 4 −6 2
15 15 15
− 15 − 36 + 6
15 −3
10 + 14 + 6
= = −2
15
5 − 8 − 12 −1
15
x −3
∴ y = 2 x = − 3, y = 2, z = −1.
z 1

(Consistent and inconsistent equations)

(i) If |A| ≠ 0, the system is consistent and has a unique solution given by X = A−1 B.
(ii) If |A| = 0, the system has either no solution or infinite number of solutions. To find this,
determine (Adj A). B
(a) If (Adj A). B ≠ 0, the system is inconsistent and has no solutions.
(b) If (Adj A). B = 0, the system is consistent and has infinite number of solutions.
Example 15. Solve the equations by matrix method
5x+3y+z = 16
2x+y+3z = 19
x+2y+4z = 25.
Solution. The system can be represented by the matrix equation AX = B.
5 3 1 x 16
where A = 2 1 3 , X = y , B = 19
1 2 4 z 25

5 3 1
= 5(4 − 6) − 3(8 − 3) + 1(4 − 1)
|A| = 2 1 3
= −10 − 15 + 3 = −22 ≠ 0
1 2 4
152 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

∴ A is non-singular.
∴ The system has the unique solution X = A−1 B
A11 = −2, A12 = −5, A13 = 3,
A21 = −10, A22 = 19, A23 = −7
A31 = 8, A32 = − 13, A33 = −1.

A11 A21 A31 − 2 − 10 8

∴ Adj. A = A12 A22 A32 = − 5 19 − 13
A13 A23 A33 3 − 7 −1

Adj. A 1 − 2 − 10 8
A−1 = = − 5 19 − 13
|A| − 22 3 − 7 − 1

2 10 8
−
22 22 22
5 19 13
= −
22 22 22
3 7 1
−
22 22 22

Solution is given by X = A−1 B

2 10 8
−
22 22 22
x 5 19 13 16
y = − 19
z 22 22 22 25
3 7 1
−
22 22 22

32 + 190 − 200
22
80 − 361 + 325
=
22
− 48 + 133 + 25
22

22
22
x 44 1
or y = = 2
z 22 5
110
22

∴ x = 1, y = 2, z = 5.
vkO;wg ¼tkjh½ 153

Example 16. Gaurav purchases 3 pens, 2 bags and 1 instrument box and pays Rs 41.
From the same shop , Dheeraj purchases 2 pens, 1 bag and 2 intrument boxes and pays Rs. 29,
while Ankur purchases 2 pens, 2 bags and 2 instrument boxes and pays Rs. 44. Translate the
problem into a system of equations. Solve the system of equations by matrix method and hence
find the cost of one pen, one bag and one instrument box.

Solution. Let the price of 1 pen be Rs. x, price of 1 bag be Rs. y and prince of 1
instrument box be Rs. z respectively. Then
3x+2y+z = 41
2x+y+2z = 29
2x+2y+2z = 44.
The system can be represented by the matrix equation AX = B.
3 2 1 x 41
where A = 2 1 2 , X = y , B = 29
2 2 2 z 44
3 2 1 = 3(2 − 4) − 2(4 − 4) + 1(4 − 2)
|A| = 2 1 2 = 3(−2) − 2(0) + 1(2)
2 2 2 = −6 − 0 + 2 = −4 ≠ 0
The system has a unique solution X = A−1 B
1 − 82 − 58 + 132 1 −8 2
= − 0 + 116 − 176 = − − 60 = 15
4 82 − 58 − 44 4 − 20 5
∴ x = 2, y = 15, z = 5.
Hence, the cost of 1 pen is Rs. 2.
The cost of 1 bag is Rs. 15.
and the cost of 1 instrument box is Rs. 5.
Example 17. Solve by matrix method, the equations
x+y = 0
y+z = 1
z+x = 3.
Solution. The system can be represented by the matrix equation AX = B
1 1 0 x 0
where A= 0 1 1 , X= y , B= 1
1 0 1 z 3
1 1 0
|A| = 0 1 1 = 1 (1−0) −1(0−1) + 0(0−1) = 2≠0.
1 0 1
∴ A is non-singular
∴ The system has the unique solution X = A−1 B
A11 = 1, A12 = 1, A13 = −1
A21 = −1, A22 = 1, A23 = 1
A31 = 1, A32 = −1, A33 = 1
A11 A 21 A 31 1 −1 1
Adj. A = A12 A 22 A 32 = 1 1 −1
A13 A 23 A 33 −1 1 1
154 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

1 1 1
−
2 2 2
−1 Adj. A 1 1 − 1 1 1 1 1
A = = 1 1 −1 = −
|A| 2 −1 1 1 2 2 2
1 1 1
−
2 2 2
Solution is given by X = A−1 B
1 1 1
−
2 2 2
x 1 1 1 0
y = − 1
z 2 2 2 3
1 1 1
−
2 2 2
−1+ 3 2
2 2
1− 3 2 1
= = − = −1
2 2 2
1+ 3 4
2 2
∴ x = 1, y = −1, z = 2.
Use matrix method to examine the following systems of equations for consistency or
inconsistency.
Example 18. 3x−2y = 5
6x−4y = 9

Example 19. 4x−2y = 3

6x−3y = 5
Example 20. 6x+4y = 2
9x+6y = 3
Example 21. 2x+3y = 5
6x+9y = 10.
Solutions
18. The system can by represented by the matrix equation AX = B.
3 −2 x 5
6 −4 y = 9

where A = 63 − 2 x 5
−4 , X = y , B= 9

|A| = 63 − 2
− 4 = − 12 + 12 = 0
∴ A is singular.
Either the given system has no solution or an infinite number of solutions.
Now A11 = −4, A12 = − 6
A21 =2, A22 = 3
vkO;wg ¼tkjh½ 155

A11 A21
Adj. A = = − 4 2
−6 3
A12 A22

(Adj. A)B = − 4 2 5 − 20 + 18
− 6 3 9 = − 30 + 27

= − 2 ≠ O.
−3
∴ The given system has no solution and is, therefore inconsistent.
19. The system can be represented by the matrix equation AX = B.
4 −2 x = 3
6 −3 y 5
where A = 46 − 2 x 3
− 3 , X = y ,B = 5

|A| = 64 − 2
− 3 = −12 + 12 = 0
∴ A is singular
So either the system has no solution or an infinite number of solutions.
Now A11 = −3, A12 = −6, A21 = 2, A22 = 4
A A21 −3 2
∴ Adj A = 11 = − 6 4
A12 A22

(Adj. A). B = − −3 2 3 = 1 ≠ O
6 4 5 2
So the given system has no solution and is, therefore inconsistent.
20. The system can be represented by the matrix equation AX = B
6 4 x 2
9 6 y = 3
A. X = B
6 4
Now |A| = = 36 − 36 = 0
9 6
∴ A is singular.
Either the system has no solution or an infinite number of solutions.
A11 = 6, A12 = −9
A21 = −4, A22 = 6
A A21 6 −4
Adj. A = 11 =
A12 A22 −9 6
6 −4 2 12 − 12 0
(Adj. A) B = = = =O
−9 6 3 − 18 18 0
Since (Adj. A) B = O.
The given system is consistent and has an infinite number of solutions. To obtain the infinite
solution, take y = k and solve any one of the given equations as follows
6x+4y = 2
1
6x = 2−4y or x = (2−4k) [ y = k]
6
1
i.e., x = (1−2k).
3
156 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

1
Hence x = (1−2k), y = k, where k is any real number gives us infinite number of
3
solutions.
21. The system can be represented by the matrix equation AX = B.
2 3 x = 5
6 9 y 10
where A = 26 93 , X = x , B = 5
y 10
Here |A| = 62 93 = 18 − 18 = 0
∴ A is singular
Either the system has no solution or an infinite number of solutions
A11 = 9 A12 = − 6
A21 = −3, A22 = 2
A A21 9 −3
Adj. A = 11 =
A12 A22 −6 2
9 −3 5
(Adj. A) B = = 45 − 30 = 15 ≠ O
−6 2 10 − 30 + 20 − 10
The given system has no solution and is, therefore, inconsistent.
System of homogeneous linear equation
The system of equations
a1x + b1y + c1 z = 0
a2x + b2y + c2z = 0
a3x + b3y + c3z = 0
is a system of homogeneous linear equations and written as AX = O
x = y = z = 0 is always a solution and is called the trivial solution.
Let us see whether the system has non-trivial solutions.
Suppose A is non-singular. Then A−1 exists and we get
A−1 (AX) = O
(A−1 A) X = O or I. X = O
∴ X=O
Hence, if A is non-singular, the system has only trivial solution.
In order that the system AX = O has non-trivial solution, it is necessary | A | = O.
Theorem. A system of a n homogeneous linear equations in n unknowns has non-trivial
solutions if and only if the coefficient matrix is singular.
We illustrate a method for finding non-trivial solution by an example.
Example 22. Find non-trivial solution of the system
3x+2y+7z = 0
4x−3y−2z = 0
5x+9y+23z = 0
Solution. The coefficient matrix
3 2 7
A = 4 −3 −2
5 9 23
vkO;wg ¼tkjh½ 157

3 2 7
|A| = 4 − 3 − 2 = 3(−69 + 18) − 2(92 + 10) + 7(36 + 15)
= −153 − 204 + 357 = −357 + 357 = 0
5 9 23
∴ A is singular
∴ The given system of equations has non-trivial solution.
From first equation, we get
− 2y − 7z
3x = −2y − 7z or x =
3
putting this value of x in the second equation, we have
− 2y − 7z
4 − 3y − 2z = 0
3
− 8y − 28x − 9y − 6z
=0
3
−17y − 34z = 0 or y = −2z.
Putting this value of y in the first equation.
3x−4z+7z = 0 or 3x = −3z i.e., x = −z.
Hence x = −k, y = −2k and z = k constitute the general solution of equations, where k is
any real number. Since we can give any arbitrary values to k, therefore the given system of
equations has an infinite number of solutions.
Criterion of Consistency regarding solution of homogeneous linear equations given
by AX = O, where A is a square matrix.
(i) If | A | ≠ 0, then the system has only trivial solution.
(ii) If | A | = 0, the system has infinitely many solutions.
Note that if | A | = 0, then (Adj. A) B = O as B = O.
Exercise 8.2
1. Find the inverse of the following matrices.
1 2 4 2 5 3 1 2 3
(i) 5 7 8 (ii) 3 1 2 (iii) 2 3 2
9 10 12 1 2 1 3 3 4
2 5
2. If A = find A−1 and verify that
1 6
−1 8
A−1 = A+ I
7 7
3. If A = 42 15 show that A − 3 I = 2 [I + 3A−1]
2 0 −1
4. Find the inverse of the matrix 5 1 0
and verify that
0 1 3
A−1, A = A. A−1 = I
0 1
5. Given A = 02 −− 12 02 and B = 1 0
1 1
Find the product C = AB and find C−1
158 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

0 1 −1
6. If A = 2 0 0 show that (A−1)2 + A = I
1 −1 0
1 3 4
7. If A = 3 −1 6 prove that (A′)−1 = (A−1)′
−1 5 1
8. Solve the following system of equations by matrix method
(a) 4x − 3y = 5 (b) x + 2y = 4 (c) 2x − y+4z = 18 (d) x−2y + 3z = 5
3x−5y = 1 2x+5y = 9 −3x + z = − 2 4x +3y+4z = 7
−x + y = 0 x + y − z = −4
9. Solve the following set of homogeneous equations.
(i) x + y + z = 0 (ii) 3x − y + z = 0
x − y −5z = 0 −15x + 6y−5z = 0
x+2y +4z = 0 5x −2y +2z = 0
10. Two cities A and B are 70 km apart. Two cars start at the same time, one from A and other
from B. If they move in the same direction, they meet after 7 hours but if they move in opposite
directions, they meet after 1 hour. Find the speeds of the two cars.

Answers 8.1
1 2 3 1 2 4
1. (i) 0 1 2 (ii) − 2 − 4 5
2 0 1 4 5 −6
9 5
−1 3 0 −2
2 2
9 −5
3. 3 2 + 0 2
2 2
3 2 5 2 −2 0

5 − 13 11
−1 5
4. (i) (ii) 12 12 −6
4 −2
−8 10 4

Answers 8.2.
1 1
− 4 − 16 12
1 1 −3 1 7 1 − 6 −1 5 −
(1) (i) − 12 24 − 12 (ii) − 1 − 1 5 ,(iii) 2 5 − 4 5, 3 3
24 13 − 8 4 5 1 − 13 7 3 −3 1 1
3 1
3 6
8. (a) x = 2, y = 1 (b) x =2, y = 1 (c) x =2, y = 2, z = 4 (d) x =−2, y =1, z = 3
9. x = 2k, y = −3k, z = k where k is any real number
10. x=y=z=0.
160 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

Chapter-9

1I
(Linear Programming Graphical Method)
! " !
# $%
& $ '& ( ) * + ,& '
-+ &+ & + # . /
0 ' 1&
& buy -+ &+ & '
For manufacturing a product, a number of resources like raw material, machines,
manpower and other types of materials. These resources are available in limited quantity but
their demand is more. SOo they are used be optimally utilized so that cost could be minimised
and profits could be maximised. Linear programming is a technique which helps us in the
optimal utilisation of these resources.

Characteristics of Linear Programming

1. 1& & "
2 3"& 4 # &5& '
Every linear programming problem has an objective which should be clearly identifiable and
measurable. For example objective can be maximisation of sales, profits and minimisation of
costs and so on.

2. . # . # &5 & '

All the products and resources should also be clearly identifiable and measurable.

3. ( ) '
Resources are available in limited quantity.

4. 3"& # ( 1 6*% $ 7&$ 7 1&

'& 6 *% 1 & 2/ '
The relationship representing objectives and resources limitation are represented by
constraint in equalities or equations. These relationships are linear in nature.

The above characteristics will be clear from the following example :

A firm is engaged in manufacturing two products A and B. Each unit of A requires 2 kg.
of raw material and 4 labour hours for processing while each unit of B requires 3 kg. of
raw material and 3 labour hours. The weekly availability of raw material and labour
hours is limited to 60 kg. and 96 hours respectively. One unit of product A sold for Rs.
40 while are unit of B is sold for Rs. 35.

In the above problem, first we define the objective. Since we are given data on sales
prince per unit of two products, so our objective is to maximise the soles.

Let x1 be the number of units of A and x2 be the number of units of B to be produced. So

Sales revenue frïm from sale of x1 unit of A = 40x1 and
Sales revenue from sale of x2 units of B = 35x2. Thus
Total sales = 40x1 + 35x2 and
js[kh; fu;kstu&1 I fcUnq js[kh; fof/k 161

Our objective becomes

Maximise Z = 40x1 + 35x2
After this we come to the constraint in equalities, from the given date, we find that
quantity of raw material required to produce x1 kg of
A = 2x1 [ each unit of A requires 2 kg of raw material so x1 units of A require 2x1 kg of
raw material]

In the same way, quantity of raw material required to produce x2 units of B = 3x2
So new total raw material requirement = 2x1 = + 3x2

But here we have a constraint in the form of quantity of raw material available. Since the
maximum quantity of raw material available is limited to 60 kg, so we can not use more
than 60 kg of raw material in any case. Mathematically we can write it as
2x1 + 3x2≤ 60
In other words we can ray say that total quantity of raw material consumed is less than
and equal to (shown by the symbol ≤) 60

Similarly we can produced to expressed the labour constraints in the following way :

Labour hours required to produce to produce x1 units of A = 3x1 and

Labour hours required x2 units of B = 3x2.

Since the total number of labour hours available per week is limited to 96, we can express
this constraint as
3x1 + 3x2≤ 96
In the last we express the non-negativity condition, i.e. x1, x2 ≥ 0
Which is self clear because number of units of product A or B can be zero or positive
only.
Now the above problem can be summarised as
Max. Max. Z = 40x1 + 35x2
Subject to
2x1 + 3x2 ≤ 60
3x1 + 3x2 ≤ 96
x1, x2 ≥ 0
%& 8 1& & & 6% 1 1
Generally we can express a linear programming in the following way :
Maximise or minimise Z = C1x1 + C2x2 + … + Cnxn objective function
Subject to
a11x1 + a12x2 + … + a1nxn ≤ b1 or ≥ b1
a21x1 + a22x2 + … + a2nxn ≤ b2 or ≥ b2
...................
.
.................. Constraints
.................. Constraints
.
am1x1 + am2x2 + … + amnxn ≤ bn or ≥ bm
x1, x2, x3, …, xn ≥ 0
162 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

where C’s are the profit or cost co-efficients of decisions variables x’s, a’s are the resource co-
efficients and b’s are the resource values.

(Solution of Linear Programming problems)

1& & &$ &9 : *% 1 & # 6 ;
There are two methods of solving the linear programming problems - Graphical method
and Simplex method.

Graphical Method
Bl bl bnks &$ + <
' . *% 1 nksbks =&
< 1 '
6 1 + 8
>? *% 1 & + 1 1 +:$@ 1 '
A? 6* 1 1 1 BC° 7* ' 6
* 1
:$@ 1 '
D? E $ 7 * *$ 1 1 '
F? .$ 7 6G & @(4 H & ' A $ &% &
=&
< 2I '
By this method, we can solve problems involving two variables only, one variable is
taken as x and the second as y. On any graph we can show only two variables. The steps
involved in this method are following :
1) We draw a horizontal straight line on a graph paper which is called x-axis.
2) We draw a vertical straight line which is perpendicular to this horizontal line. This
perpendicular line is called Y-axis.

2)3) Constraints inequalities are converted into equations and plot their points on the graph.
3)4) Common feasible area of all the inequalities is found out. From this area, we get the
maximum or minimum values of Z.
The following illustrations will make it more clear :−
Example 1. Find the feasible area of the following :
(i) x ≤ 8 (ii) x ≥ 6 (iii) x = 5
Solution.
(i) (ii) (iii)

y
y y

m n
l

0 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 x 0 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 x 0 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 x

Shaded portion shows the feasible area.

In the first case, feasible area is to the right of the vertical line l. There is no limit to its
maximum value. In the second case, the feasible area is to the left of the line m forwards y-axis
and in third case, feasible area is along the line n.
js[kh; fu;kstu&1 I fcUnq js[kh; fof/k 163

To find feasible area of an equation having two variables only

Example 2. Find the feasible area of the following :
(i) 2x + y ≤ 6 (ii) 2x + y ≤ 6, x, y ≥ 0
Solution (i). For plotting the lines, change the inequalities into equations so 2x
+y=6
Find two points to be plotted on the graph
When x = 0 y = 6
When y = 0 x = 3
So we get two points (0, 6) and (3, 0) which when plotted on the graph and joined by a
line gives us the line of the above equation.

