GONTENTS

1. 1.1 - 1.9

2. 2.1-2.9

3. 3.'l - 3.5

4. 4.1 - 4.8

5. 5.1 - 5.8

6. 6.1 - 6.9

7. 7.1 -7.10

8. 8.1 - 8.6

v- 9.1 - 9.4

10. 10.1 - 10.6

11. 11.1 - 11 .8

12. 12.1 - 12.9

13. 13.1 - 13.7

14. 14.1 - 14.8

15. 15.1 - 15.8

16. 16.1 - 16.6

LESSON 1

INTRODUCTION TO COTJNSELLING

1.0. Objectives

l. To understand what is me3nt by psychological counselling

2. To understand what are the purpose and goals of counselling
3. To understand what are the qualities of an effectivc counsellor

Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Characteristics of Counselling
1.3 Purpose and types of Counselling
1.4 Goals of Counselling
l 5 Qualities of an effective counsellor
1.6 Summary
1,7 Technical Terms
1.8 Model Questions
1.9 Referecne Books

l.l. Intr0duction
The concepts of counselling and guidance have existed since the beginning of .human society.
People have always helped each otber to survive physically and in times of emotional distress. In mod€m
society, after the establishment of psychology as an independent science, counselling is considcred a
professional service and process of helping individuals to understand themselves and to overcome various
problems in living that they face.

Yet, counselling is difficult to define. It is not a single activity but is an aspect of several
professions. For example, legal counselling, financial counselling are part of the professional activitics of
lawyers, chartered accountants and so on. Furthermore, in rccent times, the term 'counselling' is commonly
used in college and university admissions.

We need to be clear however about what we mean.by psychological cougselling. We also need to
distinguish between helping that is woven into the fabiic of everyday human relating and professional
helping. Helping is a broad concept that does not necessarily imply a counselling relationship or even a
professional one. Therc aro some basic differences at feast in degree between a professional helping
relationship and e 'ftiendship' relationship, Everyday interpersonal relationships involve helping that is
Joften mutual. friends could help each other but in a counselling relationship, the roles are clear-cut -
one is
|he counsellor providing hetp while the other is the client receiving help. Thc counsellor might find
{satisfaction in.helping, but he or sha. is not being helped by the client, nor is he or she ordinarily
tstablishing a friendship.

' The process of helping in a counsclling relarionship is a unique- one in which the codpsellor
facilitates growth iir the client. In this context, helping means assisting the clients to reach goals that are-
imponant ro them. It is designed to foster within the client greater self-understanding,
to increase his oI hel
openness to the world, and to initiat€ more effective behaviour'

1,2 Characteristics of Counselling

following
According to Pietrofesa, tioffman and Splete (1984). the process of counselling has the
essential characteristics:
l. Counselling is a pmfessional servicl of helping individuals and is offered
by a qualified
counsel|or.TheserviceofcounsellingreferstoaProfessionalrelationshipbetweenaqua|ifiedand
comp€tent counsellor and the pers6n seeking help lt is not a casual incident
or a social
crmverbation or even offering friendly support to peoite in trouble A
major aspect of counselling is
He or she needs to
that the counsellor has particular expeni;e not foupd in typical rclationships'
.havethenecessaryeducationandtrainingandshouldbeabletouseskillsandtechniques|earned
through education in an effective manner.

The centlal asp€ct

2. counselling is a pmcess in wNch the counsellor-client relatiomhip is basic.
of the counselling process is the relationship established between the counsellor and &e client
This
relationship is ba=sed on genuine caring and regard of the counsellor for the clisnt,
and involvement
and coopeiation on the pan of the client. Effective counselling is based on
this qounsellor-client
relationship. Counselling does not take place in a casual relationship with' for example'-a .sqanger
onarailwaytrainorwithawaitcrinarestaurant,whereconversationofoftentoosuper|rcia|tobe
meaningful.

problem-resolution
3. Counselling is concerned with dccision'making ski[s -and.. -,The
counsellor'i task is to generate altematives to the problem, help the clien-t ln loosenrng or bteaKng
client find viable
old patterns of behaviJr,. facilitate the decision-making process, and to help the
' soluions to problems. Identifying the problem, exploiing the methods for resolving the problem'
decision making and goal setiing, and learning of skills that can be applied in new situationsat€
carried out during counselling.

Counselling involv€s the client l€arning new beh;viour or lbrmulatlng

4. new attitudes'
wherein the client lea.rns to recognize the
counsellinjis considered a procesS of teachingJeaming
behaviourstobechangedandappropriatestepstochangethem.Heorslremustbeabletoknowthe
the various choiies he or she
facts of his or her present situation, ana the likely .cinsequences of
makes. Client action and behaviour change are tiie mosi imponant outcomes
of the counselling
Drocess.

relationship. These skills

counselling Involves certain skills that facllitste the counsellor'client
understanding' and using interPrelation to
-":utt"nOitig, list€ning, responding and communicating behavior that they were not
fr"ip lfi*t l."orn" alware'of coricepts, feeling and aspects of their
prcviously aware of.

Counset|ingisamutuo|enterpr|seonthepartofthecounse||orandc|ientandisbasedon
client may not
,op"J io"il*inaividual. Although tbe counsellor has.expertise and skills that the
tru"'i,, tft"it relationship is based on-respect for the dignity of the client-
Both of them are equally
client as vfell
invoived in the counilling process. Colrnselling goalJare selected and refined by the
as by the counsellor. Thi-expertise of the counsellor is necessary to help the client achicve
whatever goals are chosen.
 Considcring the above charactcristics, counselling cnn be dcfincd as a rclationship bctween a
profe,ssionally trained, competent counsellor and an individual secking help in gaining greatcr sclf-
understanding anrt improved dccision-making and behaviour-change skills for problem resolution and/or
, devclopmental growth. Counsclling is provided in a professional setting by a counsellor committed
to
psychological counsclling.

1.3 Purposc and 'fypcs of counselling

Clients approach counselling with ceriain expectations. They expect to resolve a problem and they
expcct the counsellor to behave in a helpful way. Client expectations may affcct thc dircction and outcome
of counselling. They also determine whcther or not counselling will be continued after csch session. Wren
clicnt expectations are not met, clicnts leave counselling dissatisfied.

'lhe purpose of counselling is te provide hclp to the client in order to deal with a specific concern. The
concerns can be relatcd to educational or vocational problems and choices, interpersonal rclationships and
loss or rcjection of loved one,s, suicidal thoughts and anxiery, marriage adjustment, mid-career change,
acceptance of death and dying. Accordingly, counselling can be cla-ssified into thc following types
e l-acilitative counselling
. Crisis counselling
. Prcventivecounselling
. Developmentalcounselling

Facilitative counselling is the process of helping the client to clarify a concern; then, through self-
understanding and acceptance, to devise a plan of action to work on the concem; and finally to act on it in a
self-rcsponsible manner. This type of counselling is oftel considered as helping a person to progress from a
dcficienl s6ge to a functional onc.

In schsrl and college settings, the problcms students see as appropriate for counsclling mainly dcal
with curent acadcmic pursuits and futurc carccr dircctions. The prcsenting problems clients bring to the
counscllor can takc the following forms:

. Improvc study habits and skills

. Receive better marks
. Acadcmic planning
. Acadcmic weaknesses
. Select a care€r
. Know about aptitudes and intcrests
'o Itnprove P€er relations
I'rcpare for an cxam
. Plan a course of study
In other settings such as marriage or inicrpersonal rclations, concems can include getting along
with spousc/othcr family members, colleagues at the workplace, or classmates.

