BRJ Volume 5 Issue 1 Pages 759-779

Biofuel Research Journal 17 (2018) 759-779
Journal homepage: www.biofueljournal.com
Review Paper
Current state and future prospects for liquid biofuels in Canada

Jennifer Littlejohns1,*, Lars Rehmann 2, Rachel Murdy3, Aung Oo4, Stuart Neill1
1
National Research Council Canada, Low Carbon Fuels and Combustion, 1200 Montreal Road Building M-9, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, K1A 0R6.
2
University of Western Ontario, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Thompson Engineering Building, Room TEB 459, London, Ontario,
Canada, N6A 5B9.
3
Lallemand Biofuels & Distilled Spirits, 1815 Satellite Boulevard, Building 200, Duluth, GA 30097, USA.
4
Western Sarnia-Lambton Research Park, Sarnia, Ontario, Canada.


HIGHLIGHTS GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

 
In Canada, the potential use of biomass for biofuels 
far exceeds current use.


Various technologies that range in TRL are being 
explored for biofuel production. 

Advanced drop-in fuel development is beneficial for 

significant fuel switching.

A multifaceted approach to boost the liquid biofuels 

industry further is required.
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT
Article history: The necessity to find renewable and low carbon fuels as a critical component of the strategy to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
Received 2 December 2017 in Canada has caused the biofuels industry to rapidly expand. However, there is a higher capacity for the use of biofuels to
Received in revised form 3 January 2018 replace conventional petroleum fuels in Canada than outlined by current regulations and programs. A wide range of feedstocks,
Accepted 3 January 2018 processes, and applications for liquid biofuels can be found in Canada at varying degrees of progress. To reach the full potential
Available online 1 March 2018 of the biofuels industry in Canada, it is important to understand the broad landscape of the biofuels industry and areas of promise.
The objective of this paper is to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of liquid biofuels in Canada. This includes
Keywords: national feedstock availability and conversion processes to produce liquid biofuels. Both biochemical and thermochemical
Biofuel feedstock processes over a wide range of technology readiness levels, from R&D to commercialization, will be included. Current industry,
Biochemical conversion government, and/or academic support for these production activities will b e referenced where applicable. The transportation
Thermochemical conversion applications of commerc ially available liquid biofuels in Canada will be reviewed. Finally, comments on future prospects to
Biofuel applications boost environmental and economic competitiveness of the biofuels industry in Canada will be provided.
Liquid biofuel
Canada
© 2018 BRTeam. All rights reserved.
* Corresponding author at: Tel.: (+1) 613-993-0810

E-mail address: Jennifer.littlejohns@nrc-cnrc.gc.ca
Please cite this article as: Littlejohns J., Rehmann L., Murdy R., Oo A., Neill S. Current state and future prospects for liquid biofuels in Canada. Biofuel
Research Journal 17 (2018) 759-779. DOI: 10.18331/BRJ2018.5.1.4
760
Littlejohns et al. / Biofuel Research Journal 17 (2018) 759-779
Contents
1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7 60
2. Feedstocks ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7 61
2.1. Forestry ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7 62
2.2. Agriculture ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7 63
2.3. Municipal wastes ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7 63
3. Processes ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7 63
3.1. Biochemical .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 7 63
3.1.1. Ethanol ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7 65
3.1.2. Butanol ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7 67
3.2. Thermochemical and chemical ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7 67
3.2.1. Various grades of bio oil .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7 67
3.2.2. Liquid fuels produced from syngas ................................................................................................................................................................................... 7 69
3.2.3. Hydrogenation derived renewable diesel .......................................................................................................................................................................... 7 7 0
3.2.4. Biodiesel ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7 7 0
4. Transportation applications ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7 7 1
4.1. Ethanol ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7 7 1
4.2. Biodiesel and HDRD ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7 7 2
5. Future prospects .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 7 7 3
References ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7 7 4
1. Introduction biofuels industry in the future. The role of policy on the reduction of GHGs
and adoption of biofuel use has been shown to be effective, as, by 2015,
In response to rising greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from petroleum fuels, regulations led to to reduce GHG emissions by 4.4 Mt and increased biofuel
sources of renewable fuels that reduce the net carbon output to the atmosphere use to 2800 million L ethanol, 470 million L biodiesel, and 150 million L
are being intensely researched and commercialized in Canada. The conversion renewable diesel/year (Wolinetz and Hein, 2017).
of biomass to fuel is an attractive renewable option and bioenergy currently Besides regulations, several programs have also been put in place by the
accounts for approximately 6% of Canada’s total energy supply (NRCan, federal government to provide financial support to the development of the
2017). Various biomass feedstocks are widely availabile in Canada and there biofuels industry in Canada. These programs have targeted the three major
is a larger capacity for biofuel production than what is currently being utilized industries involved in biofuel production: 1. feedstock production and
(Surisetty et al., 2012). Liquid biofuels that are produced commercially in availability, 2. conversion technologies to convert feedstocks to biofuel,
Canada are primarily ethanol and biodiesel. Nevertheless, there is a wide range and 3. end-use. These programs are/were led by such organizations as
of technology readiness levels (TRL) of emerging biofuel products and Natural Resources Canada (e.g., ecoENERGY for biofuels, The National
production processes that have the potential for improved efficiency and Renewable Diesel Demonstration Initiative), Sustainable Development
reduced carbon footprint. The lower TRL biofuels have the potential to Technology Canada (e.g., NextGen Biofuels Fund, Sustainable
contribute significantly to Canada’s biofuel supply. For example, it was Development Technology Fund), and Agiculture and AgriFoods Canada
estimated that bioethanol production from all available sources of (e.g., AAFC Growing Forward). In addition, Networks of Centres of
lignocellulosics could provide up to 50% of Canada’s 2006 transportation fuel Excellence of Canada provided support for the national organization,
requirements, assuming ideal conversion and unlimited access to feedstocks Biofuelnet, to integrate work being completed in academia with industry,
(Mabee and Saddler, 2010). Liquid biofuels can be used in internal combustion investors, and government to collaborate on projects to develop non-food
engines with or without blending and with or without some engine feedstocks for biofuel production. There are also extensive programs that
modifications, depending on type (Agarwal, 2007), but the feasibility of were put in place in the past to provide a boost to the Canadian ethanol
replacing 50% of transportation fuel with bioethanol is unlikely considering the industry that support production, capital investment, distribution, and
infrastructure changes required. This scenario would likely make Canada a consumption including the Ethanol Expansion Program, as reviewed by
major exporter of bioethanol. Perhaps the most noteworthy benefit to Laan et al. (2009). Several of the aforementioned government supported
transitioning to liquid biofuels is the potential to significantly reduce GHG programs have now ended or are ending shortly, with other options for
emissions relative to petroleum depending on biofuel type and conversion funding for various stages of development being strengthened or put in
process (Larson, 2006), which was the policy intent of supporting the biofuels place. Examples include Innovation, Science, and Economic Development
industry. However, it should be noted that the life cycle analysis of biofuel Canada’s Innovation Superclusters Initiative to provide funding to
production is challenging, including such complexities as GHG emissions from industry-led consortiums, to which biofuels may play a role, the Strategic
feedstock production and land use changes (Dyer et al., 2010). Innovation Fund and the Low Carbon Economy Fund. In addition, the
Over two decades ago, Canada formally identified the bioenergy sector as Clean Growth Hub initiative has been implemented to streamline the
an opportunity for sustainable economic development, with additional benefits application of potential commercial ventures for funding. There is also
to employment, environment, health, waste management, and secured energy support for R&D from the federal government, which include programs
supply (Le Roy and Klein, 2012). Regulations on renewable fuel content has through the National Research Council and the Agricultural Bio-products
been implemented in Canada over the past decade with the specific objective Innovation Program, as well as the networks Cellulosic Biofuel Network
of reducing GHG emissions and boosting the biofuel industry. For both (CBN), and the Strategic Network in the Bioconversion of Lignocellulosic,
gasoline and distillate pools, there are federal and often provincial regulations which are funded through Agriculture and Agrifood Canada and Natural
for renewable fuel content. This renewable fuel standard (RFS) is summarized Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC),
in Table 1 for locations across Canada. In addition, a low carbon fuel standard respectively. A concise summary of federal and provincial programs in
(LCFS) has been implemented in British Columbia and is being proposed in Canada to support biofuels production and R&D can be found in Scaife et
Ontario as well by the federal government, which is also shown in Table 1. At al. (2015). There are various other organizations in Canada that promote
the time of writing the current review, Environment and Climate Change and advocate for biofuel producers including the non-profit Renewable
Canada was developing new regulation under the Canadian Environmental Industries Canada and the industry association Advanced Biofuels Canada.
Protection Act of 1999 to reduce Canada’s GHG emissions by 30 mega tonnes There is evidence of strong support for the biofuels industry throughout the
annually by 2030 through increased use of low carbon fuels and alternative public and private sector.
technologies (ECCC, 2017). This new regulation would be applicable for not It is important to understand how biofuel production and use in Canada
only transportation fuels, but gas, liquid, and solid fuels for both motive and is currently positioned to meet the intended outcome of regulations, which
stationary applications and will be a key driver that shapes the Canadian is to ultimately transition to a renewable fuel industry. This review will
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Table 1.
Summary of federal and provincial regulations for renewable fuel content in Canada in 2017, including renewable fuel standard (RFS) and low carbon fuel standard (LCFS)*.
Renewable fuel standards Low carbon fuel standards

Location Provincial Federal Provincial Federal
Gasoline Diesel Gasoline Diesel
4%-70% reduction in TBD

Ontario 5%a 5%c 2%c TBD
lifecycle GHGb
10% reduction in GHG by

British Columbia 5%d 4%d 5%c 2%c TBD
2020d
Newfoundland - - Excludedc Excludedc - TBD
Nova Scotia - - 5%c 2%c - TBD
Prince Edward Island - - 5%c 2%c - TBD
c
New Brunswick - - 5% 2%c - TBD
Quebec - - 5%/north of 60 excludedc 2%/north of 60 excludedc - TBD
Manitoba 8.5%e 2%f 5%c 2%c - TBD
Saskatchewan 7.5%g 2%h 5%c 2%c - TBD
Alberta 5%i 2%i 5%c 2%c - TBD
Yukon - - Excludedc Excludedc - TBD
Northwest Territories - - Excludedc Excludedc - TBD
Nunavut - - Excludedc Excludedc - TBD
* Sources: a b c d
Ethanol in gasoline (2017); Greener diesel - renewable content requirements for petroleum diesel fuel (2014); Renewable fuels regulations (2013); Renewable and low carbon fuel
requirements regulations (2017); e Ethanol general regulation (2007); f Biodiesel mandate for diesel fuel regulation (2009); g The ethanol fuel (general) regulations (2015); h The renewable diesel
regulations (2012); and i Renewable Fuel Standard Regulation (2012).
focus on the current state of biofuels in Canada, including feedstock use and
availability, processes to convert biomass to fuels at various scales and TRLs,
and applications for commercially available biofuels. Feedstocks that will be
reviewed include biomass from agriculture and forestry, as well as others
commonly used in Canada. An overview of prominent and emerging liquid
biofuel production processes will be provided; however, details of mechanisms
and conversion chemistry behind the technologies will not be included, as that
information can be found reviewed elsewhere (e.g., Naik et al., 2010; Nigam
and Singh, 2011). Transportation applications for commercially produced
liquid biofuels will also be discussed in the current document including
compatibility and barriers to implementation. Finally, comments on future
prospects in the biofuels industry in Canada will be provided.
2. Feedstocks
Canada is endowed with abundant natural resources such as oil, gas,