8y
7
6
5
4 C(4, 5)
3
2
1
B
x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Now since there is no mention of the signs of z x and y. So feasible area extends
infinitely to the left of line joining points. A(0, 6) and B(3, 0). any Any point taken to the right
of line joining A and B does not satisfy this condition of inequality. For example, let us consider
point C(4, 5) Substituting the values of x = 4 and y = 5 in the L.H.S. of the inequality we get
2x + y = 2 × 4 + 5 = 13
which is not less than 6. Hence this point does not lies in the feasible area of the in equation.
(ii) In this case, since we are given x, y ≥ 0, it means that neither x notr y can have negative
sign. So the feasible area of the inequality 2x + y ≤ 6 lies in the region OAB.
y
8
7
6 A
5
4
3
2
1 B
x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Example 3. Draw the graph of the in equation 2x + 3y ≤ 35.

Solution. The solution of the above problem is the set of pairs (x, y) satisfying 2x + 3y ≤
35
Draw the straight line 2x + 3y = 35.
164 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

Y
B Region 2x + 3y > 35

2x + 3y = 35

Region
2x + 3y < 35

O A X

35 35
This meets x-axis (y = 0) at A( , 0) and y-axis (x = 0) at B(0, ). The regions are as
2 3
shown in the figure. The solution of the above problem is the set of those points (x, y) whose co-
ordinates are integers (can be zero) and lying in the region OAB (shaded).
x y
Example 4. Draw the graph of he in equation + ≤ 31. Which of the following
200 300
points lie in the graph (i) 300, 0 (ii) 200, 400 (iii) 150, 250
x y
Solution. + ≤ I1
200 300
y
500
400
300
200
100
x
0 100 200 300 400 500

or 3x + 2y ≤ 600
Changing into equation
3x + 2y = 600
when x = 0, y = 300
y = 0, x = 200
From the graph, it is clear that
(i) point (300, 0) does not lie in the graph.
(ii) Point (200, 400) also does not lie in graph but
(iii)Point (150, 250) lies in the graph.
Example 5. Draw the diagram of solution set of the linear constraints
2x + 3y ≤ 6
x + 4y ≤ 4
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0.
Solution. The given constraints are
js[kh; fu;kstu&1 I fcUnq js[kh; fof/k 165

2x + 3y ≤ 6
x + 4y ≤ 4
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0.
Consider a set of rectangular cartesian axes OXY in the plane. Each point has co-ordinates
of the type (x, y) and conversely. It is clear that any point which satisfies x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 lies in
the first quadrant.

Let us draw the graph of 2x + 3y = 6

For x = 0, 3y = 6, i.e., y = 2
For y = 0, 2x = 6 i.e., x = 3

∴ line 2x + 3y = 6 meets OX in A(3, 0)

and OY in L(0, 2) L(0,2)
Again let us draw the graph of 12 2
x + 4y = 4
M(0,1) C ,
5 5
For x = 0, 4y = 4 i.e., y = 1
For y = 0, x = 4
∴ line x + 4y = 4 meets OX in B(4, 0) O A(3,0) B(4,0)
and OY in M(0, 1)
Since feasible region is the region which satisfies all the constraints,
∴ feasible region is the quadrilateral OACM.
The corner points are
12 2
O(0, 0), A(3, 0), C , , M(0, 1)
5 5
Note 1. Students must note that graphs are to be drawn on the graph paper.
2. Point C can also be calculated by solving the equation 2x + 3y = 6, x + 4y = 4. It helps
them in verifying the result obtained from the graph.
3. 2x + 3y ≤ 6 represents the region on and below the line AL. Similarly 2x + 3y ≥ 6 will
represent the region on and above the line AL.
4. In order to have a clear picture of the region below or above the line, it is better to note
that if the point (x1, y1) satisfies the in equation then the region containing this point is the
required region.
Example 6. Verify that the solution set of the following linear constraints is empty:
x − 2y ≥ 0, 2x − y ≤ −2, x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0.
Solution. The straight line x − 2y = 0 passes through O.
The straight line 2x − y = −2 meets x-axis at A(−1, 0) and y-axis at B(0, 2).
We have the following figure.
Since no portion satisfies all the four constraints,
∴ the solution set is empty.
166 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

y
2x−y = −2
x=0

x−2y = 0
B(0,2)

A(−1,0)
y=0 x

Solution of LPP by graphical method

(A) Maximisation case −
Example 7. A furniture dealer deals in only two items : tables and chairs. He has Rs.
5000.00 to invest and a space to store at most 60 pieces. A table costs him Rs. 250.00 and a
chair Rs. 50.00. He can sell a table at a profit of Rs. 50.00 and a chair at a profit of Rs.
15.00. Assuming that he can sell all the items that he buys, how should he invest his money in
order that he may maximize his profit ?
Solution. We formulate the problem mathematically.
Max. possible investment = Rs. 5000.00
Max. storage space = 60 pieces of furniture
Cost Profit
Table : Rs. 250.00 Rs. 50.00
CostChair : Rs. 50.00 Rs. 15.00
Let x and y be the number of tables and chairs respectively. Then we have the following
constraints :
x≥0 …(1) y≥0 …(2)
250x + 50y ≤ 5000 i.e. 5x + y ≤ 100 …(3)
and x + y ≤ 60 …(4)
Let Z be the profit, then Z = 50x + 15y …(5)
We are to maximize Z subject to constraint (1), (2) (3) and (4).
Let us graph the constraints given in (1), (2), (3) and (4).
Explanation. Draw the straight lines x = 0, (y-axis), y = 0 (x-axis).
Draw the straight line x + y = 60. This meets the x-axis at (60, 0) and y-axis at (0, 60).
Draw the straight line 5x + y = 100. This meets x-axis at (20, 0) and y-axis at (0, 100).
The shaded region consists of points, which are the intersections of four constraints. This
region is called feasible solution of the linear programming problem.
The vertices of the figure OABC show the possible combinations of x and y one of which
gives us the maximum value. Now we consider the points one by one.
js[kh; fu;kstu&1 I fcUnq js[kh; fof/k 167

y
100
90 5x+y = 100
80
70
C 60
B(10,50)
50
40
Chairs
30 x + y = 100
20
10 A
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 x
Tables
Feasible region

Example 8. A company manufactures two types of telephone sets, one of which is

cordless. The cord type telephone set requires 2 hours to make, and the cordless model requires
4 hours. The company has at most 800 working hours per day to manufacture these models and
the packing department can pack at the most 300 telephone sets per day. If the company sells,
the cord type model for Rs. 300 and the cordless model for Rs. 400, how many telephone sets of
each type should it produce per day to maximize its sales ?
Solution. Let the number of cord type telephone sets be x and the number of
cordless type telephone sets be y.
Clearly we have : x ≥ 0 ; y ≥ 0 …(i)
Also 2x + 4y ≤ 800 …(ii)
x + y ≤ 400300 …(iii)
Let Z be sale function, Z = 300 x + 400 y
The problem reduces to maximize sale function subject to the conditions :
x ≥ 0 :; y≥0
2x + 4y ≤ 800 ; x + y ≤ 300 …(A)
Let us draw the graph of system (A) and solution set of these inequations is the shaded region
OABC and so the feasible region is the shaded region whose corner points are O(0, 0), A(300,
0), B(200, 100), C(0, 200). Since the maximum value of the sale function occurs only at the
boundary point (s) and so we calculate the sale function at every point of the feasible region.
y
300 5x+y = 100
Cordless Telephones

250
C
(0,200)
150 B(200,100)
100
2x + 4y =800
50
A
50
100
150
200
250

350
400
(300,0)

Cord-type telephones
168 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

Boundary points of the feasible region S = 300 x + 400 y

O(0, 0) S = 300 × 0 + 400 × 0 = 0
A(300, 0) S = 300 × 300 + 400 × 0 = Rs. 90, 000
B(200, 100) S = 300 × 200 + 400 × 100 = Rs. 100000
C(0, 200) S = 300 × 0 + 400 × 200 = Rs. 80, 000
Hence the maximum sale is Rs. 100000 at B(200, 100) and so company should produce 200
cord type and 100 cordless telephone sets.
Example 9. Solve the following LPP
Maximize Z = 10x + 12y
Subject to the constraints :
x+y ≤5
4x + y ≥ 4
x + 5y ≥ 5
x≤4
y≤3
Solution. It is a problem of mixed constraints. Constraints having greater than or equal
to (≥) sign will have their feasible area to the right of their line while the constraints having less
than a equal to (≤) sign will have their area to the left of their line.
The given linear constraints are :
x+y ≤5 …(1)
4x + y ≥ 4 …(2)
x + 5y ≥ 5 …(3)
x≤4 …(4)
y≤3 …(5)
Let us draw the graph of inequations (1), (2), (3), (4) and (5). The graph (or solution set)
1 15 16
of these inequations is the shaded area (a polygen ABCDE) with vertices ,3 ; , ;
4 19 19
1
4, ; (4, 1) ; (2, 3) as shown in the figure below :
5
y

4x+y = 4 x=4
A(1/4,3) E(2,3) y=3

x+5y = 5
C(4, 1)
B C(4,1/5)
X′ O (15/19,16/19) X
x+y = 5
js[kh; fu;kstu&1 I fcUnq js[kh; fof/k 169

This shaded area is bounded by the five lines x + y = 5, 4x + y = 4, x + 5y = 5, x = 4 and y = 3.


Boundary points of the feasible region Z = 10x + 12y


1 1
A ,3 10 × + 12 × 3 = 38.5
4 4
15 16 15 16
B , 10 × + 12 × = 18
19 19 19 19
1 1
C 4, 10 × 4 + 12 × = 42.4
5 5
D(4, 1) 10 × 4 + 12 × 1 = 52
E(2, 3 10 × 2 + 12 × 3 = 56

Since maximum value of Z is Rs. 56 at E, so optimum solution is x = 2, y = 3
Example 10. If a young man rides his motor-cycle at 25 km per hour, he has to spend
Rs. 2 per km on petrol ; if he rides it at a faster speed of 40 km per hour, the petrol cost increases
to Rs. 5 per km. He has Rs. 100 to spend on petrol and wishes to find what is the maximum
distance he can travel within one hour. Express this as a linear programming problem and then
solve it.

Solution. Let the young man ride x km at the speed of 25 km per hour and y km at
the speed of 40 km per hour. Let f be the total distance covered, which is to be maximized.
∴ f = x + y is the objective function.
Cost of travelling per km is Rs. 2 at the speed of 25 km per hour and cost of travelling per km
is Rs. 5 at the speed of 40 km per hour.
∴ total cost of travelling = 2x + 5y
Also Rs. 100 are available for petrol
∴ 2x + 5y ≤ 100
x
Time taken to cover x km at the speed of 25 km per hour = hour
25
y
Time taken to cover y km at the speed of 40 km per hour = hour
40
Total time available = 1 hour
x y
∴ we have + ≤1
25 40
or 8x + 5y ≤ 200
Also x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
∴ we are to maximize
f =x+y
subject to the constraints
2x + 5y ≤ 100
8x + 5y ≤ 200
x ≥ 0 , y ≥ 0.
Consider a set of rectangular cartesian axes OXY in the plane.
170 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

It is clear that any point which satisfies x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 lies in the first quadrant.
Let us draw the graph of the line 2x + 5y = 100
For x = 0, 5y = 100 or y = 20
For y = 0, 2x = 100 or x = 50
∴ line meets OX in A(50, 0) and OY in L(0, 20)
Again we draw the graph of the line
8x + 5y = 200.
For x = 0, 5y = 200 or y = 40
For y = 0, 8x = 200 or x = 25
∴ line meets OX in B(25, 0) and OY in M(0, 40)
Y

M(0,40)

L(0,20)
C(50/3,40/3)

O B(25,0) A(50,0) X

Since feasible region is the region which satisfies all the constraints,
∴ feasible region is the quadrilateral OBCL. The corner points are O(0, 0), B(25, 0),
50 40
C , , L(0, 20)
3 3
At O(0, 0) f=0+0=0
At B(25, 0), f = 25 + 0 = 25
50 40 50 40
At C , , f= + = 30
3 3 3 3
At L(0, 20),f = 0 + 20 = 20
50 40
∴ maximum value of f = 30 at , .
3 3
50
∴ the young man covers the maximum distance of 30 km when he rides km at the speed of
3
40
25 km per hour and km at the speed of 40 km per hour.
3
Example 11. A farmer decides to plant up to 10 hectares with cabbages and potatoes.
He decided to grow at least 2, but not more than 8 hectares of cabbage and at least 1, but not
more than 6 hectares of potatoes. If he can make a profit of Rs. 1500 per hectare on cabbages
and Rs. 2000 per hectare on potatoes how should he plan his farming so as to get the maximum
profit ? (Assuming that all the yield that he gets is sold.)
Solution. Suppose the farmer plants x hectares with cabbages and y hectares with
potatoes.
Then the constraints are
2≤x≤8 …(1) 1 ≤ y ≤ 6 …(2)
x + y ≤ 10 …(3)
js[kh; fu;kstu&1 I fcUnq js[kh; fof/k 171

and P = 1500 x + 2000y …(4)

We draw the lines x = 2, x = 8, y = 1, y = 6 and x + y = 10.
y

x=2
D(4, 6) y = 6
E(2,6) x +y =10 x=8
x+5y = 5
C(8,2) y = 1
A(2,1)
B(8,1)
O (15/19,16/19) X
x+y = 5

The vertices of the solution set ABCDE are

A(2, 1), B(8, 1), C(8, 2), D(6, 4) and E(2, 6)
Now at A(2, 1), P = 1500 (2) + 2000(1) = 3000 + 2000 = 5000
at B(8, 1), P = 1500 (8) + 2000(1) = 12000 + 2000 = 14000
at C(8, 2), P = 1500 (8) + 2000(2) = 12000 + 4000 = 16000
at D(4, 6), P = 1500 (4) + 2000(6) = 6000 + 12000 = 18000
at E(2, 6), P = 1500 (2) + 2000(6) = 3000 + 12000 = 15000.
Hence in order to maximise profit the farmer plants 4 hectares with cabbages and 6 hectares
with potatoes.
Example 1912. An aeroplane can carry a maximum of 200 passengers. A profit of Rs.
400 is made on each first class ticket and a profit of Rs. 300 is made on each economy class
ticket. The airline reserves at least 20 seats for first class. However, at least four times as many
passengers prefer to travel by economy class than by the first class. Determine how many each
type of tickets must be sold in order to maximise the profit for the airline. What is the maximum
profit ?
Solution. Let the number of first class tickets and Economy class tickets sold by the
Airline be x and y respectively.
Maximum capacity of passengers is 200 i.e. x + y ≤ 200 …(i)
At least 20 seats of first class are reserved x ≥ 20 …(ii)
At least 4 x seats of Economy class are reserved
y ≥ 4x …(iii)
Let P the profit function, P = 400x + 300y
∴ the problem reduces to maximize P subject to the constraints x ≥ 20 ; y ≥ 4x and x + y ≤ 200.
Let us find out the solution set of the inequations x ≥ 20 ; y ≥ 4x and x + y ≤ 200.
172 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

y
240
220 y = 4x
(0,200)
200
180 (20,800)
No. of economy tickets

E
160 C(40, 160)
x = 20

140
120
x + y = 200
100
80
60
40
20 B(200, 0)
0 X
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
No. of first class tickets 200

The triangularle shaded region CDE is the feasible region and its vertices are :
C(40, 160), D(20, 80), E(20, 180)
Since the maximum or minimum value occurs at the boundary point (s) and we calculate the
profit function P at every vertex of the feasible region.
Boundary points of the feasible region P = 400x + 300y
C(40, 100160) P = 400 × 40 + 300 × 160 = Rs. 64,000
(Maximum profit)
D(20, 80) P = 400 × 20 + 300 × 80 = Rs. 32,000
E(20, 180) P = 400 × 20 + 300 × 180 = Rs. 62,000
∴ Maximum profit Rs. 64000 is obtained at C(40, 160) and so Airline should sell 40 tickets
of first and 160 tickets of economy class. [Ans.]
(B) Minimusation Minimisation caseCase
,sls iz'
uksa esa mís'; Qyu Z dh dher fuEure djuh gksrh gSA izk;% ykxr] nwjh] [kpkZ]
[krjk oxSjkg ds iz'uksa esa gekjk mís'; mu dk ewY; fuEure j[kus dk gksrk gSA
In such questions, value of the objective function is to be minimised. Generally, in the
questions involving cost, distance, expenses risk etc. our objective to keep their value least.
Note : izk;% vf/kdre fLFkfr esa ge de ;k cjkcj (≤) okyh :dkoVsa iz;ksx djrs gS rFkk fuEure
fLFkfr esa ge T;knk ;k cjkcj (≥) okyh :dkoVsa iz;ksx djrs gSA dHkh&dHkh ge feyh tqyh
:dkoVsa (≥ rFkk ≤ nksuksa) dk Hkh iz;ksx djrs gSaA
Generally in case of maximisation, we use the constraints of less than or equal to (≤) type and
in case of minimisation, we use constraints of greater than a equal to (≥) type. But same some
times, we also use mixed constraints (both ≥ and ≤).
Example 13. A gardener uses two types of fertilizers I and II. Type I consists of 10%
nitrogen and 6% phosphoric acid while type II consists of 5% nitrogen and 10% phosphoric acid.
He requires at least 14 kg. of both nitrogen and phosphoric acid for his crop. If the type I
fertilizer costs Rs. 0.60 per kg and type II costs Rs. 0.40 per kg., how many kilograms of each
fertilizer he should use so as to minimise the total cost. Also find the minimum cost.
Solution. Let x be the quantity (in kg) of type I fertilizer and to y be the quantity (in kg) of
type II fertilizer to be used by the gardener.
js[kh; fu;kstu&1 I fcUnq js[kh; fof/k 173

So the objective function is

Minimize Minimise Z = 0.60 x = 0.40 y
Subject to the constraints
0.1 x + 0.05 y ≥ 14 or 2x + y ≥ 280
0.06x + 0.10y ≥ 14 or 3x + 5y ≥ 700
Changing the inequalities into equalities, we get 2x + y = 200 280 and 3x = + 5y = 700
x 0 140 x 0 700
3
y 280 0 y 140 0
(x, y) (0, 280) (140, 140) (x, y) (0, 140) 700
( , 0)
3
700
Non Now solution set of (A) is the shaded region ABC and so it is feasible region. A( , 0),
3
B(100, 80), C(0, 280) are the boundary points of the feasible region.
Since the minimum cost occurs only at boundary points and so let us calculate the value of C
at every vertex of the feasible region.
Y
300
C
(0,280)

(250)
Fertilizer type-II in k.g.

