Engineering Encyclopedia: Mass and Energy Balances
Engineering Encyclopedia: Mass and Energy Balances
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not already
in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or
disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without
the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi
Aramco.
CONTENTS PAGES
Another type of drawing frequently encountered by the plant engineer is the Piping and
Instrument Drawing (P&ID). An example of this type of drawing is shown in Figure 2. Note
that the P&ID is more complex than the PFD. These drawings show the actual piping and
instrument details. Line sizes, ratings, and materials are also included. There is less emphasis
placed on process items such as flow rates in these drawings. Note the following types of
information on this drawing:
Many variations of PFDs and P&IDs exist. Some of the items on Figure 1 may be
interchanged with items on Figure 2, depending on the owner's requirements.
Use Photostat
figure 1
Use Photostat
figure 1 (Cont'd)
Use Photostat
figure 1 (Cont'd)
typical P&ID
figure 2
figure 2 (cont'd)
Figure 3 shows a simplified process flow diagram for an NGL absorber and fractionator. The
related material balance is shown at the bottom of Figure 3. Note the following information
on the drawing:
• Pump rates.
• Temperatures.
• Instrumentation.
• Stream numbers.
• Stream properties.
Using the information supplied and the methods presented in ChE 101.01 and ChE 101.02,
sufficient data can be developed for process calculations. If more than a few data are required
for calculations, the information supplied can be used as input to "PROCESS" a "PROLL" and
complete stream data generated. Figure 4 shows a typical output of this program.
Other programs that can be used for process simulation are HYSIM and ASPEN.
Use Photostat
figure 3
Use Photostat
figure 3 (cont'd)
"process" output
SAUDI ARAMCO FORMAT
STREAM SUMMARY
STREAM ID 21 22 23 24
NAME
PHASE VAPOR LIQUID VAPOR LIQUID
FROM UNIT/TRAY 8/1 1 8/ 9 14/ 1 14/ 9
TO UNIT/TRAY 5/1 0 0/ 0 0/ 0 15/ 0
figure 4
STREAM ID 21 22 23 24
NAME
PHASE VAPOR LIQUID VAPOR LIQUID
**** WET BASIS ****
MOLECULAR WEIGHT 44.817 68.467 42.553 64.457
** VAPOR **
M LBS/DAY 0.048 0.000 2772.145 0.000
MOLECULAR WEIGHT 44.817 0.000 42.553 0.000
STD M FT3/DAY 0.409 0.000 24722.332 0.000
ACTUAL M FT3/DAY 0.037 0.000 659.153 0.000
LBS/M FT3 1313.388 0.000 4205.613 0.000
CP, BTU /LB MOL F 2.1014E+01 0.0000E+00 2.6400E+01 0.0000E+00
** LIQUID **
M LBS/DAY 0.000 0.297 0.000 1783.672
MOLECULAR WEIGHT 0.000 68.467 0.000 64.457
STD LIQ BBLS/DAY 0.000 1.383 0.000 8468.637
ACTUAL GPM 0.0000 0.0484 0.0000 373.6821
BBLS/DAY 0.000 1.658 0.000 12811.969
LBS/BBL 0.000 179.410 0.000 139.219
CP, BTU /LB MOL F 0.0000E+00 4.6857E+01 0.0000E+00 7.7822E+01
Data Conversion
The data shown in P&IDs/PFDs are not always shown in the form needed to perform
calculations. Liquid rates are frequently given in B/SD (barrels/stream day), or B/CD
(barrels/calendar day), and an applicable API gravity. B/SD are the actual rates the
equipment will see and should be used for design. B/CD are rates used for yearly planning,
not for process calculations. They are always smaller than the corresponding B/SD values.
The relationship between B/SD and B/CD is the plant unit's service factor. This is typically
about 90%, to allow for turnarounds and unscheduled outages. For example, using 90% as a
service factor gives the following conversion between the two rates:
B/D rates shown on the drawings are at 60°F. Using the API given and the conversion charts
in Maxwell, the lb/hr rate can be calculated.
lb 42 gal D
B/Dx x x = lb/ hr
gal Bbl 24 hr
lb
= 8. 33(Sp. Gr. )
gal
141.5
Sp. Gr. =
131.5 + API
Figure 5 is a schematic of a typical steam boiler system. A portion of the circulating water
must be discarded to prevent the buildup of solids in the system. This is called blowdown,
and typically can range from as low as 2% of the boiler feedwater rate to 20% or higher if the
feedwater is of poor quality. The example in Figure 5 has a blowdown of 11.5%.
