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Breeding habitat selection of the Black Woodpecker Dryocopus martius L. in

Mediterranean forests

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 Avocetta 40: 63-69 (2016)

Breeding habitat selection of the Black Woodpecker

Dryocopus martius L. in Mediterranean forests

Davide De Rosa1,2, Walter S. Andriuzzi3, Mirko Di Febbraro1

1
Environmetrics Lab, Dipartimento di Bioscienze and Territorio (DiBT), Università del Molise - 86090 Pesche (IS), Italy
2
ARDEA, Associazione per la Ricerca, la Divulgazione e l’Educazione Ambientale - Via Ventilabro 6, 80126 Napoli,
Italy
3
Department of Biology, Colorado State University - Fort Collins CO 80523, USA

Abstract – The Black Woodpecker has a wide northern Palearctic range, but in much of western Europe it has a highly fragmented dis-
tribution. As these isolated populations are vulnerable to land cover change, a better understanding of the factors driving their presence
is needed in the perspective of conservation. To shed light on the habitat preferences of the Black Woodpecker in the southern part of its
range, we carried out a research in a large protected area, the Cilento and Vallo di Diano National Park (the first investigation on this spe-
cies anywhere in southern Italy). We used a playback technique to detect occurrence of Black Woodpeckers, as well as sympatric wood-
pecker species, and recorded environmental characteristics that might explain the bird’s occurrence, such as tree species and stand age.
The “extent of occurrence” of the Black Woodpecker was calculated, and its habitat preferences investigated. Occurrence of the species
was clearly dependent on beech dominance, in contrast with the other woodpecker species, with an estimated total population for Nation-
al Park 18.56 (± 6.19) pairs in beech-dominated woods. Habitat preferences were narrower compared to northern European populations,
highlighting the dependence of this species on beech forests in southern Europe. Since beech forests in the Mediterranean region are pre-
dicted to recede due to climate change, our findings highlight the vulnerability of southern Black Woodpecker populations.

Key-words: beech, climate relict, extent of occurrence, Picidae.

Introduction whose global range extends from Europe through the taiga
forest belt into Asia, with a core area between 62° and 69°
Due to their ecological importance and high sensitiv- N (Winkler et al. 1995). Black Woodpecker usually uti-
ity to disturbance that affects other components of avi- lizes tall and large trunks of many coniferous and broad-
fauna, woodpeckers have been identified as a particular- leaved trees forming extensive unbroken forests (Glutz &
ly important conservation target (Drever & Martin 2010, Bauer 1980, Cramp 1985). Habitat use is possibly related
Mikusiński et al. 2001). Woodpeckers are good indicators to its peculiar food requirements, especially carpenter ants
of forest biodiversity as their presence is representative of (Formicidae) (Cuisin 1988, Ceugniet 1989, Pechacek &
the condition of the forest and its overall environmental Krisvtin 1993, Rolstad & Rolstad 2000).
health (Angelstam 1990, Mikusiński 1997). The consid- In Europe it ranges from the Arctic Circle region to
erable reduction of deadwood not only at the stand but at southern Italy, using a wide variety of tree species for
the landscape level is considered to be one of the principal feeding and nesting (Angelstam 1990). In contrast with
causes of biodiversity loss in managed forest ecosystems this overall wide distribution, however, populations in
worldwide. The presence of woodpecker assemblages and the southern part of the range, including the Iberian, Ital-
their association with standing deadwood for both nesting ian and Balkan peninsulas, are often small and fragment-
and foraging is used to emphasize the importance of the ed (Brichetti & Fracasso 2007, Aierbe et al. 2014). Ani-
entire range of snag degradation stages for maintenance of mal populations at range margins are especially vulnerable
key ecological processes in habitat remnants of managed to environmental modification, e.g. due to climate change,
landscapes (Drapeau et al. 2009). and may differ from core populations in ecological prefer-
One of the most widely distributed woodpecker spe- ences and therefore conservation requirements (Hampe &
cies is the Black Woodpecker Dryocopus martius L., Petit 2005). This is exemplified by the contrast between

© 2016 CISO - Centro Italiano Studi Ornitologici 63

De Rosa et al.