200

150 2x + y = 280

100
B
50 (100,80)
3x +5y = 700 A
O 50 100 150 200 250 X

(140, 0) (700/3)
Fertilizer type-I in k.g.

Example 14. Minimize

C = x + y subject to
3x + 2y ≥ 12
x + 3y ≥ 11
x≥0
y≥0
Solution. Let us solve graphically the following inequations ;
3x + 2y ≥ 12
x + 3y ≥ 11 …(A)
x≥0
y≥0
174 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

(0, 11/2)
B
(2,3)
x +3y = 11

(4, 0)
O X
A(11, 0)
3x +2y = 12

Changing the inequalities into equations, we get

3x + 2y = 12 x + 3y = 11
x 0 4 x 11 0
y 6 0 y 0 11
3
Shaded region ABC is the required feasible region of the above stated inequations.
Boundary points of the feasible region are :
A(11, 0), B(2, 3), C(0, 6).
Since minimum or maximum always occurs only at boundary point (s) and so will calculate
the cost (C) at every boundary point of the feasible region.
Boundary point of C=x+y
the feasible region
A(11, 0) 11 +0 = Rs. 11
B(2, 3) 2 + 3 = Rs. 5 (Mini. Cost)
C(0, 6) 0 + 6 = Rs. 6
Hence minimum cost is at the point B(2, 3) and minimum cost is Rs. 5.
Example 15. Find the maximum and minimum values of the function 2 = 3x + y
Subject to the constraint
x + y≤ 2
4x + y ≤ 25
x, y ≥≤ 20
Solution. Let us first change the inequalities into equation
x+y=2 4x + y = 5
X 0 2 x 0 5
4
y 2 0 y 5 0
Solution set of the above inequations is the required shaded feasible region OABC whose
5
boundary points are O(0, 0), A( , 0), B(1, 1), C(0, 2).
4
js[kh; fu;kstu&1 I fcUnq js[kh; fof/k 175

5 (0, 5)

4
y + 4x = 5
3
C
(0,2)
B(1,1)
1

A (2, 0)
O X
1 2 3
(5/4, 0)
x+y=2

Since the minimum or maximum value of C occurs only at the boundary point (s) and so let
us calculate the value of Z at every vertex of the feasible region OABC.
Boundary points of Z = 3x + y
the feasible region
O(0, 0) Z = 3 × 0 + 0 = Re. 0 (Minimum cost)
5 5
A( , 0) Z=3× + 0 = Rs. 3.75
4 4
B(1, 1) Z = 3 × 1 + 1 = Rs. 4
C(0, 2) Z = 3 × 0 + 2 = Rs. 2
So the maximum value is Rs. 4 and the minimum value Rs. 0.80 for maximisation x = 1, y
= 1 and for minimization x = 0, y = 0.
Example 16. Minimise P = 2x + 3y, subject to the conditions
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0, 1 ≤ x + 2y ≤ 10.
Solution.
We have : x≥0 …(1) y≥0 …(2)
x + 2y ≥ 1 …(3) x + 2y ≤ 10 …(4)
and P = x + 3y
We find out the solution set (convex polygon), where (1) − (4) are true,
For this, we draw the graph of he lines
x = 0, y = 0, x + 2y = 1, 2x + 2y = 10.
176 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

5 C(0, 5)

4
x + 2y = 10
3

(0, 1/2) 1

B(10, 0)
O X
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A(1, 0)
(x + 2y = 1)

The shaded portion is the feasible region of the constraints.

Now
at A(1, 0), P = 2(1) + 3(0) = 2
at B(10, 0), P = 2(10) + 3(0) = 20
at C(0, 5), P = 2(0) + 3(5) = 15
1 1 3
at D(0, ), P = 2(0) + 3( ) = .
2 2 2
1
Since the minimum value is at D, so the optimal solution is x = 0, y = .
2
Example 17. Find the maximum and minimum value of
Z = x + 2y
Subject subject to
2x + 3y ≤ 6
x + 4y ≤ 4
x, y ≥ 0
Solution. We are maximize and minimize
Z = x + 2y
Subject of the constraints 2x + 3y ≤ 6
x + 4y ≤ 4
x, y ≥ 0
First quadrant.
We we draw the graph of the line 2x + 3y = 6.
For x = 0, 3y = 6, or y = 2
For y = 0, 2x = 6, or x = 3
∴ line meets OX in A(3, 0) and OY in L(0,2).
draw the graph of line x + 4y = 4
For x = 0, 4y = 4 or y = 1
For y = 0, x = 4
∴ line meets OX in B(4, 0) and OY in M(0,1).
js[kh; fu;kstu&1 I fcUnq js[kh; fof/k 177

Since feasible region is the region which satisfies all the constraints.
∴ OACm OACM is the feasible region. The corner points are
12 2
O(0, 0), A(3, 0), C , , M(0, 1)
5 5

L(0,2)

2x + 3y = 6
M(0,1) x + 4y = 4

C(12/5, 2/5)

O A(3,0) B(4,0) X

At O(0, 0), f = 0 + 0 = 0
At A(3, 0), f = 3 + 0 = 3
12 2 12 4 16
At C , ,f= + = = 3.2
5 5 5 5 5
At M(0, 1), f = 0 + 2 = 2
∴ Minimum value = 0 at (0,0)
12 2
and maximum value = 3.2 at
, .
5 5
Example 18. Find the maximum and minimum value of the function
Z = 7x = + 7y
Subject to the constraints
x + y ≥ 12
2x + 3y ≤ 1 6
x, y ≥ 0
Solution. We have : x ≥ 1 …(1) y≥0 …(2)

2 C(0, 2)

1
B(3,0)
O 1 2 3 2x + 3y = 6 X
A(2, 0)
x+y=2

x+y≥2 ...(3) 2x + 3y ≤ 6 …(4)

178 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

and P = 7x + 7y
We fined out the solution set (convex polygon), (1) − (4) are all true. For this, we draw the
graph of the lines
x = 0, y = 0, x + y = 2 and 2x + 3y = 6.
The shaded portion is the feasible region of the constraints.
Now at A(2, 0), P = 7(2) + 0 = 14
at B(3, 0), P = 7(3) + 0 = 21
at C(0, 2), P = 7(0) + 7(2) = 14.
(i) Since max. value is 21, so optimal solution for maximisation is x = 3, y = 0
(ii) Since min. values is 14, so optimal solution for minimization is (a) x = 2, y = 0 and (ii) x =
0, y = 2. So we have multiple optimal solutions is case of minimization of this problem.
Exercise 9.1
Draw the diagrams of the solution sets of the following (1 − 3) linear constraints :
1. 3x + 4y ≥ 12, 4x + 7y ≤ 28, x ≥ 0, y ≥ 1.
2. x + y ≤ 5, 4x + y ≥ 4, x + 5y ≥ 5, x ≤ 4, y ≤ 3.
3. x + y ≥ 1, y ≤ 5, x ≤ 6, 7x + 9y ≤ 63, x, y ≥ 0.
4. Verify that the solution set of the following constraints is empty :
3x + 4y ≥ 12, x + 2y ≤ 3, x ≥ 0, y ≥ 1.
5. Verify that the solution set of the following constraints :
x − 2y ≥ 0, 2x − y ≤ −2
is not empty and is unbounded.
6. Draw the diagram of the solution set of the linear constraints
(i) 3x + 2y ≤ 18 (ii) 2x + y ≥ 4
x + 2y ≤ 10 3x + 5y ≥ 15
x ≥ 3, y ≥ 0 x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
7. Exhibit graphically the solution set of the linear constraints
x+y≥1
y≤5
x≤6
7x + 9y ≤ 63
x, y ≥ 0
8. Verify that the solution set of the following linear constraints is empty :
(i) x − 2y ≥ 0 (ii) 3x + 4y ≥ 12
2x − y ≤ −2 x + 2y ≤ 3
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 y ≥ 1, x ≥ 0
9. Verify that the solution set of the following linear constraints is unbounded :
3x + 4y ≥ 12
y≥1
x≥0
10. Find the linear constraints for which the shaded area in the figures below is the solution set :
js[kh; fu;kstu&1 I fcUnq js[kh; fof/k 179

Y Y

7x + 4y =14

x − y =1 3x + 4y =18

x − 6y
X′ X X′ X
O O
2x + y =2
Y′ x + 2y =8
Y′ 2x + 3y =3
11. Find the maximum and minimum value of
2x + y subject to the constraints
2x + 3y ≤ 30
x − 2y ≤ 8
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
12. Solve by graphical method :
(i) Minimize Z = 3x1 + 2x2 (ii) Find the maximum value of
Subject to the constraints z = 5x1 + 3x2
−2x1 + x2 ≤ 1 subject to the constraints
x1 ≤ 2 3x1 + 5x2 ≤ 15
x1 + x2 ≤ 3 5x1 + 2x2 ≤ 10
x1, x2 ≥ 0 x1, x2 ≥ 0
(iii) Find the maximum value of
z = 2x1 + 3x2
subject to the constraints
x1 + x2 ≤ 1
3x1 + x1 ≤ 4
x1, x2 ≥ 0
(iv) Find the minimum value of 3x + 5y subject to the constraints
−2x + y ≤ 4
x+y≥3
x − 2y ≤ 2
x, y ≥ 0
13. A dealer wishes to purchase a number of fans and sewing machines. He has only Rs. 5760
to invest and has space of at most 20 items. A fan costs him Rs. 360 and a sewing machine
Rs. 240. His expectation is that he can sell a fan at a profit of Rs. 22 and a sewing machine
at a profit of Rs. 18.
Assuming he can sell all the items that he can buy, how should he invest his money in
order to maximise his profit ? Also find the maximum profit.
14. A dietician wishes to mix two types of food in such a way that the vitamin contents of the
mixture contains at least 8 units of vitamin A and 10 units of vitamin C. Food I contains 2
units per kg. of vitamin A and I unit per kg. of vitamin C, while the food II contains 1 unit
per kg. of Vitamin A and 2 units per kg. of vitamin C. It costs Rs. 5 per kg. to purchase food
I and Rs. 7 per kg. to purchase food II Find the minimum cost of such mixture and the
quantity of the each of the foods.
180 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

15. A manufacturer produces nuts and bolts for industrial machinery. It takes 1 hour of work
on machine A and 3 hours on machine A and 3 on machine B to produce a package of nuts
while it takes 32 hours on machine A and 1 hour on machine B to produce a package of
bolts. He earns a profit of Rs. 2.50 per package on nuts and Rs. 1.00 per package on bolts.
How many packages of each should he produce each day so as maximise his profit, if he
operates his machines for at the most 12 hours a day ?
16. A sports factory prepares cricket bats and hockey sticks. A cricket nat bat takes 2 hours of
machine time and 3 hours of craftsman’s time. A hockey stick take 3 hours of machine time
and 2 hours of craftsman’s time. The factory has 90 hours of machine time and 85 hours of
craftsman’s time. What number of bats and sticks must be made if the factory is to work at
full capacity ? If the profit on a bat is Rs. 3 and on a stick it is Rs. 4, find the maximum
profit.
17. A trader deals in sewing machines and transistors. It has capacity to store at the most 30
pieces and he can invest Rs. 4500. A machine costs him Rs. 250 each and transistor costs
him Rs. 100 each. The profit on machine Rs. 40 and on a transistor it is Rs. 25. Find
number of sewing machines and transistors to take max. profit.
18. Every gram of wheat provides 0.1 g of proteins and 0.25 g of carbohydrates. The
corresponding values for rice are 0.05 g and 0.5 g respectively. Wheat costs Rs. 2 per kg
and rice Rs. 8. The minimum daily requirements of protein and carbohydrates for an
average child are 50 g and 200 g respectively. In what quantities should wheat and rice be
mixed in the daily diet to provide the minimum daily requirements of protein and
carbohydrates at minimum cost.
19. A toy company manufactures two types of dolls, a basic version-doll A and a deluxe
version-doll B. Each doll of type B takes twice as long to produce as one of type A, and the
company would have time to make a maximum of 2,000 per day if it produced only the
basic version. The supply of plastic is sufficient t o produce 1,500 dolls per day (both A and
B combined). The deluxe version requires a fancy dress of which there are only 600 per day
available. If the company makes a profit of Rs. 3.00 and Rs. 5.00 per doll respectively on
doll A and B ; how many of each should be produced pe r day in order to maximize profit ?
20. Smita goes to the market to purchase battons. She needs at least 20 large battons and at
least 30 small battons. tHe The shopkeeper sells battons in two forms (i) boxes and (ii)
cards. A box contains then large and five small battons and a card contains two large and
five small battons. Find the most economical way in which she should purchase the battons,
if a box costs 25 paise and a card 10 paise only.
21. Vikram has two machines with which he can manufacture either bottles or tumblers. The
first of the two machines has to be used for one minute and the second for two minutes in
order to manufacture a bottle and the two machines have to be used for one minute each to
manufacture a tumbler. During an hour the two machines can be operated for at the most 50
and 54 minutes respectively. Assuming that he can sell as many bottles and tumblers as the
can produce, find how many of bottles and tumblers he should manufacture so that his profit
per hour is maximum being given that the gets a profit of ten paise per bottle and six paise
pe rtumbler.
22. A company produces two types of presentation goods A and B that require gold and silver.
Each unit of type A requires 3 gms. of silver and 1 gm of gold while that of B requires 1 gm.
of silver and 2 gm. of gold. The company can produce 9 gms. of silver and 8 cmsgms. of
gold. If each unit of type A brings a profit of Rs. 40 and that of type B Rs. 50 determine
tehe number of units of each type that the company should produce to maximize the profit.
What is the maximum profit ?
js[kh; fu;kstu&1 I fcUnq js[kh; fof/k 181

SIMPLEX METHOD
1& & &$ *% 1 & 1& & J
"
2 ' ,& "
2 1
' # &+
2 ' 6 ;
"
2 '
K *0 ' *% 1 & 1 :
.G
& @( .% .G
& ' 6 ; .G
& L
& '

Main limitation of graphical method in solving linear programming problem is that using
this method, we can solve problems involving two variables only. In real life, we may have to
solve the problems involving more than two variables. In such situation, we can’t use this
method. Simplex method is a technique with the help of which we can find solutions to such
problems.
In this technique, we find the optimum solution systematically. As we have seen in
graphical method, the vertices of the feasible region gives us feasible solutions. Simplex method
helps us in finding the best solution from these feasible solutions.

!" #(Conditions for application of Simplex Method)

&+
2 1& " < 8
:
>M G& $ 7 & @ ' $+ & =& N7 @
(−1) +7 *& ' 7 & & $ G & 2x1 − 5x2 ≥
− 10 1 −2x1 − 5x2 ≤≥ 10 & (−1) +7 *
$ 7 %* '
AM 7& x1, x2 $ =& . O 7 '& 7& %
1 $ P % $ 1& 7 & x3
% $# & x3 %O 7 . # P .!
x3 = x4 − x5 Q 1 '
To apply this techniques the following two conditions must be satisfied
1. R.H.S of every constraint is equality must be non-negative. If it is negative in any in
equality, it is made positive by multiplying both sides of inequality by (−1). For example if
we are given the constraint 2x, − 1x2 5x2 ≥ − 10 . Then we can rewrite it as −2x + 5x ≤ 10)
Note that when we multiply both sides by (−1), the sign of inequality changes.
2. Decision variables like x1, x2 would also be non-negative. If it is given that any decision
variable is unrestricted in sign, it is expressed as difference of two non-negative variables,
For example if it is give that x3 is unrestricted in sight, we can write it as x3 = x4 − x5.
Steps in valued in simplex method
1. #
2 3"& 4 1 '& $ & 6 '
First write the objective function. It is either maximisation or minimisation.
Ex. Max Z = c1x1 + c2 x2 + c3 x3 + … + c4 cn xn
or Min Z = c1x1 + c2x2 + c3x3 + … +c4xncnxn
2. G
& $ 7 % (≥ or ≤) # 1
Write the constraint inequalities with proper signs.
Ex. a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + …+ a1n xn ≤ b1 OR
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + …+ a1n xn ≥ b1
182 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

and so an.
3. $ 7 " # # R( 7 '" #
. * < ( 1 'R ( =&
< % 4
& &+
2 '& 7 EI7 & $
< 7 & * * S≤0
4 " # &+ & +
2 & $ 7 ,& & * * S≥0 " # #
R( 2
&+ & + '
There in equalities are converted into equation by introducing slack and artificial variable. Slack
variables now the left over quantity of the resources. Artificial variables have no real value.
They are introduced first to solve the problem.
Important Note. If the in equations are of less than or equal to (≤) on sign only slack
variables are introduced. But if the in equations are of greater than or equal (≥ sign), both slack
and artificial variables are introduced.
Ex. Two given constraints are
2x1 + 3x2 ≤ 60 and 4x1 + x2 ≥ 40
we will rewrite them as
2x1 + 3x2 + S1 = 60 and 4x1 + x2 − S2 + A1 = 40
In less then constraints, slack variables (S) will have positive sign and in more than constraints,
they will have negative sign
4. 7 $G &< 1& + QI1 6 1 2
These equations are then presented in the form of a matrix where format is shown below with the
help of an example.
Example Maximise Z = 22 x1 + 18 x2
Subject to x1 + x2 ≤ 20
360 x1 + 240 x2 = ≤ 5760
change the in equations into equations
x1 + x2 + S1 = 20
360 x1 +240x2 + S2 = 5760
Table 1.
Basic cicj x1 x2 S1 S2 b
S1 0 1 1 1 0 20 Constraint values
S2 0 360 240 0 1 5760
ciCj 22 18 0 0 Co-efficient values from
Zj 0 0 0 0 constraint equation
Cj − Zj 22 18 0 0

C1 Cj is the contribution /unit of each variable shown in the objective function. Slack variables
have zero contribution. Zj shows the total contribution of various variables at any given stage.
The row showing (Cj − Zj) is called the index row. This row shows how much profit is foregone
by not producing one unit of a product etc.
Remember. An optimal solution is searched when all the values of in dex × row
become zero or negative. Now for finding the optimal solution, we consider two cases −(i)
Maximisation case (ii) Minimisation case.
Maximisation Case. Let us reconsider the above example.
(1) lEHkkOvkjfHkd lEHkkO; gy fudkyuk (Finding the initial feasible solution) our problem is
Max. Z = 22 x1 + 18 x2
Subject to x1 + x2 ≤ 20
js[kh; fu;kstu&1 I fcUnq js[kh; fof/k 183