There is sufficient information in Figure 5 to calculate a heat balance around the system and
determine the fuel required in lb/hr. The method of calculation is shown in Example Problem
1.
Two additional energy users of the boiler system are the circulating pump and the boiler
feedwater pump. These will be discussed later.
Stack @ 650 °F
370°F
160 psig
Blowdown
105,000 lb/hr
% Blowdown =
105,000 12,900
= 11.5% 0.876 sp. gr. Fuel Gas
910,000 ²P = 108 psi LHV = 19,400 Btu/lb
20% Excess Air
2 % Furnace Heat Loss
FIGURE 5
Example Problem 1
Calculate the fuel required for the boiler in Figure 5. Enthalpy data from a steam table is
needed for entering and exiting streams.
Enthalpy, Btu/lb
Temp., °F Psia HL HV
The furnace efficiency can be calculated from the method in ChE 101.02, Example Problem 4.
There are two basic methods of determining energy balances around heat exchangers. The
first method uses enthalpy (H) data to determine either the exchanger duty, or (if this is
already known) one of the stream temperatures. The second method uses heat capacity (CP)
data to accomplish the same purpose.
In all cases, the heat given up by the hot stream must equal the heat absorbed by the cold
stream. Note that if the heat given up equals the heat absorbed, only the heat balance is
satisfied. An existing heat exchanger may not have enough surface to transfer the heat. Also,
it is impossible to heat the "cold" stream outlet to a higher temperature than the hot stream
inlet. This situation arises when a large volume "hot" stream exchanges heat with a small
volume "cold" stream. If the desired temperature drop is too large, the cold stream will
appear to have been heated to a higher temperature than the hot stream inlet. This, of course,
cannot occur. Either the cold stream rate must be increased, or the hot stream temperature
drop reduced.
Example Problem 2
Hot
The hot stream is to be cooled to 300°F.
500,000 lb/hr 300°F
500°F H = 258 Btu/lb
What is the cold stream outlet H = 410 Btu/lb
Cold
temperature?
10,000 lb/hr
200°F
API = 70°
VABP = 210°F
Temperatur CP+B B CP
e
200°F 0.677 0.08 0.597
300°F 0.736 0.08 0.656
400°F 0.794 0.08 0.714
Assume for first trial cold stream out is same as inlet °F.
Avg Cp = 0.597
Q = mCPÆT T = (TOUT - 200)
Q
TOUT = + 200
mCP
= 76 x 106 + 200 = 12,930°F
10,000 x 0.597
It can be seen that this is an impossible solution. The hot stream cannot be cooled by the
desired amount with the available cold stream. However, this problem illustrates both the
enthalpy and heat capacity methods of heat exchanger heat balance.
To solve this problem in a practical manner, if the two flow rates are fixed, and only one heat
exchanger shell is available, assume that the cold stream outlet equals the hot stream outlet, as
shown below.
500°F
Hot TX
TX Cold
200°F
0.597 + 0.714
= 0.655
3. Assume Cold Cp = 2 .
4. Q = (m Cp Æt)Hot = (m Cp Æt)Cold
(500,000)(0.76)(500 – Tx) = (10,000)(0.655)(Tx –
200)
191,300 = 386.5 Tx
Tx = 494.9
0.597 + 0.77
= 0.6835
Cp = 2
This solution will be the best that can be achieved with the given conditions using one heat
exchanger shell, since the FN will be 0.8 (the lowest allowable).
The solar energy absorbed by a surface can have a significant effect on the temperature of that
surface. When liquid in a piping system is blocked-in, the liquid temperature may rise due to
solar heating. This will result in a pressure rise due to thermal expansion. If the line is not
protected with thermal relief valves, the increase in pressure could cause it to rupture. The
calculation method for temperature and pressure use is covered in Saudi Aramco Design
Practices ADP-L-043. Pressure increases can range from 10 to 100 psi per °F.