uranium, hydro, minerals, and biomass. As the second largest country in the Fig. 1. Relative quantities of annual biomass production in Canada (Total 5.3 EJ/yr; Source:
world, Canada has enormous biomass resources from its large forest area and Bradley (2008); Paré et al. (2017); and Wood and Layzell (2003)).
well-developed agricultural lands. Municipal wastes also present biomass
resources with considerable opportunities to reduce GHG emissions from the
current landfill sites. Various biomass feedstocks can be used to produce a wide It should be noted that the majority of the biomass produced are for food
range of commodities, including fuels, chemicals, foods, energy, and other and other commodities such as lumber for construction applications.
consumer products. Given the scale of its biomass resources, Canadian forestry Residues from harvesting operations in the forestry and agricultural sectors
and agricultural sectors can sustainably provide foods, fuels , and other and biomass materials from municipal wastes are mostly unused at present.
commodities. Experts agree that Canada, the USA, and Brazil are the most Figure 2 exhibits biofuel potential in Canada under different scenarios
promising countries to develop a large-scale bioeconomy sector due to their compared to current biofuel production of ethanol and biodiesel. It is
sustainable biomass resources. assumed that 70% of energy in biomass feedstock is converted to ethanol
A few studies have performed comprehensive assessments of biomass and biodiesel in biofuel production processes. The weighted average energy
resources from Canadian forests, agricultural land, and municipal wastes density, based on the current production of ethanol and biodiesel, of 21.12
(Wood and Layzell, 2003; Bradley, 2008; Paré et al., 2017). Based on the MJ/L is used to calculate the biofuel potential. The current productions of
findings of these studies, the total energy content of all available biomass 1,850 and 150 million L are estimated for ethanol and biodiesel,
resources, which could be sustainably produced, is estimated to be respectively (Bradley, 2008; Bradburn, 2014).
approximately 5.3 EJ/yr. The relative quantities of annual biomass production As seen in Figure 2, if all biomass resources annually available are used
from the forestry, agricultural, and municipal solid waste sectors are shown in as biofuel feedstock, approximately 176,000 million L of biofuel could be
Figure 1. Canada, which possesses approximately 10% of world forests, sustainably produced in Canada. This scenario is obviously hypothetical
obviously offers the forestry materials as its largest source of biomass feedstock since the majority of biomass resources will be continued to serve as food
(58% of total). The agricultural biomass and municipal wastes represent 39% supply and feedstock for other commodities. However, 10% of biomass
and 3%, respectively, of total biomass available annually. resources available can be converted to approximately 18,000 million L of
762
million m3 of roundwood although the estimate varies slightly year to year.

The total roundwood harvested has been well below the AAC as shown in
Figure 3. In 2015, the difference between the AAC and the total roundwood
harvested was 90 million m3, which could be used to produce
approximately 52,000 million L of biofuel.
Utilizing roundwood as feedstock for biofuel has both advantages and
disadvantages. Roundwood is a consistent and quality feedstock compared
to residues. Additional harvest equipment and infrastructure are not
required as the Canadian forestry industry is not at full capacity as seen in
Figure 3. If the demand and economics of producing biofuel from
roundwood is warranted, the industry could deliver feedstock since the
supply chain is well-developed. One of the disadvantages of roundwood as
a feedstock is likely the cost compared to residues as competition from
conventional forestry products is expected.
Roundwood harvested for conventional forestry products leaves behind
residues, tree tops and branches in forests and roadsides. Residues are also
generated from forestry management operations, such as thinning and
Fig. 2. Biofuel potentials/production in Canada.
natural disturbances. The accurate estimation of these residues is somewhat
difficult, and previous studies have suggested a range of 20-40% of total
roundwood harvested as compiled by Paré et al. (2017). Leaving some
biofuel. Harvest residues in the forestry and agricultural sectors and biomass residues at the harvest sites offers ecological benefits. If the conservative
from municipal wastes represent well more than 10% of total available biomass residues-to-roundwood of 20% and the removal rate of 50% are assumed,
resources (Wood and Layzell, 2003; Bradley, 2008; Paré et al., 2017). The the potential harvest residues present approximately 18 million m3 or
economical production at current supply and demand is approximately 2,000 10,000 million L of biofuel. The majority of residues are left at the harvest
million L which is well below the attainable potential. It can be stated that sites at present due to limited uses and the poor economics of collection.
Canada’s biofuel sector is not feedstock-limited. The biomass resources could Sawmills and industrial processes generate residues in the form of
contribute at a significantly higher level to reducing the GHG emissions in sawdust, bark, shavings, and black liquor. The estimation of these residues
transportation and stationary applications. is more accurate since the material flows of the industrial processes are
relatively invariable. Most of these mill residues are currently used to
produce value-added forestry products and to co-generate heat and
electricity. Mill residues are the major feedstock, representing
2.1. Forestry approximately 80% of wood pellets produced in Canada (Bradburn, 2014).
Wood and Layzell (2003) estimated that about 22% of roundwood
Forests are a major source of biomass in Canada. Though Canada has only processed ended up as residues and approximately 70% of mill residues
0.4% of the world’s population, it possesses approximately 10% of world were converted to energy or value-added products. Based on their
forests (Global Forest Watch - Country Profiles, 2017). Canada is the second estimates, available mill residues (about 30% of total mill residues) for
largest country in the world, with almost 1,000 million hectares, and with 45% biofuel production is approximately 11 million m3 or 6,000 million L of
of the land covered by forests. There are three main types of biomass feedstock biofuel, which is about three times higher than the current biofuel
potentially available from the forestry sector: roundwood, residues from production in Canada.
harvest and forest management operations, and residues from sawmills and Although harvest and mill residues as feedstock for biofuels offer an
industrial processes. efficient utilization of biomass resources, a number of factors should be
considered for their viability. The impurity and inconsistent quality of
residues may lead to higher processing costs in biofuel production.
Collection of harvest residues will likely require additional equipment,
hence investments. Although the costs of harvest residues are perceived to
be lower than that of roundwood, the difference may not be substantial due
to the volume of residues available per km2. Barks, which are rich in
mineral content and require additional processing prior to biofuel
production, represents a significant portion of unused mill residues.
The costs of forestry biomass will vary from province to province in
Canada and will also depend on the types of biomass. However, the spot
price for wood pellets delivered into the Amsterdam-Rotterdam-Antwerp
(ARA) in Europe provides a basis to estimate the cost of forestry biomass.
Canada produced about 2.3 million tonnes of wood pellets in 2013 and 86%
of total pellets were exported, mainly to Europe (Bradburn, 2014). The
feedstocks for wood pellets include roundwood, harvest residues, and mill
residues. Several Canadian provinces, from New Brunswick and Nova
Scotia to Alberta and British Columbia, are producing wood pellets for
export markets.
The spot price of wood pellets at ARA has recovered from its lows in
early 2017, and is currently at US$140-150/tonne or approximately
C$180/tonne. Based on communications with industry experts, the average
Fig. 3. Total roundwood harvested compared to Annual Allowable Cut (Source: National Forestry transportation cost of C$40/tonne from Canada to Europe and the
Database - Forest Inventory ( 2017) and Statistics Canada). pelletization cost of C$40/tonne are estimated. Assuming 15% margin for
pellet manufacturers, the estimated cost of forestry biomass in Canada is in
the range of C$50-75/tonne delivered at biofuel facilities.
Total roundwood, which is usually harvested and processed into The Canadian forestry sector is potentially the largest source of biomass
conventional forestry products, harvested in Canada is given in Figure 3 feedstock, which can be converted to biofuel and bio-chemicals such as
compared with Annual Allowable Cut (AAC) (National Forestry Database - methanol through different bio-chemical and thermo-chemical processes.
Forest Inventory, 2017). Canadian forests grow the AAC of approximately 250 However, the economic feasibility of biofuel from forestry biomass, e.g.,
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cellulosic ethanol production, has yet to be proven on commercial scales. The Livestock wastes represent an energy source although they are mainly
changing policy drivers and improvements in conversion technologies may used for soil amendment at present. Canada’s livestock farms also produce
lead to the utilization of these sustainable resources for biofuel production in 58 million tonnes of manure annually, which if made available for biogas
both ecologically and economically beneficial manners in the future. production through the anaerobic digestion process, would generate
approximately 65 PJ of biogas, equivalent to the energy content in 3.5
2.2. Agriculture million dry tonnes of biomass (Wood and Layzell, 2003). Biogas from
livestock wastes could be converted to methanol to be used as fuel
Canada has 67.5 million hectares of agricultural land, representing 6.8% of additives. Methane and nitrous oxides emitted from the current use of
total land area. Field crops are grown on over half of the agricultural land livestock wastes are strong GHGs and can be substantially reduced through
producing approximately 120 million tonnes of biomass annually for food, the anaerobic digestion process.
feed, and feedstock for biofuel and other industrial applications. Three major Grain corn is the largest feedstock for biofuel production in North
types of biomass which could be used as feedstock for biofuel production are America, since it is likely the most cost competitive starchy crop in the
field/special crops, agricultural residues, and livestock wastes. region. The field crops used to manufacture biofuel are commoditized and
The major field and special crops of Canada are given in Table 2. Wheat is their prices are available at publicly traded markets such as Chicago Board
the largest crop followed by canola and tame hay in terms of seeded areas. The of Trade (Chicago Board of Trade, 2017).
Canadian agricultural sector has been the main source of feedstock for However, the price of crop residues could be crop and site specific. The
commercial biofuel production. As shown in Table 2, approximately 25% of recent estimates by the Western Sarnia-Lambton Research Park and
grain corn produced is used as biofuel feedstock. Wheat is the second largest Ontario Federation of Agriculture suggest that the price of agricultural
biofuel feedstock; about 3% of wheat produced is converted to biofuel. Other residues could range from C$75 to C$100/tonne delivered at biofuel
Canadian field crops for commercial biofuel production are canola and facilities. Based on personal communication with industry experts, the bulk
soybeans. The starchy crops, grain corn and wheat, are feedstock for ethanol purchase of livestock wastes ranges from C$3 to C$10/tonne at farm gate;
while the oily crops, canola and soybeans, are used for biodiesel. anaerobic digestors are likely farm-based operations since off-farm
Approximately 5 million tonnes out of 120 million tonnes total of field/special transportation of a large amount of livestock wastes is prohibited in many
crops are currently used as biofuel feedstock annually in Canada. The jurisdictions.
agricultural sector can obviously offer more feedstock from its field/special
crop production. 2.3. Municipal wastes
Table 2. Canadians produced approximately 706 kg of waste/person according to