Rcgardlcss oi the concem or the counselling approach adopted, competent counsellors can hclp
individuals to gain self-understanding and change their bchaviour through the gcneral framcwork of
facilitative counselling. Possiblc counsellor activities in this type of counselling include reflection of
cor.rent and lbelings of the clicnt, informing, intcrpreting, confronting and directing activities.
 Crisis counselling deals with helping the clients in situations where they {ind themselves utterly
incapacitated. Crisis is a-state of disorganization" in which the person faces frustration of important life
goals or profound disruption of his life cyclc and methods of coping with strcss- Crisis situations can be
rclated to
. suicide attempts
I unwanted pregnancy
. dcath of loved ones
. divorce
. hospitalization
. job relocation or loss ofjob
. retirement
r imprisonment
. infidcliry
. drug addiction
financial problcms
. natural disasters such as carthquakcs or floods. tsunami and so on

Rcgardless of the nature of crisis, the counsellor needs to accept the situation and maintain calm.
This typc of confidence can help to reduce thc anxiety on the part of the client, as th€ counsellor models
rcsponsibility for thc client at this time. By reassuring the client and expressing hope, the counsellor can
deal with the immediate situation and then in the future hclp the client in a developmental sense-

Developmental counselling is an ongoing process that occurs throughout an individual's entire life
span. This type of counselling is not problem-oricnted. Instead, it focuses on helping individuals to achieve
personal growth at any stagc in their lives. Conccrns that are ongoing include

. developing and maintaining a positive self-concept

. finding an appropriatc lifcstyle as it rclates to usc of working and leisure time
. learning and using decision-making skills
. clarifying one's currcnt values and intelests
. understanding and accepting changcs
. devcloping a understanding of thc lifc process from binh to death

'fhe goals of developmental counselling are the development of self-understanding, awareness of

one's potcntialities, and methods of utilizing one's capacity. A client can attain self-undcrstanding,
improvcd decision-making skills and positive behaviour change through dcyelopmental counselling.

Prcventive counsclling differs from the other thrce types of counselling. It is ba.sically
programmatic. Fror examrle, such counselling could involve a school or college sex €ducation programme
in order to provide information safe s€x and avoid illnesses such a.s HIV/AIDS. Drug awarcness, retircment
options and communication skills are other arcas that can be approached systcmatically by prcventive
counselling. In this type of counselling, the counscllor may present information to a group or rpfer
individuals to rclcvant programmes. Thc counsellor may also continue lcl work individually *ith clients -
oithcr in a group or on a onr-toonc basis.
 t-f Introduction to

1.4 Goals of counsclling

Dcfining goals of counselling is essenairl for not only does it provide direct,.r'r ln counsclling but is
also is used to measure counselling success. A ciearly stated goal communicates to the client that the
purposc of counselling is serious and is aimed to facilitatc behavioural changes in the client's life.

For the goals of counselling to be reachcd, both counsellor and client should acccpt rcsponsibility
for what occurs during counsclling. Somc clients or cven counsellors may assumc that since the counscllor
is the one who is trained and has expertise, it is the counsellor wlro should provide dircclion at all stagos.
Ilowcver, the proccss of counselling is a collaborative venture of both thc counsellor and the clicnt.
Thcrcfore ir is imF)rrant for the client loo to participate equally.'l'hc clicnt for example, should participatc
in cstablishing goals. The counsellor may clarify and even suggest possible goals and courses oI action, but
the clicnt and counsellor should make final decisions jointly. The most important rcason for this cqual
collaboration is bccausc of the belicf that thc individual is responsible for his or hcr own behaviour.
Behaviour change will not occur if thc clicnt does not ilssume rcsponsibility for his or hcr actions. Change
is further facilitatcd if the client is collaborating with somc one who can model rcsponsible decision-
making bchaviour.

Specific goals for counsclling are unique to each client and involvc the client's cxpcctancies. Irng-
range and process goals however are common to all counselling. Ultimately, the client needs to bring
about increased behaviou'r effectiveness and become more fully functioning. btng-range goa,f,r include

o Identification and rcmoval of individual slressors and persoflal levcls of functioning - there is a
focus on rcsolution of psychological symptoms, confused objcctives or specific problems
. Awareness and aoccptance of sclf in conflict * tbe client understands self and reorders thinking
.about self
. Strengthencd ego functioning - client behaviour becomes more congluent with ioner ego states
. Awareness of positive inner resources - the client develops grcater {eelings of adequacy,
mastery, competency, creativity, and responsibility t

o l-eaming to respond to and control the environment * the clicnt adapts to or changcs conflictual
situations in a self-satisfying manner
. Awarencss of negativc thoughts and feelings - the clicnt is better able to accept, integrate, and
changc distrcssing fcclings, througlr recducation and reordcred thinking about n€gativc
thoughts and fcclings
. Transfer of learning in counselling situation to outside situations - change is made in ths rcal
world of the clicnt. 'l'hc client acquires adaptabiliry and planning skills in problem areas.

Of these goals, awar€ness and acceptance of self in conflict, awarenc"ss of positivc inner rcsources,
and awarcness of negaiivc thoughts and feelings rclate to undentat d.ing Rcmoval of symPtoms,
'stiengthcned ego functioning, learning to respond to and control thc environment, and transfCi of leaming
tb outside situations rclatcd to mdsrery.

These goals of counselling can be achievcrl if the fotlowing proccssq\ take placc in thc coursc ol'
the iounselling sessions. 'fhese processe.s are

. Client acceptance
. Active critical qu€stioning
. Recognition and interpretation of urrconscious material
. Re-education atDut emotional conflicts
I'rocess goals are inmediate goals , thosc that take place in thc process of counselliirg. 'l'hcy includtr
I Clie sef-expkration is an immcdiatc process goal. Vcrbal exthange is basic to conrnrunication. For
much growth to occur in counsclling, thc clicnt must be willing to sclf-disclose a|rd cxplore bchaviour
aDd feclings- This is the first stagc of counsclling wherein the client needs to explore his or her
cxperienccs, bchaviour and fe€lings rclevant to lhe problem in his or her life, and to cxplore the ways in
rvhich he or she is living inetTectively. Simply to suggest self-cxploration as a goal in itself. however rs
not sufTicient. Il cannot be an cnd goal for counselling. Just talking about a problern docs not gcnerally
lead to morc cffective behaviour. An individual may fecl bettcr after talking, but the ncxt day anxietics
about thc same problem may have returned, Some pcople rnay have the need to constantly talk about
fhe same problem to anyonc whom they come into contact.'fhc sclf-exploration should thercforc {orm
thc basis for subsequent action leading to incrcased behaviour effecrivcness.
. A sccond process goal is sef-understanding or integrating in a meaningful pattern inforrnation about
sclf and recognizing the need for behaviour change. Again, self-[ndcrshnding is not thc final goal- A
person might understand quite well thc "why" of his or her behaviour and also recognizc thc self-
dcfcating nature of behaviour but yet do nothing to ctrangc. I.br example, therc arc peoplc rvho
constantly say "I eat too much, I nccd to excrcise" and yet thcy nevcr do. Understanding of a problcm
lhcrcfo[c docs not mean that it will be solved. Sclf-understanding hencc nse(ls to be dynamic, that is,
the clicnt nccds to devcldp self-undcrstanding that sees thc need for change, for action. Thc clicnt also
necds to lcarn from the counsellor to identify rcsources, cspccially unused rcsources.
. 'Ihc linaf proccss goal for the clicnt is behavior clrunge or living more eflectivcly as a rcsult of the
counsclling intervcntio . flere, behaviour change is defincd to includc problem rcsolution, incrcascd
pcrsonal cffectivcncss, improved decision-making skills, and attitudinal changcs. 'fhe goal is presiscly
learling thc skills nceded to livc more cffcctivcly and handle thc social-cmotional dimcnsions of life;
chauging self-dcstructive and other-dcstructivc pattcrns of living; and dcvcloping ncw resources.
Tlre proccss goals are essentially thc client's goals. Ilow docs thc counsellor help thc clisnt to
achiovc thcsc goals of self-exploration, sclf-undcrstanding. and bchavioural clrange? Tbc counsellor needs
to go through ccrtain stagcs in order to hclp the chcnt achicve these goals. Thcsc stagcs are
. Attending - this is the pre-helping prc-communication phase whcrcin thc counsclbr convcys to tlrc
client that hc or she is cntirely 'with the other' and that he or shc is willing to attcnd to thc othcr both
plry:'ically anrl psychologrcally
o Rcsponding - in this ilhasc the counscllor's goal is to respo[d to thc clic0t and what hc or she has to
sJy wirh rcspcct and empathy; to estatrlish npport, an cfl'cctivc collaborativc working rclationship !vith
thc clicnt; to lacilitate thc clicnt's sclf'-exploration
. lntegt'dtive u derstanding .. Hcrc thc counsellor bcgins to picco togcthcr thc dnta produccd by thc client
in thc sclf-exploralion phase.'Ihc counscllor sees and hclps thc clicnt to idcntify behavioural tbcmcs
and pancms and teaches thc clicnt the skilt of going about this integrativc process himscll' or hcrsclf.
o Facilitati,tg action - lt this phase the counscllor collaboratcs with the clicnt in rvorking out spscific
actior progranmcs; helps the client to act on his or her n€w undcrstanding of oncsclf; hclps to cxplorc
with the client a widc variety of means for cngaging in constructive bchavioural change; and giving
suppon and direction to action programmes-