The maximum surface temperature of a container that has no flow, due to solar radiation, is
determined by the solar heat gain and the heat loss from radiation and convection. Ten hours
of solar heat radiation on the projected area of an exposed pipe surface at 950 W/m2 (300
Btu/hr sq ft) is a conservative estimate for a full day of sunshine on a bare pipe.
The total heat loss from an exposed pipe surface to the surrounding air equals the convective
heat loss from the entire pipe plus the radiation heat loss from half the pipe surface. When
this heat loss equals the solar heat input, the pipe has reached its maximum temperature.
Qc
= 0.844(Do) (Tp − Ta )
0. 75 1. 25
(Full pipe area)
L
QR T 4 T 4
= 0.246 Do P − a
L 100 100
(1/2 pipe area)
(includes emissivity = 0.9)
This method allows calculation of the maximum surface temperature possible. A large line or
tank can contain sufficient heat capacitance in the contents to prevent the temperature from
rising to this maximum value. If calculation of the actual temperature is desired, then the
methods outlined in ADP-L-043 should be followed. Example Problem 3, illustrates the
method of maximum temperature calculation.
Example Problem 3
Consider a 6 in. nominal size, Schedule 40, Grade B steel pipe filled with oil. The pipeline is
unrestrained and aboveground. The ambient temperature is 100°F. The line is blocked-in at
110°F and 150 psi. What is the maximum temperature the line will reach?
Do = 6.625/12 = 0.552 ft
Qc
= 0.844 (Do )0.75 (Tp - T a)1.25
L
QR Tp 4 Ta 4
100 − 100
= 0.2461 Do
L
620 4 560 4
= 0.2461 ((0.552)) − = 63.4Btu / hr / ft
100 100
QS DO' L
Heat gain = = 300 x
L L
QT QS
Since L = 153.7 Btu/hr/ft, and L = 166 Btu/hr/ft, the assumed maximum temperature
QT QS
must be increased. Using 164°F, L = 166 BTU/hr/ft which is equal to L .
Heat Loss
A pipe could experience a net heat loss if the pipe temperature was high enough to cause the
radiant and convective losses to exceed the solar gain.
The previous equations can be used for heat loss at night, when the solar gain is, of course,
zero. The ambient air temperature should be used for the convective heat loss (QC/L) and a
temperature of -50°F for the radiation loss (QR/L) calculation. If the inside film coefficient is
high, relative to the convective/radiation coefficient, (as it almost always is) the heat loss of a
flowing pipeline can be calculated. Knowing the heat loss, and using Q = mCPÆT, the
temperature drop can be calculated. Table 1 presents the result of such a calculation. Here, a
spreadsheet program was written to handle the calculation in 10°F intervals and calculate the
length of line for each temperature drop increment. The CP could change with temperature.
In this case it was reasonably constant for the entire temperature range.
Diam. (ft ) Air Temp, Sky Temp, Flow (lb/hr) Air Temp, °R Sky Temp,
°F °F °R
1 50 -50 50,000 510 410
Cum.
Pipe Qr/L Qc/L Qt/L Length* Length, Pipe
Temp, °F Btu, hr/ft Btu, hr/ft Btu, hr/ft Cp ft ft Temp, °R
1- 200 397.26 443.05 840.32 0.5 309.3 309.3 660
2- 190 369.61 406.45 776.06 0.5 335.6 645.0 650
3- 180 343.21 370.49 713.69 0.5 365.8 1010.7 640
4- 170 318.01 335.21 653.22 0.5 400.7 1411.4 630
5- 160 293.98 300.67 594.65 0.5 441.4 1852.9 620
6- 150 271.09 266.90 537.99 0.5 489.6 2342.5 610
7- 140 249.30 233.96 483.26 0.5 547.2 2889.7 600
8- 130 228.57 201.93 430.51 0.5 617.1 3506.7 590
9- 120 208.87 170.89 379.76 0.5 703.4 4210.1 580
10- 110 190.16 140.94 331.10 0.5 812.0 5022.1 570
11- 100 172.41 112.22 284.63 0.5 952.2 5974.3 560
12- 90 155.59 84.90 240.49 0.5 1137.9 7112.2 550
13- 80 139.66 59.26 198.92 0.5 1392.0 8504.1 540
14- 70 124.59 35.70 160.29 0.5 1750.4 10254.5 530
15- 60 110.35 15.01 125.36 0.5 2249.5 12504.0 520
16- 50 96.91 0.00 96.91 0.5 3009.5 15513.6 510
17- 40 84.24 -15.01 69.23 0.5 500
(Q T / L)1 + (QT / L )2
Q = m cp ∆ t (Q T / L)Ave = for line 1
2
L (QT / L )Ave = Q
m cp ∆t
L=
(QT / L)Ave
table 1
P&ID/PFD Information
Figure 6 shows feed and product rates for two different feeds, Arabian Heavy (AH) and
Arabian Light (AL). The information available on this PFD includes flow rates, pump rates,
temperature, equipment sizes, and API gravities.