Major field/special crops and feedstock for biofuel production in Canada in 2016*. 2014 Statistics Canada data. Of this, 451 kg went to landfills or was
incinerated while only 255 kg was diverted from landfill. Some municipal
wastes currently not diverted, approximately 16 million tonnes, could
Seeded area Production Used as biofuel feedstock potentially be feedstock for biofuel production. Although total volume of
(‘000 Ha) (‘000 tonnes) (‘000 tonnes) (% of Production) municipal wastes is relatively small compared to potential feedstock from
forestry and agricultural sectors, the diversion from landfill eliminates the
Field Crops
severe environmental impacts of the landfill process. Assuming 50% of
All wheat 9,420.1 31,728.6 950 2.99 landfill waste has biomass potential and an average moisture content of
Canola 8,235.9 19,600.5 550 2.81 30%, there is a potential of 5.6 million dry tonnes of biomass-equivalent
Barley 2,586.1 8,783.6 - - available from municipal wastes in Canada.
There are three main types of municipal wastes: residential; industrial,
Oats 1,159.1 3,194.6 - -
commercial, and institutional (IC&I); and construction and demolition
Flexseed 384.5 588.0 - - (C&D). Residential wastes, which account for about 40% of total, are the
Rye 164.3 415.0 - - least diverted materials due to the poor economics and/or difficulty in the
Soybeans 2,212.5 6,462.7 333 5.15 separation of recyclable materials from other wastes. Municipal wastes
from IC&I and C&D are better managed for diversion. Municipal wastes
Grain corn 1,345.4 13,193.1 3250 24.63
offer biomass feedstock at negative costs, since the tipping fees at landfill
Tame hay 6,676.9 27,564.0 - - sites average approximately US$50/tonne (Green Power Inc., 2014).
Special Crops However, municipal wastes are the most challenging feedstock for energy
Canary seed 105.2 140.3 - - conversion processes. The production of biofuel from municipal waste is
mostly in research and development stages at present.
Lentils 2,371.5 3,248.2 - -
Sunflower seed 28.3 50.6 - - 3. Processes
Mustard seed 212.3 235.6 - -
Dry peas 1,715.3 4,835.9 - - Processes for the production of liquid biofuels can be split into two major
* Source: Statistics Canada and Dessureault (2016) categories: biochemical conversion and thermochemical/chemical
conversion. These two categories of processes will be described in the
following sections.
The Canadian agricultural sector also produces significant tonnages of
residues such as corn stover and straws as by-products every year. The majority 3.1. Biochemical
of agricultural residues should be left in fields to maintain soil organic matter
(SOM). However, some residues can be harvested or removed from the field Microbial fermentation remains the primary method for the production
for biofuel and other applications. Based on the SOM balance model, a total of of liquid biofuels in Canada. Domestic fuel ethanol production is driven by
2.8 million tonnes of agricultural residues could have been sustainably both federal and provincial mandates. The federal mandate requires 5% of
harvested in 2009 in Ontario without degrading the soil (Oo et al., 2010). This gasoline be blended with renewable fuel, and provinces have also
quantity represents approximately 20% of the total above ground agricultural implemented either equivalent or higher provincial mandates, as listed in
residues produced in Ontario. By applying the same harvestable residues to Table 1. In order to meet the blend mandate, Canada was estimated to
farm area ratio, a total of over 30 million tonnes of agricultural residues could require over 2 billion L of ethanol in 2016 (Dessureault, 2016). Domestic
be sustainably harvested from Canadian farms. The commercial production of ethanol production in 2016 totaled 1.75 billion L at 14 ethanol plants
biofuel from agricultural residues and other cellulosic materials, however, has located in Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta, which
yet to be seen, and most of the agricultural residues are left in the fields at can be seen listed in Table 3, with 1 billion L imported from the United
present. States.
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Table 3.
A summary of commercial and demonstration biofuel production plants in Canada*.
Capacity
Company/Location Fuel Product Process Feedstock Scale
(Million L/Year)
Ensyn, Renfrew, ON Renewable fuel oil Thermochemical - Fast Pyrolysis, RTP Wood residues Commercial 11
Thermochemical - Syngas to methanol

Enerkem, Westbury, QC Methanol/Ethanol Various wood based Demonstration 5
to ethanol via catalysis
Thermochemical - Syngas to methanol Municipal solid waste

Enerkem, Edmonton, AB Methanol/Ethanol Commercial 38
to ethanol via catalysis (MSW)
Thermochemical - Syngas to ethanol via Various (wood, ag and
Woodland Biofuels, Sarnia, ON Ethanol Demonstration 2
catalysis paper waste, MSW)
Archer Daniels Midland (ADM),
Biodiesel Chemical Canola Commercial 265
Lloydminster, AB
Atlantic Biodiesel, Welland, ON Biodiesel Chemical - Kosher status Canola and soy Commercial 170
Chemical - Two step, single-phase Commercial

BIOX Corporation, Hamilton, ON Biodiesel Multi-feedstock 66
continuous process
Thermochemical/Chemical
Chemical - Two step, single-phase

BIOX Corporation, Sombra, ON Biodiesel Multi-feedstock Commercial 50
continuous process
Rendered beef tallow and

Consolidated Biofuels Ltd., Delta, BC Biodiesel Chemical –Two-step process Commercial 11
restaurant grease
Cowichan Biodiesel Coop, Duncan, BC Biodiesel Chemical Recycled vegetable oil Commercial 0.2
Evoleum, St-Jean-d-lberville, QC Biodiesel Chemical Recycled vegetable oil Commercial 10
Innoltek, Thetford Mines, QC Biodiesel Chemical Yellow grease Commercial 6
Chemical - Combined
Methes Energies Canada Inc.,Mississauga, Demonstration
Biodiesel esterification/transesterification step Yellow grease 5
ON “compact processor”
with PP-MEC Catalyst
Milligan Bio-Tech Inc , Foam Lake, ON Biodiesel Chemical Canola oil Commercial 20
Chemical - Combined Commercial

Noroxel Inc. (Methes Energies Canada Inc.
Biodiesel esterification/transesterification step Yellow grease “Compact 5
installation), Springfield, ON
with PP-MEC Catalyst processor”
Rothsay Biodiesel, Ville Ste. Catherine, Animal fats, recycled

Biodiesel Chemical - Three step process Commercial 45
QC cooking oil
Greenfield Global, Chatham, ON Ethanol Fermentation, Sugar/Starch Platform Corn Commercial 195
Greenfield Global, Johnstown, ON Ethanol Fermentation, Sugar/Starch Platform Corn Commercial 260
Greenfield Global, Tiverton, ON Ethanol Fermentation, Sugar/Starch Platform Corn Commercial 27
Greenfield Global, Varennes, ON Ethanol Fermentation, Sugar/Starch Platform Corn Commercial 175
Husky Energy, Lloydminster, SK Ethanol Fermentation, Sugar/Starch Platform Other Grains Commercial 130
Husky Energy, Minnedosa, MB Ethanol Fermentation, Sugar/Starch Platform Corn Commercial 130
Biochemical Conversion
IGPC Ethanol Inc., Alymer, ON Ethanol Fermentation, Sugar/Starch Platform Corn Commercial 170
Iogen Corporation, Ottawa, ON Ethanol Fermentation, Cellulosic Crop Residue Demonstration 2
Kawartha Ethanol Inc., Havelock, ON Ethanol Fermentation, Sugar/Starch Platform Corn Commercial 80
North West Bio-Energy Ltd., Unity, SK Ethanol Fermentation, Sugar/Starch Platform Other Grains Commercial 25
Permolex Ltd., Red Deer, AB Ethanol Fermentation, Sugar/Starch Platform Other Grains Commercial 45
Pound-Maker Agventures Ltd., Lanigan,

Ethanol Fermentation, Sugar/Starch Platform Other Grains Commercial 15
SK
Suncor - St. Clair Ethanol Plant, Sarnia,

Ethanol Fermentation, Sugar/Starch Platform Corn Commercial 400
ON
Terra Grains Fuels Inc., Belle Plaine, SK Ethanol Fermentation, Sugar/Starch Platform Other Grains Commercial 150
* Sources: Information obtained and adapted from: Ethanol Producer Magazine; RIC (2017); and personal communications.
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3.1.1. Ethanol
First generation ethanol is produced from domestic starch-based feedstocks.