the large Black Woodpecker population in northern Italy, Beyond this elevation, beech F. sylvatica dominates, usu-
with an estimate of 1,300-3,700 breeding pairs mainly lo- ally preceded by a band of Neapolitan Alder.
cated in forested Alpine and sub-Alpine regions, and the
small fragmented populations in the southern Apennines Woodpecker survey
(Nardelli et al. 2015). For this study, the park was divided into 2.5 × 2.5 km
Northern Italian population appears in expansion and grid plots using ArcGIS. Although a Black Woodpeck-
in the last twenty years there has been a progressive colo- er’s home range may vary in size, depending on the re-
nization of hilly areas and, in some cases, planitial, by this gion, plot size was based on an average of the minimum
species, once relegated to the mountain forests (Nardelli et home range sizes known for Europe (western Italian Alps:
al. 2015), whereas poor information is known about south- 3 km2, Bocca & Rolando 2003; Sweden: 5 km2, Tjernberg
ern population. et al. 1993; Norway: 1 km2, Rolstad et al. 2000; Denmark:
Reasons for this might go beyond climatic factors, as 1.30 km2, Johansen 1989; Hungary: 2 km2, Gorman 2011).
for instance only occasional records have been reported A first selection of 104 grid plots was made, on the criteri-
from the Abruzzo, Latio and Molise National Park, despite on that each plot had to be at least 50% covered by wood-
the abundance of suitable old beech Fagus sylvatica for- land. All woodland types in the park were included, as the
est habitat. A long history of hunting may explain why the Black Woodpecker is known to occur in many forest types
Black Woodpecker is largely absent today from much of (Angelstam & Mikunsinski 1994). Subsequently, 34 plots
peninsular Italy (P. Harris in Gorman 2011). Small size of were randomly selected and investigated (Fig. 1).
suitable forest fragments is also an important limiting fac- The plots were surveyed one time between February
tor for this species, as shown in the Iberian Peninsula (Gar- and March 2012, as courtship in the Black Woodpecker
mendia et al. 2006). can start anytime from February (Cramp 1985). The play-
In order to improve our understanding of Black Wood- back technique (Falls 1992, Douglas and Mennill 2010)
pecker habitat requirements in southern Europe, we inves- was used to record the number of individuals of the Black
tigated its presence and habitat in a large protected area in Woodpecker. Sounds used for play-back were taken from
southern Italy using the playback technique. The specific Roché (2008). An initial play-back was followed by five
objectives of our study were: a) to test the relationship be- minutes of silence in order to detect any response; the op-
tween the species occurrence and forest structure charac- eration was then repeated once. The procedure was used
teristics, b) to determine its extent of occurrence (EOO). for other Woodpecker species in this order: Leiopicus me-
dius, Dryobates minor, Dendrocopos major, Picus viridis.
Although the sampling period may not have been optimal
Materials and methods for these species, European woodpeckers are essentially
non-migratory and sedentary birds (Gorman 2011), and so
Study area we opportunistically also detected their presence.
The study area, “Parco Nazionale del Cilento, Vallo di Di- Since our main target species is highly territorial, the
ano e Alburni”, henceforth referred to as the Cilento Na- location of breeding territories was used as a census proxy,
tional Park, is one of the largest protected areas in south- i.e. a targeted census (Svenssons 1979, Bibby et al. 1992).
ern Europe, it extends from sea level to 1899 m a.s.l. of We investigated the effect of the different forest variables
Cervati mountains and is of outstanding ecological inter- on Black Woodpecker during the breeding season. There-
est due to its diverse range of habitats and the high bio- fore, the conclusions that may be drawn from our data are
diversity it supports (La Valva & Carrabba 1999, Per- relevant to the territories used for breeding and not neces-
siani et al. 2010, Ravera & Brunialti 2012, Romano et sarily to the habitats exploited during other seasons; how-
al. 2010). Established in 1991, it covers an area of about ever all woodpeckers are predominantly sedentary, espe-
180,000 hectares encompassing a wide range of vegeta- cially the fragmented population (Gorman 2011).
tion types. About 1,800 plant species were surveyed in the
park, among which Yew Taxus baccata, Holly Ilex aqui- Habitat evaluation
folium and an Italian endemism, the Neapolitan Alder Al- In each plot a set of environmental variables was meas-
nus cordata. The inland area is covered by deciduous hard- ured, including forest characteristics and elevation. For-
wood forests, with a mix of Turkey Oak Quercus cerris, est type was identified based on the tree species assem-
Downy Oak Quercus pubescens, Maples Acer spp., Horn- blage as one the following: Beech, Chestnut, Holm Oak-
beam O­strya spp., Manna Ash Fraxinus ornus and Chest- Alder, deciduous oaks, deciduous oaks and beech, mixed-
nut Castanea sativa up to about 1000 m above sea level. oak, and mixed-Mediterranean forest. Stand maturity was

64
 Black Woodpecker in Mediterranean forests

Figure 1. Study area in Cilento National Park, Southern Italy. Red squares are the parcels established at the beginning of the study, with
numbers marking those selected for the field survey.