What thcn are the effccts uf r.lefining thc gouls and initiaring thc counsclling proccss'l The cl'tects
can be statcd as follorvs: Thc client acccpts sclf and othcrs and bccomqs moLc open. grins a nrore positive
view of self; greater' opcnness allows for morc acccptanc€ of onc's own strcngths and weakncsses and
ffi
furcntials; decision making improvcs and as a rcsul!, goals, a^spirations and plans bocomE more realistic; as
ri r.r*ult ol more rcalistic plans, the likclihood of achicving goals increa.ses; and cventually this lsads ao
behaviour changc.

t.5 Qualities of 8n effectivc counscllor

Research conductcd by. scveral psychologists suggests that ccrtain personal charactcristics
<tistinguish professional counsclk)rs and othsrs. These personil characteristics lcad to cffcctive counsclling
regardless of the heoretical orientation and knowledgc of the counsellor. Such characteristics includc
beliefs about the self, thc client, and thc brsic purpose$ to be achieved through counsolling. Research
indicates that clTectivc counsellors arc:
. Skilful at rcaching out
. Able to inspire feelings of trust, crcdibility, and confidence in peoplo they help
. Willing to cornmunicatc caring and respect for the persons they arc trying to help
. Rcspccrful of themselvcs and do not usc thc people they are trying to help to sati$fy thcir own
needs
. Knowlcdgcable about somc arca thal will be of special value to the person being hetPed
. Able to undcrstand the behaviour of thc pcople they try to help without imposing value judgemcnts
. Able to rcason systematically
llavc a world vicw of human evenrs
. Able ro identify behaviour pattems that are self{efeating and hclp othcrs change thcir self-
defeating bchaviours to more personally rewarding behaviour Pattcnrs
. Skilful ar hclping others to k)ok at themselvcs and re$pond non-dcfensivcly to thc qucstion "!vho
am I?"

Good counscllors will he morc likcly to pcrccive thc clicnt

. From an intcrnal rathcr than an cxlcrnal frame of rcfercnce, Thc frame of refercncc can bc
dcscritred as internal rath€r than external. Good counsellors arc scnsitive to and concemsd with
how things look to others witb whom they interact. They arc conccrncd wirh Jrrceptions of othcrs
as will as with their overt bohaviour.

. In tcrms of panple rather than thlngs. Centrat to the thinking of effcctive counsellors ts a
concern with pcople and thcir reactions rarher than with things and events.

Good counsellors aro morc likely to pcrceivc themselvcs as

Identificd with pcoplc rather than apart fmm p$plc. Effectivc counsellors tcnd to scc
rhcmselves as part of humankind. They see themselvcs as idcntificxl with p€ople rather than as
withdrawn, rernoved, apart or alienated from othsrs.
. Enough rrthcr ihan inadcquote. Thsy are likely to pcrccivc themselves as fuiving.J bat is ncedcd
to dcal with thcir own problcms. They do not see ihemsclvcs lacking or unable to cope with
problcms.
. Worthy rathcr than unworthy. Effoctive counsellols sce themselves as baving dignity, irltegrity
and rcsl)ect.

(ioorl courrs, llors willpcrccive thcir purposcs as

. l'rcciug r.rthcr than controlling. Counscllors' purposes are essentially frceing and facilitating
rather than controlling, dorninating, cocrcing, or manipulating.
 ' Altruistic rather than narcissistic- Good counscllors tend ro bc nrotivarcd by feclings of tltruism
rather than narcissism. They rre concerned about otlters and not rneiely abour sell.

' Self-revcaling rathcr than sclf-concealing, Counsellors are self-revealing rather than self-
concealing, that is, they are willing to disclose themselves in appropriatc times. They see their
fcclings and shortcomings as imgrnant and significanr rathcr than hiding them or covering thcm
up. They are willing to be rhemselves.

' Pmcess-oricnted rather than goal-oricntcd. Counsellors see their role as one of encouraging and
facilitating the process of search and discovery as opposed to promoting or working toward a
personal goal or preconceived notion.

1.5.1 Counscllor expertise

I{aving the tiile 'counscllor' itself places onc in a position of being an expen and as such becomes
a variable that influences clients' perccptions- The greater the expenise attributcd to the counsellor by the
client, the more likely the counscllor's opinion will be sought by the client.
Thc evidence of the counsellor's expertise can be seen in

' Structuring the interview - this refers to the way in which the counsellor structures the roles and
requiremcnts of the client and counsellor in the interview. the sequence of the process, and events -
likely to occur as they work toward problem solution. Since the client must perceive that thc
counsellor knows what he or she is doing, explicit structuring may be more effective than implicit
structuring.
Counsellors' verbal and non verbal behaviour - structured questioning, use of interpretation,
responsive non verbal" behaviour such as attentive posture of leaning fbrward, eye contact,
adequate rate of speech and voice modulation tend to characterise thc counselklr as
knowledgeable.

1.5,2 Counscllor attractivencss -

Plrysical attractiveness appears to affect counselling relationships and consequently perceptions of
counsellor expertis€. Research has shorvn that attractiveness alone did not have a main effect on
imprcssions of counsellors. bttt attractiveness and sex of the counsellor interacted to produce higher
compctency ratings for female counsellors. l'he attractive counsellor was perceived more favourably by the
lemale observcrs particularly with regard to competence, professionalism, interest, and ability to help with
problcms of anxiety, shyness, career chorces. us compared to the unattractive counsc:ior. However it has
also bcen found that physical attractiveness may well have the greatest influcnce during the carly, geF
acquainted stage of counselling; after that, other variables assume proportionately greater roles in making a
counsellor attractive. Gcncrally, perceptions of counsellor chCiacteristics of expertness. trustworthiness,
and attractiveness are rclated to satistaction of clients

15,3 Counsellor gender

How docs counsellor gendcr af{cct clicnt perceptions? Does the counsellor's gender influcnce
counsellcir credibility in thc client's cyes? C)ne research study found that a female counsellor would be
mote crcdible than a malc counsellor on two issues - child rearing and sexual violcnce. Yet anoth€r study
on the cffects pf counsello4 gepder and scx role reported that male clients indicated greater satisfaction and .
higher counsellor regard with "feminine" counscllors than with "nrasculinc" counsellors, regardlos$ of
counsellor sex, and female clic'rts indicated greater satisfaction and higher counsellor regard with
"masculinc" counscllors than with "fcnrininc" counsellors, resardless of counsellor sex.
 However there are a nurnber of inconsistencies and contradictions found in such resarch. This
makes it difficult
to say anylhing conclusive on this issue. It may well be that counsellor gendcr interacts
with other counsellor characteristics to make it difficult to isolare the effects of ge4der alonel

1.6 Summary
Counselling is a professional service and process of helping individuals to understaii themscives.and ro
overcome various problems in living that they fhce.

counselling can be classified as facilirative, crisis, preventive and developmcntal counselling.

Goals of counselling can be undextanding goals such as awareness of. self and master! goals such
removal of symptoms, strengthened ego Tunctioning, and planning skills in problem areas. - '
as

The qualities of an effe'ctive counsellor include skill in reaching out, ability to inspire fcelings
of trust an4
confidencc and capacity for being non judgemental.