In Canada, the primary source of starch is based on the local availability of
wheat and corn. In 2016, 3.25 million megatonnes of corn was used for
production of fuel ethanol and 0.95 million megatonnes of wheat was processed
into ethanol in Canada (Dessureault, 2016). In contrast, over 95% of the ethanol
produced in the United States is made from corn, while wheat is the main starch
crop for bioethanol production in Europe (Haefele and Combs, 2017; N’Diaye
et al., 2017). Other cereal crops like barley and grain sorghum do not present
the economic benefits required for feedstocks for bioethanol production in
Canada.
Cereal grains store energy in the endosperm as starch in the form amylose
and amylopectin, which are long-chained and branched glucose polymers. The
starch content and composition of the wheat and corn kernel are good predictors
of ethanol yield (Zhao et al., 2009). Given that the starch is fermented to
ethanol, the remaining protein, fiber, and fat content of the grain kernel are
important considerations for the distillers grains produced as co-products.
Grain quality in terms of moisture, foreign matter, and fermentable substrate
can have a significant impact on yield and co-product value ranging from 2.32
gal/bu for poor quality corn grain to 2.93 for the top quality (Haefele and Fig. 4. A basic dry grind grain to ethanol production process (from N’Diaye et al., 2017).
Combs, 2017). Wheat and corn grain composition along with their distillers
grains with solubles are presented in Table 4. However, there is considerable
compositional variation in distillers grains due to inherent variation in the grain
and changes during the processing. Liu (2011) offers an in depth review of the
chemical composition of this feed commodity. (6.3%), Saskatchewan (9.0%), Manitoba (8.0%), and Ontario (7.8%) as a
per cent of the gasoline pool (Moorhouse and Wolinetz, 2016). Only
Quebec and the Maritimes showed lower blend rates of 4.8% each. As the
Table 4. Average composition of corn and wheat grain, with their respective distillers grains ethanol industry in Canada is well established, the majority of efforts are
with solubles*.
targeting process development for yield and efficiency improvements
instead of basic R&D. New upstream processing technologies such as wet
Element Corn Corn distillers grains Wheat Wheat distillers grains fractionation and fibre separation add features from wet milling to dry-grind
ethanol plants, thereby allowing for higher throughput and co-product
Starch (%) 65-72 <4 67-70 2
diversification through cost-effective bolt-on processes (Singh and Kohl,
Protein (%) 9-12 29.5 12-14 38.5 2017). In 2014, IGPC Ethanol Inc., who operate a fuel ethanol plant located
in Aylmer, Ontario, announced it would become the first adopter of ICM’s
Fat (%) 4.5 11.1a 3 5
new Fiber Separation Technology™ (FST) to increase ethanol production
Fibre (%) 2.0 7 2.6 6 and oil recovery (Canadian Biomass, 2014). This technology uses wet
a fractionation of the slurry upstream of fermentation to remove the corn
Fat content of corn distillers grains produced without crude corn oil extraction.
* Sources: U.S. Grains Council (2012); Monceaux (2017); and Rosentrater (2017).
kernel fibre through a series of counter-current washes and mechanical
separation (Singh and Kohl, 2017). The fibre is removed, creating a
fermentation feed stream with increased fermentable sugars, and can be
recombined with the wet cake post-centrifugation to produce typical
Although there are differences in the upstream processing of corn and wheat DDGS. Alternatively, the wet cake can be isolated and produce a higher
feedstocks, dry-grind fuel ethanol plants share many unit operations. An protein distillers grains. FST combined with ICM’s Selective Milling
overview of the dry grind process can be seen in Figure 4. The majority of Technology™ increased IGPC Ethanol, Inc.’s production capacity from
ethanol plants now use dry milling as opposed to wet milling, which uses water 170 million L of ethanol/year to 200 million L/year (Canadian Biomass,
to separate the kernel into starch and water-soluble fractions from the germ to 2014). In 2015, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada announced through a
produce purified starch from corn (Kohl, 2017). Table 5 lists the unit News Release that it would be supporting IGPC Ethanol Inc.’s adoption of
operations and their purpose for the processing of corn into ethanol, distillers this technology by investing C$3.7 million as a “repayable contribution
dried grains with solubles (DDGS), and carbon dioxide, as described by through the AgriInnovation Program, a 5 year, up to C$698 million
Monceaux (2017). initiative under the Growing Forward 2 policy framework (Agriculture and
Many corn ethanol plants have commissioned crude oil extraction
Agri-Food Canada, 2015).”
technologies to separate the oil from the front-end (upstream) of the plant or
In 2017, IGPC Ethanol Inc. announced a C$120 million expansion
from the back-end (downstream) syrup stream. This corn oil can then be used
as a separate feed component, or sold as a feedstock for biodiesel or renewable project to double its production capacity from 200 to 400 million L/year by
diesel production, while producing a lower crude fat distillers grains (U.S. November 2018 (Sapp, 2017). In August 2017, GreenField Global,
Grains Council, 2012). The primary use of extracted corn oil is for biodiesel Canada’s largest ethanol producer, announced it was evaluating an
production (Wang et al., 2015). The Energy Information Administration expansion of its biorefinery in Varennes, Quebec , from 170 to 300 million
reported that in 2014, 440 million kg of corn oil was used for biodiesel L/year (GreenField Global, 2017). In addition, the integration of the first-
production in the United States (Wang et al., 2015). This volume is projected generation Greenfield ethanol facility in Varennes with a cellulosic ethanol
to increase to 2.6 billion L by 2022 by the U.S. Environmental Protection plant using technology from the thermochemical conversion company,
Agency, outpacing biodiesel production from soy oil at 2.5 billion L (EPA, Enerkem, is under evaluation. These two significant expansion projects
2010). indicate that the Canadian fuel ethanol industry continues to invest in major
Canadian plants have mostly operated at full capacity since 2009, producing capital projects. In addition, there are other proposed projects, including
an estimated 1,750 million L in 2016 and expected to increase to 1,775 million Northern Prairie Bioproducts Inc., who are proposing a 522 million L/year
L in 2017 (Dessureault, 2016). A summary of commercial and demonstration plant to be located in Alberta and operate using a sugar/starch platform.
plants is listed in Table 3. In 2014, ethanol consumption indicated that the There are several smaller-scale plants that operate off the sugar/starch
federal mandate of 5% was exceeded in British Columbia (6.3%), Alberta platform that are long-term idled, including Amaizeingly Green LP (corn),
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Table 5.
Unit operations of dry and wet milling processes for the production of ethanol from corn grain.
Dry milling Wet milling
Grain milling Fractionation
Particle size reduction through hammer mills or roller mills to increase surface area Through steeping, corn is fractionated into its major components: starch, germ, gluten, and fibre
Mashing & Cooking Cooking
Mixes the corn flour, water and recycle streams into a slurry, which is heated to ~85 oC for
Heats the starch stream for gelatinization in preparation for enzymatic hydrolysis
gelatinization and enzymatic hydrolysis
Liquefaction
Alpha-amylase hydrolyzes the starch into dextrin, reducing the viscosity of the mash
Fermentation
Using gluco-amylase to further hydrolyze the dextrin into glucose monomers and nutrients, yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) convert the fermentable sugars into ethanol and CO2
Distillation & Dehydration
A beer column, rectifier and side stripper distills ethanol from the fermentation broth, achieving the azeotrope of 95 vol. %; adsorption of residual water through molecular sieves produces 200
Proof anhydrous fuel ethanol
Centrifugation
Physical separation of the whole stillage downstream of distillation, producing a wet cake
Not applicable given that the germ and fibre are removed upstream
solid fraction and a thin stillage stream that can be further concentrated into a syrup
Evaporation
Concentrates the thin stillage into a soluble-rich stream syrup by removing water through evaporators
Drying
Removes water from the wet cake combined with the syrup stream to produce a distillers
Not applicable
dried grains with solubles (DDGS) of approx. 90 wt.% dry solids
Energentium Inc. (waste streams), Future Fuels (other grains), and Noramera the biocatalysts, particularly with respect to very high gravity fermentations
Bioenergy Corp (other grains). (Cao et al., 2014; Lin and Liu, 2014). It was suggested to co-ferment whey,
R&D efforts in the first generation ethanol field have been related to a by-product of the dairy industry, in first-generation ethanol processes (Jin
feedstock and yeast development. Through the application of transgenic et al., 2016; Parashar et al., 2016). The dairy waste-stream could replace
technology, amylase corn was created which contains a heat-activated enzyme some of the process water, resulting in cost reductions for the dairy and the
that eliminates the need for addition of alpha-amylase (Lanahan et al., 2006). ethanol industry. With respect to feedstocks, a large amount of research is
In addition, genetically engineered Saccharomyces cerevisiae with new dedicated to second generation ethanol production from lignocellulosic
metabolic pathways producing endogenous glucoamylase and higher ethanol biomass. The problem of fermentation inhibitors has been tackled through
yields are now available from various yeast suppliers (Kohl and Singh, 2017). the development of assays predicting the ability to convert lignocellulosic
These new technologies as well as enhanced enzymes are providing hydrolysates to ethanol (Wood et al., 2015; Li et al., 2016; Luque et al.,
incremental gains for fuel ethanol plants, and are indicative of continuing 2016). Mitigation strategies were developed through the removal of
research and development in the industry. inhibitors (Gao and Rehmann, 2016; Li et al., 2016; Yu and Christopher,
While the academic community in Canada actively contributes to ongoing 2017) or through genetic engineering of the microbial strains (Harner et al.,
enhancements of current ethanol processes, it is actively investigating
2014 and 2015; Peris et al., 2017). Various pretreatment methods have been
lignocellulosic ethanol production. With regards to first generation substrates,
investigated with the research being split between agricultural (Agbor et al.,
research can be found covering the agricultural feedstock handling (George et
2014; Xiong et al., 2014; Joyce et al., 2015; Luque et al., 2016) and forestry
al., 2014) and naturally the processing (Görgens et al., 2015). Emphasis has
derived feedstocks (Shadbahr et al., 2014; Porth and El-Kassaby, 2015;
been given to process optimization and continuous fermentation processes
Tian et al., 2016; Boboescu et al., 2017; Yuan et al., 2017; Yuan and Wen,
(Mustafa et al., 2014; Nanda et al., 2014a). As an alternative to traditional
continuous reactor systems, a semi-continuous system dubbed self-cycling and 2017). Recent Canada-based reviews can be found here (Acharya et al.,
suitable control strategies have been developed (Feng and Lin, 2014; Wang et 2014; Nanda et al., 2014a; Porth and El-Kassaby, 2015; Mupondwa et al.,
al., 2017), potentially increasing the overall productivity. More fundamental 2017; Volynets et al., 2017). Canadian research covers broad areas from
work has investigated the resistant starch (RS) in distiller's dried grains, a non- simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) (Shadbahr et al.,
converted starch fraction making up to 18% of DDGS (Li et al., 2014). The 2017; Westman et al., 2017) to gasification followed by syngas
control of reactors using online data such as the redox-potential (Liu et al., fermentation (Acharya et al., 2014; Roy et al., 2015). Other pretreatment
2015) or dissolved carbon dioxide (Feng and Lin, 2014) has been improved, methods use ionic liquid-based processes (Tian et al., 2016), super-heated
while biotechnological solutions have been proposed to control microbial steam (Barchyn and Cenkowski, 2014; Mirhosseini et al., 2016), ammonia
contaminations in yeast-based processes (Silva and Sauvageau, 2014). fibre expansion (Serate et al., 2015) and thermochemical pretreatment
Metabolic flux analysis has been applied in order to optimize the conditions for (Luque et al., 2014 and 2016; Suckling et al., 2017).
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3.1.2. Butanol
Butanol is currently not produced industrially through fermentation in