classified on a discrete scale from 1 to 3, from recent (< 15 evaluate the EOO of the Black Woodpecker in Cilento.
years) coppice to mature stands. Likewise, beech density This technique was chosen because it is one of the best
and presence of dead trees were classified from 1 (no liv- known in statistics (Börger et al. 2006) and is the main
ing beech trees and no dead trees detected, respectively) choice for modern studies of animal-habitat relationships
to 3 (beech-dominated, i.e. virtually only beech as arbo- (Marzluff et al. 2004). We adopted the fixed kernel method
real species, and over 10 dead trees per km2 respectively). for bivariate data as recommended by Seaman & Powell
(1996). Regarding the choice of the bandwidth, a parame-
Analysis ter showing a very strong effect on kernel estimation (Sea-
Occurrence, habitat use and population size of the Black man & Powell 1996, Burgman & Fox 2003, Börger et al.
Woodpecker and other co-occurring Picidae were inves- 2006), as it regulates its smoothing, we followed the ‘rule
tigated in a subset of 34 plots randomly selected from the of thumb’ proposed by Scott (1992):
initial set of 104 grids. To highlight potential differences - hopt = 1.06An-1/5 where hopt = optimal bandwidth;
in plot use among the five woodpecker species surveyed, - n = sample size;
we performed Principal Component Analysis (PCA) on - A = min (standard deviation, interquartile range/1.34).
species presence/absence data (five species) using plots as Following the recommendation of Börger et al. (2006)
sites. A generalised linear model (GLM) with a binomial to adopt a utilization distribution isopleth between 90%
distribution of errors and a clog-log link function was used and 50% (the range in which kernel estimators perform
to model the probability of recording a Black Woodpeck- better), we chose a 50% isopleth to calculate the external
er in relationship to beech tree density, presence of dead range boundaries. Statistical analyses and kernel estima-
trees and woodland age. Each of the explanatory variables tions were performed in R 2.15.3 (R Development Core
was dropped in turn and subjected to an analysis of devi- Team, 2012; maptools and Genkern packages).
ance using Chi-square tests to assess its significance. Val- In addition we estimated density of Black Wood-
ues were considered significant at a 5% probability level, pecker in beech-dominated woodland dividing the num-
and variance explained by the model was calculated as the ber of birds by the explored area and assuming the every
ratio of the difference between null and residual deviance birds contacted represented a pair (see Douglas & Men-
to null deviance (Zuur et al. 2009). GLM estimates are pre- nill 2010). Based on the total number of plots identified as
sented as means ± standard errors. beech-dominated, pairs were estimated to occur across all
Based on our field data, we used kernel estimation to beech forests in the Cilento National Park.

65
 De Rosa et al.

Results first two axes together account for 63% of the variation in
the woodpecker assemblage. The first axis was positively
Black Woodpeckers were recorded in 10 out of 34 plots. correlated with beech density (Spearman’s r = 0.34, p =
In nine of these only one individual was found, and only 0.05), while neither the first nor the second axis were sig-
in one two distinct males were recorded. Most individu- nificantly correlated with stand age or the presence of dead
als were found in beech-dominated plots, with only three trees (r < 0.1, p > 0.1) According to the GLM, the prob-
found in mixed-oak forest. PCA suggests that the Black ability of recording a Black Woodpecker was significantly
Woodpecker shows markedly different habitat preferences related to increasing beech dominance (p < 0.01), increas-
from the other four species in the study area (Fig. 2). The ing from 8.9 ± 6.5% in areas without living F. sylvatica,

1
PCA axis 2 (R2 = 0.27)

-1

-1 0 1

PCA axis 1 (R2 = 0.36)

Figure 2. Principal component analysis based on presence of five woodpecker species in the study area. Black dots represent the sampled
parcels (n = 34). Parcels where the same bird numbers were recorded overlap. Arrows refer to the species, with the following abbrevia-
tions: B = Black Woodpecker Dryocopus martius; GS = Great Spotted Woodpecker Dendrocopos major; MS = Middle Spotted Wood-
pecker Leiopicus medius; LS = Lesser Spotted Woodpecker Dryobates minor; G = European Green Woodpecker Picus viridis. The ei-
genvalues for the first, second, and third axes are, respectively, 0.355, 0.266 and 0.170.