360 x1 + 240 x2 ≤ 5760

or x1 + x2 + S1 = 20 …(1)
360 x1 + x10 240 x2 + S2 = 5760 …(2)
initially, put x1 = 0, x2 = 0. So from (1) S1 = 20 and from (2) S2 = 5760.
In the initial solution, we assume that we are not producing any quantity of either of the
products. So the resources remain fully unutilized. That whey in equation (1) we get S1 = 20
and in (2) we get S2 = 5760.
This solution is shown in the above table (in the term of matrix.)
(2) (Zj − Cj) ; * ,& P =& -<
< -' . =& + ! . $*
" + 'G& =& . =& . (bij/aij) $ +'
$ * P =& ; -<-' ; . *
+ + $ +'
Find the highest positive value in the row (Zj − Cj). The variable of the column to which this
value corresponds will entere the solution. Divide the constraint values (b’s) by the element of
this column to find the ratio (bij/aij). Choose the ratio which has minimum positive value and
find the row of this ratio. The basic variable of this row will leave the solution and thise above
variable will replace this variable consider our example

Basic ci x1 x2 S1 S2 b b/a
S1 0 1 1 1 0 20 20 ÷ 1 = 20
S2 0 360 240 0 1 5760 5760 ÷ 360 = 16
→ Outgoing variable
ci 22 18 0 0
Zj 0 0 0 0
Cj − Zj 22 18 0 0
Incoming variable
So now x1 will replace S2
. 1& .(Key column) # ; 1& ; (Key column) '
$ & 1& . 1& ; 1& $ & '
The element which belongs to both key column and key row is called key element. Now
divide all elements of key row by key column like
Key row = 360 240 0 1 5760
Divide all the values by 360, we get
360 240 0 1 5670
360 360 360 360 360
or 1 2/3 0 1/360 16
* $G &< K& 1& . * .$ & "<
%
&* & '
After using matrix operations, all other elements of key row are made equal to zero like
1st row 1 1 1 0 20
2nd row 1 2/3 0 1/360 16
R1 → R1 − R2 to get
1st row 0(1 − 1) 1/3(1 − 2/3) 1(1 −0) 0 − 1/136 −1/360 4(20− 16)
nd
2 row 1 2/3 0 1/360 16

* ;& * & $ G &< 6 1 + '

After all these changes, the new matrices will be as follow :-
184 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

Table 2
x1 x2 S1 S2 b1 Ratio
0 S1 0 1/3 1 −1/360 4 12 Key row
22 x1 1 2/3 0 1/360 16 24 Key row
ci 22 18 0 0 0 × 4 + 22 × 16
Zj 0 22 0 44/3 = 352
Cj − Zj 0 022/360 Total profit at this
22 18 0 0 stage
Cj − Zj 0 10/3 0 −22/360
Key column
;& $. . (Cj − Zj) ; P =& * $ !
< $. L '$* +
A$ D 4 &+ $ * + * (Cj − Zj) ; . < =& " <
%
& & N7
'
Because still are positive value remains in the (Cj − Zj) row, so we have get to obtain optimal
solution. Now we will repeat steps 2 and 3 and repeat them till all the values in the (Cj − Zj) row
become be zero or negative.
The new table will be as follows :
Table 3
Basic cI x1 x2 S1 S2
18 x2 0 1 3 −1/120 12
22 x1 1 0 −2 1/120 8
cI 22 18 0 0 18 × 12 + 22 × 8 = 392
Zj 22 18 10 4/120
Cj − Zj 0 0 −10 −4/120
Now there is no positive value in the index row, so we have obtained optimal solution. the
optimal solution is x1 = 8, x2 = 12 and maximum profit Z = Rs. 392 (obtained from the resources
column)
Example. A firm produces three products A, B and C, each of which passes through three
departments : Fabrication, Finishing and Packaging. Each unit of product A requires 3, 4 and 2;
a unit of product B requires 5, 4 and 4, while each unit of product C requires 2, 4 and 5 hours
respectively in the three departments. Every day, 60 hours are available in the fabrication
department, 72 hours in the finishing department and 100 hours in the packaging department.
The unit contribution of product A is Rs 5, of product B is Rs. 10, and of product C is Rs. 8.
Required :
(a) Formulate the problem as an LPP and determine the number of units of each of the products,
that should be made each day to maximise the total contribution. Also determine if any
capacity would remain unutilised.
Solution. Let x1, x2 and x3 represent the number of units of products A, B and C
respectively. The given problem can be expressed as a LPP as follows :
Maximise Z = 5x1 + 10x2 + 8x3 Contribution
Subject to
3x1 + 5x2 + 2x3 ≤ 60 Fabrication hours
4x1 + 4x2 + 4x3 ≤ 72 Finishing hours
2x1 + 4x2 + 5x3 ≤ 100 Packaging hours
x1,x2,x3 ≥ 0
Introducing slack variables, the augmented problem can be written as
Maximise Z = 5x1 + 10x2 + 8x3 + 0S1 + 0S2 + 0S3
js[kh; fu;kstu&1 I fcUnq js[kh; fof/k 185

Subject to
3x1 + 5x2 + 2x3 ≤ + S1 = 60
4x1 + 4x2 + 4x3 ≤ + S2 = 72
2x1 + 4x2 + 5x3 ≤ + S3 = 100
x1,x2,x3, S1, S2,S3 ≥ 0
The solution to the problem using simplex algorithm is contained in Tables 1 to 3

Simplex Table 1 : Initial Solution

Basic x1 x2 x3 S1 S2 S3 bi bi/aij
S1 0 3 2 5* 5*2 1 0 60 12 Outgoing
S2 0 0 72 18 variable
S3 0 4 4 4 0 1 0 100 25 (key row)
2 4 5 0 0 1
ci 5 10 8 0 0 0
Zj 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cj − Zj 5 10 8 0 0 0
(Key column)
*5 is the key element.
Simplex Table 2 : Non-optimal Solution
Basic x1 x2 x3 S1 S2 S3 bi bi/aij
x2 10 3/5 1 2/5 1/5 0 0 12 30 Outgoing
S2 0 8/5 0 12/5 −4/5 1 0 24 10 variable
S3 0 −2/5 0 17/5 −4/5 0 1 52 260/17 (key row)
ci 5 10 8 0 0 0
Zj 6 10 4 2 0 0
Cj − Zj −1 0 8 4 −2 8
0 0
Incoming variable
(Key column)
Simplex Table 3 : Optimal Solution
Basics x1 x2 x3 S1 S2 S3 bi
x2 10 1/3 1 0 1/3 −1/6 0 8
x3 8 2/3 0 1 −1/3 5/12 0 10
S3 0 −8/3 0 0 1/3 −17/12 1 18
Ci 5 10 8 0 0 0
Solution 0 8 10 0 0 18
∆j −11/3 0 0 −2/3 −5/3 0
According to the Simplex Tableau 3, the optimal solution is : x1 = 0, x2 = 8, x3 = 10. Thus, it
calls for producing 8 and 10 units of products B and C respectively, each day. This mix would
yield a contribution of 5 × 0 + 10 × 8 + 8 × 10 = Rs. 160. S3 being equal to 18, an equal number
of hours shall remain unutilized in the packaging department.
Example 20. Solve the following L.P.P.
Maximise Z = 40000 x1 = 55000x2
Subject to
1000 x1 + 1500x2 ≤ 20000
x1 ≤ 12
x2 ≥ 5
x1,x2 ≥ 0
186 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

Solution. By changing the inequations into equations by adding surplus and artificial
variables, the form of the problem is changed as :
Maximise Z = 40000x1 = 15000x2 55000x2 + 0.S1 + 0S2 + 0S3 − M.A.
Subject to
1000x1 + 1500x2 + S1 = 2000
x1 + S2 = 12
x2 − S3 + A1 = 5
x1, x2, S1, S2, S3, A1 ≥ 0
The solution to this problem is shown in tables 3 1 to 3
Simplex table Table 1 : Initial solution
Basic x1 x2 S1 S2 S3 A1 b bij/aij
S1 0 1000 1500 1 0 0 0 20000 40/3
S2 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 12 -
A1 -M 0 1* 0 0 −1 1 5 5 key row)
Cj 40000 55000 0 0 0 −M
Zj 0 −M 0 0 M −M −5M
Cj − Zj 40000 55000+M 0 0 −M 0
Incoming variable
(Key column)
*Key element

Simplex Ttable 2 : Non-Initial optimal solution

x1 x2 S1 S2 S3 A1 b bij/aij
S1 0 1000 0 1 0 1500* −1500 12500 1250/1500
→ key
row
S2 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 12 −
x2 55000 0 1 0 0 −1 1 5 −
Cj 40000 55000 0 0 0 −M 275000
Zj 0 55000 0 0 −55000 55000 −5M
Cj − Zj 40000 0 0 0 55000 −M−55
000
(Key column)
*Key element
Simplex table Table 3 : Non-Optimal Solution
X1 x2 S1 S2 S3 A1 b bij/aij
S3 0 2/3 0 1/1500 0 1 −1 25/3 25/2
S2 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 12 12 key
row
x2 55000 2/3 1 1/1500 0 0 0 40/3 20
Cj 40000 55000 0 0 0 −M −
Zj 11000/3 55000 110/3 0 0 0 2200000/3
Cj − Zj 10000/3 0 110/3 0 0 −M −
(Key column)

Simplex table Table 4 : Optimal Solution

x1 x2 S1 S2 S3 A1 b
S3 0 0 0 1/1500 −2/3 1 −1 1/3
js[kh; fu;kstu&1 I fcUnq js[kh; fof/k 187

Xx11 1 0 0 1 0 0 12
40000
x2 55000 0 1 1/1500 −2/3 0 0 16/3
Cj 40000 55000 0 0 0 −M −
Zj 1100040,0 55000 110/3 10000/3 0 0 2320000/3
000/3
Cj − Zj 0 0 −110/3 −10000/3 0 −M −
So optimal solution is x1 = 12, x2 = 16/3 and Z = 2320000/3
Minimisation Case.
1& & & 3"& 4 6 =&
< + $ =&
<
' T $ .< $% & 1 ! 6 1 8
>M $ . 7 ! " iafDr (Cj − Zj iafDr) $ N7 =& +
< $
P =&'
< . & < =& + 1& . +'
AM 6 =&
< "
2 & /( &+
2 + * $
=& "
2 +M '
DM L ;! & / ( '& $% 7 . & pj
ekStwmn & .G& '
FM L * * " ; . "%
&& P '

Steps involved in finding the minimum value of objective functions are same as in case of
maximisation. Same fundamental differences should be taken case of which are as follows :
1. In the table showing initial solution, we will take highest negative value not the highest
positive value. The column which has this value is the key column.
2. In problems of minimisation, if we use artificial variables then they will have a weight of +M
whereas in problems of maximization, they have negative weight −M.
3. While going for optimal solution, these artificial variables leave the solution. If they are in
the solution in the final table, it means that the given problem has no feasible solution.
4. When all the values in the index row are zero a positive, optimal solution is reached.
Example 21. To improve the productivity of land, a framer is advised to use at least
4800 kg. of phosphate fertilizer and not less than 7200 kg. of nitrogen fertilizer. There are two
sources to object these fertilizers mixture A and B. Both of these are available in bags of 100 kg.
each and their cost per bag are Rs. 40 and Rs. 24 respectively. Mixture A contains 20 kg.
phosphate and 80 kg. nitrogen while their respective quantities in mixture B are 80 kg. and 50
kg.
Formulate this as an LPP and determine how many bags of each type of mixture should the
farmer buy in order to obtain the required fertilizer at minimum cost.
Solution. Let x1 be number of bags of mixture A and x2 be the number of bags of
mixture B> . So now the problem can be written as
Minimise Z = 40x1 + 24x2 Total cost
Subject to
20x1 + 50x2 ≥ 4800 Phosphate Requirement
80x1 + 50x2 ≥ 7200 Nitrogen Requirement
x1, x2 ≥ 0
After introducing the slack + artificial variables, the above problem can be rewritten as :
Minimise Z = 40x1 + 24x2 + 0S1 = 0S2 + MA1 + MA2
Subject to
20x1 + 50x2 − S1 + A1 = 4800
80x1 + 50x2 − S2 + A2 = 7200
188 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

Simplex Table 1 : Initial Solution

Basis x1 x2 x3 S1 S2 S3 bi bi/aij
A1 M 20 50* −1 0 1 0 4800 96 key
row
A2 M 80 50 0 −1 0 1 7200 144
Cj 40 24 0 0 M M
Zj 100 M 100 M 0− M 0−M M M 12000M
Cj − Zj 40−100M 24−100M M M 0 0
Key column
* * Key element

Simplex Table 2 : Non-optimal Solution

Basis x1 x2 x3S1 S1S2 S2A1 S3A2 bi bi/aij
x2 24 2/5 1 −1/50 0 1/50 0 96 240
A2 M 60* 0 1 −1 −1 1 2400 40 key
row
Cj 40 24 0 0 M M
Zj 48 24 24 2304 +
+60 M M− −M+
Cj − 5 24 50 0−M 50 M 2400 M
Zj 12 12
152 24−100M −M M 2M − 0
40 −10 25 25
Cj−Zj 0
5
0M60M
Key column
Simplex Table 3 : Non-optimal Solution
Basis x1 x2 S1 S2 A1 A2 bi bi/aij
x2 24 0 1 −2/75 1/150 2/75 −1/150 80 −3000

x1 40 1 0 1/60* −1/60 −1/60 1/60 40 2400

key row
Cj 40 24 0 0 M M
Zj 40 24 2/750 −38/75 −2/75 −38/75 3520
Cj − Zj 0 0 −2/75 38/75 2 38
key
M+ M+
75 75
column

Simplex Table 4 : Optimal Solution

Basis x1 x2 S1 S2 A1 A2 bi
x2 24 8/5 1 0 −1/50 0 1/50 144
S1 0 60 0 1 −1 −1 1 2400
Cj 40 24 0 0 M M
Zj 192/5 24 0 −12/25 M 12/25 3456
Cj − Zj 8/5 0 0 12/25 M M−12/25
Since all the values of the index row are zero or positive, so we have got optimal solution.
The optimal solution x2 = 144, x1 = 0 and Z = Rs. 3456
Example 22. A finished product must weigh exactly 150 grams. The two raw materials
used in manufacturing the product are A, with a cost of Rs. 2 per unit and B with a cost of Rs. 8
per unit. At least 14 units of B not more than 20 units of A must be used. Each unit of A and B
weighs 5 and 10 grams respectively.
js[kh; fu;kstu&1 I fcUnq js[kh; fof/k 189

How much of each type of raw material should be used for each unit of the final product in
order to minimise the cost ? Use Simplex method. (M.comCom, Delhi, 1985)
Solution. The given problem can be expressed as LPP as
Minimise Z = 2x1 + 8x2
Subject to 5x1 + 10x2 = 150
x1 ≤ 20
x2 ≥ 14
x1, x2 ≥ 0
Substituting x2 = 14 + x3 and introducing necessary slack and artificial variables, we have,
Minimise Z = 2x1 = + 8x3 + 112 + MA1 + 0x4
Subject to
5x1 + 10x3 + A1 = 10
x1 + x4 = 20
x1, x3, x4, A1 ≥ 0
The solution is contained in Tables 3.51 through 3.53.
TABLE Table 5 Simplex Table 1 : Non-optimal Solution
Basis x1 x3 A1 x4 bi bi/aij
A1 M 5 10* 1 0 10 1 key row
x4 0 1 0 0 1 20 ∞
Cj 2 8 M 0
Zj +5M +10M M 0 10 m
Cj − Zj 2 − 5M 8 − 10M 0 0
key column
TABLE Table 6 Simplex Table 2 : Non-optimal Solution
Basis x1 x3 A1 x4 bi bi/aij
x3 8 1/2* 1 1/10 0 1 2 key row
x4 0 1 0 0 1 20 20
Cj 2 8 M 0 -
Zj 4 8 8/10 0 8
Cj − Zj −2 0 M − (8/10) 80 -

key column

TABLE Table 7 Simplex Table 2 3 : Optimal Solution

Basis x1 x2 A1 x4 bi
x1 2 1 2 1/5 0 2
x4 0 0 −2 −1/5 1 18
Cj 2 8 M 0 -
Zj 2 4 2/5 0 4
Cj − Zj 0 4 M−(2/5) 0 -

Thus, the optimal solution is : x1 = 2 units, x2 = 14 + 0 = 14 units, total cost = 2 × 2 + 8 × 14

= Rs. 116.
Example 23. A company produces three products, P1, P2 and P3 from two raw materials
A and B, and labour L. One, unit of product P1 requires one unit of A, 3 units of B and 2 units of
L. One unit of product P2 requires 2 units of A and B each, and 3 units of L, while one units of
P3 needs 2 units of A, 6 units of B and 4 units of L. The company has a daily availability of 8
190 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

units of A, 12 units of B and 12 units of L. It is further known that the unit contribution margin
for the products is Rs. 3, 2 and 5 respectively for P1, P2 and P3.
Formulate this problem as a linear programming problem, and then solve it to determine
the optimum product mix. Is the solution obtained by you unique ? Identify an alternate
optimum solution, if any.
If x1, x2 and x3 be the output of the products P1, P2 and P3, respectively, we may express
the linear programming formulation as follows :
Maximise Z = 3x1 + 2x2 + 5x3 Contribution
Subject to
x1 + 2x2 + 2x3 ≤ 8 Material A
3x1 + 2x2 + 6x3 ≤ 12 Material B
2x1 + 3x2 + 4x3 ≤ 12 Labour
x1,x2,x3 ≥ 0
Introducing slack variables S1, S2 and S3, we may write the problem as follows :
Maximise Z = 3x1 + 2x2 + 5x3 + 0S1 + 0S2 + 0S3
Subject to
x1 + 2x2 + 2x3 + S1 = 8
3x1 + 2x2 + 6x3 + S2 = 12
2x1 + 3x2 + 4x3 + S3 = 12
x1,x2,x3,S1,S2,S3 ≥ 0
Simplex Table 8: Non-optimal Solution
Basis x1 x2 x3 S1 S2 S3 bi bi/aij
S1 0 1 2 2 1 0 0 8 4
S2 0 3 2 6* 0 1 0 12 2←
S3 0 2 3 4 0 0 1 12 3
cj 3 2 5 0 0 0
Zj 0 0 0 0 0 0
∆j 3 2 5 0 0 0
↑
Simplex Table 9 : Non-optimal Solution
Basis x1 x2 x3 S1 S2 S3 bi bi/aij
S1 0 0 4/3 0 1 −1/3 0 4 −
x3 5 1/2* 1/3 1 0 1/6 0 2 4←
S3 0 0 5/3 0 0 −2/3 1 4 −
cj 3 2 5 0 0 0
solution 5/2 5/3 5 4 5/6 4 Z = 10
∆j ½ 1/3 0 0 −5/6 0
↑

Simplex Table 10 : Optimal Solution

Basis x1 x2 x3 S1 S2 S3 bi bi/aij
S1 0 0 4/3 0 1 −1/3 0 4 3
x1 3 1 2/3 2 0 1/6 0 4 6
S3 0 0 5/3* 0 0 −2/3 1 4 12/5 ←
cj 3 2 5 0 0 0
solution 3 2 6 4 1 0 Z = 12
∆j 0 0 −1 0 −1 0
js[kh; fu;kstu&1 I fcUnq js[kh; fof/k 191

↑
The solution contained in Table 10 is optimal with x1 = 4, x2 = x3 = 0 and Z = 12.
However, it is not unique since x2, a non-basic variable, has ∆j equal to zero. The problem, thus,
has an alternate optimal solution. To obtain this, we revise the solution in Table 10 with x2 as
the entering variable. It is given in Simplex Table 11.