Canada. Active academic and industrial research is aiming to change that.
Multiple biological routes to produce butanol exist, the most common one
being through the traditional acetone-butanol-ethanol (ABE) fermentation via
chlostridia, as the respective strains effectively utilizes various carbohydrates
(Gao and Rehmann, 2014; Gao et al., 2014 and 2016; Nanda et al., 2014b;
Sarchami and Rehmann, 2014 and 2015; Khosravanipour Mostafazadeh et al.,
2016; Maiti et al., 2016c; Mechmech et al., 2015a, 2015b, and 2016; Levasseur
et al., 2017a). Similar feedstocks and pretreatment methods as evaluated above
have been used. The biocatalysts have also been enhanced through genetic tools
(Bruder et al., 2015; Pyne et al., 2014 and 2016; Nanda et al., 2017).
Recently, the propanediol-butanol-ethanol (PBE) fermentation has gained
academic and industrial interest, as the fermentation does not undergo a
separate acidogenesis and solventogenesis stage present in ABE fermentation,
and hence is more easily controlled and adaptive to continuous fermentation
processes (Johnson et al., 2016). The feedstock for the PBE fermentation is
glycerol, and low value streams from the biodiesel industry have been utilized
(Johnson and Rehmann, 2016; Sarchami et al., 2016a), while carbohydrates can
be co-fed (Regestein et al., 2015; Johnson and Rehmann, 2016; Pyne et al.,
2016). The global interest in iso-butanol is not strongly reflected in Canada,
with only a single publication between 2013 and 2017 (Ofuonye et al., 2013).
There are several process configurations for butanol production, as shown
in Figure 5 (Sarchami et al., 2016b). Butanol is a substantially more inhibitory
product than ethanol, and product inhibition typically occurs at 15-20 g/L
(Johnson et al., 2016; Maiti et al., 2016a and b). In-situ product recovery has
therefore been investigated (Abdehagh et al., 2014; Sharif Rohani et al.,
2015a; Maiti et al., 2016a; Levasseur et al., 2017b) focusing on sorption
(Abdehagh et al., 2015 and 2016; Gao and Rehmann, 2016), gas stripping
(Sharif Rohani et al., 2015; Abdehagh et al., 2017), and pervaporation (Sharif
Rohani et al., 2015; Kießlich et al., 2017). Economic assessments have shown
that under current economic conditions, only a continuous process with
integrated product recovery will be feasible (Abdi et al., 2016).
3.2. Thermochemical and chemical
Thermochemical and chemical processes for the production of liquid Fig. 5. (a) Continuous single stage continually stirred tank reactor (CSTR) with cell
biofuels in Canada are less common than biochemical conversion technologies recycle (b) Continuous multi-staged CSTRs in Series (c) Continuous Biofilm Reactor (from
at commercial scale, as first generation ethanol dominates the commercial Sarchami et al., 2016).
biofuels landscape. Unlike biochemical processes that predominantly produce
alcohols which can be used to satisfy gasoline renewable content regulations,
thermochemical processes can be used to produce a wide range of biofuel
second generation, which includes microalgae as feedstock; however,
products. These include not only alcohols, but also drop-in biofuels that are
reliable production is still under development in Canada (Gumba et al.,
similar to the composition of gasoline and diesel. However, the production on
2016).
drop-in fuels is lower in TRL than ethanol production. Thermochemical
There are many combinations and variations of thermochemical and
processes involve the application of heat to biomass feedstocks with or without
chemical process pathways that are possible for the production of a variety
elevated pressure. There may be a catalyst or other chemicals present to
of liquid biofuel products, which are demonstrated in Figure 6. A
participate in the reactions to convert biomass directly into biofuels, fuel
description of these processes and, where applicable, their use within the
intermediates, or building block chemicals for production of fuels.
Canadian biofuels industry will be described in the following sections.
Thermochemical processes are typically second generation technologies,
and feedstocks may include lignocellulosics from a broad variety of sources as
well as municipal solid waste. Second generation technologies can potentially 3.2.1. Various grades of bio oil
offer a more sustainable solution than current commercial biofuel production
depending on an array of complex conditions including R&D, innovation, Also referred to as biocrude, bio oil in Canada is typically produced
feedstock availability, market demands, and policies (Whalen et al., 2017). through fast flash pyrolysis. The process of pyrolysis has a lengthy history
There are several advantages for thermochemical methods of biofuel in Canada and an interesting history of earlier bio oil technology
production over biological methods as listed by Verma et al. (2012), which development in Canada was written by Hogan (1994) and more recent
include higher productivity per unit time, applicability to a wide variety of developments by Meier et al. (2013). Depending on feedstock type,
biomasses, independence to climate conditions due to high temperatures, and biomass may require drying prior to pyrolysis, as water present increases
high utilization of biomass into product. the heat of vaporization requirements. Time and temperature can be
Chemical processes are used to produce biodiesel, which are long chain adjusted to favour production proportion of solids, liquids, and gases with
alkyl esters. Production of biodiesel in Canada primarily uses canola and soy fast pyrolysis (500 °C with a short hot vapour residence time of
oil and, to a lesser extent, recycled vegetable oils and animal fats. Biodiesel approximately 1 s) favouring bio oil production of 75% on a dry-feed basis
production from food crop feedstocks that contain lipids and availability of (Bridgwater, 2012). Depending on application, upgrading of fuels may be
original oils for production presents a barrier for sustainable renewable fuel required as pyrolysis oil contains a complex mixture of organic compounds
option. Biodiesel production from waste feedstocks is also being rapidly including alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, phenols, furans, ethers, and sulphur
explored and commercialized, however, these feedstocks are also limited. compounds. Physical, chemical, and catalytic methods of upgrading bio oil
Third generation biodiesel is being developed in response to limitations of are reviewed elsewhere (Zhang et al., 2007; Mortensen et al., 2011).
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Fig. 6. Overview of simplified, predominant thermochemical and chemical process pathways for production of various liquid biofuels.
There are several other methods of producing biocrude that have lower standardize bio oil characteristics to expand its applications in Canada as a
technology readiness, including hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL). Similar biofuel beyond use as heating oil. Although bio oil from HTL has improved
processes include those called depolymerisation via thermal or catalytic properties over that from pyrolysis, it also falls short of being a drop-in fuel
treatment or hydrous pyrolysis. HTL operates under severe conditions at without upgrading.
temperatures of 250-550 °C and pressures of 5 – 25 MPa in the presence of Currently in Canada there are several industrial activities in the field of
solvents such as ethanol, methanol, acetone, water, 2-propanol, and fast pyrolysis for the production of bio oil. Small-scale systems have
combinations of the aforementioned (Akhtar and Amin, 2011). The HTL received some attention, including Agritherm who have developed a mobile
process first hydrolyzes and breaks down biomass into smaller, unstable fluidized bed pyrolysis unit for conversion of biomass into bio oil and
molecules and the complex chemistry and mechanisms involved in fuel biochar. These mobile units have the capacity of 5 tonnes/d biomass and
production can be found reviewed elsewhere (Peterson et al., 2008; Toor et al., can generate 3 tonnes/d bio oil and 1.5 tonnes/d of biochar (Agritherm,
2011). A principle feature of HTL is that at the extreme processing conditions, 2017). ABRI-Tech Inc. is also developing a small-scale transportable fast
water has unique characteristics and can catalyze depolymerization reactions; pyrolysis system that utilizes an auger type pyrolysis reactor. They have 1
therefore, biomass can be converted into fuels without the need for drying. tonne/d capacity in the farm and research units and have two larger units
Processing conditions, including temperature, feedstock composition, pressure, being commissioned in Ottawa and Iowa that have the capacity for 50
particle size, heating rate, solvent density, residence time, and reducing gas, tonnes/d (ABRI-Tech, 2017). The only commercial-scale plant currently in
affect the composition and quality of bio oil from HTL (Jindal and Jha, 2015).
operation is Ensyn, who utilize a patented Rapid Thermal Process (RTP) to
Bio oil is an attractive biofuel as it can be produced from a wide range of
produce pyrolysis oil in Renfrew, Ontario, at a rate of 3 million gallons/year
feedstocks. Pyrolysis can be completed with virtually any biomass with
(Ensyn, 2017). In the past, the Sustainable Development Technology
relatively low water content (Bridgwater, 2012). HTL processes have the
Canada (SDTC) contributed C$2 M in funding to achieve demonstration of
additional advantage of using feedstocks of high moisture content, which
increase the range of applicable feedstocks to green bin compost and MSW. the RTP technology (SDTC, 2017). The pyrolysis oil is utilized as a fuel
As a key economic feasibly input is biomass proximity, the ability to use many for heating systems, as well as a feedstock for both fragrances and food
biomass types is a major benefit. Different biomasses can also be blended prior flavourings. AE Cote-Nord Bioenergy Canada Inc. is actively completing
to conversion to expand applicability of pyrolysis and/or HTL to wider a project to employ Ensyn’s pyrolysis process to convert wood to renewable
geographical areas. However, feedstock type and properties significantly fuel oil at their saw mill site in Quebec, which has received over C$27M in
influence processing ability, bio oil yield, and ability to upgrade (Carpenter et funding from the SDTC (SDTC, 2017). A final noteworthy Canadian
al., 2014). This highlights the key limitations of bio oil, which include company is Pyrobiom, located in Quebec, who focus on the design and
challenging properties and difficulties in producing a consistent product. installation of plants to produce pyrolysis oil and biochar, along with syngas
Verma et al. (2012) compiled a summary of reported physiochemical to provide energy to the pyrolysis reactors from woody feedstocks such as
characteristics of pyrolysis oil from different biomasses and process conditions bark (Pyrobiom, 2017). Their aim is to establish several industrial-scale
and showed that properties can vary drastically between biomass sources, plants throughout Quebec’s forested regions.
including variations in viscosity from 5 to > 800 cP, higher heating values from Commercial development of bio oil from HTL has been limited in
< 15 to > 35 MJ/kg, and MW range of 370 to 1000 g/mol. A thorough review Canada due to the severe operation conditions required. Conventional
by Mohan et al. (2006) concluded that a critical analysis of the literature in barriers to commercialization include the need for expensive alloys to
terms of the effect of processes and feedstock on bio oil characteristics is handle corrosive materials, high pressure process equipment and, thus, very
difficult due to the infinite combinations of options of feedstocks and process high capital investment requirements (Toor et al., 2011). However, there
conditions. These reviews indicate that post production upgrading is needed to are emerging demonstration HTL and similar technologies that can be
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found in Canada. Steeper Energy Canada Ltd., a company based out of Calgary, The production of alcohols from syngas can be achieved by first
AB, is developing plans for commercialization of the “hydrofaction” platform, producing methanol from syngas, which can either be used by itself as a
which produces “hydrofaction oil” using supercritical water to convert wet fuel (Zhen and Wang, 2015) or as an important chemical building block for
biomass and organic waste to renewable fuel oil (Steeper Energy, 2017). The other chemicals and fuels (Lavoie et al., 2013). Prior to synthesis of
product has been demonstrated to have high energy content, low viscosity, and methanol from syngas via conventional technologies, optimization of water
low oxygen content. At the time of writing this manuscript, a company called gas shift reaction to achieve H2/CO ratio of 2 for full conversion to
Cellufuel, located in Brooklyn, Nova Scotia, has successfully operated a methanol is required. The methanol can then be converted to a variety of
demonstration-scale plant for a period of 18 months that produces bio oil that liquid fuels. Dimethyl ether (DME) can be produced from methanol via
can meet diesel specifications with some post production upgrading. Using dehydration of methanol, which can be completed in two stages or in a
wood residual feedstocks and a process of catalytic depolymerisation, their single stage reactor using catalyst for the production of methanol as well as
plant has the capacity to operate to produce renewable diesel at 150 L/h. a catalyst (γ-Al2O3, silica-alumina, or zeolite) for dehydration (Sai Prasad
Operation of the plant is anticipated to resume once solids separation upgrades et al., 2008). The production of ethanol can be achieved from methanol via
are completed. The demonstration of this project has been partially funded by reaction with carbon monoxide in the presence of a catalyst (Chornet et al.,
the SDTC on the order of C$2.1 M (SDTC, 2017). The SDTC is also providing 2011).
funding of over C$13 M to a joint venture between Canfor Pulp Products Inc. There are several advantages of biofuel produced from FTS processes
and Licella Fibre Fuels Ltd. to convert wood residue from Canfor’s pulp mills over other biofuels, which include the drop-in nature of the final product.
in Prince George to biocrude using a proprietary catalytic hydrothermal reactor As pointed out by Mabee and Saddler (2010), FTS biofuels have higher
(SDTC, 2017). energy production yields then ethanol produced thermochemically, as
Various feedstocks and processes are undergoing research and development between 2.6-6.9 GJ/tonne and 2.5-3.4 GJ/tonne can be delivered,
for advanced bio oil production. Dr. Singh at the National Research Council of respectively (Sims et al., 2008). However, these are both typically lower
Canada in collaboration with CanmetENERGY is undertaking investigations than the production yields obtained from biochemical ethanol production,
of HTL production from various feedstocks such as green municipal waste and perhaps because over the last few decades more attention has been paid to
algae using funding from the Program for Energy Research and Development. R&D of the biochemical platform (Mabee and Saddler, 2010). A
Universities are also investigating various aspects of HTL production. To name disadvantage of the gasification of biomass to produce syngas for both FTS
just a few, University of Toronto is researching the production of HTL bio oils and ethanol production is the production of tar and particulate matter.
from algae (Cheng et al., 2016), University of Western Ontario and Lakehead There has been extensive work completed on eliminating tar through
are exploring HTL of various barks (Feng et al., 2014), and University of reactor design (Devi et al., 2003), secondary methods of catalytic reforming
Western Ontario is also exploring HTL composition and catalyst selection for using low-cost catalysts (Shen and Yoshikawa, 2013), and clean-up through
wood biomass feedstocks (Nazari et al., 2015). A notable variation on the various methods (Anis and Zainal, 2011). It has been shown on industrial-
aforementioned processes includes David Bressler’s work at the University of scale that the tar can be reformed and removed; however, the by-product
Alberta which involves the production of drop-in hydrocarbon fuels from streams from clean-up unit operations are hazardous and often require
lipids, including the two step hydrolysis and pyrolysis of waste oil and fats to costly disposal. Recently, work on catalytic oxidation of such tar-
produce a product that has a 76-80% organic liquid fraction which is composed containing by-products, as well as the catalytic activity of the by-product
of 30% gasoline-equivalent fraction and 50% diesel fraction (Asomaning et al., material itself, has been explored to provide an interesting and
2014). This proprietary technology that has been investigated at pilot scale in economically beneficial solution to this problem (Assima et al., 2017).
Edmonton is now being used by FORGE Hydrocarbons Corporation who In Canada, there are currently several activities in the area of syngas
recently received C$4.2 million from the SDTC to construct a production plant production for the subsequent transformation to liquid biofuels and
that is targeting production of 19 million L/year of drop-in fuel (SDTC, 2017). commercial and demonstration scale facilities are listed in Table 3. The
most notable plant currently in operation is owned by Enerkem. Enerkem
3.2.2. Liquid fuels produced from syngas has a demonstration biomass gasification facility located in Westbury, QC,
that utilizes the waste portion of decommissioned telephone poles to
The liquid fuels produced from thermochemical methods that will be generate syngas, which is converted to methanol as an intermediate and
discussed in this section include those that are produced from syngas. Syngas then to ethanol as a final product (Enerkem, 2017). This demonstration
is produced from gasification of biomass via steam (steam reforming), CO2 (dry plant has a capacity of 5 million L/year and testing of other unique
reforming), or O2 in air or enriched air (partial oxidation). Canada has a rich feedstocks is completed at this facility. A full-scale biomass waste to energy
history in biomass gasification for the production of syngas; as pointed out by facility in Edmonton, AB, was recently commissioned that produces
Kutney (2017), over 50 biomass gasification ventures have opened up in methanol and ethanol from syngas utilizing municipal solid waste from the
Canada over the past 50 years. Extensive reviews on gasification processes can city of Edmonton as a feedstock. This facility has a capacity of 38 million
be found elsewhere (e.g., Breault, 2010; Ahmad et al., 2016). There are two L/year. Enerkem was co-founded by Dr. Esteban Chornet, who developed
general pathways for the resulting syngas (H2 , CO, CH4, CO2) that can be used the technology at the Université de Sherbrooke, where collaborative
to produce liquid biofuels; Fisher-Tropsh synthesis (FTS) to produce research to inform process development and improvements are still
hydrocarbon fuel and catalysis to produce alcohols. Syngas produced from undertaken. As mentioned previously, Enerkem is licensing its technology
biomass gasification often has several impurities that require removal prior to globally and is partnering with Greenfield Specialty Alcohols to form
synthesis to liquid fuels, including specifications of Suphur and Nitrogen Vanerco, which aims to construct a cellulosic ethanol plant on the site of a
compounds <1 ppmv, Halide compounds and Alkali metals < 10 ppbv, and first generation ethanol plant using Enerkem’s technology. Woodland
complete removal of ash and soot (Boerringter et al., 2004). In general, Biofuels Inc. is also producing ethanol from syngas in a demonstration plant
quenching is often used to remove solid particles and volatile alkaline metals, located in Sarnia, Ontario. This demonstration plant enables testing of
various solvents can be used to remove NH3 and H2 S by physical absorption, various feedstocks, including waste woods, agriculture wastes, paper