100 to 56.2 ± 13.51% in areas with complete F. sylvatica cov-

% Probability occurrence D. martius

er (Fig. 3), whereas it was influenced by neither stand age

(from 27.3 ± 21.9% in young coppice to 29.5 ± 7.9% in
75 mature stands, p = 0.7), nor presence of dead trees (from
33.3 ± 10.2% in absence of dead trees to 23.1 ± 11.7% with
50 over 10 dead trees per km2, p = 0.7). The final model with
beech dominance explained 20.4 % of the total variance in
Black Woodpecker occurrence, and its residual variance
25 was 32.16 on 31 degrees of freedom (ratio = 1.04), there-
fore indicating no over dispersion.
Black Woodpecker density in beech-dominated wood-
0
land was estimated at 0.09 (± 0.03) pairs per km2. Based
0 50 100 on the total number of plots identified as beech-dominat-
ed, 18.56 ± 6.19 pairs were estimated to occur across all
% Living beech tree cover
beech forests in the Cilento National Park. According to
Figure 3. Probability of observation of the Black Woodpecker the EOO, the species is mainly distributed in the northern
Dryocopus martius in Cilento National Park as related to beech
Fagus sylvatica density. The shading represents the 95% confi- part of the Cilento Park, especially in proximity to the Al-
dence region around the mean estimate (solid line). burni and Cervati mountains (Fig. 4).

66
 Black Woodpecker in Mediterranean forests

Black Woodpecker occurrences

Cilento National Park

0 5 10 20 km
Black Woodpecker EOO

Figure 4. Extent of occurrence of the Black Woodpecker in Cilento National Park study area.

Discussion choice appears to be context-dependent. This implies that

local data should be preferred for woodland management
In our study sites, the Black Woodpecker used plots domi- aiming to address this species’ conservation, as opposed to
nated by F. sylvatica, as the probability of recording an in- data from other populations.
dividual was significantly higher with increasing beech tree The Black Woodpecker appears to be a specialist re-
density. Conversely, woodland age did not influence its oc- garding habitat choice, with a strong selectivity for beech-
currence. This may well be partly due to the presence of dominated stands. Such habitat use differed from that of
very old trees in old non-productive snow deposits used in the other co-occurring species of Picidae (Fig. 1). This dif-
the past. Indeed, these could be perfect breeding sites also ference is probably due to the breeding ecology of Black
in young forests, where it is easier for woodpeckers to find Woodpecker with respect to other woodpecker species:
ants (Mikusinski 1997). Species presence clearly corre- only in beech forest it may find large enough trees in which
sponded to the Alburni and Cervati mountains (Fig 4), like- to excavate cavities, as the other forest types are over-ex-
ly to be the only two locations in the national park where ploited and offer few suitable trees for nesting.
suitable large trees in which to excavate nest holes can be Although overall Italian population of Black Wood-
found. One caveat is that non-detection may not necessar- pecker appears to be increasing in numbers and expanding
ily indicate true absence as assumed in our analysis. geographically, as indicated by recent observations in the
Our results indicate that the Black Woodpecker has Foreste Casentinesi National Park (Ceccarelli et al. 2003)
different habitat preferences at our study site when com- and in the Aspromonte National Park (G. Martino, pers.
pared to more northerly sites across Europe, where broad- comm.), occurrence in the Apennines remains scarce (Boi-
er tree species choices have been recorded (Angelstam & tani et al. 2002). Our data led to an estimation of fewer
Mikunsinski 1994). This is in line with studies in the Ital- than 20 pairs inhabiting beech woodland in the Cilento Na-
ian Alps which recorded a different habitat choice as com- tional Park. This indicates that even in the second largest
pared with the Pyrenees and other parts of Europe (Bocca protected area in Italy this glacial relict species has a very
et al. 2007). Therefore, the Black Woodpecker’s habitat small population size, suggesting that its survival in south-

67
De Rosa et al.

ern Italy may be precarious (Calvario et al. 2011, Peronace (Servizio Conservazione Natura, Parco Nazionale del Cilento e
et al. 2012). The fact that it almost only occurred in beech Vallo di Diano) for authorising field work and the CTA of Vallo
della Lucania. We are also grateful to Egidio Fulco and Giuseppe
woodland may be especially critical, since this habitat is Martino for information on the Black Woodpecker populations of
predicted to decrease dramatically in the coming decades Basilicata and Calabria, and to Ivan Maggini, Barry McMahon
and Mark Walters for constructive comments that improved the
due to ongoing climate change (Innangi et al. 2015).
manuscript. Two anonymous referees contributed to improve ear-
Such a small local population might be a consequence lier version of the manuscript.
of the current management of beech woodland in the Ci-
lento National Park, which may need to be modified if
conservation of rare beech woodland species, such as the References
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