The amount of cooling water (CW) used for a given heat load is set by the difference between
the CW inlet and outlet temperatures. This difference is referred to as CW rise. Saudi
Aramco Design Practice ADP-E-001, Pg. 2, specifies cooling water inlet temperatures to be a
minimum of 48°F in winter and a maximum of 95°F in summer. The outlet temperature is
limited to 120°F, to limit corrosion, to limit fouling, and for environmental reasons. The
summer temperature of 95°F sets the ability of the exchanger to cool, and sets the design
utilities rate. Using the given CW rise and the heat exchanger process heat duty (Q), it is a
simple matter to calculate the cooling water rate using the expression Q = mCPÆT. The CP
can be taken as 1.0, and the ÆT is the CW rise.
Note that sometimes not all of the available rise can be utilized. A single shell heat exchanger
cannot have an exit process temperature lower than the CW outlet temperature. Also, the CW
exit temperature cannot be higher than the process inlet temperature. In these cases, the CW
rate must be increased to lower the CW rise to an acceptable level.
It is possible for two process services to share the same CW in sequence. This happens when
a service calls for a very narrow CW rise. The CW can then be reused in another service,
subject, of course, to the 120°F maximum outlet temperature limit, before being sent to CW
return.
Steam Utilities
After the exchanger process duty is known, steam rates are calculated using the difference in
enthalpy between the vapor entering and condensate leaving. Steam letdown across an inlet
control valve retains the same enthalpy as it had upstream of the valve (constant enthalpy
flash). For the purposes of utility calculations, there is no change. However, the steam
becomes superheated by the drop in pressure, and it may require more surface in the
exchanger to desuperheat it before condensing begins. The steam rate is calculated:
Steam, lb hr =
(QEXCH )
(HV - HL )
atmospheric section
Use Photostat
figure 6
Use Photostat
figure 6 (cont'd)
Refrigeration Utilities
Example Problem 4.
Find the amount, in lb/hr, of liquid propane required to produce 5 MBtu/hr of refrigeration at
-30°F. The propane is available at 110°F.
Enthalpy of saturated liquid propane at 110°F = 175, Btu/lb = HT (use Maxwell for enthalpy
data).
(Note that some systems use subcooled liquid. Use the appropriate liquid enthalpy.)
HL = 90 Btu/lb
-30°F
110°F
Chiller
214.8 psia
Q = 5 MBtu/hr
(minimum)
HV = 270.2 Btu/lb
The pressure letdown across the control valve is a constant enthalpy flash.
Flash equation:
The liquid portion of the flash must provide the exchanger heat duty. Each pound of liquid
can remove (HV - HL) Btu/lb, or:
HV = 270.2
HL = 90
180.2 Btu/lb liquid
Q 6
= 5 x 10 = 27,747 lb/hr = L
HV - HL 180.2
85 x 27,747 = 24,774
V = 85L =
95.2 95.2
To quickly calculate refrigerant requirements, use the following equations, derived from the
equations above:
Q (H R - HL )L
L= V= R =L +V
H V - HL (H V - H R )
The calculation of electrical loads for air fin exchangers is too lengthy to be covered here.
Saudi Aramco Design Practice ADP-E-001, Pg. 105, contains the method for fan horsepower
requirements. ChE 101.10 also discusses air fin calculations.