1.7 Technical Tenns

Crisis counselling It involves helping clients in situations where they find rhemselvss
utterly. incapacirared.

F aci I itat i ve counse ll in g The process of helping the client to ctarify hiVher concerns
through self-understanding and acceptance
J
P reventive cowtsell i n g Counsclling that involvcs a school or qollege for prograrn sucli
as sex cducation prograrnmc in order to provide information and
avoid illnesses such as HIV/AIDS

SelJ'-explaration The proc€ss of self-disclosure and exploration of bchaviour and

feelings by the client which are relevant to the problem in his or
her life

1.8 Modcl Questions

l. Discuss the meaning, purpose and goals of counselling.
2. What are the qualities of an effective counsellor?
1.9 Reference Books
Corey, G. (1977). Thzory atd Practice of Counseling'ind Psychothcrapy. Califomia: Wadworth publishrng
Company.

['ocke, D.C., Myers' J.E- & Herr, E. (2001). The Handbook of courreling. carifornia: sagc pubrications.
I
Hoffrnann' A.' sprete, H.I{. (1984). second Ed. counselring An Introduction. Bosro',l
lj"*?f"*'- {:{.a
Houghton Miffi n Company.

. .1.., .i
,irr ', ' i.l,

'":.t r i .,...i!
t,EssoN 2

PERSPECTIVES IN COUNSELI,ING

2.0 Objcctivcs

I . .'l'o know about the various theorctical perspectives in counselling

in psychoanalytic
2. To know about thc views on human naiure, and specific techniqucs
pc|spective
3. 'fo understand the mechanisms of leaming, and thc specific techniques in behaviouristic
perspective.
lbr counsclling in the
4. To understand the vicws on human nature and ncoessary conditions
humanistic PersPectivc
the specific
5. 'l'o know about the essential principles of the cognilive perspective and
counselling teohniques crnployed by this perspcctive'

Structu rc
2.l. Introduclion
2.2. Psychoanalytic Pcrspective
2'3' llcheviouristic Pcrspcctive
2.4. tlumanislic Perspectivc
2.5' Cognitive Pcrspcctivc
2.6. Conclusion
2.7 Summary
2.8 'l'cchnical Terms
2.9 Modcl Qucstions.
2,10 Rcfcrccne Books

2.1. Introduction
in a major thcoretical vicwpoint or
Counselling includcs a varicty of p€rspectives' each rooted
bctween thcsc perspectives. All the
school in psychology. rn"r" * tot'r, similaritics and
diffcrenocs
l't a rctationship^betwecn a profcssionally trained and competenl
;;;;;;';r* i'r'tu,
"oun,"rii'a also accept that counsclling'is an appropriate
counsellor and a person a""*tng piv"itorogi"'t n"tp-"rn"y tost cnmtou bcing dcprcssion'
rx conccrns' th"
form of hclp for a variety of p'ycttotngl"; problerns behaviours' and lifc crises
selt'-defeating
anxicty, rclationship difficufries, ioss of"ln""tl on""'
addictions'
and naurnas. These perspeotives howevcr, differ
on
thc model 0r view of human nature
b. the goals ol'counselling
thc client-counscllor relationship
d. ii".n""iii" t""ttniqucs and protrdurcs employed in counselling
.l.herc arc four major theorctical perspcctivcr or- approaches in counselling.
'l'he
psych'analytic
on hurn* behaviour. and the rolc ol irrsighr'
pcrspcrtivc cmphasi*cs tte impa"r liulr*llaiou. *otiuatibn
personality. in counselling' 'fhe behlviou.istic
inro uncoqscious motrvcs ano t""'.*""*ur",A of of rnaladaptive bcltaviour
;;p;;;;ti;""{ tt U.i,"uioui i--.ft"p.;a-";V fie.ing and that elimination
"t
I C.ntr. fo, Distance Education

. and learnilg of new adaptive behaviour is the main goal of counselling. The humanistic perspective
ofthe
places emphasis on individual responsibility, choice, achievement of potential, and freedom to grow
- client. Ihe cognitive perspective stresses the role of thinking and belief systems as the root of
ps1 chological problems.
[,et us now examine each ofthese perspectives in detail.

2.2. Psychoanalytic
' pcrsp€ctive
psychoanalyiis is historically the first of the four major schools of psychology, the second being
behaviouriirn. the third being humanistic, and the fourth school or force being the cognitive. This
pcrspective is largely associaled with the name of Sigmund Freud, the l9'" century neurologist. who was
ihe ibun4er of this school. Subsequently, this perspective was developed, expanded and modified by his
disciples. 'l he term s psychodynamic, anub'tic, dynamic, or depth psychologt are often used interchangeably
to rei'cr to psychoanalysis. All these terms refer to the power ofthe unconscious mind with its complexities
and contliots.

'fhe ma-ror historical contributioDs ofthe psychoanalylic theory and practice include the following:
l. Llurnan beings are viewed as energy syslems. 'fhe dynamics of personality consist of the ways in
which mental cnergy is distributed to the three parts of the mind - the id, ego' and super ego. The
id is the source of all our drives and is present from birth. lt belongs to the unconscious and is ruled
by the pleasure princrple - the tendency to seek immediate satisfaction of needs regardless of logic,
rnoraliiy or reality.'I'he ego is the executive ofpersonality and govems controls and regulates the id
and super ego. It belongs to the conscious and is ruled by the reality principle - the tendency to
think and plan accor<iing to realistic, moral and logical considerations. The super ego is the moral
branch-r{personatity. It is a person's moral code, the main concem being whether action is good or
bad, righior wrong. It reprcsents the ideal, rather than the real, and unlike the id, strives for
perfection arrd not for pleasure. It represents the traditional values and ideals of society as they are
hantled down from parents to children. It represents standards for the individual to striYe for. The
supercgo then is the internalisalion ofthe standards of parents and later ofsociety and is related to
psychological rewards and punishments. The rewards are feelings of pride and sell:love; the
punishrncnts ar.e fcelings ofguilt and inf'eriority. Both the ego and superego evolve out of tlre id as
thc rhild dcr elops.

2. t;reud cmphasizcd the role of instincts. All instincts according to him are innate and biological. His
vicw was that hunran beings have both life (eras) and death (thanatos) instincts. l-le saw human
bcings being basically determined by the desire to gain pleasure and avoid pain.
J. tlurnan bchaViour 1s often influenced by unconscious motives. H€ said that there are levels of
corrsciousrqss thal are the keys to undersland behaviour. The conscious is only a thin slice of thc
total rnincl and is all that we are aware of in ourselves and our environment. The unconscious which
is <lut of awareness storcs up our experiences, memories and repressed material. Even though it is
gLrt of arryarencss. the significanl aspect about the unconscious, according to Freud, is that it
inlluenccs behaviour, ll we are not aware ofour unconscious, how is it then do we know that it
cxisls? According to Freud, it is through dreams, slips of tongue, forgetting, for example. ol a
familiar name. nratcrial derived from free association, and projective techniques that evidence of
thc uttconscious is available.
An individr.ral's mental life can be understood lhrough the discovery of the unconscious material,
and the insights obtained can bc applied to redrce human suffering
./. Psychological conllicts or neurosis primarily arise as a result of inner conflict between the three
divisioni of the Inind, namely, the id, ego, and the superego. 'l'he id seeks to obtain immediatc
2
 satisfaction of its impulses. and the ego, following the super ego's commands, tries to block, or
delay these inrpulses from reaching consciousness. The ego constan;ry spends its energy to keep
the impulses from gaining access to consciousness. still the super ega is not satisfied ind causei
the ego to feel guilt. Further, this continuous release of energy makes the ego relatively deficient
and the-neurotic conflict overwhelms the ego, and breaks into consciousness and behaviour.
Neurosis is thus the breakdown in the functioning ofego in the face ofthe relentless id. A visible :
sign of neurosis is anxiety that reflects the faulty opemtion of control mechanisms of the eco and i
the moral standards ofthe super ego.
5. People attempt to cope with anxiety arising out of this cdnflict by making use of defence
mechanisms such as rationalization, projection, denial, reaction formation, regression and so on.