COS and HCN can be hydrolyzed to NH3 and H2 S to be subsequently removed, wastes, and municipal solid waste and has a capacity of 2 million L/year
and guard beds of activated carbon can be used to remove any remaining H2S (Woodland Biofuels Inc., 2017). Liquid fuels through FTS are not currently
(Savage et al., 2010). produced commercially in Canada.
For FTS, either Co and Fe catalysts can be used; however, for low H2/CO Government support for second generation ethanol production on the
ratios typically obtained from biomass gasification, Fe has the advantage of thermochemical platform has been significant. Enerkem’s Alberta Biofuels
boosting the ratio due to the promotion of the water gas shift reaction. More Project to utilize sorted municipal solid waste to produce ethanol and
details on advantages and disadvantages of process design and catalyst methanol as a coproduct, has been granted over C$10 million from the SD
selection for FTS for biomass derived syngas can be found elsewhere (Savage tech fund, as well as over C$63 million from the NextGen Biofuels fund
et al., 2010; Hu et al., 2012). The resulting FT fuel is composed of hydrocarbon (SDTC, 2017). In addition, ecoENERGY program through NRCan
chains of various length with the distribution following a superposition of the contributed to a project exploring the production of drop-in fuels from
Anderson-Schulz-Flory distribution, depending upon catalyst type and syngas syngas produced from municipal solid waste, which was led by Enerkem.
composition (Patzlaff et al., 1999). Syngas was used in the production of DME and subsequently oligomerized
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olefins. It was determined that catalyst deactivation occurred rapidly and 3.2.4. Biodiesel
integration with pre-existing biomass gasification plants is not economically
favourable at this time (NRCan, 2017). The use of DME to replace diesel fuel After ethanol, the second highest biofuel produced in Canada is
is also of interest to Transport Canada, as they recently retained the National biodiesel. It accounts for over 75% of the renewable fuel used to meet diesel
Research Council to investigate the production, distribution, handling, and use regulations listed in Table 1 (Wolinetz and Hein, 2017). It is the only
of DME in road vehicles through the ecoTECHNOLOGY for Vehicles program biofuel being used to satisfy the diesel requirement that is produced within
(Transport Canada, 2017). Woodland Biofuels has also received funding from Canada and is not 100% imported. First generation biodiesel is produced
the SDTC (> C$4 million) for development of a catalyzed pressure reduction using edible vegetable oil feedstocks, whereas second generation
(CPRTM) technology (SDTC, 2017), which involves steam gasification, syngas technologies are being used to produce biodiesel from non-food feedstocks
cleanup and conditioning, conversion of syngas to methanol, carbonylation of including waste plant and animal fats. More than 70% of total biodiesel
methanol to produce methyl acetate, and hydrogenation of methyl acetate for produced in Canada comes from operations that utilize edible oils (canola
the production of ethanol (Woodland Biofuels Inc., 2017). and soy) exclusively. Biodiesel is composed of a mixture of long-chain
There are several universities in Canada working on aspects of gasification, monoalkylic esters from fatty acids and can be produced via pyrolysis,
which are important for optimization of syngas production for both alcohols microemulsion, dilution, or transesterification and details on these
and FTS fuels. In addition, various new feedstocks are being explored. The processes can be found in the literature (e.g., Singh and Singh, 2010;
University of Calgary in collaboration with McGill University are looking at Atabani et al., 2012). Transesterification is by far the most popular method
catalytic gasification of biosolids (Arnold et al., 2017) while University of as it is most cost effective and produces a reasonably consistent product.
Saskatchewan and York University are looking at gasification of horse manure, The production of first generation biodiesel can generally be described as
fruit wastes, and agro-food residues using supercritical water gasification the transesterification of triglycerides in fats and oils by reaction with a
(Nanda et al., 2016). Supercritical gasification is another area that is receiving short chain alcohol (typically methanol) in the presence of a catalyst
attention at the academic level in Canada at several institutions, including the (typically NaOH), followed by purification. A by-product of this process is
University of Saskatchewan (Kang et al., 2016) and University of Western glycerol, which can be recovered, as well as other components such as soap,
Ontario (Behnia et al., 2016), as the use of supercritical water increases alcohol, and water. Inedible oils typically have a larger level of free fatty
diffusion coefficients and reaction rates in the gasifier. Finally, low cost acids, which are not desirable as they promote soap formation and lower
catalysts are being explored at University of British Columbia, such as Fenton’s yields (Koh and Mohd. Ghazi, 2011). This can be overcome by use of
reagent combined with red mud for the secondary cracking reformation of tar processes such as acid-catalyzed transesterification, enzyme catalyzed
and char gasification (Yang et al., 2017). The aforementioned research is only transesterification, and the non-catalyzed Biox transesterification process
a sample of research on syngas production for biofuel production and second (Math et al., 2010). Third generation biodiesel is produced from
generation technologies will likely move to higher TRLs in the coming years. microalgae, which involves cultivation of algae typically in
photobioreactors, extraction of oils, and then subsequent transesterification.
This process is still in the development stages, but attracts substantial
3.2.3. Hydrogenation derived renewable diesel attention due to its high yield potential. Compared to conventional crop
feedstocks, microalgae have high growth rates, productivity, and oil
Hydrogenation derived renewable diesel, or HDRD, is utilized in Canada to content. For example, microalgae have the potential to produce an oil yield
meet regulations outlined in Table 1, as 149 million L was blended into diesel that is 250 times the amount produced from soybean feedstocks (Atabani et
in 2015 and its utilization has tripled since 2010 (Wolinetz and Hein, 2017). al., 2012). Third generation biodiesel production from algae does have
Renewable diesel that will be discussed in this section refers to biofuel several theoretical advantages to produce larger volumes economically,
produced via the process of hydrogenation of plant or animal fats, algae or bio however, several process hurdles that must be overcome include costly
oil. This product goes by many names, including renewable diesel, nutrient requirements, as noted by Aghbashlo and Demirbas (2016) such as
hydrobiodiesel, renewable synthetic fuel, and green diesel to name a few costly nutrient requirements which must be overcome. There are many
(Lapuerta et al., 2011). Renewable diesel is produced via conventional variations for first generation production processes, as well as additional
hydrotreating catalysis which involves breaking down triglycerides into and/or alternative requirements for preprocessing of second and third
intermediates and then converting them to alkanes. Details of the conversion generation processes, which are reviewed throughout the literature (Ma and
pathway of vegetable oil to alkanes, as well as conditions of conventional Hanna, 1999; Gerpen, 2005; Bhuiya et al., 2014; Scaife et al., 2015;
hydrotreating catalysis for renewable diesel production can be found elsewhere Tabatabaei et al., 2015).
(Huber et al., 2007). The by-products that are formed during production of There are several active biodiesel facilities in Canada, as listed in Table
renewable diesel are propane, CO, and CO2. Plant or animal fats or algae oil 3. The agricultural giant Archer Daniels Midland is the largest producer of
can be used directly as feedstocks for hydrotreating. Lignocellulosic feedstocks biodiesel in Canada and the plant located in Lloydminster BC has a capacity
must first be converted to bio oil via pyrolysis or hydrothermal treatment and of 265 million L/year from canola oil (RIC, 2017). Atlantic biodiesel is the
then subsequently hydrotreated and upgraded to make renewable diesel (Patel next largest producer and operates under kosher status, which allows them
and Kumar, 2016). to produce kosher glycerol as value added by-product (Atlantic Biodiesel,
There are advantages to the production and use of HDRD fuel. Since 2017). BIOX is another large producer of biodiesel and has a history of
conventional equipment is utilized for HDRD processing, it can be integrated development within Canada. The BIOX process involves the use of a co-
into pre-existing refinery processes. HDRD can be produced from a wider solvent phase to improve the rate of conversion of oil into ester by
range of feedstocks than biodiesel, due to free fatty acid content not being a overcoming the issue of low solubility of methanol in oil, which was
concern during processing and the potential to use lignocellulosic materials developed at the University of Toronto by Professor David Boocock
(Lambert, 2012a). Despite the advantages, currently the HDRD utilized in (Boocock et al., 1996). There are several operations currently active,
Canada is 100% imported and there are no industrial-scale processes in typically at smaller scales, that utilize inedible feedstocks, such as yellow
operation. A study by Lambert (2012b) found high cost was a barrier for the grease and animal fats, which can also be seen in Table 3. This includes the
use of HDRD and access to new plants in North America to create a hike in Cowichan Biodiesel Coop, which uses the clever marketing of their
supply and a corresponding reduction in price would allow HDRD to be biodiesel as a “micro-brew you put in your gas tank” (Cowichan Biodiesel
adopted in Canada more ubiquitously. Techno economic analysis estimates Coop, 2017). The ecoENERGY program funded by the Canadian
that, considering an optimized plant scale in Western Canada, HDRD can be government has provided a boost to the biodiesel industry, as this initiative
produced from canola oil at C$1.09/L (Miller and Kumar, 2014). Since the 2% provides operating incentives to producers of renewable fuels, which
regulation can be satisfied by the cheaper option of biodiesel without any decline in rate from 2008 to the completion of the program in 2017. For
adverse outcomes, increased blending requirements may have to be 2016-2017, an incentive of C$ 0.04/L is available for biodiesel producers
implemented before HDRD production is advantageous in Canada to make up (NRCan, 2016). Despite pressure from the biodiesel industry in Canada for
for biodiesel’s chemical property shortcomings. a continuation of the program, the subsidy program was phased out as
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planned after total spending of C$ 1 M on both ethanol and biodiesel transportation are also used to transport petroleum products in areas not
(McCarthy, 2013). served by pipelines. Ethanol is generally not transported in petroleum
There are pilot and demonstration scale activities for biodiesel production product pipelines since ethanol absorbs water that is found in pipelines,
throughout Canada. Several of these activities have been funded through the which would lead to product quality issues in the ethanol-gasoline blend
SDTC through either SD Tech Fund or through the NextGen Biofuels Fund and other petroleum co-products transported in the pipeline. Moreover, the
that supports first-of-kind demonstration facilities for the production of next- small volumes of ethanol consumed in Canada do not warrant pipeline
generation renewable fuels. SBI Bioenergy, located in Edmonton, AB, received transport at the present time. As a result, ethanol is transported by marine,
funding for the development of an innovative, single step biodiesel reactor that rail, or truck transportation to a petroleum distribution terminal and
eliminates 62% of the capital costs and 12% of the operating costs compared typically splash-blended with gasoline in the tanker truck that transports the
to current biodiesel production (SBI Bioenergy, 2017). This process involves fuel to the fueling station.
the use of novel heterogeneous catalysts to make an efficient, scalable Volatility is an important property of fuels used in automotive SI
operation. SBI produces drop-in renewable diesel, jet and gasoline using engines. Fuel volatility must be high enough to provide adequate engine
biodiesel as a feedstock. At the time of writing this review, SBI Bioenergy Inc., cold starting and driveability performance, while avoiding the formation of
located in Edmonton, AB, has just announced that Royal Dutch Shell obtained flammable air-fuel mixtures in the headspace above the fuel in the fuel tank.
exclusive development and licensing rights for their technology and they will It also must not be too high in order to minimize evaporative emissions
work together to demonstrate the technology in preparation for commercial during refilling operations and from the vehicle’s fuel system. Volatility is
scale-up (CNW, 2017). When up and running, this facility is targeting a quantified in terms of the fuel vapour pressure.
capacity of 10 million L/year. In the past, SDTC funds have also been provided In Canada, the composition of automotive ethanol fuel (E50-E85)
to such companies as Milligan to develop a system for valorization of distressed (CAN/CGSB-3.512-2013, 2013) is seasonally adjusted based upon climatic
canola seed (C$7 M) and BIOX for development of a cost effective, optimized history to meet the vapour pressure specification. The composition of E85
process (C$5 M) (SDTC, 2017). varies from 85% down to 50% denatured ethanol by volume under warm
There are numerous Canadian companies involved in R&D and pilot and cold climatic conditions, respectively. The standard addresses four
projects developing algae technologies platforms for biodiesel production. For volatility classes where the denatured fuel ethanol and gasoline of the fuel
example, Pond Technologies, located in Markham, ON, are producing blend are seasonally adjusted to achieve the required minimum fuel vapour
biodiesel and jet fuel from algae on pilot scale, along with several other pressure.
bioproducts including lubricants (Pond Technologies, 2017). Government The minimum vapour pressure limit specified for automotive SI gasoline
investments have also been made, such as through the National Research minimizes the potential for formation of flammable fuel-air mixtures in the
Council’s flagship program for algal carbon capture. However, biodiesel is only headspace of vehicle fuel tanks. At low ethanol blending levels, the vapour
one of the wide-range of bioproducts targeted by the flagship program. The pressure of an ethanol-gasoline blend is higher than that of gasoline, while
SDTC is currently funding projects in this area as well, including MARA substantial decreases in vapour pressure occur at higher blending levels due
Renewables Corporation that is utilizing a heterophilic algae with high to the lower vapour pressure of ethanol compared to gasoline. As a result,
productivity and plan to build a demonstration facility for the production of the volume percent of gasoline in E85 must be increased during the winter
cost effective algae oil (Mara Renewables Corporation, 2017). Several months to maintain adequate volatility of the ethanol fuel blend.
universities are exploring production of biodiesel from microalgae, including An experimental study of vapour space flammability of E10 and E85
lifecycle analysis of microalgae technologies (Collotta et al., 2017) and winter automotive fuels was investigated in a specially-designed apparatus
cultivation of microalgae from wastes streams (Ge et al., 2017) at Queen’s that measures the upper temperature limit of flammability in the headspace
University. Nevertheless, a thorough review by Scaife et al. (2015) identifies above gasoline and ethanol/gasoline blends with a fuel fill level of 5%.
knowledge gaps in the economic case for third generation technologies and There is a risk that a fuel tank fire could occur during refueling if a static
identifies funding limitations for processes that utilize feedstocks other than electricity discharge were to occur close to a flammable fuel vapour-air
agricultural in Canada, such as microalgal processes. mixture in the headspace. The test results showed that the E10 field samples
during the winter months did not produce flammable mixtures unless the
4. Transportation applications ambient temperature was below -30 °C to -35 °C, whereas the E85 field
samples collected with about 55% ethanol did not produce flammable
Since 2010, the Government of Canada and its provincial counterparts have mixtures at -30 °C (Gardiner, 2017).
enacted Renewable Fuel and Low Carbon Fuel Standards to promote the It is very difficult to generalize the effect of ethanol content on
adoption of renewable fuels. The motivation for these regulations is to reduce automotive SI engine performance and emissions. Firstly, fuel producers
GHG emissions by the transportation sector. According to the most recent data may compensate for the high octane number of the ethanol by blending
(Wolinetz and Hein, 2017), the volume of ethanol that was blended with lower octane number gasoline into the ethanol blends. Secondly, advanced
gasoline and consumed in 2015 was 2,819 million L. In contrast, the volumes SI engines may be able to operate at higher compression ratios and achieve
of biodiesel and HDRD that were blended with diesel fuel and consumed in higher fuel conversion efficiencies on ethanol blends with a higher octane
2015 were 474 and 148 million L, respectively. Sections 4.1 and 4.2 will focus number, while more conventional SI engines will not take advantage of an
on the utilization of ethanol and biodiesel/HDRD by the transportation sector, ethanol blend with a higher octane number. Thirdly, modern automotive SI
respectively. engines are equipped with a closed-loop control system that utilizes an
oxygen sensor in the engine exhaust to ensure that a stoichiometric ratio of
4.1. Ethanol fuel and air delivered to the combustion chamber. These engines will
automatically reduce the intake air flow to compensate for the oxygen in
Fuel ethanol is ethanol (C2 H5OH) that has been denatured with at least 2% the ethanol. Older automotive SI engines without a closed loop system or
by volume of gasoline to render it undrinkable. Ethanol is blended with
engines with a carburetor are not able to adjust the air-fuel ratio and will
gasoline for use in automotive spark ignition (SI) engines. Ethanol has a higher
run improperly.
octane number than gasoline, which makes it a premium blending component
Environment Canada measured the emissions from three multi-port fuel
in some regards. However, denatured ethanol contains approximately 30% less
energy on a volumetric basis than gasoline. The most common blend found at injected (MPFI) vehicles and one gasoline direct injection vehicle operated
with a base gasoline fuel, E10 blends that were tailor and splash blended
fuel retailers in Canada is E10, which contains up to 10% denatured ethanol by
and an E20 fuel that was tailor-blended. They also reported emission
volume. New vehicles sold in North America are designed to work with E10.
There are also a few fuel retailers that sell E85, which contains up to 85% of measurements of four FFV operated on E85 and certification gasoline. The
denatured ethanol by volume. E85 is only suitable for use in a flexible-fuel results of low blend ethanol gasoline suggest that up to E20 blends can lead
vehicle (FFV). to statistically significant reductions in EPA Federal Test Procedure