Simplex Table 11 : Alternate Optimal Solution

Basis x1 x2 x3 S1 S2 S3 bi
S1 0 0 0 0 1 1/5 −4/5 4/5
x1 3 1 0 2 0 3/5 −2/5 12/5
x2 2 0 1 0 0 −2/5 3/5 12/5
cj 3 2 5 0 0 0
Solution 12/5 12/5 0 4/5 0 0 Z = 12
∆j 0 0 −1 0 −1 0

$ %
(Duality in Linear Programming)
1& & & # $ 1& & & 6*%
# 2
I ' 2# & < & &5 '
&5 2 I & 8
>? & 3"& 4 +7 &5 G & # & G &
&5 3"& 4 +7 * '
A? & 3"& $ &5 & 6 & 3"& % &<
+ #& %&< &5 $ +'
D? G& +7 # . &5
2 # ; *
2 +' < . < ;
* +'
F? G & $ 7 " . + '& " ≤ &5 ≥≤ +'
$ ; 6 1 * . & 1 8
:
i) &5 . N7 '
0 & &5 $ G& ≤ # & &5 % &<
G& ≥ ' &5 .. G
& '
For every linear programming problem there is another linear programming problem which is
related to it and which is obtained from it. First problem is called primal and second is called its
dual.
Rules for obtaining dual from primal :−
1) Co-efficients of variables in objective function of primal become constraint values in the dual
and constraint values in the primal becomes co-efficients of variables in the objective
function.
2) If he primal is of maximisation type, dual is of minimisation type and if primal is of primal of
minimisation dual is of maximisation.
3) Co-efficient of first column of constraints of primal because co-efficient of first row of dual,
second column becomes second row and so on.
4) Direction of constraint in equations is also changed. It is primal they are of ≤ type, in dual
they will be ≥ type.
Besides these, the following things should also be kept in mind :
(i) All the variables in the dual must be non-negative.
192 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

(ii) If the dual is of minimisation objective, all the constraints most must be of ≤ type and if it is
of minimisation, all the constraints must be of ≥ type. In any dual, we can’t have mixed
constraints.

Mathematically, change from primal to dual can be shown, with the help of an example.
Example 24. For the LPP given in Example 3.1 reproduced below, write the dual.
Maximise Z = 40x1 + 35x2
Subject to
2x1 + 3x2 ≤ 60
, 4x1 + 3x2 ≤ 96
x1,x2 ≥ 0
Solution.
In accordance with above, its dual shall be
Minimise G = 60y1 + 96y2,
Subject to 2y1 + 4y2 ≥ 40
, 3y1 + 3y2 ≥ 35
y1,y2 ≥ 0
PRIMAL DUAL
c x b′ y
x1 y1
Maximise Z = [40 35] Minimise G = [60 96]
x2 y2

Subject to
a x b a′ y c′
2 3 x1 60 2 4 y1 40
< >
4 3 x2 96 3 3 y2 35

Obtaining Dual of LPP with Mixed Restrictions

Sometimes a given LPP has mixed restrictions so that the inequalities given are not all in
the right direction. In such a case, we should convert the inequalities in the wrong direction into
those in the right direction. Similarly, if an equation is given in respect to of a certain constraint,
it should also be converted into inequality. To understand fully, consider the following
examples.
Example 25. Write the dual of the following LPP.
Minimise Z = 10x1 + 20x2
Subject to
3x1 + 2x2 ≥ 18
x1 + 3x2 ≥ 8
2x1 − x2 ≤ 6
x1,x2 ≥ 0
js[kh; fu;kstu&1 I fcUnq js[kh; fof/k 193

Solution. Here, the first two inequalities are in the right direction (being ≥ type with
a minimisation type of objective function) while the third one is not. Multiplying both sides by
−1, this can be written as −2x1 + x2 ≥ −6. Now, we can write the primal and dual as follows :
Primal Dual
Minimise Z = 10x1 + 20x2 Maximise G = 18y1 + 8y2 − 6y3
Subject to Subject to
3x1 + 2x2 ≥ 18 3y1 + y2 − 2y3 ≤ 10
x1 + 3x2 ≥ 8 2y1 + 3y2 + y3 ≤ 20
−2x1 + x2 ≥ −6
x1,x2 ≥ 0 y1,y2,y3 ≥ 0
Example 26. Obtain the dual of the LPP given here :
Solution.
Maximise Z = 8x1 + 10x2 + 5x3
Subject to
x1 − x3 ≤ 4
2x1 + 4x2 ≤ 12
x1 + x2 + x3 ≥ 2
3x1 + 2x2 − x3 = 8
x1,x2,x3 ≥ 0
We shall first consider the constraints.
Constraints 1 and 2 ; : Since they are both of the type ≤ , we do not need to modify them.
Constraint 3 : This is of type ≥. Therefore, we can convert it into ≤ type by multiplying
both sides by −1 to become −x1 − x2 − x3 ≤ −2.
Constraint 4 : It is in the form of an equation. An equation, mathematically, can be
represented by a pairt of inequalities: one of ≤ type and the other of ≥ type. The given constraint
can be expressed as
3x1 + 2x2 − x3 ≤ 8
3x1 + 2x2 − x3 ≥ 8
The second of these can again be converted into type ≤ by multiplying by −1 on both sides.
Thus it can be written as −3x1 − 2x2 + x3 ≤ −8.
Now we can write the primal and the dual as follows :
Primal Dual
Maximise Z = 8x1 + 10x2 + 5x3 Minimise G = 4y1 + 12y2 − 2y3 + 8y4 − 8y5
Subject to Subject to
x1 − x3 ≤ 4 y1 + 2y2 − y3 + 3y4 − 3y5 ≥ 8
2x1 + 4x2 ≤ 12 4y2 − y3 + 2y4 − 2y5 ≥ 10
− x1 − x2 − x3 ≤ − 2 − y1 − y3 − y4 + y5 ≥ 5
3x1 + 2x2 −+ x3 ≤ − 8 y1,y2,y3,y4,y5 ≥ 0
−3x1 − 2x2 + x3 ≤ −8
x1,x2,x3 ≥ 0
One point needs mention here. We know that corresponding to a n-variable, m-constraint
primal problem, there would be m-variable, n-constraint dual problem. For this example
involving three variables and four constraints, the dual should have four variables and three
constraints. But we observe that the dual that we have obtained contains five variables. The
seeming inconsistency can be resolved by expressing (y4 − y5) = y6, a variable unrestricted in
sign. Thus, although, y4 and y5 are both non-negative, their difference could be greater than, less
than, or equal to zero. The dual can be rewritten as follows :
194 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

Minimse G = 4y1 + 12y2 − 2y3 = + 8y6

Subject to
y1 + 2y2 − y3 + 3y6 ≥ 8
4y2 − y3 + 2y6 ≥ 10
−y1 − y3 − y6 ≥ 5
y1,y2,y3 ≥ 0, y6 unrestricted is in sign
Thus, whenever a constraint in the primal involves an equality sign, its corresponding dual
variable shall be unrestricted in sign. Similarly, an unrestricted variable in the primal would
imply that the corresponding constraint shall bear the = sign.
Example 27. Obtain the dual of the following LPP :
Maximise Z = 3x1 + 5x2 + 7x3
Subject to x1 + x2 + 3x3 ≤ 10
4x1 − x21 + 2x3 ≥ 15
x1,x2 ≥ 0, x3 unrestricted in sign
Solution. First of all, we should convert the second restriction into the type ≤. This
results in −4x1 + x2 − 2x3 ≤ −15.
Next, we replace the variable x3 by the difference of two non-negative variables, say, x4 and
x5. This yields the primal problem corresponding to which dual can be written, as shown
against it.
Primal Dual
Maximise Z = 3x1 + 5x2 + 7x4 − 7x5 Minimise G = 10y1 − 15y2
Subject to Subject to
x1 + x2 + 3x4 − 3x5 ≤ 10 y1 − 4y2 ≥ 3
−4x1 + x2 − 2x4 + 2x5 ≤ −15 y1 + y2 ≥ 5
x1,x2,x4,x5 ≥ 0 3y1 − 2y2 ≥ 7
−3y1 + 2y2 ≥ −7
y1,y2 ≥ 0
The fourth constraint of the dual can be expressed as 3y1 − 2y2 ≤ 7. Now, combining the
third and the fourth constraints, we get 3y1 − 2y2 = 7. The dual can be expressed as follows :
Minimise G = 10y1 − 15y2
Subject to
y1 − 4y2 ≥ 3
y1 + y2 ≥ 5
3y1 − 2y2 = 7
y1,y2 ≥ 0
The symmetrical relationship between the primal and dual problems, assuming the primal to
be a ‘maximisation’ problem is depicted in the Chart.
js[kh; fu;kstu&1 I fcUnq js[kh; fof/k 195

Primal Dual
Maximization Minimisation
No. of variables No. of constraints
No. of constraints No. of variables
≤ type constraint Non-negative variable
= type constraint Unrestricted variable
Unrestricted variable = type constraint
Objective function coefficient for jth variable RHS constant for the jth constraint
th
RHS constant for the j constraint Objective function coefficient for jth variable
Coefficient (aij) for j variable in i constraint Coefficient (aij) for ith variable in jth constraint
th th

Comparing the Optimal Solutions of the Primal and Dual

Since the dual of a given primal problem is derived from and related to it, it is natural to
excepect that the (optimal) solutions to the two problems shall be related to each other in the
same way. To understand this, let us consider the following primal and dual problems again and
compare their optimal solutions.
Primal Dual
Maximise Z = 40x1 + 35x2 Minimise G = 60y1 + 96y2
Subject to Subject to
2x1 + 3x2 ≤ 60 2y1 + 4y2 ≥ 40
4x1 + 3x2 ≤ 96 3y1 + 3y2 ≥ 35
x1, x2 ≥ 0 y1, y2 ≥ 0
The simplex tableau containing optimal solution to the primal problem is reproduced (from
Table 3.4) in Table 4.1.
TABLE Table 1 Simplex Tableau : Optimal Solution
Basis x1 x2 S1 S3S2 bi
x2 35 0 1 2/3 −1/3 8
x1 40 1 0 −1/2 ½ 18
cj 40 35 0 0
Zj 40 35 10/3 25/3 1000
∆j 0 0 −10/3 −25/3
Now, let us consider the solution to the dual problem which is augmented, by introducing
surplus and artificial variables, as follows :
Minimise G = 60y1 + 96y2 + 0S1 + 0S2 + MA1 + MA2
Subject to
2y1 + 4y2 − S1 + A1 = 40
3y1 + 3y2 − S2 + A2 = 35
y1,y2,S1,S2,A1,A2 ≥ 0
The solution to it is contained in Tables 4.2 through 4.4.
Simplex Table 1 : Initial Solution
Basis y1 y2 S1 S2 A1 A2 bi bi/aij
A1 M 2 4* −1 0 1 0 40 10←
A2 M 3 3 0 −1 0 1 35 35/3
cj 60 96 0 0 M M
Solution 5M 7M −M −M M M
∆j 60 −5M 96 −7M M M 0 0
196 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

Simplex Table 2 : Non-optimal Solution

Basis Y1y1 y2 S1 S2 A1 A2 bi bi/aij
y2 96 ½1/2 1 −1/4 0 ¼1/4 0 10 20
A2 M 3/2* 0 ¾3/4 −1 −3/4 1 5 10/3←
cj 60 96 0 0 M M
3 3 3
Solution 48+ M -24+ M 24− M
2 96 4 −M 4 M
3M 3 7M
∆j 12− 0 24− M M −24 0
2 4 4
↑
Simplex Table 3 : Optimal Solution
Basis y1 y2 S1 S2 A1 A2 bi
y2 96 0 1 −1/2 1/3 1/2 −1/3 25/3
y1 60 1 0 ½1/2 −2/3 −1/2 2/3 10/3
cj 60 96 0 0 M M
Solution 60 96 −18 −8 18 8
∆j 0 0 18 8 M−18 M− 8

Before comparing the solutions, it may be noted that there is a correspondence between
variables of the primal and the dual problems. The structural variable x1 in the primal,
corresponds to the surplus variable S1 in the dual, while the variable x2 corresponds to S2, the
other surplus variable in the dual. In a similar way, the structural variables y1 and y2 in the dual
correspond to the slack variables S1 and S2 respectively of the primal.
A comparison of the optimal solutions to the primal and the dual, and some observations
follow.
(a) The objective function values of both the problems are the same. This with x1 = 18 and x2 =
8, Z equals 40 × 18 + 35 × 8 = 1000. Similarly, with y1 = 10/3 and y2 = 25/3, the value of G
would be 60 × 10/3 + 96 × 25/3 = 1000.
(b) The numerical value of each of the variables in the optimal solution to the primal is equal to
the value of its corresponding variable in the dual contained in the ∆j row. Thus, in the
primal problem, x1 = 18 and x2 =8, whereas in the dual S1 = 18 and S2 = 8 (in the ∆j row).
Similarly, the numerical value of each of the variables in the optimal solution to the dual is
equal to the value of its corresponding variable in the primal, as contained in the ∆j row of it.
Thus, y1 = 10/3 and y2 = 25/3 in the dual, and S1 = 10/3 and S2 = 25/3 (note that we consider
only the absolute values) in the primal. Of course, we do not consider artificial variables because
they do not correspond to any variables in the primal, and are introduced for a specific, limited
purpose only.
Clearly then, if feasible solutions exist for both the primal and the dual problems then
both problems have optimal solutions of which objective function values are equal. A peripheral
relationship between them is that if one problem has an unbounded solution, its dual has no
feasible solution.
Further, the optimal solution to the dual can be read from the optimal solution of the
primal, and vice versa. The primal and dual need not both be solved, therefore, to obtain the
js[kh; fu;kstu&1 I fcUnq js[kh; fof/k 197

solution. This offers a big computational advantage in some situations. For instance, if the
primal problem is a minimisation one involving, say 3, variables and 7 constraints, its solution
would pose a big problem because a large number of surplus and artificial variables would have
to be introduced. The number of iterations required for obtaining the answer would also be
large. On the countery, the dual, with 7 variables and 3 constraints can be solved comparatively
much more easily.

ifjogu leL;ka,s
(Transportation Problems)
& &$ 1 * # &$ 1& + 9
+2 < & 7& 1 +
(. + $ ' 2 &$ &
'&<
9 & $ . 1& & . &
'
If a company manufactures one products in two or more factories and has two or more
main go-downs from where the product can be supplied to the customers, then the company has
to decide how much quantity of each factory should be transported to each of the godown so that
total transportation cost is minimised. Though we have other method to solve this problem, yet
linear programming can also help in solving the transportation problems.
For example, a company has three plants P1, P2, P3, and three warehouses W1, W2 and W3
. Now various entities and costs can be shown in the form of the following matrix.
To W1 W2 W3 Supply
From
P1 x11 x12 x13 S1
C11 C12 C13
P2 x21 x22 x23 S2
C21 C22 C23
P3 x31 x32 x33 S3
C31 C32 C33
Demand D1 D2 D3

It is assumed that total supply = total demand.