6. The central goal of counselling according to this perspective is to make the unconscious accessible
lo consciousness The counsellor's lask is to bring to consciousness the unconsciotts impulses
causing neuiotic conflicts so that they can be dealt rationally. By doing so. it is expected that the
person will gain greater self-knowledge and thereby self-control.

7. Exploring the unconscious is possible through techniques such as tiee association, analysis of
dreams, resistances to counselling, and transference reactions. Free qssociotittn is the tecirnioue
wherein the client is instrueted to say whatever comes to his mind spontaneously regarclless of how
painful, silly, illogical or trivial it may be. The purpose is to make the client speak freely without
censoring or editing his or her thoughts and feelings. 'fhe counsellor then interprets key mean,ngs
of the free association material. lt is expecled that such interpretation will help the client gain moie
objective self-knowledge and self-evaluation. Interprerarion consists ofthe counsellor polntinq out
and explaining the hidden or real meaning of behaviour that is manifested by irearns, free
association or resistances. lnterprelation will lead to insight about the client's behaviour.
Resistances refer to all fbrces within the client that resist the counselling or that fight againsl
making conscious the unconscious rraterial. This is used to avoid painfuL effects such as guilt,
shame and anxiety. Coming late or not turning up at all for the appointment, lon€ pauses or sile-nces
and unlvillingness to sp:ak. repeating the same thing over and over again are some examples of
resistance whereby the client blocks the progress of the counselling. Trunsference rcactions
include the client's feelings and attitudes toward a person in the prelent that are inappropriatc to
that person and that originate from attitudes towarG significant people of early childhood. These
feelings and attitudes are now directed at the counsellor. They are not generated in the present, bu1
are brought forward from the client's past. 'fransference reaclions can.be positive, such as
excessive admiration for the counsellor or negative such as contempt for what the counsellor is
saying and outright hatred for the counsellor. The client must be made to understand that these
reactions are a carry over from the past wherein the client had similar attitudes towards sisnificant
others. An llsis of dreams is another technique employed by this perspective by which the
manifest cortent (the actual story reported by the client) is interpreted for its lateflt content (the real
meaning ofthe dream). This analysis allows the counsellor to make it clear to the client the actual
motives. needs that are significant to the client and have an influence on his or her behaviour..

2,3. Behaviourist perspective

' The basic proposition of this perspective is th'at human beings are shaped and determined by their
socio-cultural environmont, .Allhuman behaviour is learned. Similarly maladaptive behaviour too is
.leamed. The.focus of this. perspective is on how people learn and what conditions determine their
behaviour. John Watson. rhe founder of the behaviourist approach was a radical behaviourist who asserted
thal he pould take any healthy infant and make the infant into anyhing he desired a doctor, lawyer, anrsr,
-
beggar, or a thief - through environmental shaping.
 Centre for Distance Education 2.4 Acharva Naeariuna IJn iversi

According to this perspective there are ,hree major mechanisms through which leaming takes place
classical conditioning, operant conditioning and imitative learning

Classical conditioning takes place when a previously neutral stimulus is paired with an
unconditioned stimulus and elicits a conditioned response. Phobias are examples of maladaptive learning
by classical conditioning.

Operant conditioning takes place when behaviour (stimulus) occurs spontaneously or at random
and some event that ftillows the behaviour is experienced as giving pleasure (reinforcement). This
reinforcement increases the chance that the stimulus will reoccur in the future. The conditioned behaviour
operates on the environment and is insirumental in gaining a reward. For example, a child who does his
homework without being pushed by his parents (stimulus) is praised and appreciated by his parents
(reinforcement). This verbal praise increases the chances ofthe child repeating this bchaviour regularly.

lmitaiivc learning takes place when a person 'copies' another's behaviour (model). Learning is
strengthened if the individual obtains a reward for the behaviour. Models can be both desirable and
undesirable. Committed teachers, celebrities such as sportspersons, artists and so on can be positive role
models when the individual copies their behaviour and is rewarded for the perfonnance. On the other hand,
anti-social characters such as mafia dons can be undesirable role models. Here too the individual who
imitates their behaviour is likely to reDeat the behaviour if he or she oerceives that such behaviour is
rewarding.

'fhe rnajor factors in learning behaviour are reinforcement, generalization and shaping.
Reinforcemenl is the event that follows behaviour and increases its probability of reoccurrence. Poslriye
reinforcement is presentation of a pleasurable event following some behaviour. lt increases the likelihood
of the behaviciur being repeated. Negalive reinforceme,?t is operation of removing aversive stimulus
contingent upon a response. Punishmenl is application of aversive response after display of disapproved
behaviour. Schedules ofreinforcement axe frequency and timing ofapplication ofproviding reinforcement.

Generulizution is the principle that permits us to transfer learning tionr one situation to another
when there is some sitnilarity in the situations. Shoping is learning of complex behaviours that starts with
learning simple behaviours and then using laws of generalization, discriminaiion, reinfbrcement to learn
more complex behaviours successfully.

The lype of counselling based on these principles of learning is known as behuviuur therapy or
behuviour mtdiJicalion. The term behaviour therapy was introduced by Skinner and Lindsey (1954).

The basic goal of this counselling is to eliminate the client's identified maladaptive behaviour and
to introduce and strengthen adaptivc behaviour as replacement.

. 'l he ma1 or techniq ues of behav io ur therapy are the tbllowing

L S.ysten.tttc desensitisqtion'. 'I'his is used when anxiety is the producl of either thoughts about or
exposure to a specific event. lt ii a step-by-step method used to replace anxiety associated with the
event or thoughts about the event by the incompatible state of relaxation. 1hc client thus "unlearns" Io
associate the event with anxiety and "leams" to associate relaxation with it. According to Joseph
Wolpe, the proponent ofthis technique, countet-conditioning or reciprocal inhib#iaz ii the principle
by which the client learns to reduce anxiety and increase relaxation since.both cannot coexist at the
same time. Wolpe suggests three steps: a) training in deep muscle relaxation; b) construotion oianxiety
 2.5 ives in Counsel

hierarchies - identiQing situations which are anxiety-provoking to the client and then placing them in'
an hierarchical order beginning with the lest anx iety-eliciting tb the most anxiety-eliciting; and c)
counter-posing relaxation and anxiety-evoking stimuli from the hierarchies.

2. Assertiveness training: Assertiveness is the appropriate expression ofa person s teelings other
than anxiety, It is learning to express one's feelings in an appropriate, honest manner without
hurting or manipulating others. Assertiveness training is required for those who in
interpersonal contexts have maladaptive anxiety responses that prevent thern from doing or
saying what is reasonable and right. This training uses the shaping strategy by srarring with
easy situations and progressing to'more difficult ones.

2.4. Humanistic perspective

The humanistic view of human nature is that people are basically good, cooperative, forward-
moving and have the inherent capacity to solve their problems. This positive vievv of human nature is in
contrast to the dark and pessimistic view that psychoanalysis proposed. lt also has significant implications
for the practice of client-centred therapy -- the counselling model that is based on humanistic principles.
Because of the philosophical view that the individual has inherent capacity to move away from
maladjustment toward a state of psychological health, the therapist places primary responsibility for the
process of counselling on the client. The client-centred model of counselling does not agree with the
concept ofthe counsellor as the authority who knows best and that ofthe passive client who merely follows
the advice of the counsellor. For this reason, it is also called non-directive therapy. Counselling is thus
rooted in the client's capacity for awareness and the ability to make decisions. This model ofcounselling is
associate with the name ofCarl Rogers.

The views of Rogers on human nature can be summed up as follows.

l. -
Choice and freedom Human beings have the capacity for self-determination and to shape their
lives the way they want.

2. Human potential for growth - The emphasis is on health, not trealment of illness or symptom
relief. Therapy is not for the severely disturbed only but for those who wish to grow and clrange.