The movement of large quantities of petroleum products from refineries to composite emissions of CO, a statistically significant increase in NOx and
distribution terminals is most cost-effectively accomplished through pipelines acetaldehyde emissions, and no change in NMHC emissions. The E85
in Canada (M.J. Ervin and Associates, 2007). Marine, rail, and truck blends reduced NOx and NMHC emissions by 45% and 48%, respectively,
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compared to gasoline. However, large increases in formaldehyde (74%) and system filters were developed. The B5 and B20 blends were filtered after
acetaldehyde (2540%) emissions were reported (Graham et al., 2008). blending using the same pore size as the finest filters in the bus fleet. The
study noted that there were additional challenges when blending biodiesel
4.2. Biodiesel and HDRD derived from animal fat with cold diesel fuel as wax crystals formed clumps
above the cloud point of the biodiesel. Lastly, the BIOBUS project team
Biodiesel is currently the most cost-effective alternative to meet the 2% noted that care must be taken in switching from B5 to B20 blends as the
Federal Regulation for renewable content in diesel fuel. Fuel suppliers typically release of deposits on tank walls led to filter clogging on buses equipped
meet the Regulation by blending 5% biodiesel (B5) into diesel fuel during the with 10 µm filters.
summer months since B5 blends are generally warranted by diesel engine Environment Canada (Souligny et al., 2004) measured the performance
manufacturers as long as the fuel meets appropriate quality standards. In and emissions of two representative diesel engines from the BIOBUS
Canada, the specifications for B1-B5 and B6-B20 biodiesel blends are project with the same biodiesel blends. The engines were model year 1998
CAN/CGSB-3.520 and CAN/CGSB-3.522, respectively. The biodiesel (B100) and 2000, four-stroke, 250-hp (186 kW) Cummins diesel engines. The older
component for blending in middle distillate fuels must comply with engine was equipped with a mechanical fuel injection pump, while the
CAN/CGSB-3.524. newer engine had a computer-controlled electronic fuel injection system.
Biodiesel has some technical advantages compared to ultra-low sulphur The engines were both tested with B5 and B20 blends with the STM diesel
diesel (ULSD) fuel, including superior auto-ignition properties (high cetane fuel. The engines were operated according to the U.S. EPA heavy-duty,
number), the absence of sulphur and aromatic compounds, and reduced transient test procedure found in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 40
ecological impacts in aqueous spills (Hollebone et al., 2008). It also generally Part 86. The NOx and PM emissions from the engine with mechanical fuel
reduces regulated emissions, except for NOx (Agarwal, 2007). Biodiesel has injection were roughly double those of the electronically-controlled engine.
the advantage of dramatically improving lubricity when blended with ULSD The carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbon (HC), and particulate matter
fuel due to contaminant species such as free fatty acids and monoacylglycerols, (PM) emissions from the mechanically-controlled and electronically-
which eliminates the requirement for lubricity improver additives (Knothe and controlled engines were reduced by 10 and 25%, 22 and 28%, and 24 and
Steidley, 2005). 13% with the B20 blends compared to the STM diesel fuel, respectively.
Biodiesel has several significant technical challenges, particularly with There were no significant NOx emission and fuel consumption differences
respect to its utilization in cold weather climates, such as Canada. Firstly, between the biodiesel blends and the STM diesel fuel. Biodiesel blends
biodiesel has relatively poor cold flow properties, which makes it a less were also found to reduce unburned hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide, and
desirable diesel blending component during the winter months. Secondly, particulate matter emissions from diesel engines in a subsequent study
biodiesel is generally not transported in petroleum product pipelines since it (Agarwal, 2007).
has the potential to contaminate other petroleum co-products, notably jet fuel. As stated previously, biodiesel has the advantage of dramatically
Similar to ethanol, biodiesel will absorb water that is present in the pipelines. improving lubricity when blended with ULSD fuel. The Saskatoon BioBus
Thus, the existing fuel distribution infrastructure needs to be modified to project studied the long term effects of a B5 blend derived from canola oil
accommodate biodiesel. Thirdly, biodiesel has poor thermal stability compared on fuel economy and engine wear of four City of Saskatoon buses over a
to ULSD fuel. This may lead to fuel fouling issues in the fuel injection systems two-year period. Two of the buses were equipped with Detroit Diesel 6V-
of modern diesel engines (Amara et al., 2014). Fourthly, biodiesel typically 92 two-stroke engines, while the other two buses had Detroit Diesel D-50
increases oxides of nitrogen emissions slightly (Hoekman and Robbins, 2012). four-stroke engines. The four buses were driven more than 400,000 km over
Lastly, biodiesel (B100) has approximately 8% lower energy content on a the two-year period, with each bus using B5 one year and low sulphur diesel
volumetric basis than ULSD fuel. fuel the other year. Engine wear was monitored by collecting weekly engine
HDRD is the second blending component option for fuel suppliers to meet crankcase oil samples and analyzing the samples using inductively coupled
the 2% Federal Regulation for renewable content in diesel fuel. HDRD is plasma spectroscopy (ICPS), ferrography, and oil filter debris analysis. The
generally produced by hydrotreating yellow grease, animal tallow, or vegetable study showed that the B5 blends had better lubricity, which reduced engine
oils to remove the oxygen, which results in a hydrocarbon product with much wear rates by 7.8 to 23.4% and improved fuel economy by 2.7 to 4.3% in
closer chemical composition to ULSD fuel than biodiesel (Stumborg et al., city driving (Munshaw and Hertz, 2006).
1996). As a result, HDRD can be easily integrated into existing fuel A number of laboratory studies and demonstration projects have been
infrastructure in North America. Due to the paraffinic nature of HDRD, it is completed to de-risk the utilization of both biodiesel and HDRD for
amenable to adjustment of the cold flow properties in a refinery isomerization transportation applications. The Renewable Diesel Characterization Study
unit, which is another major advantage of HDRD compared to biodiesel. (RDCS) involved laboratory testing to characterize renewable options for
Excellent cold weather properties are extremely important in cold weather meeting the Renewable Fuels Standard. This laboratory study was a
climates such as Canada. HDRD has a similar energy content to diesel fuel on predecessor to the subsequent Alberta Renewable Diesel Demonstration
a mass basis, typically 44 MJ/kg (Hoekman et al., 2009). The major (ARDD) project. The RDCS project involved the characterization of
disadvantage of HDRD from a Canadian perspective is that it is an imported renewable diesel fuel blending components, especially their low
product, which makes it a more costly option than biodiesel (Lambert, 2012a). temperature properties, and renewable diesel fuel blends (2, 5, and 10% by
Secondly, it should be noted that care must still be taken when blending higher volume). The most promising biodiesel and HDRD blending components
levels of HDRD in diesel fuel to ensure that the fuel blend is fit-for-purpose. were blended with winter-grade ULSD fuels from several fuel suppliers and
HDRD is not a “drop-in” diesel fuel in the strict sense as it has slightly different tested against the CAN/CGSB-3.520 specification. The study concluded
properties and does not contain all of the hydrocarbon classes. that it was possible to create low level renewable blends suitable for use in
The BIOBUS project (BIOBUS Committee, 2003) was a joint effort by the Canadian winter conditions. However, renewable diesel blending
Canadian Renewable Fuels Association, the Fédération des producteurs de components with higher cloud points may require the addition of ultra-low
cultures commerciales du Québec, Rothsay/Laurenco, and the Société de sulphur kerosene or other refining adjustments to meet the CGSB cloud
transport de Montréal. Through this project, a total of 550,000 L of B100 were point targets (Rilett and Gagnon, 2008).
consumed by 155 buses at the STM’s Frontenac terminal between March 2002 The aim of the ARDD project was to provide information and operating
and March 2003. B100 provided by Rothsay/Laurenco was blended with experience regarding the renewable blending component options to
CAN/CGSB-3.517 diesel fuel (Type A during the winter months) to produce stakeholders in the diesel fuel industry. The project involved operating a
B5 and B20 biofuel blends. The study used biodiesel derived from used total of 75 vehicles on biodiesel and HDRD blends with ULSD fuel. During
cooking oil (48%), vegetable oil (28%), and animal fat (24%) feedstock. The the winter months, 2% renewable blending components were used, while
BIOBUS project successfully demonstrated the utilization of B20 during the 5% renewable blending components were used during the spring and
winter months at ambient temperatures down to -30°C. However, this was summer months. The renewable blends were produced by blending the
mainly due to having the STM buses parked in a garage heated to 15 °C when appropriate renewable content with seasonal diesel and ultra-low sulphur
they were not in use. Special care was taken to heat the B100 prior to blending kerosene (CAN/CGSB 3.517 Type A) fuel. For the biodiesel blends, 21-
with diesel fuel during the winter months. In addition, strict procedures for 43% kerosene was required to meet the seasonal cloud point specification
multi-step filtering to prevent clogging of refuelling pump filters and bus in CAN/CGSB-3.520; whereas, 8-15% kerosene was needed for the HDRD
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blends. The renewable blending component storage tanks and pipes were 5. Future prospects
insulated and heated. The ARDD demonstrated that 2% blends by volume of
canola methyl ester and HDRD are fully operable in winter conditions when It has been established that the strategy for meeting GHG reduction
cloud points are adjusted to meet CAN/CGSB specifications. Once blended, all targets up until 2060 will include efficiency improvements, electrification,
test fuel in the ARDD performed adequately in existing handling, storage, and and bioenergy. Electrification is expected to increase its role in
usage environments (Climate Change Central, 2009). transportation; however, biofuels are expected to be a significant and
In 2008, the Government of Canada launched the National Renewable necessary component of movement to a low-carbon economy including
Diesel Demonstration Initiative (NRDDI) to address remaining industry and vehicles and particularly for aviation and heavy-duty trucks (International
end-user concerns about blending 2% renewable components in diesel fuel. A Energy Agency, 2017). The pressing question is: how can bioenergy and
total of seven projects were delivered by stakeholders with funding assistance biofuels be adopted in the mainstream? One rational, systematic approach
provided by the NRDDI in advance of enacting new fuel regulations includes the deployment and expanded use of mature technologies, the
(Renewable Fuels Regulations, 2010). The initiative included projects in both development of new technologies, increasing feedstock supply and
on-road transportation and off-road sectors to demonstrate how renewable availability, and building investment pipelines including policy
diesel fuel will perform in Canadian conditions. Biodiesel was a primary focus implementation and international collaboration (Brown, 2017).
of this program due to concerns about its low temperature properties. The off- The role of policy in boosting the biofuels industry has been shown to
road projects investigated the impact of renewable diesel on railway be successful (Wolinetz and Hein, 2017), which indicates that it is a tool
locomotive, construction and forest equipment, generator set, and agricultural that can shape the direction of the industry in the future. Boosts have been
equipment operations. In general, these studies investigated B5 blends and provided primarily for first generation biofuels (ethanol and biodiesel)
reported that no major issues were encountered during the demonstration through both policies such as the RFS and programs such as ecoENERGY.
projects (NRCan, 2010). However, as discussed in the sections above, there may be limitations
NRDDI provided funding to Imperial Oil to investigate low temperature regarding compatibility and utilization of higher blends of these biofuels in
storage, operability, and thermal/oxidative storage stability of biodiesel, as well Canada. This will become an issue if policy takes the shape of increasing
as the utilization of 10% biodiesel blends in furnaces. The objective of the low renewable component blend requirements. However, solutions are being
temperature tests was to investigate the effects of saturated mono-glycerides developed to handle higher blending requirements; for example, processes
(SMG) on filters in fuel handling systems and heavy-duty diesel trucks. The are currently being developed to improve the cold flow properties of
study showed that precipitates enriched in SMG formed in the B5 and B20 biodiesel. One example involves the use of heterogeneous catalysis to
blends after ten days of storage at 2-4 °C above the cloud point. The filter perform dehydrogenation, hydrocracking, and hydroisomerisation to
blocking tendency (FBT) test (ASTM D2068-08) correlated well with the SMG improve biodiesel composition, which seems to offer a potential solution to
content of the fuel. The heavy-duty diesel truck tests involved spiking a B5 improve the cold flow properties of biodiesel (Anwar and Garforth, 2016).
biodiesel fuel spiked with three levels of SMG. The fuel delivery system was However, the oxidative stability tends to decrease in biodiesel that has
negatively impacted by the phase separation of spiked SMG at -16 °C, well improved cold flow properties. First generation technologies may also
above its -26 °C cloud point. The data suggests that the renewable diesel blend struggle with policies such as LCFS due to carbon involved with crop
should have a FBT in the 1 to 1.4 range similar to conventional diesel fuels production, natural gas usage for plant operation, and transportation.
(Imperial Oil, 2009). Regulations and policies that do not target particular feedstocks and/or
The Royal Military College conducted a biodiesel stability study over a ten- products, but instead target carbon intensity, may be advantageous to the
month period with NRDDI funding. The biofuels were blended using a ULSD ultimate goal of GHG reduction. Advanced second and third generation
fuel and three biodiesels (B100) derived from animal tallow, yellow grease, and technologies may provide reduced overall carbon output and requirements
canola oil. Three sets of ULSD, B2, B5, B10, B20, and B100 blends were for improved funding for these areas has been identified (Scaife et al.,
prepared and stored in one-liter brown bottles. Two of the sets were stored in a 2015). However, careful LCA is required to identify biofuels that are truly
refrigerator and heated oven at 5 ° and 40 °C, while the third set was alternated low-carbon. This is because advanced biofuels typically use feedstocks
on a daily basis between the refrigerator and the oven. The acid numbers with more complex structure than first generation; therefore, more process
(ASTM D664) of the test fuel samples were measured on a monthly basis. The steps are often required to transform the biomass into compatible fuels. As
B100 blending components showed the largest increase in acid number over a second generation processes generally remain at pilot and demonstration
six-month period. The largest increases in acid number were for the B100 scale, these industries have not benefited from the decades of engineering
biodiesels derived from animal tallow and yellow grease stored at 40 °C. All improvements and scale-up/scale-down techniques for process
blends between B2 and B20 were much more stable than the B100 samples and optimization that have been realized by first generation biofuel production.
remained in the range of 0.1-0.3 mg KOH/g, which is below the 0.5 mg KOH/g There is opportunity to improve economics by providing funding and
standard in ASTM D6751. Accelerated oxidation stability was also measured government support to process development engineering to improve
according to EN14112 (Rancimat). The Rancimat test involves bubbling air productivity on an on-going basis. Further developments in transportation
through a sample at 110 °C. The biodiesel blends derived from tallow were the logistics and supply chains established by first generation biofuels could
most stable, followed by those derived from canola oil and yellow grease. The also enable ease of market access for the adoption of second generation fuel
low level biodiesel blends were more stable than the base biodiesel blending options.
components. Future prospects for feedstocks involve a movement into higher yields,
In 2012, a Canadian study reported that fuel suppliers require less additional residuals, and/or low transportation requirements. Although current
storage and blending infrastructure to meet the Renewable Fuel Standard with commercial biofuels are produced primarily from field crops, forestry is the
HDRD than with biodiesel. HDRD also requires less kerosene to meet the cloud most abundant source which will be key to expanding production in the
point specifications during the winter months (Lambert, 2012a). In a separate future. As identified by Mabee and Saddler (2010), utilization of forestry
study, the same author reported on the investments made to refineries, residuals and energy crops will also be critical movement for the biofuels
terminals, and offloading facilities to accommodate the Renewable Fuel industry to expand in Canada. Greater use of field crops will require policy
drivers such as higher blending rates of biofuel in gasoline and diesel, as
Standard, including the purchase or cleaning of tanks and equipment for
well as incentives for increased production in Canada. Agricultural residues
blending. The author indicated that most refiners would ideally choose HDRD
are non-food feedstock for biofuel, however, will require improved
due to its favourable physical properties, the reliability of existing suppliers, technology and economics to achieve commercial production. Although
and the fact that most HDRD production plants are relatively large-scale and livestock wastes represent the smallest agricultural feedstock in terms of
can reliably provide the required volumes (Lambert, 2012b). HDRD is also a available volume, they are the most effective feedstock for the reduction of
promising renewable blending component option for realizing GHG emission GHG emissions.
reductions in Canada. It has been estimated from an LCA of hypothetical Of course, economics plays a critical role in creating a self-sustaining
HDRD production in Canada that well-to-wheel GHG CO2 emissions per MJ biofuels industry. Biorefinery remains a key concept for improving the
would be reduced by 53.4 – 61.1% compared to fossil-based diesel fuel (Wong economics of the biofuels industry. Already in Canada, integrated pulp and
et al., 2016). paper biorefineries are paving the way, with manufacturers exploring the
774
use of waste streams and by-products to produce biofuels and biochemicals. [4] Abdehagh, N., Tezel, F.H., Thibault, J., 2016. Multicomponent
The reduced use of paper in Canada has caused this industry to become more adsorption modeling: isotherms for ABE model solutions using
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Biofuel Research Journal 17 (2018) 759-779