In the above matrix cij represents transportation cost /unit from factory i to warehouse j
and xij represents quantity (in units) transported from factory i to warehouse j.
Now
Objective function is Minimise Z = x11 c11 +_ x12 c12 + x13 c13 + x21 c21 + x22 c22 + x23 c23 + x31 c31
+ x32 c32 + x33 c33
Subject to x11 + x12 + x13 = S1
x21 + x22 + x23 = S2 Supply constraints
x31 + x32 + x33 = S3

x11 + x21 + x31 = D1

x12 + x22 + x32 = D2 Demand constraints.
x13 + x23 + x33 = D3
xij ≥ 0 for i = 1, 2, 3 and j = 1, 2, 3 .
As we can see that if we use simplex method to solve the above problem, having 9
decision variables and 6 constraints, it will be a long process and so this method is not generally
198 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

used to solve transportation problems. So we shall confine ourselves to graphical method for
solving these problems. In other words, we will have only two decision variables (say x and y).
Example 28. A company manufacturing a product has two plants P1 and P2 having
weekly capacities 100 and 60 units respectively. The cars are transported to three godowns w1,
w2 and w3 whose weekly requirements are 70, 50 and 40 units respectively. The transportation
costs (Rs./unit) are as given below :
P1−w1 5 , P1−w2 4 , P1−w3.3, P2−w1 4, P2−w2.2
P3−w2 5.
Solve the above transportation problem so as to minimise total transportation costs.
Solution. First consider plant P1. Let x and y be the units transported from P1 to w1 and
w2. Now we complete the matrix in the following form
To w1 w2 w3
From Cost/ Qty. Cost/ Qty. Cost/ Qty. Supply
Unit Unit Unit
P1 5 x 4 y 3 (100-x-y) 100
P2 4 (70-x) 2 (50-y) 5 (x+y-60) 60
Demand 70 50 40 160
Now total cost = 5x+4(70−x) + 4y + 2(50−y) +3(100−x−y) +5(x+y−60)
= 5x+280 −4x+4y+100−2y+300−3x−3y+5x+5y−300
= 3x+4y+380
So objective function is
Min. Z = 3x+4y+380
Subject to the constraints
(i) In first row 100−x− y ≥ 0 so x+y ≤ 100
(ii) In 2nd row 70−x ≥ 0 , 50 −y ≥ 0 and x+y − 60 ≥ 0
So x ≤ 70 , y ≤ 50 and x+y ≥ 60
So we have 4 inequations
(i) x+y ≤ 100 (ii) x ≤ 70 (iii) y ≤ 50 and (iv) x+y ≥ 60 .
Plotting these values on the graph, we get the following feasible region.
The feasible region lies in the area covered by the polygon ABCDE. We also know that
optimal solution lies at one of the vertices. So now we find the values of x, y and z at these
points.
Points x y Z = 3x+4y+380
A 60 0 60×3+4×0+380 = 560
B 70 0 70×3+4×0+380 = 590
C 70 30 70×3+30×4+380 = 710
D 50 50 50×5+50×4+380 = 830
E 10 50 10×5+50×4+380 = 630
Since the minimum value of Z is Rs. 560 at A, so optimal values of x and y are x = 60, y = 0.
So the optimal transportation schedule is
From P1, 60 units will be transported to w1 and 40 units to w3 .
From P2, 10 units will be transported to w1 and 50 units to w2 .
Exercise 9.2
Solve the following linear programming using simplex method.
1. Maximise Z = 7x1 + 14x2
Subject to the constraints
js[kh; fu;kstu&1 I fcUnq js[kh; fof/k 199

3x1 + 2x2 ≤ 36
x1 + 4x2 ≤ 10
x1,x2 ≥ 0
2. Maximise Z = 20x1 + 30x2 + 5x3,
Subject to
4x1 + 3x2 + x3 ≤ 40
2x1 + 5x2 ≤ 28
8x1 + 2x2 ≤ 36
and x1,x2, x3 ≥ 0
3. Maximise Z = 10x1 + 20x2,
Subject to
2x1 + 5x2 ≥ 50
4x1 + x2 ≤ 28
x1,x2 ≥ 0
4. Minimise Z = 6x1 + 4x2
Subject to
3x1 + 0.5x2 ≥ 12
2x1 + x2 ≥ 16
x1,x2 ≥ 0
5. Using two-phase Method, solve the following problem :
Minimise 150x1 + 150x2 + 100x3,
Subject to
2x1 + 3x2 + x3 ≥ 4
3x1 + 2x2 + x3 ≥ 3
and x1,x2,x3 ≥ 0
6. Solve the following LPP :
Minimise Z = 100x1 + 80x2 + 10x3,
Subject to
100x1 + 7x2 + x3 ≥ 30
120x1 + 10x2 + x3 ≥ 40
70x1 + 8x2 + x3 ≥ 20
and x1,x2,x3 ≥ 0
7. A pharmaceutical company produces two popular drugs A and B which are sold at the
rate of Rs. 9.60 and Rs. 7.80, respectively. The main ingredients are x, y and z and they are
required in the following proportions :
Drugs x% y% z%
A 50 30 20
B 30 30 40
The total available quantities (gm) of different ingredients are 1,600 in x, 1,400 in y and
1,200 in z. The costs (Rs) of x, y and z per gm are Rs. 8, Rs. 6 and Rs. 4, respectively.
Estimate the most profitable quantities of A and B to produce, using simplex method.
8. A factory produces three different products viz. A, B and C, the profit (Rs) per unit of
which are 3, 4 and 6, respectively. The products are processed in three operations viz. X, Y and
Z and the time (hour) required in each operation for each unit is given below :
200 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

___________________________________________________
Products
Operation 
A B C

X 4 1 6
Y 5 3 1
Z 1 2 3

The factory works 25 days in a month, at rate of 16 hours a day in two shifts. The
effective working of all the processes is only 80% due to assignable causes like power cut and
breakdown of machines. The factory has 3 machines in operation X, 2 machines in operation Y
and one machine in operation Z. Find out the optimum product mix for the month.
9. A factory engaged in the manufacturing of pistons, rings and valves for which the profits
per unit are Rs. 10, 6 and 4, respectively, wants to decide the most profitable mix. It takes one
hour of preparatory work, ten hours of machining and two hours of packing and allied formalities
for a piston. Corresponding requirements for rings and valves are 1, 4 and 2 , and 1, 5 and 6
hours, respectively. The total number of hours available for preparatory work, packing and
allied formalities are 100, 600 and 300, respectively. Determine the most profitable mix,
assuming that what all produced can be sold.
10. A pharmaceutical company has 100 kg of material A, 180 kg of material B and 120 kg of
material C available per month. They can use these materials to make three basic pharmaceutical
products namely 5-10-5, 5-5-10 and 20-5-10, where the numbers in each case represent the
percentage by weight of material A, material B and material C respectively, in each of the
products and the balance represents inert ingredients. The cost of raw material is given below :
______________________________________
Ingredient Cost per kg (Rs)

Material A 80
Material B 20
Material C 50
Inert ingredient 20

Selling price of these products is Rs. 40.50, Rs. 43 and Rs. 45 per kg respectively. There
is a capacity restriction of the company for the product 5-10-5, that is, they cannot produce more
than 30 kg per month. Formulate a linear programming model for maximising the monthly
profit.
Determine how much of each of the products should they produce in order to maximise
their monthly profits.
11. The Clear-Vision Television Company manufactures models A, B and C which have
profits Rs. 200, 300 and 500 per piece, respectively. According to the production license the
maximum weekly production requirements are 20 for model A, 15 for B and 8 for C. The time
required for manufacturing these sets is divided among following activities.
Time per piece (hours)
Activity Total time available
Model A Model B Model C
Manufacturing 3 4 5 150
Assembling 4 5 5 200
Packaging 1 1 2 50
js[kh; fu;kstu&1 I fcUnq js[kh; fof/k 201

Formulate the production schedule as an LPP and calculate number of each model to be
manufactured for yielding maximum profit.
12. A company produces two products, A and B. The sales volume of product A is at least
60 percent of the total sales of the two products. Both the products use the same raw material of
which the daily availability is limited to 100 tonnes. Products A and B use this material at the
rate of 2 tonnes per unit and 4 tonnes per unit, respectively. The sales price for the two products
are Rs. 20 and Rs. 40 per unit.
(a) Construct a linear programming formulation of the problem
(b) Find the optimum solution by simplex method.
(c) Find an alternative optimum, if any.
Write the dual of the following linear programming problems
13. Maximise Z = 10y1 + 8y2 − 6y3
Subject to
3y1 + y2 − 2y3 ≤ 10
−2y1 + 3y2 − y3 ≥ 12
y1,y2,y3 ≥ 0
14. Maximise Z = x1 − x2 + x3
Subject to
x1 + x2 + x3 ≤ 10
2x1 − x3 ≤ 2
2x1 − 2x2 + 3x3 ≤ 6
x1,x2,x3 ≥ 0
15. Maximise Z = 3x1 − 2x2
Subject to
x1 ≤ 4
x2 ≤ 6
x1 + x2 ≤ 5
−x2 ≤ −1
x1,x2 ≥ 0
16. Minimise Z = 4x1 + x2
Subject to
3x1 + x2 = 2
4x1 + 3x2 ≥ 6
x1 + 2x2 ≤ 3
x1,x2 ≥ 0
17. Maximise Z = 3x1 + 4x2 + 7x2
Subject to
x1 + x2 + x3 ≤ 10
4x1 − x2 − x3 ≥ 15
x1 + x2 + x3 = 7
x1,x2 ≥ 0, x3 unrestricted in sign.
18. Solve the following transportation problems :
Transportation cost (Rs./unit)
To W1 W2 W3 Supply
From
F1 6 3 2 100
F2 4 2 3 50
Demand 60 50 40 150
202 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

19. A brick manufacturer has two depots A and B with stocks of 30,000 and 20,000 bricks
respectively. He receives orders from three builders P, θ and R for 11000, 20000 and 15000
bricks respectively. The distance in kms. From these depots to the builder’s location are given in
the following matrix :
Transportation cost (Rs./unit)
To A B
From
P 40 20
Q 20 60
R 30 40

How should the brick manufacturer fulfill the orders so that the total transportation costs
are minimised ?
Answers
Exercise 9.1.
7 18
7. Polygon with vertices (1,0), (6,0), (6, ), , (0,5 ), (0, 1)
3 7
10. (i) x ≥ 0, 2x + y ≥ 2, x − y ≤ 1, x + 2y ≤ 8, y ≥ 0
(ii) x ≥ 0, 2x + 3y ≥ 3, x − 6y ≤ 3, 3x + 4y ≤ 18, −7x + 4y ≥ 14, y ≥ 0
11. Max. = 26 at (12, 2) and min. = 0 at (0, 0)
20 45 235
12. (i) x1 = 2, x2 = 1, Z = 8 (ii) x1 = , x2 = , Z=
19 19 19
8 1 29
(iii) x1 = 0, x2 = 1, Z = 3 (iv) x = , y = , Z =
3 3 3
13. 8 fans and 12 sewing machines, Z = Rs. 392
14. Food I-2kg, Food II −4kg, Z = Rs. = 38
15. 3 packages of each, Z = Rs. 10.5, 16.15 bats, 20 sticks, Rs. 125
17. 10 sewing machines, 20 transistors , Z = Rs. 900
18. quantity of wheat = 400 gm, quantity of rice = 200 gm, Z = Rs. 2.40
19. 1000 of A, 500 of B, Z = Rs. 5500
20. 5 cards, 1 box, Z = Rs. 0.75
21. 4 bottles, 46 tumblers, Z = Rs. 3.16
22. A = 2, B = 3, Z = Rs. 230
Exercise 9.2
1. x1 = 10, x2 = 0, Z = 70, Z−x1 = 0, x2 = 5.6, x3 = 23.2, Z = 284 3 − x1 = 0, x2 = 58, Z = 760
4. x1 = 8, x2 = 0, Z = 48 5 − x1 = 1/5, x2 = 6/5, x3 = 0, Z = 210 6 − x1 = 1/3, x2 = 0, x3 =0, Z =
100/3
7. A = 2000, B = 2000, Z = 10000 8 − A = 800/7, B = 0, C = 480/7, Z = 5280/7
8. Pistons = 100/3, Rings = 200/3, valves = nil, Z = 2200/3.
10. 5 –10-5 = 30, 5-5-10 = 1185, 20-5-10 = 0, Z = Rs. 20625
11. A = 50/3, B = 15, C = 8, Z = 35500/3
12. (a) max. Z = 20x1 + 40x2 subject to 2x1 + 4x2 ≤ 100, −8x1 + 24x2 ≤ 0, x1,x2 ≥ 0
(b) x1 = 30, x2 = 10, Z = 1000 (c) x1 = 10, x2 = 0, Z = 1000
13. Min. G = 10x1 + 12x2 subject to 3x1 + 2x2 ≥ 10, x1 − 3x2 ≥ 8, 2x1 − x2 ≤ 6, x1,x2 ≥ 0
14. Min G = 10y1 + 2y2 + 6y3 Subject to y1 + 2y2 + 2y3 ≥ 1, y1 − 2y3 ≥ −1, y1 − y2 + 3y3 ≥ 3,
y1,y2,y3 ≥ 0
js[kh; fu;kstu&1 I fcUnq js[kh; fof/k 203

15. Min. G = 4y1 + 6y2 + 5y3 − y4 Subject to y1 + y3 ≥ 3, y2+ y3− y4 ≥ −2, y1,y2,y3 ≥ 0
16. Max. G = −2y1 + 2y2 + 6y5 Subject to 4y3 − y4 − 3y5 ≤ 4, 3y3 − 2y4 − y5 ≤ 1,
y3,y4,y5 ≥ 0
17. Min. G = 10y1 − 15y2 + 7y3 Subject to y1 − 4y2 + y3 ≥ 3, y1 + y2 + y3 ≥ 4,
3y1 + y2 + y3 = 7, y1,y2 ≥0 , y3 unrestricted in sigh.
18. From F1 → 10 units to w1, 50 units to w2 and 40 units to w3, From F2 → 50 units to w1 zero
units to w2 and w3. Total transportation cost = Rs. 490.
19. From brick depot A − Zero to P, 20000 to Q and 10000 to R. From brick depot B − 15000
to P, zero to Q and 5000 to R. Total transportation cost = Rs. 1200.
pØo‘f) C;kt 203

Chapter -10

(Compound Interest)

! "!
# ! $ %
&'$ & $ $ '
(
)
*+ ,$
)
-+ ./
0$
12' $ # ,$
$ 34 % $ #
# ) 5$ + # ./0$ ./
0$ 6

Suppose a person takes a loan from a bank or from another person for a specified period
of time. After this period, the amount he will return will be higher than the amount of loan
taken. This additional amount will be paid by the borrower to the bank or second person for use
of all loan given to him. This amount is called interest and the amount borrowed is called
principal. Generally interest in expressed is percentage which is called rate of interest.
Interest is of two types :−
1) Simple interest
2) Compound interest
If the lender is paid actual interest after every three months, six months or a year, it is
called simple interest. But if this interest instead of being paid to the lender, is added to the
principal and interest for next period is calculated on this new amount (principle + interest), it is
called compound interest. In compound interest, the lender is paid full amount after completion
of the period only once.
Example − Suppose Rs. 1000 is lent at 10% per annum for 2 years. Calculate simple
interest and compound interest.
Solution. Simple Interest (S.I.)
1000 × 10 × 1
S.I. for 1st year = = Rs. 100
100
1000 × 10 × 1
S.I. for 2nd year = = Rs. 100
100
S.I. for 2 years = Rs. 100 + Rs. 100 = Rs. 200

Compound Interest (C.I.)

1000 × 10 × 1
C.I. for 1st year = = Rs. 100
100
After 1 year, this interest of Rs. 100 is not given to the lender but added to his principal.
So new principal = Rs. 1000 + Rs. 100 = Rs. 1100
1100 × 10 × 1
Now C.I. for 2nd year = = Rs. 110
100
204 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

So C.I. for 2 years = Rs. 100 + Rs. 110 = Rs. 210

Theorem 1. IF P is the principle, r % is the rate of interest per period and n is the
number of periods, then
P⋅r⋅n
(i) Simple Interest (S.I.) = and
100
n
r
(ii) Compound interest = P 1 + −P
100
P ⋅ r ⋅ 1 Pr
Proof : (i) S.I. for 1st period = =
100 100
P ⋅ r ⋅ 1 Pr
S.I. for 2nd period = =
100 100
Continuing in this way.
P ⋅ r ⋅ 1 Pr
S.I. for nth period = =
100 100
So total S.I. for n periods = S.I. for 1st period + S.I. for 2nd period +….+ S.I. for nth period
Pr Pr
= + +…… n times
100 100
Pr n
=
100
and amount A = P + S.I.
Pr n
=P+
100
rn
= P 1+
100
P ⋅ r ⋅1 P ⋅ r
(ii) C.I. for 1st period = =
100 100
Pr r
Amount after 1st period = P + = P 1+
100 100
r r
C.I. for 2nd period = P 1 +
100 100
2
nd r r r r r
so amount after 2 period = P 1 + + P 1+ . = P 1+ 1+
100 100 100 100 100
2
r
= P 1+
100
2
rd r r
C.I. for 3 period = P 1 +
100 100
2 2
rd r r r
Amount after 3 period = P 1 + + P 1+
100 100 100
2 3
r r r
= P 1+ 1+ = P 1+
100 100 100
pØo‘f) C;kt 205

n
r
Amount after n periods = P 1 +
100
and Compound Interest
n
r
C.I. after n periods = P 1 + −P
100
n
r
= P 1+ −1
100
Notes :−
1) If n is not a whole number then it is divided into two parts – (i) a whole number part (k)
and (ii) a fractional number (p) so n = k + p then
k
r Pr
A = P 1+ 1+ .
100 100
1
For example if n = 15 years 3 months, then n = 15 years + year and
4
15
r r
A = P 1+ 1+
100 4.100
2) Generally the unit of time period is in years. So the interest is compounded annually. In
this case the above formula holds good. But if the interest is compounded monthly, quarterly or
half yearly then calculations are changed as follows :
(i) Interest is compounded monthly
12 n
r
A = P 1+
12.100
(ii) Interest is compound quarterly
4n
r
A = P 1+
4.100
(iii) Interest is compounded six monthly or half yearly
2n
r
A = P 1+
2.100
3) If the rate of interest (r%) changes every year i.e. r1 in 1st year, r2 in 2nd year,….., rn in nth
year then
r r r r
A = P 1+ 1 1+ 2 1 + 3 .... 1 + n
100 100 100 100

Example 1. Find the compound interest on Rs. 50000 invested at the rate of 10% for 4
years.
Solution. P = Rs. 50000, r = 10%, n = 4 years
n
r
A = P 1+
100
4
10
= 50000 1 +
100
11 11 11 11
=5× × × ×
10 10 10 10
206 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

= 5000 × 14641
= Rs. 73205
C.I. = A − P
= 73205 − 50000
= Rs. 23205
Example 2. Ram deposits Rs. 31250 in a bank at a rate of 8% per annum for 3 years.
How much amount will be get after 3 years. How much his earning will change, if interest is
compounded half yearly.
Solution. (i) P = Rs. 31250, r = 8%, n = 3 years
3
8
A = 31250 1 +
100
27 27 27
= 31250 × × ×
25 25 25
= Rs. 39366
(ii) If the rate is compounded half yearly, then
2n
r
A = P 1+
2.100
2×3
8
= 31250 1 +
2.100
6
1
= 31250 1 +
25
= Rs. 39541.22
Change in earnings = 39541.22 − 39366 = Rs. 175.22
So if the interest rate is compounded half yearly, he will earn Rs. 175.22 more.
Example 3. Find the compound interest on a sum of Rs. 100000 at the rate 12% per
1
annum for 2 years when the interest is compounded (i) annually, (ii) half yearly, (iii) quarterly
2
(iv) monthly
1
Solution. P = Rs. 100000, r = 12 %, n = 2 years.
2
(i) Interest compounded annually
2
12 12
A = 100000 1 + 1+
100 2.100
2
28 53
= 100000 ×
25 50
2
28 53
Log A = Log [100000 × ]
25 50
= log 100000 + 2[log 28 − log 25] + [log 53 − log 50]
= 5 + 2[1.4471 − 1.3979] + [1.7243 − 1.6990]
= 5 + 0.0984 + .0253
= 5.1237
A = AL[5.1237] = Rs. 132953
pØo‘f) C;kt 207

So C.I. = 132953 − 100000 = Rs. 32953

(ii) Interest is compounded half yearly
5
12
A = 100000 1 +
2.100
5
3
= 100000 1 +
50
5
53
= 100000
50
5
53
Log A = log [100000 × ]
50
= log 100000 + 5(log 53 − log 50) = 5 + .1265 = 5.1265
A = AL[5.1265] = Rs. 133822
C.I. = 133822 − 100000 = Rs. 33822
(iii) Interest compounded quarterly
5
×4
12 2
A = 100000 1 +
4.100
10
103
= 100000
100
10
103
Log A = log [100000 × ]
100
= log 100000 + 10[log 103 − log 100]
= 5 + 0.1284 = 5.1284
A = AL[5.1284] = Rs. 134400
C.I. = 134400 − 100000 = Rs. 34400