3. Phenomenological emphasis -'fhis means that the subjective experience ofthe clients needs to be
understood. The meaning of events according to the client, rather than the events themselves needs
to be understood by the counsellor. The validity of the person's experiences is to be respected
without passing judgement on them.
The major contributions ofclient-centred counselling based on the humanistic perspective are
a. emphasis on providing facilitative conditions that allow the client freedom and safety
necessary for growth and
b. identilication of the necessary characteristics of the counsellor during the counselling
process.

The basic goal is for the client to become more fully tunctioning. ln order for the client to become
so, the counsellor needs to.create the proper climate, relationship and conditions for enhancing the process
of psychological growth; When the counsellor is able to cieate such a psychologically sat-e and non-
threatening atmosphere. it is expected that the clients will become:
. More realistic in their self-perceptions
. Morc corfident and self-directine
' . Mor" pnrltively valued by themselves
to recover from it
il . t-".. up."t by stress and quicker'g;wth in ttte client are the counsellor's characteristics
that are
i the conditions n""""uti'iot
process Theyare:
iiconney"d in the.counselling
| . Unconditional Positive regaro
. Genuineness
o EmPathicunderstanding
attitude tiii'iXt".:ff,1";trilif":ii:X:
Ilnconttitionat positive resant.is an "t'n:-::^T:".llT
.*ng r-1n" ctient,wittrout beins litilL,X,ll;Ji"rilili?ll,".LiJT;;ru *?u md tt"
"
Ilii";[:lniifil:i'l] ll,il::t""'T;\ffie';*!1'1i""':* j:**:""':*'lf;:i|;illii"-
".n"nruotty
the
to be communicated to the client that
T.his attitude of ui.".ini"Jp"riti"e
regard has
is well founded. and
ofthe client's individuality
counsellor values the client lbr *ftuif'"
o' tn"i' Ther€ is thus acceptanc€
those feelings
r"""g"iii"" ti,tt" right to
"lient's
have
and
of counsellors to be aware of their own experiences
Genuineness or congruence is the ability to be
;;;;;;"ii"*;rocess tn'other,words' the counsellor is expected'
to allow them to be apparent in "rit and say what he
ttypi"'itv t""n::lto.,t-,tl:^uto *"un what he says
trariipareot to the client without anl Through genuineness' tne
should.go tosether'
means. Both verbal and non-u"ibui "o"unication hii or h-er owrr feelings and 311i1uds5 with
counsellor can facilitate n"""tt *i'rn*i"uti*
by matching
ifr*".*p."*"0 in the counselling relationship'

or cri:"'.::lll:l-:1";'iXv,;*i"::Jlfflff.Ti""'tefg,ill
Empothic undercturutins is the essence
'worlds. seeing it throush their eves Empathv involv€s r1:^:::T::;il
oi p"ounut identification with l;:':"i,.:;;il*i-i
the clientsi "i:';i;;' the client without losing
as if they were his own. I h"* "-;;nr"
facilitator. of personal growth bl helerll.tlt:,client
his,fter seParateness.
t.he counsellor thus functions mainly as a places great-emPhasis
discover his or h., *on tapuc it'ei
i"t' t.,f"f"g pt"Uftms' The client-centred afproach The relationship
direction'
on the client's r:apacity to ft"O tt't
*^y l"'"i'in"fiing una find his or her won relationship as a
the uniqud
between the client ana tne counseiloi
i" tt" *tuty't fJr change; the client uses in
resources that he or she can use constructively
nreans of increasing awareness unJ-air"ou"ring'tutent
changing his or her life'
change ano
relationship itself is the prime cause of client
More specit'ically, the counsellor-client
srowth. 'l'his reiationship can bring about
t. decrease in client defensiveness
2. self-exploration in a safe aimosphere
'' 3. greateivaluing of themselves and increased self-acceptance
4. sreater flexibility in their pgrceptlons'
12'5' cognitiveoPersPec?1i,0"",,u" or the .rourth ,to':: i", nt^:I]:7l"Yi,:t'::l:1"i":T. counselling
.ogniiru" u"ttuniourat itreranr iigrt in l9*."t J 9"lt;
3:"#n ""0
,l development of.cognitivc
th".;;; ; Msichenbaurr and
. based on the cognitive
pt"p"it'iu" is issociated with the nam;; of. Aaron Beck'
MahoneY.
to
Stoic philosophy 14"' century B 9.1 lttltt'n*
This perspecrive has rrs roots in ancient Greek object itself'
o6lect distresses you' it is not the
Marcus Aurelius, one oftne Stolciiiitiii'l
tf rom"
"*t"mal
but yourjudgement of it which causes pain. It is up to you to change yourjudgement. lf it is your behaviour
which lroubles you, who stops you from changing it?"
This statement highlights three principles that are central to the cognitive perspective. They arc
.
I Our interpretation or perception of events affects our emotions and behavioui.
2. 'l'he onus is on the individual to change this perception
3. We have the ability to chalrge our Derception.
'rhe core assumptions ofthis perspective
as developed by Beck and others are the followrng;

l. Cognitiv€ activity (thoughts, beliefs, feelings) affects b€haviour. That is the way we think about
self, others and the world and the meaning that we draw from these thoushts influences our
behaviour. Thus thoughts, feelings and behaviour are causally interactive. E.g.. if t fait in a.1ou
interview and I think that I am therefore useless and worthless (perceplion ofthe event) then it may
lead to f'eelings of sadness and helplessness (depression) and nrake me rvithdraw tiorn trying agarn
(impact on behaviour). According to beck, the root of depression is the negalive cogniiive sJ or
schemata. Depressive events may be externally precipitated (c.g.,) fairure in ixamination,
inlerview, loss ofa loved relationship and so on) but it is the individuil's perception and evaluation
of the event thal is depression-inducing. Depressed people show a cognitive triad they have
-
repetitive, automqtic and not easily controllable negatiye thoughts about self, world and the future.
'l'hese thoughts are associated with unpleasant emotions of worthlessness,
hopelessness and
helplessness. and with cogr,iiiie dyslunctioning (poor memory. inability ro regisrer;.'Ihus ncgarive
thoughls af,e often distoned - they are not based on facts. For example. iione failure ar-a job
intervie\,v -makes the person feel he or she is totally worthless and is incapable ofbeing successi'ul,
it is obviously no1 a fact. Such thoughts are unhelpful as they are not uscful to the individual anq
slow down or prevent action. But they appear as plausible, that is. the person accepts them as lacts
withoul questioning. These thoughts are also habitual, they are based on past experiences.

2. Depr€ssed people show cognitivc errors, that is , their information proccssing itsclf s
defectiye. Some ofthese errors are
o. Selective abstraction , alj;ending only to negative aspects of experience.
b. Arbitrury infererce - jumping to conclusions on the basis of inadequate evidence
c. Overgeneralizqtion, naking sweeping judgements on the basis ofa single instance.

3. Cognitivc activity can be monitored and changed. Ifcognitive processes influence behaviour
then these procssses can be changed through cognitions again. Cenain cognitivc tcchniques can be
used to change the way people think and evaluate the meaning o1'events. cognilive changc can
eventually bring about behaviour change. Cognitive counselling interventions can be catcgor-ed as
cognitive restructuring, role-playing, imaging, uncovering, behavioural, motiyalional, int1;rpcrsonal
techniques. An example from each technique used in CBTis presenled below.
a. Cognitive restrucluring ldentification tj cognitivt,Llistortion\ orerror,\.llerc Lhe clie.nt is
given the checklist ofcognitive errors to identify the distorlions in each negative thought.

b. Imuging-{ognitive flooding. The client is instructed to visualize his or hcr worst fcar^
such as being rejected. He or she is encouraged to endure the anxiL'ty for as long as
possible. For example, il'the clienl becomes panicky the counscllor can say, "l)on't llght
it! Try to make it even worse!" Eventually, the anxiety usually diminishes and will
disappear tolally.
c. Uncovering lechniques -lhe what-if techniqne. The counsellor asks "What is th() worst thar
could happen? What do you fear most?" 'l'hen the counsellor asks ,.How likely is it,l (buld
you live with this ifit did happen?'
i

d. Behavioural technique-Daily activity schedule. Depressed and lethargic clidnts are made
to rate what they did each hour and rate each activity with an M for mastery or a P for
pleasure on a scale from 0 indicating no fbelings of mastery or pleasure to 5 indicating
traximum feelings of mastery or pleasure
e. Motivatiorutl technique - the cost-benelit analysis. The client is asked to list the
advantages and disadvantages of a negative feeling such as anger or anxiety, a negalive
thought ("1 am inferior"), a self-defeating belief (such as "l must be perfect") or a self-
defeating behaviour (such as overeating or procrastinating or delaying work).
f. Interpersonal technique - problem-solving training. Troubled couples with marital
difficulties rnay be helped to learn systematic techniques for solving problems in their
relationship. 'l'he specific steps include: l) problem definition 2) Iisten 3) brainstorm for
solutions 4) list the options 5) weigh the options 6) select a solution 7) implement the
solution and 8) evaluate the results.