If the air rate in ACFM and the corresponding pressure drop (ÆP) is available from the
manufacturer, then the horsepower (hp) required can be calculated by:
ACFM ∆P
hp =
6,356 EF ESR
This expression could be used to estimate the hp at increased air flow rates, for higher heat
duty operations.
Pump Utilities
where ÆP is the head developed in psi, ÆH is head in ft of fluid, Sp. Gr. is specific gravity at
flowing conditions, and EP is the pump efficiency obtained from the vendor or the
manufacturer's pump curve. Use of these curves usually requires calculation of the
differential head in feet.
144 in2 ft 3
lbs / in 2 x x = ft
ft 2 lbs
ft 3 1 1
= =
lbs ρ ×
62.4 Sp. Gr.
Compressor Utilities
Based on the process side requirements, obtain the hp required by the compressor. This
calculation is outside the scope of this module. The driver power requirement is then
calculated by the method described in the following paragraph.
Driver Utilities
After the equipment hp has been determined, a 10% factor is added (1.1 x hp) to set the
minimum driver size. (Note that for variable pitch fan air coolers, use 1.15, and for regular air
coolers, use 1.3 as the factor for minimum driver size.) Using the table in Work Aid 2,
choose the motor size closest (next largest) to the actual motor size desired, and choose the
motor efficiency (EM) at the proper percentage of the full load determined. The power
required is calculated by:
hp x 0.746
Power kW =
EM
This method is illustrated in Example Problem 5.
Example Problem 5
Calculate the power required for the boiler feed pump in the system.
Pump data:
Temperature = 190°F
sp. gr. 190/60 = 60.34 lb3 = 0.967 (use steam table for data)
62.4 ft
lb x gal
GPM Rate = 910,000hr x hr = 1883 gpm
0.967 (8.33) lb 60 min
2 3
Head = 200 lb x 144 in x ft = 477.3 ft H2O (lbf ft/lbm)
in2 ft2 60.34 lb
EM, motor efficiency at actual load = 92.6% – 1.5 = 91.1% (TEFC motor)
hp x 0.746
Power required kW = = 282 x 0.746 = 230.9 kW
EM 0.911
Heats of Reaction
Although it is beyond the scope of this course to discuss how to calculate heats of reaction,
the plant engineer should be aware of their existence. Certain processes give off heat
(exothermic) during a reaction, others absorb heat (endothermic). Some processes contain
both exothermic and endothermic reactions, but are usually either net producers or users of
heat. A typical endothermic reaction is reforming, in which furnaces between reactors supply
the required heat of reaction. A typical exothermic reaction is hydrocracking in which quench
streams must remove the reaction heat between catalyst beds.
As far as energy balances are concerned, the heat of reaction (positive or negative) must be
accounted for in the balance. While there is no mass change across the reactor, there will be a
composition/mole change and this must also be accounted for.
Key Formulas
The following is a brief summary of the more important/useful formulas in this module. Note
that many of these items can be easily programmed for personal computer use.
• Heat fired and LHV furnace efficiency from Example Problem 1 (see sample table, Figure
7).
TP 4 - Ta 4
QR = 0.271 (Do )
100 100
Q
• L =
HV - HL
V=
(H R - HL ) Q
(HV - HR )(H V - H L )
R = L+V
Hp calculations:
ACFM (∆P)
• hpAir Fin =
6,356 EF ESR
(gpm) (∆P)
hpPump =
1,715 EP
bhp x 0.746
• Power, kW =
EM
This work aid is designed to assist the participant in Exercise 6 - Calculating Required Steam and
Cooling Water.