(iv) Interest compounded monthly

5
×12
12 2
A = 100000 1 +
12 × 100
30
101
= 100000
100
30
101
Log A = log [100000 × ]
100
= log 100000 + 30 [log 101 − log 100]
= 5 + 30 [0.00432]
So A = AL[5.1296]
= Rs. 134785
C.I. = 134785 − 100000 = Rs. 34785
Example 4. At what rate % will Rs. 32768 yield Rs. 26281 as compound interest in 5
years.
Solution. P = Rs. 32768
A = P + C.I.
208 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

= 32768 + 26281 = Rs. 59049

n = 5 years
n
r
Now A = P 1+
100
5
r
or 59049 = 32768 1 +
100
5
59049 r
or = 1+
32768 100
5 5
9 r
or = 1+
8 100
r 9
∴ 1+ =
100 8
r 9 1
= −1=
100 8 8
100
r = = 12.5 %
8
Example 5. At what rate % will a principal double itself in 6 years.
n
r
Solution. A = P 1 +
100
6
r
2P = P 1 +
100
6
r r
or 1+ =2 Let 1 + =x
100 100
∴ x6 = 2
Taking logarithms of both sides
6 log x = log 2
= 0.3010
or log x = 0.0502
∴ x = AL[0.0502] = 1.1225
r
So now 1+ = 1.1225
100
r
= 0.1225
100
or r = 12.25 %
Example 6. In how many years will Rs. 30000 becomes Rs. 43923 at 10% rate of
interest.
n
r
Solution. A = P 1 +
100
n
10
43923 = 30000 1 +
100
pØo‘f) C;kt 209

n
11
= 30000
10
n
43923 11
or =
30000 10
n
14641 11
or =
10000 10
4 n
11 11
or =
10 10
∴n=4
So in 4 years Rs. 30000 will become Rs. 43923 at 10% rate of interest.
Example 7. Sita invested equal amounts are at 8% simple interest and the other at 8%
compound interest. If the latter earns Rs. 3466.40 more as interest after 5 years, find the total
amount invested.
Solution. Let amount invested in each = P
P ×8×5 2
So S.I. on P for 5 years at 8% = = P
100 5
5
8
and C.I. on P for 5 years at 8% = P 1 + −P
100
5
27
=P −1
25
5
27 2
Difference = P −1 − P
25 5
5
27 2
=P −1−
25 5
5
27 7 14348907 7
=P − =P −
25 5 9765625 5
14348907 − 13671875
=P
9765625
677032
= P
9765625
677032
So now P = 3466.40
9765625
3466.40 × 9765625
or P= = Rs. 50000
677032
So total amount invested = 50000 + 50000
= Rs. 100000.
Example 8. A sum of money invested at C.I. becomes Rs. 28231.63 after 4 years and
Rs. 33542.00 after 6 years. Find the principal and the rate of interest.
Solution. Let principal be P and rate of interest be r.
210 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

4
r
So 28231.63 = P 1 + …(i)
100
6
r
and 33542.00 = P 1 + …(ii)
100
Dividing (ii) by (i)
2
33542 r
= 1+
28231.63 100
r
Put 1 + =x
100
33542
∴ = x2
28231.63
Taking logarithms of both sides
log 33542 − log 28231.63 = 2 log x
4.52559 − 4.45073 = 2 log x
or 2log x = .07486
log x = 0.03743
or x = AL[0.03743]
= 1.09
r
∴ 1+ = 1.09
100
r
= 1.09 − 1 = 0.09
100
or r = 9%
Now substituting this value in equation (i)
4
9
28231.63 = P 1 +
100
4
100
or P = 28231.63
109
= Rs. 20000
Example 9. The difference between S.I. and C.I. on a certain sum of money for 3 years
1
at 8 % rate of interest is Rs. 3566.26. Find the sum.
2
Solution. Let principal = Rs. P
x × 3 × 17 51
S.I. = = P
2 × 100 200
3
17
C.I. = P 1 + −P
2 × 100
3
217 2218313
=P −1 = P
200 8000000
2218313 51
∴ P− P = 3566.26
8000000 200
2218313P − 2040000P
or = 3566.26
8000000
pØo‘f) C;kt 211

178313
or P = 3566.26
8000000
3566.26 × 8000000
P=
178313
356626 8000000
= ×
100 178313
= Rs. 160000
Example 10. A person invests a part of Rs. 221000 at 10% C.I. for 5 years and
remaining part for three years at the same rate. At time of maturity amount of both the
investments is same. Find the sum deposited in each option.
Solution. Let principal in first option = P, r = 10% and n = 5 years
5 5
10 11
∴ A = P 1+ =P
100 10
nd
Sum invested in 2 option = (221000 − P)
3
10
∴ A = (221000 − P) 1 +
100
3
11
= (221000 − P)
10
5 3
11 11
Now P = (221000 − P)
10 10
2
11
or P = 221000 − P
10
or 121 P = 22100000−100P
or 221 P = 22100000
22100000
or P= = Rs. 100000
221
So the sum invested in first option is Rs. 100000 and the sum invested in 2nd option is (221000 −
100000) Rs. 121000
Continuos Compounding of Interest
If the interest rate is compounded continuously, such that compounding frequency (λ) is
infinitely large then
n .λ
r
A = lim P 1 +
λ →∞ λ.100
100 λ nr
r r 100
A = lim P 1 +
λ →∞ 100 λ
nr
100 λ 100
lim r r
100 λ
P= → ∞ 1+
r 100 λ
nr m
100 1
=P r lim 1 + =e
m →∞ m
212 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

Here e = 2.71828.
Example 11. Rs 8000 are invested at 6% per annum. Find the amount after 5 years if
interest is compounded continuously.
nr
100
Solution A = P e
Now P = Rs. 8000, n = 3 years and r = 6%
3×6
A = Rs .( 2.71825) 100
= 8000 × 1.197
= Rs 9576.
Example 12. At what rate %, a sum will be doubled in 5 years if interest is compounded
continuously.
nr
100
Solution. A = P e
5r
So 2P = P. e 100

r
or 2= e 20

Taking logarithms of both sides

r
log 2 = log e
20
r
0.3010 = × 0.4343
20
20 × .3010
or r = = 13.86%
.4343
Effective Rate of Interest
As we have seen in the example 3 that we get higher yields, if instead of annual
compounding, interest is compounded monthly, quarterly or half yearly. So at the same rate of
interest, we get higher interest as a result of increased compounding interest. Similarly if we
want same interest in a given period, the effective rates will be higher if interest is compounded
monthly, quarterly or half yearly instead of annually.
Example 13. A company offers 13% interest rate per annum on its debentures. What are
the effective rates if interest is compounded (i) half yearly. (ii) quarterly (iii) monthly and (iv)
continuously.
Solution. Let principal = Rs 100
Time = 1 year
100 × 13 × 1
∴ C.I. at 13% = = Rs.13.
100
(i) Interest compounded half yearly
2n
r
A = P 1+
2 × 100
2×1
13
= 100 1 +
2 × 100
213 213
= 100 × × = 113.42
200 200
So effective rate of interest = 113.42 − 100 = 13.42%
pØo‘f) C;kt 213

(ii) Interest is compounded quarterly

4
13
A = 100 1 +
4 × 100
4
413 2.91 × 1010
= 100 × = 100 × = Rs. 113.67
400 2.56 × 1010
So effective rate of interest = 113.67 − 100 = 13.67%
(iii) Interest is compounded monthly
12
13
A = 100 1 +
12 × 100
12 12
1213 12.13
= 100 × = 100
1200 12
10.147 × 1012
= 100 × = Rs. 113.81
8.916 × 1012
So effective rate or interest = 113.81 − 100 = 13.81%

(iv) Interest rate compounded continuously

nr
100
A=P e
13×1
= 100 × e 100
= 100 × (2.71828).13
= 100 × 1.1388
= 113.88
So effective interest rate = 113.88 − 100 = 13.88%
So we can see that as frequency of compounding increases, effective interest rate also goes
on increasing.
Exercise 10.1
1. Find the amount after 3 years if Rs. 16000 is invested at a rate of 10% per annum.
2. Find the compound interest earned on Rs. 5000 at a rate of 8% p.a. for 5 years.
1
3. Find the amount and compound interest on a sum of Rs. 80000 for 2 years at a rate of 6.5
2
% p.a.
4. Find the difference in compound interest if interest is compounded (i) annually and (ii) half
yearly on a sum of Rs. 20000 for 3 years at a rate of 6% p.a.
5. Find compound interest on Rs. 5000 at 8% p.a. compounded quarterly for nine months.
6. At what rate percent when annum will a sum double itself in 5 years.
7. At what rate percent per annum will Rs 20000 become Rs. 30000 in 3 years if the interest
is compounded
(i) half yearly and (ii) quarterly.
8. A person borrows certain amount of money at 3 % per annum simple interest and invests it at
5% p.a. compound interest. After three years, he makes a profit of Rs 5410. Find the
amount borrowed
9. In how much time will a sum be doubled if the rate of interest is 10% per annum.
10. A certain sum of money becomes Rs. 5995.08 after 3 years at 6% p.a. find the principal.
214 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

11. The compound interest on a certain sum for 4 years at 8% rate is Rs. 404.89 more than
simple interest on the same sum at the same rate and for the same time. Find the principal.
12. A sum of money amounts to Rs. 8988.8 in 2 years and to Rs. 10099.82 in 4 years at
compound interest. Find the principal and the rate of interest.
13. Difference between C.I. and C.I. on a certain sum of money for 2 years at 5% p.a. is Rs 10.
Find the sum
14. A sum of Rs. 16896 is to be invested in two schemes one for 3 years and the other for 2
years. Rate of interest in both the schemes is 6.25% p.a. If the amount received at the
maturity of the two schemes is same, find the sum invested in each scheme.
15. In how many years will a money treble itself at 8% if the interest is compounded
continuously?
16. A company offers 12% rate of interest p.a. on its deposits. What is the effective rate of
interest if it is compounded (i) six monthly (ii) quarterly (iii) monthly and (iv)
continuously.
17. Which is better investment 8% compounded half yearly or 7.5% compounded quarterly.
Answers
1. Rs 21296 2. Rs. 2346.64 3. Rs. 93686.98 and Rs. 13686.98 4.Rs. 60.73
5. Rs.307 6. 14.87 % 7. (i) 14%, (ii) 13.76% 8. Rs. 15912
9. 7.27 years 10. Rs. 5034 11. Rs. 10000 12. Rs.8000 & 6%
13. Rs. 4000 14. Rs. 8192 and Rs. 8704 15. 8.53 years
16. (i) 12.36% (ii) 12.55% (iii) 12.68% and (iv) 12.75% 17. Ist option
okf"kZdh 215

Chapter-11

(Annuity)

Annuity is a series of equal payment made over equal interval of time periods.
! " #$
% % "&&& '# (
) "&&&'* + + (instalment) ( ! +
,- . ) ./ ) ! 0#$
% %
+ ,- ." "1 ) "
For example, if a person deposits Rs. 2000 on first of every month for 2 years, it is an
annuity. In this annuity amount of Rs. 2000 paid every month is called instalment of the
annuity. Because the time difference between two instalments is one month, so the payment
period of this annuity is one month. Besides this, since the time period between first and last
payments is two years i.e. 24 months, so the term of the annuity is 24 months.

. (Annuity certain) + + % 2 3% % !3
)#
In annuity certain, number and amount of instalments is fixed and there is no change in
then be causes of any contingency. For example instalment paid in recurring deposit in a bank,
and for purchase of a plot of land are Annuities Certain.
3 (Annuity contingent) + ( (, )
2 45 45 ( 6
In annuity contingent, instalments are paid till the happening of some specified event.
For example, premium on an insurance policy is paid only as long as the policy holder is alive.
In case of his/her then death before the maturity of the policy, further instalments are not paid.
- 3% 7 #( - - ( 8 ( + )
0
In annuity perpetual, there is no time limit for payment of instalments, they are paid for
ever. For example, the instalments of interest earned by endowment fund is a perpetual annuity
as they are received regularly for ever.

Besides this, if the payment of the instalments is made at the beginning of the
corresponding period it is called a Annuity Due and if made at the end of the period, it is called
Annuity Immediate. Annuity immediate is called ordinary annuity also. The total amount, to be
received, after the maturity of the annuity is the sum of the accumulated values (principal +
interest) of all the instalments paid.
216 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

Case I. When the annuity is annuity immediate

Let a and n be the amount and number of instalments of an annuity immediate. Further
let r be the rate of interest per period. Since 1st instalment is paid at the end of first period, so it
will earn on interest for (n−1) periods. Similarly 2nd instalment will earn interest for (n−2)
periods and so an. Second last instalment will earn interest for 1 period only and last instalment
will not earn any interest.
So total amount of the annuity
n −1 n −2
r r r
= a 1+ + a 1+ +…+ a 1 + +a
100 100 100
n −1 n −2
r r r
= a 1+ + 1+ + ... + 1 + +1
100 100 100
= a [(1+i)n−1 + (1+i)n−2 + … + (1+i) +1] = a [1+(1+i) +…+(1+i)n−2 +(1+i)n−1]
Now this is a geometrical progression and so the sum is given by

Amount = a
(
1 (1 + i)n − 1
=0
) S= a
(r n − 1)
1+ i −1 r −1

=a
(
1 (1 + i)n − 1
.
)
i
Case 2. When the annuity is annuity due.
In this case, first instalment is paid at the beginning of 1st period, 2nd instalment at the
beginning of 2nd period and so on. So 1st instalment will earn interest for n period, 2nd instalment
for (n−1) periods and so on. Last instalment will earn interest for one period only.
n n −1 2
r r r r
So Amount = a 1 + + a 1+ +…+ a 1 + +a 1 +
100 100 100 100
= a [(1+i)n + (1+i)n−1 +…+ (1+i)2 + (1+i)]
= a[((1+i) + (1+i)2+…+ (1+i)n−1 + (1+i)n]
(1 + i){(1 + i) n − 1}
=a
1 + i −1
a (1 + i)
= [(1 + i) n − 1]
i

(1 + i)n − 1
or Amount = a
i
1+ i
Example 1. A person deposits Rs. 2000 per month in a bank for 2 years. If bank pays
compound interest at the rate of 8% p.a. find the amount he will receive if the annuity is (i)
immediate and (ii) due
8 2
Solution. a = Rs. 2000, n = 12× 2 = 24 months, r = = % monthly
12 3
okf"kZdh 217

(i) Annuity immediate

(1 + i) n − 1 2 1 2
A=a , where i = × =
i 3 100 300
24
2
1+ −1
300
∴ A = 2000
2
300
2000 × 300
= [1.1729−1] = 1000 × 300 × . 1729
2
= Rs. 51870
(ii) Annuity due

(1 + i)n − 1
A=a
i
1+ i
24
2
1+ −1
300
= 2000
2 / 300
1 + 2 / 300
2000 × (1.1729 − 1) 302
= = 2000 × .1729 ×
2 300 2
×
300 302
= Rs. 52215.80
Example 2. Find the future value of an ordinary annuity of Rs. 4000 per year for 3 years
at 10% compound interest rate per annum.
10
Solution. Here a = 4000, n = 3 and i = = 0 .1
100
(1 + .1)3 − 1
So A = 4000
0 .1
4000
= (1.331−1) = 40000 ×. 331
0 .1
= Rs. 13240
Example 3. Find the future value of an annuity due of Rs. 5000 per year for 10 years at
rate of 12 % p.a. the interest being compounded half yearly.
12
Solution. Here a = 5000, n = 10×2 = 20 half years, r = = 6% half yearly
2
r 6
So i= = = .06
100 100

(1 + .06)20 − 1
Now Amount = 5000
.06
1 + .06
218 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

1.06
= 5000 [(1.06)20 −1] ×
.06
Let x = (1.06)20
∴ log x = 20 log 1.06
= 20 × 0.0253
= 0.5061
∴ x = AL [0.5061]
= 3.2071
1.06
Now Amount = 5000 (3.2071−1) ×
.06
1.06
= 5000 × 2.2071 ×
.06
= Rs. 194960.5
Example 4. Find the future amount of Rs. 50000 payable at the end of each quarter for 5
years at 10 % p.a. compounded quarterly.
10
Solution a = 40000, n 5×4 = 20 quarters, r = = 2.5% quarterly
4
2 .5
So i= =.025
100
(1 + i)n − 1
Now Amount = a
i
(1 + .025)20 − 1
= 50000
.025
Let (1.025)20 = x
∴ log x = 20 log (1.025)
= 20×0.0107
= 0.2145
So x = AL [0.2145] = 1.6386
1.6386 − 1
So amount = 50000 ×
.025
.6386
= 50000 ×
.025
= Rs. 1277200
To find the instalment of given annuity when amount is given
Example 5. What instalment has a person to pay at the end of each year if he wants to get
Rs. 5,00,000 after 10 years at 5% compound rate of interest per annum.
Solution. We know that
(1 + i)n − 1
Amount (A) = a
i
okf"kZdh 219

Given A = Rs. 500000, n = 10, r = 5 so i = 0.0.5

(1 + .05)10 − 1
Now 500000 = a
.05
(1.05)10 − 1
=a
.05
1.6289 − 1
=a
.05
.6289
= .a
.05
500000 × .05
∴ a=
.6289
=Rs. 39751.95
Example 6. A company creates a sinking fund to provide for paying Rs. 1000000 debt
maturing in 5 years. Find the amount of annual deposits at the end of each year if rate of interest
is 18% compounded annually.
18
Solution. A = 1000000, n = 5, r = 18% so i = = 0.18
100
(1 + i)n − 1
A =a
i
(1 + .18)5 − 1
1000000 = a
.18
(1.18)5 − 1
=a
.18
Let x = (1.18)5
So log x = 5 log 1.18 = 5× .0719
= 0.3595
x = AL [0.3595]
= 2.2877
2.2877 − 1
1000000 = a
.18
1000000× .18
or a=
1.2877
= Rs. 151553.42
Example 7. A machine costs Rs. 1,50,000 and has a life of 10 years.
If the scrap value of the machine is Rs. 5000, how much amount should be accumulated
at the end of each year so that after 12 years a new machine could be purchased after 10 years at
the same price. Annual compound rate of interest is 8 %.
Solution. Amount required after 10 years = 150000 − 5000 = 145000
we are given A = 145000, n = 12, r = 8 %, i = .08
220 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