2.6. Conclusion
In conclusion, we can say each of the different theoretical perspectives have led to their respective
counselling techniques and models. They differ on the philosophies of human nature, what causes
maladaptive behaviour, and the techniques or strategies that are employed by the counsellor to deal with the
problem. 1'he cognitive perspective is based on interactionism unlike the other perspective such as
psychoanalysis and behavior.rrism. That is, the cognitive perspective believes that the cognitions of the
individual interact with the environment and produces behaviour. What needs to be changed therefore is the
way people perceive and think about the self, others, and the future. Psychoanalysis, on the other hand
emphasises interndism that is the internal motives, needs and drives lead to behaviour. Though these
internal motives a4d needs may be unconscious, and not accessible to the individual's consciousness, the
counsellor can help in making the individual gain greater self-knowledge and ttqreby achieve greater self-
control. Behaviourism stresses the en vironmentalism or the primacy ofthe environment in determining and
shaping behaviour. Just as all behaviour is leamed, so is maladaptive behaviour. Through cenain
counselling techniques, the client can be taught to unlearn the undesirable behaviour pattems and replace
them with morc positive and desirable behaviour.

2.7. Summary
There arc different theoretical perspectives on which counselling modeJs or techniques are based. They are
the psychoanalytic, behaviouristic, hurnanistic, and the cognitive perspectives. These perspectives differ on
their views on human nature, what causes maladaptive behaviour, and how such behaviour should be
handled.

Psychoanalysis ernphasises the influence of unconscious motives on human behaviour and the inner
conflict between impulses, reality. and morality (id. ego. and superego respectively) as leading to neurosis.
Making the unconscious conscious is the central goal of counselling and leads to greater self-knowledge
rrrd sclf-control.

Behaviourist perspective considers the environment as the primary influence on behaviour and how people
leam from the environmcnt. The client can be instructed through leaming techniques to replace undesirable
behaviour patterns with desirable behaviour.

The humanistic perspective considers human potential for goodness and growth as rnore imponant than
seeking causes of rnaladaptive behaviour. It is through counsgllor attitudes such as unconditional positive
regard, genuineness, and empathic understanding that change and growth can be brought about.
The cognitive perspective emphasises the influence of cognitive processes (beliefs, thoughts and images)
on human behaviour. cognitive techniques are used to change the way people perceive the meaning oi
evenls.

2.8; Tcchnical tcrms

Trqnsference reactions Attitudes and behaviours of the client displayed in the counselling
process that are actually similar attitudes towards significant
others in the client's past

Uncontlitional positive regard Deep and genuine caring for the client without being judgemental

Cogniti,e errors Distortions in thinking or faulty information processing that lead

to undesirable emotions such as depression

2.9. Modcl questions

l.
What are the significant contributions of the psychoanalytic perspective?
2.
Discuss the essential conditions for counselling as proposed bi the humanistic perspective.
3.
I{ow can cognitions be altered? Discuss from the cognitive perspective.
4.
Describe the major mechanisms of leaming according ro the behaviourist peNpective.

2.10. Rcfercncc hooks

Corey, G. (1977). Theory and Prqctice ofCounseling ond Psychotherapy. Califomia: Wadworth Publishing
Company.

tncke, D c., Myers, J.E. & tlen, E. (2001). The Handbook ofcounseling. california: sage publications.

Pictrofesa. J.J.. Hoffmann, A.. splete. H.H. (19s4). Second Ed. counselling An lntoduction. Bostoni
Houglrton Miffi n Company.
 3.1 ' Factors to the. ..

THE EMERGENCE
OF COUN
3.0. Objectives .

l. What is counselling?
2. What the factors for the emergence of.Counselling.
3. Developments in science and technology.
4. Increased communication.
5. Econornic interdependence.

Structure:

3.1. Factors contributing for the emergence of counselling

3,2. Moral and Philosophical issues
3.3. Summary
3.4. Technical terms
3.5. Model questions
3,6. References

3.1. Factors contributing for the emergence of counselling:

Technological changes have made a major impact upon people's lives and work. Industrialisation
has resulted in social and vocational mobility. One of the important ways in which man tried to cope with
the rapidly changing world around him was to start the guidance movement. The guidance movement later
led to the growth of Counselling psychology. lt was based on man's concern for his fellow men and thek
well-being, particularly the younger members In one form or another, counselling must have existed since
the very beginning of human civilisation. Only the recent past that counselling emerged as a branch of
psychology .In several aspects it's a unique field..

Modem counselling is a product of the educational system-more especially of the American

system. It has deep roots for the individuals freedom, rights, dignity and worth as a human being. The
development can be aPPreciated by analysing the various issues that affected and influenced its
development. Human nature from Biblical teaching that man is born in sin and he is evil by nature Society
" ; therefore had to check it by means of constant vigil, vigorous disciplinary measurcs and detertent actron
', ..According to this view vibatever the individual desired or longed for was evil. As opposed to this view,
I the Reformation and Renaissance movements propagated the view that human nature-ii essentially sood.
, I. This. vielv draws its inspiration from the conception of God. If God exists, he cannot Uut Ue gooi. No
religion has portrayed God as evil. He held that man is essentially good, and that it is his environirent that
i corrupts him .The view that mans essential nature is neither good nor evil, but that it is neutral, is held by
many thinkers. Modern scientific attitude favours that man is neither good nor bad in nature, but has
pot€ntialities to develoP in either direction. If man is suitably helped he could become a creative and
constructive individual or if misdirected, he could become dangerous tesociety.
 for Distance Education 3.2 Nagariuna Uni

The second dimension of human nature concerns its 'active-passive' nature .Man acts only when he
is compelled to by the environment because he is characterised by inertia and acts only on stimulation.Tbe
Iatter view holds that man acts only when he is compelled to by the environment because he is
characterised by inertia and acts only on stimulation. Several thinkers believe that man's belief in freedom
of action is illusory and unreal. They argue that man's actions are actually determined by forces beyond his
control, Indian thought, which has beeu fatalistic has from ancient days explained human actions in terms
of the doctrine of Karma. Man is only a pawn in the hands of fate. Positive cause-effect where all natural
activity including human behaviour is lawful .In contrast to this type of fatalistic determinism, modern
sciences made cause effect determinism its corner stone.Nothing is without cause, no human behaviour , is
lawful. Closely related to the above view is the assumption of the rationality of mans behaviour. This
cannot be sustained without the acceptance of freedom or freewill in his actions. Man has not been
unbiased and unprejudiced in his beliefs, attitudes, and actions. Iffefutable evidence shows that social,
cultural, emotional, and motivational conditions can distort mans thinking and led him to act irrationally.

According to B.F. Skinner, the hypothesis that at man is not free is essential for the application of
scientific method of the study of human behaviour. The view thai if man's behaviour is determined by
external factors, if accepted frees him from the responsibility of the consequences of his action like any
other lower organism, which is compelled to act in a way by external conditions .Closely related is the
conflicting views conceming human nature suggest that man is capable of both good and evil, rationality,
and irrationality and exhibits active and interactive behaviour within limits. .If man's natural tendencies are
friendly, cooperative and constructive, then society has to promote them by encouraging spontaneity,
naturalness and self-direction. Strategies of restriction and control are to be substituted by the
encouragement and fulfilment of inner potentialities .Belief is growth potential of the individual is stressed
upon by modcm educational philosophies .The psychologist believes in the dignity and worth of the
individual human being.