Journal homepage: www.biofueljournal.com

Current state and future prospects for liquid biofuels in Canada

far exceeds current use.

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

* Corresponding author at: Tel.: (+1) 613-993-0810

Renewable fuel standards Low carbon fuel standards

4%-70% reduction in TBD

10% reduction in GHG by

Canada is endowed with abundant natural resources such as oil, gas,

million m3 of roundwood although the estimate varies slightly year to year.

Table 2. Canadians produced approximately 706 kg of waste/person according to

Thermochemical - Syngas to methanol

Thermochemical - Syngas to methanol Municipal solid waste

Chemical - Two step, single-phase Commercial

Chemical - Two step, single-phase

Rendered beef tallow and

Evoleum, St-Jean-d-lberville, QC Biodiesel Chemical Recycled vegetable oil Commercial 10

Innoltek, Thetford Mines, QC Biodiesel Chemical Yellow grease Commercial 6

Chemical - Combined Commercial

Rothsay Biodiesel, Ville Ste. Catherine, Animal fats, recycled

Greenfield Global, Tiverton, ON Ethanol Fermentation, Sugar/Starch Platform Corn Commercial 27

Iogen Corporation, Ottawa, ON Ethanol Fermentation, Cellulosic Crop Residue Demonstration 2

Pound-Maker Agventures Ltd., Lanigan,

Suncor - St. Clair Ethanol Plant, Sarnia,

First generation ethanol is produced from domestic starch-based feedstocks.

Dry milling Wet milling

Grain milling Fractionation

Mashing & Cooking Cooking

Distillation & Dehydration

Butanol is currently not produced industrially through fermentation in

3.2. Thermochemical and chemical

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