(1 + i)n − 1
Now A= a
i
(1 + .08)10 − 1
145000 = a
.08
2.1589 − 1
=a
.08
145000× .08
∴ a=
1.1589
= Rs. 10009.49
Example 8. Find the minimum number of years for which an annuity of Rs. 2000 must
sum in order to have at least total amount of Rs. 32000 at 5% compound rate of interest
Solution. A = 32000, a = 2000, r = 5% , i = .05
(1 + .05) n − 1
So 32000 = 2000
.05
32000 × .05
or = (1.05)n−1
2000
or (1.05)n = 1.8
taking logarithms of both sides
n. log (1.05) = log 1.8
n×0.0212 = 0.2553
0.2553
n= =12.04
0.0212
∴ The amount of annuity will take 13 years to exceed Rs. 32000 as total amount.
Example 9. What will be the instalment of an annuity having a total amount of Rs. 75000
for 12 years at 8% p.a., rate of interest compounded half yearly.
Solution. We are given that
8
A = 75000, n = 12×2 = 24, r = = 4% and i = .04
2
(1 + .04)24 − 1
So 75000 = a
.04
or 75000 × .04 = a [(1.04)24 −1]
Let x = (1.04)24
log x = 24 log 1.04
= 24× 0.01703
= 0.4088
x = AL [0.4088]
= 2.5633
So 75000× .04 = a (2.5633−1)
3000
A=
1.5633
= Rs. 1919.02
okf"kZdh 221

Amount of an annuity when the interest is compounded continuously

In this case, the amount of the annuity is calculated by using the formula
n r
A = a 0 eit dt where i =
100
Example 10. In an annuity, Rs. 5000 are deposited each year for 8 years. Find the
amount if interest rate of 10% is compounded continuously.
Solution. We are given
10
a = 5000, n = 8, r = 10 % and i = = 0.10
100
8
So A = 5000 0 e0.1t dt
8
e0.1t
= 5000
0 .1
0

5000 0.8 0
= [e −e ]
0 .1
= 50000 (2.71828-1)0.8 [ e0 = 1]
Let x = (2.71828)0.8
log x = 0.8 log 2.712828
= 0.8 × 0.4343
= 0.3474
x = AL [0.3474]
= 2.2255
So A = 50000 × (2.2255−1) = 50000 × 1.2255
= Rs. 61275
Example 11. A person wants to have Rs. 20000 in his recurring account at the end of 6
years. How much amount he should deposit each year if the rate of interest is 8 % p.a.
compound continuously.
8
Solution. Here A = 20000, n = 6, r = 8 and i = = .08
100
n
Now A = a 0 eit dt
6 .08t
or 20000 = a 0
e dt
.08t 6
e
=a
.08
0

a 0.48 0
= [e −e ]
.08
0.48
Let x=e
log x = 0.48 log e
= 0.48×0.4343
= 0.20846
x = AL [0.20846]
= 1.6161
222 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

So 20000 × .08 = a [1.6161−1]

1600
a= =
0.6161
= Rs. 2597.
Exercise 11.1
1. A person deposits Rs. 10000 at the end of each year for 5 years. Find the amount, he will
receive after 5 years if rate of compound interest is 10% p.a.
2. Calculate the future value of an ordinary annuity of Rs. 8000 per annum for 12 years at
15% p.a. compounded annually.
3. A company has set up a sinking fund account to replace an old machine after 8 years. If
deposits in this account Rs. 3000 at the end of each year and rate of compound interest is
5% p.a. find the cost of the machine.
4. To meet the expenses of her daughter a woman deposits Rs. 3000 every six months at
rate of 10% per annum. Find the amount she will receive after 18 years.
5. A sinking fund is created by a company for redemption of debentures of Rs. 1000000 at
the end of 25 years. How much funds should be provided at the end of each year if rate
of interest is 4% compounded annually.
6. The parents of a child have decided to deposit same amount at every six months so that
they receive an amount of Rs. 100000 after 10 year. The rate of interest is 5% p.a.
compounded half yearly.
7. Which is a better investment − An annuity of Rs. 2000 each year for 10 year at a rate of
12 % compounded annually or an annuity of Rs. 2000 each year for 10 years at a rate of
11.75 % compounded half yearly.
(Present value of an annuity)
:0
9 + 0 +9
' :
9
:
9 + :
9
Present value of an annuity is equal to the total worth, at the time of beginning of the annuity, of
all the future payments that are to be received. This value is equal to the sum of present values
of all the instalments.
Let a be the amount of each instalment, n be the term (time periods) of the annuity and r
% be the rate of interest per period. Further let V1, V2 … Vn be the present values of instalments
paid in periods 1,2,…n respectively.
From our previous discussion, we know that the future value of (FV) of an annuity is
given by
n
r
FV = a 1 +
100
So if an instalment is paid at the end of period 1.
n −1
r
Then FV = a 1 +
100
okf"kZdh 223

If we want to calculate present value (PV) of this instalment then it is calculated as

a
PV =
r
1+
100

So present value of an instalment is the amount of money today which is equivalent to the
amount of that instalment, to be received after a specific period. In general, if an instalment, a, is
paid in nth period and rate of interest is r % then
a a
PVn = n or
r (1 + i)n
1+
100
Now we will find present value of both ordinary annuity and annuity due.
Ordinary Annuity or Annuity immediate
Present value of the annuity
V = V1 + V2 + V3 … + U n
a a a a
= + 2 + 3 + ... +
1 + i (1 + i) (1 + i) (1 + i)n
1 1 1 1
=a + + + ... +
1 + i (1 + i ) (1 + i )
2 3
(1 + i )n
n
1
1−
1 1+ i
=a
1+ i 1
1−
1+ i

1 (1 + i) n − 1 1+ i
=a ×
(1 + i) (1 + i) n
1 + i −1
(1 + i)n − 1 1 1 − (1 + i)−n
=a × or a
(1 + i)n i i
(ii) Annuity Due
In this type of annuity, each instalment is paid at the beginning of every period. So first
instalment is paid at time zero, 2nd instalment at time 1 and so on last instalment is paid at period
a
(n−1) Hence PV of 1st instalment is equal to a, of 2nd instalment is , of 3rd instalment is
r
1+
100
a a
2 and PV of last instalment is n −1
r r
1+ 1+
100 100
So V = V1 + V2 + V3 +…+ Vn
224 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

a a a
=a+ + + ... +
r r
2
r
n −1
1+ 1+ 1+
100 100 100
1 1 1
= a 1+ + 2 + ... +
1 + i (1 + i) (1 + i)n −1
n
1
1−
1+ i
=a
1
1−
1+ i

1 − (1 + i) −n
=a
1+ i −1
1+ i
1 − (1 + i)−n
= a(1+i)
i

1 − (1 + i)−n
or =a
i
1+ i
Example 11. Find the present value of an ordinary annuity of Rs. 1500 per year for 5
years at 8% rate of interest.
1 − (1 + i)−n
Solution. V=a
i
8
Here a = 1500, n = 5, r = 8 and thus i = = .08
100
1 − (1 + .08)−5
So V = 1500
.08
1500
=
.08
[
1 − (1.08)−5 ]
Let x = (1.08)−5
log x = −5 log 1.08
= −5 × 0.0334
= (−.1670 + 1)− 1[ Mantissa can never be negative so making the
=1. 8330 value positive, we add and subtract 1 to the
x = AL (1. 8330) negative value]
= 0.6806
1500
So V= [1 − 0.6806]
.08
1500 × 100
= × 0.3194
8
= Rs. 5988.75
okf"kZdh 225

Example 12. Find the present value of an annuity due of Rs. 800 per year for 10 years at
a rate of 4 % p.a.
Solution. We are given
4
a = 800, n = 10, r = 4 % and so i = = .04
100

Now V=a
1 − (1 + i) − n
(1 + i)
[
= a 1 − (1 + i)−n ]
1+ i
i
1.04
= 800 [ 1−(1+.04)−10]
0.04
Let x = (1.04)−10
log x = − 10 log (1.04)
= − 10 × 0.01703
= − 0. 1703 + 1 −1
=1. 8297
x = AL [1. 8297]
= 0.6756
1.04
So now V = 800 (1−0.6756)
0.04
800 × .3244 × 1.04
=
.04
= Rs. 6747.52
Example 13. A dealer sells a scooter to a customer on the condition that he will pay Rs
10000 in cash and balance to be paid in 36 month end instalment of Rs 400.
If rate of interest is 12 % p.a. find the cash price of the scooter.
Solution. We are given
12 1
a = 400, n = 36, r = = 1 % per month and so i = = 0.01
12 100
1 − (1 + i)−n
Now V=a
i
1 − (1 + .01)−36
= 400
0.01
400
= [1−(1.01)−36]
0.01
Let x = (1.01)−36
log x = −36 log 1.01
= −36 × 0.00432
= −0.15557 + 1 −1
= 1. 84443
x = AL [1. 84443]
= 0.6989
226 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

So V = 40000 [1−.6989]
= 40000 × 0.3011
= 12044
PV of 36 instalments = Rs. 12044
Cash paid = Rs. 10000
So cash price of the scooter = 12044 + 10000
= 22044
Example 14. A person takes a loan from a finance company for construction of a house,
to be repayable in 120 monthly instalments of Rs. 1020 each. Find the present value of the
instalments if the company charges interest @ 9 % p.a.
Solution. We are given
9
a = 1020, n = 120, r = = 0.75 % per month
12
0.75
and i= = .0075
100
1 − (1 + i)−n
V=a
i
1 − (1 + .0075)−120
= 1020
0.0075
1020
= [1−(1.0075)−120]
0.0075
Let x = (1.0075)−120
so log x = −120 log (1.0075)
= −120 × 0.003245
= −0.3894 +1 −1
= 1. 6106
x = AL [1.6106]
= 0.4079
1020
Hence V= [1−0.4079]
0.0075
1020
= ×.5921
0.0075
= Rs. 80525.64
Type 2. To find amount of instalment when present value is given
Example 15. Find the amount of instalment on a loan of Rs 40000 to be payable in 10, at
the end of year, equal instalments at a rate of 10 % interest per annum.
Solution. We are given
V = 40000
n = 10
10
r = 10 % or i = = 0.1
100
okf"kZdh 227

1 − (1 + i)−n
Now V=a
i
1 − (1 + 0.1)−10
40000 = a
0 .1
40000 × 0.1
or a=
1 − (1.1)−10
Let x = (1.1)−10
So log x = −10 log 1.1
= −10 × 0.04139
= −0.4139 +1−1
= 1. 5861
x =AL [1.5861]
= 0.3856
4000
So a=
1 − 0.3856
4000
=
0.6144
= Rs. 6510.42
Example 16. A person takes a loan of Rs. 600000 to be repaid in 60 equal end of month
instalments at a rate of 8 % per annum. Find the amount of each instalment.
Solution. We are given
8 2 2 1
V = 600000, n = 60, r = = % or i = =
12 3 300 150
−n
1 − (1 + i)
Now V=a
i
−60
1
1− 1+
150
600000 = a
1
150
−60
1 151
or 600000× = a 1−
150 150
−60
151
Let x=
150
So log x = −60 [log 151 − log 150]
= −60 [2.1790 − 2.17611]
= −60 × 0.00289
= −0.17314 + 1−1
= 1. 82686
x = AL [1.82686]
= 0.6712
228 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

So now 4000 = a [1− 0.6712]

= a × 00.3388
4000
a=
0.3388
= Rs. 11806.37
So monthly instalment is Rs 11806.37
Type 3. Interest is compounded continuously
Present value in this case is given by
n r
V = a 0 e−it dt. where i =
100
Example 17. Find the present value of an annuity of Rs. 12000 per year for 4 years at a
rate of 8 %. The interest is compounded continuously.
Solution. We are given
8
a = 12000, n = 4, r = 8 % or i = = 0.08
100
n
Now V = a 0 e−it dt
n
e−it
=a
−i
0

a
= − [e−in −e0]
i
a
= − [e−in −1]
i
12000
So V= [(2.71828)−4×.08 −1]
0.08
Let x = (2.71828)−0.32
log x = −0.32 log (2.71828]
= −032×0.43429
= −0.1390+1−1
= 1.8610
x = AL [1.8610]
= 0.7261
So V = −150000 × (0.7261−1)
= −150000 ×(−0.2739)
= Rs. 41085
(Deferred Annuity)
3% ( #$ % 3 5 . ( ,
( ) . 3% . (
Deferred annuity is an annuity in which payment of first instalment is made after lapse of
some specified number of payment periods. This period is called deferment period. For
example, payment of first instalment in case of educational loans and housing loans is paid after
a deferment period of one to four years.
okf"kZdh 229

(Amount of deferred annuity)

Let a be the instalment, n be the time periods, r % be the rate of interest and m the
deferment period of a deferred annuity. Amount of this annuity is same as in case of other
annuities. This amount is not affected by deferment period.
1. Annuity immediate
(1 + i)n − 1
A=a
i

2. Annuity due

(1 + i)n − 1
A=a
i
1+ i
(Present value of a deferred annuity)
Let V1, V2…Vn be the present values of the 1st, 2nd , nth instalments respectively.
Case 1. Annuity immediate
Since m is the deferment period, so 1st instalment will be paid after (m+1)
periods, 2nd after (m+2) periods and the last instalment is paid after (m+n) periods, so
a a a
V1 = m +1 , V2 = m + 2 ,… and Vn = m+n
r r r
1+ 1+ 1+
100 100 100
a a
= m +1 , V2 = …. Vn
(1 + i) (1 + i)m +2
Now the present value of the annuity
V = V1 + V2 + V3 +…+ Vn
a a a
= m +1 + m + 2 +…+
(1 + i) (1 + i) (1 + i)m+n
a a a
= + 2 +…+
(1 + i) (1 + i)
m
(1 + i) (1 + i)
m
(1 + i) (1 + i)n
m

a 1 1 1
= + 2 + ... +
(1 + i) 1 + i (1 + i)
m
(1 + i)n
n
1 1
1−
a 1+ i 1+ i
=
(1 + i)m 1
1−
1+ i
230 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

n
1
1−
a 1+ i
=
(1 + i)m i

−m 1 − (1 + i)−n
= a(1+i)
i

Case II. Annuity Due

In this case, 1st instalment is paid after m periods, 2nd after (m+1) periods and so
on. Last instalment wil be paid after (m+n−1) periods.
a a a
So V1= m , V2 = m +1 ,… Vn = m + n −1
r r r
1+ 1+ 1+
100 100 100
a a a
∴ V1 = m = m +1 Vn =
(1 + i) (1 + i) (1 + i)m +n −1
Now V = V1 + V2 + … + Vn
a a a
= m + m +1 +…+
(1 + i) (1 + i) (1 + i)m +n −1
a a a
= m + +…+
(1 + i) (1 + i) (1 + i)
m
(1 + i) (1 + i)n −1
m

a 1 1 1
= m 1+ + 2 + ... +
(1 + i) (1 + i) (1 + i) (1 + i)n −1
n
1
1−
a 1+ i
=
(1 + i)m 1
1−
1+ i

−m 1 − (1 + i) −n
= a(1+i)
i
1+ i
Example 18. Find the present value of a deferred annuity of Rs. 8000 per year for 8 years
at 10 % p.a. rate, the first instalment to be paid at the end of 4 years.
Solution. We are given
10
a = 8000, n = 8, m = 4, r = 10 % so i = = 0.1
100
−n
−m 1 − (1 + i)
Now V = a(1+i)
i
1 − (1 + 0.1)−8 1 − (1.1) −8
= 8000 (1+0.1)−4 = 800 (1.1)−4
0 .1 0 .1
Let x = (1.1)−4 and y = (1.1)−8
okf"kZdh 231

log x = −4 log 1.1 log y = −8 log 1.1

= −4×0.04139 = −8×0.04139
= −0.1656+1−1 = −0.3312+1−1
= 1.8344 = 1.6688
x = AL[1.8344] y = AL[1.6688]
= 0.6830 = 0.4664
1 − 0.4664
So V = 8000×0.6830
0 .1
= 80000×0.6830×0.5336
= Rs. 29155.90
Example 19. A car is sold for Rs 75000 down and 30 half yearly instalments of Rs. 6000
each, the first to be paid after 4 years. Find the cash price of the car, if rate of interest is 12 %
p.a. compounded half yearly.
Solution. We are given
12 6
a = 6000, n = 30, m = 3.5×2 = 7, r = = 6 % or i = = 0.06
2 100
1 − (1 + i)−n
Now V = a(1+i)−m
i
1 − (1 + 0.06)−30
= 6000(1+0.06)−7
0.06
6000
= (1.06)−7 [1−(1.06)−30]
0.06
Let x = (1.06)−7 and y = (1.06)−30
log x = −7 log 1.06 log y = −30 log 1.06
= −7×0.0253 = −30×0.0253
= −0.1771+1−1 = −0.7592+1−1
= 1.8229 = 1.2408
x = AL[1.8229] y = AL[1.2408]
= 0.6651 = 0.1741
So V = 100000 ×0.6651×(1−0.174)
= 100000×0.6651×0.8259
= Rs. 54930.

Cash price = Cash payment + present value of future instalments

= 75000+54930
= Rs. 129930
Exercise 11.2
1. Find the present value of an annuity due of Rs 4000 per annum for 10 years at a rate of 8
% per annum.
2. Find the present value of an ordinary annuity of Rs. 5625 per year for 6 year at rate of 9
% per annum.
3. Find the present values of an ordinary annuity of Rs. 5000 per six months for 12 years at
rate of 4 % p.a. if the interest is compounded half yearly.
232 O;kolkf;d xf.kr

4. John buys a plot for Rs 3,00,000 for which he agrees to equal payments at the end of
each year for 10 years . If the rate of interest is 10 % p.a. find the amount of each
instalment.
5. Lalita buys a house by paying Rs 1,00,000 in cash immediately and promises to pay the
balance amount in 15 equal annual instalments of Rs. 8000 each at 15 % compound
interest rate. Find the cash price of the house.
6. Find the amount of instalment on a loan of Rs. 250000 to be paid in 20 equal annual
instalments at a rate of 8 % per annum.
7. A persons buys a car for Rs. 2,50,000. He pays Rs. 1,00,000 in cash and promises to pay
the balance amount in 10 annual equal instalments. If the rate of interest is 12 % per
annum, find the instalment.
8. Find the present value of an annuity of Rs 11000 per year for 6 years at a rate of 11 % if
the interest is compounded continuously.
9. Find the present value of a deferred ordinary annuity of 12000 per year for 10 years at a
rate of 6 % p.a., the first instalment being paid after 3 years.

Answers
Exercise 11.1
1. Rs. 61050 2. Rs. 232008 3. Rs. 28647 4. Rs. 143754.48
5. Rs. 24081.9 6. Rs.3924.64
7. Amount 1st = Rs. 35098 and for 2nd = Rs. 34674. So first investment is better.
Exercise 11.2
1. Rs. 28987.2 2. Rs. 25233.75 3. Rs. 94570 4. Rs. 1127.90
5. Rs. 146779 6. Rs. 25463.43 7. Rs. 26548.67 8. Rs. 53141
9. Rs. 74154.35