284.0 52.414 0.01730 8.1280 8.1453 253.3 921.7 1175.0 0.4154 1.2395 1.6548 284.0
288.0 55.795 0.01734 7.6634 7.6807 257.4 918.8 1176.2 0.4208 1.2290 1.6498 288.0
292.0 59.350 0.01738 7.2301 7.2475 261.5 915.9 1177.4 0.4263 1.2186 1.6449 292.0
296.0 63.084 0.01741 6.8259 6.8433 265.6 913.0 1178.6 0.4317 1.2082 1.6400 296.0
300.0 67.005 0.01745 6.4483 6.4658 269.7 910.0 1179.7 0.4372 1.1979 1.6351 300.0
304.0 71.119 0.01749 6.0955 6.1130 273.8 907.0 1180.9 0.4426 1.1877 1.6303 304.0
308.0 75.433 0.01753 5.7655 5.7830 278.0 904.0 1182.0 0.4479 1.1776 1.6256 308.0
312.0 79.953 0.01757 5.4566 5.4742 282.1 901.0 1183.1 0.4533 1.1676 1.6209 312.0
316.0 84.688 0.01761 5.1673 5.1849 286.3 897.9 1184.1 0.4586 1.1576 1.6162 316.0
320.0 89.643 0.01766 4.8961 4.9138 290.4 894.8 1185.2 0.4640 1.1477 1.6116 320.0
324.0 94.826 0.01770 4.6418 4.6595 294.6 891.6 1186.2 0.4692 1.1378 1.6071 324.0
328.0 100.245 0.01774 4.4030 4.4208 298.7 888.5 1187.2 0.4745 1.1280 1.6025 328.0
332.0 105.907 0.01779 4.1788 4.1966 302.9 885.3 1188.2 0.4798 1.1183 1.5981 332.0
336.0 111.820 0.01783 3.9681 3.9859 307.1 882.1 1189.1 0.4850 1.1086 1.5936 336.0
340.0 117.992 0.01787 3.7699 3.7878 311.3 878.8 1190.1 0.4902 1.0990 1.5892 340.0
344.0 124.430 0.01792 3.5834 3.6013 315.5 875.5 1191.0 0.4954 1.0894 1.5849 344.0
348.0 131.142 0.01797 3.4078 3.4258 319.7 872.2 1191.1 0.5006 1.0799 1.5806 348.0
352.0 138.138 0.01801 3.2423 3.2603 323.9 868.9 1192.7 0.5058 1.0705 1.5763 352.0
356.0 145.424 0.01806 3.0863 3.1044 328.1 865.5 1193.6 0.5110 1.0611 1.5721 356.0
360.0 153.010 0.01811 2.9392 2.9573 332.3 862.1 1194.4 0.5161 1.0517 1.5678 360.0
364.0 160.903 0.01816 2.8002 2.8184 336.5 858.6 1195.2 0.5212 1.0424 1.5637 364.0
368.0 169.113 0.01821 2.6691 2.6873 340.8 855.1 1195.9 0.5263 1.0332 1.5595 368.0
372.0 177.648 0.01826 2.5451 2.5633 345.0 851.6 1196.7 0.5314 1.0240 1.5554 372.0
376.0 186.517 0.01831 2.4279 2.4462 349.3 848.1 1197.4 0.5365 1.0148 1.5513 376.0
380.0 195.729 0.01836 2.3170 2.3353 353.6 844.5 1198.0 0.5416 1.0057 1.5473 380.0
384.0 205.294 0.01842 2.2120 2.2304 357.9 840.8 1198.7 0.5466 0.9966 1.5432 384.0
388.0 215.220 0.01847 2.1126 2.1311 362.2 837.2 1199.3 0.5516 0.9876 1.5392 388.0
392.0 225.516 0.01853 2.0184 2.0369 366.5 833.4 1199.9 0.5567 0.9786 1.5352 392.0
396.0 236.193 0.01858 1.9291 1.9477 370.8 829.7 1200.4 0.5617 0.9696 1.5313 396.0
This work aid is designed to assist the participant in Exercise 7 - Calculating Power Requirements.
Notes: 1. Applies to open and enclosed motors rated at 1,800 rpm, 3-phase, 60 Hz. At 7,000 hp and above,
speed is 1,200 rpm, instead of 1,800.
3. For totally enclosed fan-cooled (TEFC) motors, efficiency should be reduced 1% at full load, 1-
1/2% at 3/4 load and 2-1/2% at half load.
4. Above 10,000 hp, use the 10,000 hp values until specific vendor estimates are obtained.
GLOSSARY
H Enthalpy, Btu/lb
REFERENCES
2. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 64th Edition, Robert C. Weast, Editor (general
data).
5. Manual for Process Engineering Calculations, 2nd Ed., L. Clarke and R. L. Davidson.
6. Engineering Data Book, Gas Processors Suppliers Association, 10th Edition, 1987.