3.2. Moral and Philosophical issues,

In a highly traditional society children are expected to follow life traditi<.rnally pursued by their
forefathers. The individual has no freedom to choose his vocation , his place of residence, his partner, an
so on . With the development of society, that is, with enlightenment, scientific innovation, industrialization,
and urbanisation, some if not most of the traditional conventions and values have become challenged. The
growth of liberalism since the renaissance movement has blossomed into that has come into the 20'" century
as the movement of democratic values. These values are based on individual freedom ..The Renaissance
and the Reformation has blossomed into what has come. to be identified as a movement for delnocratic
values. Industrialisation and automation have lpad to the increased productivity. Young men and women
get confused to enter the job market, they cannot make appropriated choices under assistance. In the
educational field many educational innovations have been adopted. A siudenr needs guidance in the choice
oia useful cuniculum.to suit his capacities and aspirations.

The mental hygiene movement had a favourable effect on guidance. The work of a number of
similar clinics led to the recognirion of the importance of emotional needs .The greater demand for
professional and technical skills by the comrnunity has led to difforent curricular programmes and a variety
of courses are being offered .The mental hygiene movement by Clifford Beers, 1909 , had a favourable
effect on guidance. The work in a number of clinics led to the recognition of the importance of emotional
needs in the process of growth as well as learning adjustment.
F5unselling 3.3 Factors Contributing to the'.'.|

The course of development of counselling psychology was deeply influenced by th€ trends. Thus
the counselling movement started with the efforts of a few dedicated individuals, each of whom was
touched by the spectacle of human suffering and misery arising from wrong or inapprooriate choices made
by individuals and the need to mitigate their suffering by providing suitable help.

The historical movement can be classified into thre€ periods, 1850-1900 During the latter part of
the nineteenth'century far reaching innovations were made in the field of psychology. This period saw the
founding of the first laboratory at l€ipzig b y Wilhelm Wundt. Lightner Witmer heralded the beginning
of the counselling movement by founding the first psychological clinic in 1909. William Harper stressed
the importance of guidance in his annual address. Jesse B. Davis who first used the term 'counselling' He
set up the €ducational career counselling centre in Detroit in 1898.The guidance movement stressed the
importance of guidance in the annual address in 1899. 1900-1930 garv the popularisation of the guidance
movement. Eli Weaver publistred "choosing a career' in l906.In the early years guidance consisted of
giving the concern for the youth, and necessary occupational infolmation to the young what would be
appropriate tc them with the outbreak of world war I and the entry of u.S.A. psychology in general, and
guidance in particular received tremendous impetus As part of the war, Robert Yerkes had helped develop
Atpna and Beta test and for screening the defence personnel. In catering to the guidance needs, glidance
workers looked around for suitable tools and the psychometric movement with its fascinating and
interesting tests of mental functions and abilities attitudes, interests began to attract attention. The guidance
movement thus developed a vocational bias. Paterson of Minnesota remarked that Parsons launched his
vocational bureau he found there were no psychological tests available, thus he had to be content with
occupational information, . The guidance movement tended to become more psychologically oriented
unlike the earlier period in which it was concerned with career information. The Dictionary of Occupational
titles (DOT) listed l8,000jobs. Their work was concerned with objective assessment of the individuals
abilities, to help provide him with adeqr:ete self-knowledge to be able to make meaningful choices'

The major second breakthrough in counselling was finally established as a science in its own right
through carl Rogers 'book counselling and Psychotherapy" The first Journal of counselling psychology
was published in 1954. This conclusively established counselling psychology as a specialised field of
psychology. In 19,14, by an act of congress, the'Army Separation and Classification and Counselling
plogram" was initiated and the United States employment Services(USES) published the General Aptitude
Test BatterygGATB) in 1945)The first joumal of counselling psychology was published in 1954. This
conclusively established counselling psychology as a specialized field of psychology. Psychoanalysis, as a
theory of human personality, was like a Copernican revolution in psychology and was perhaps the first
systematic attempt to explain human behaviour-normal and abnormal. Theory building in counselling
b€gan with the adoption of the psychoanalytic aPproach to counselling needs. .

It followsthat tbe counsellor has a deep sense of respect for the individual and his values. Thus
during the last four decades counselling has developed into an important concem of psychologists and has
become a vital part of our educational system.
 3.3. Summary:

Throughout history men have been providing succour to their fellow men, healing ailments and
_. ,_.
dispelling_ anxieries:nd-fears .The eadiest known healers were the shaman or the religion iren and witch
doctors of primitivb societies. Gradually the growth of medicine beginning with the ;ork of Hiptrncrates,
the medical profession began as a helping profession. In the lattei pafi;f the nineteenth .or"
""ntiry
interest was directed to psychological ailments and the explanation soright for their causation was so'ught in
psychological rather than organic factors. The work of Freud gave the psycho therapeutic ro""ri"nr
u
. great impetus. The world wars brought in their wake several problems oi ad.lustmeniof the war veterans.
carl Rogers published his epoch making book, 'counselling ind psychotherapy 'and convincingly argued
the distinction between counselling and psychotherapy .and convincingly -argued that the lirtin.t on
between counselling and psychotherapy was anificial, arbitrary, and materllly untenable youngest
AttemPts were made in different parts of the world to adopt Binet-Simon tests. The iwo world .,.vais
save a
tremendous boost to the progress of the guidance movement..

During the last four decades has made a significant advance through many helping
professions. Counselling as a field of-counselling
knowledgi is diffuse.
As
-an
occupation counselling is found in a
variety of
situations such as sehools, colleges, hospitals, guidance centres, rehabilitition agencies,
industries, homes, etc .It is very necessary to help individuals to escape impending crises by resolvi-ng their
problems through the process of better and more effective self-underitandlng, setfdirection, self realilation
and self actualisation Counselling as an activity is pursued both amateur and professional workers. As a
vocation' it is found in variety of situations , such as schools, colleges, hlspirals, guidance cenges,
industries, home, If past performance is any guide, it can be stated that counielling-has to play and
increasingly important role in the frrture.,

Human suffering can b€ mitigated if timely assistance is provided to individuals to help adjust
themselv€s better and resolve their problems before they reach explosive proponions. Counsellor has a role
to Perform' Formalised counselling has been developed only over the past hundred years and has been
influenced by social reforms, vocational guidance, individual assessment, psychological practices and
societal change. Guidance is pased uoon the fact that human beings need help. to a greater oriesser degree,
we all need the assistanct of ghers. The possibility of education, as well as the necessity for it, is fouided
upon the essential dependence of people updn one another. Young people face many criiical situations and
is important in reaching decisions must b€ made and hence adequate help is very necessary.

Counselling historically has be€n part of education both as a discipline and within its insritutions.
-
Schools and educators were the first to embrace guidance and counselling as a vital function for all people
at all levels of education. Hence counselling is a relationship between a professionally trained, competent
counsellor and a person seeking help. .

3.4. Technical terms.

l.counselling: is a process which involves bringing about sequential changes over a period of time
to a set goal.
}Psychotherapy: A body of knowledge that gathers data from a number of related professions all
of which are basically concemed with the helping function.
3.Guidance:is the assistance given to individuals in making intelligent choices and adjustments.
 I.Etucidate the factors that contribute to the emergence of counselling? .

2,How did science, technology, modernisation lead to the develoPment of counselling?

3.6. References.

. Narayana Rao,S.,l98l,Counselling Psychology New Delhi ,Tata Mccraw -Hill Publishing

Company, Ltd..

,! f . i '-
\
 4.1

LESSON - 4
COUNSELLING PROCESS

4.0 OBJECTIVES
. To understand the various stages involved in counselling as a process
I To understand the different skills needed at various stages in counselling

STRUCTURE
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Counselling - Content and Process
4.3 Stages of the counselling process
4.4 Nonlinary
4.5 Summary
4.6 Technical Terms
4.7 Model Questions
4.8 Reference Books

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Counselling is an interactiye process characterized by unique relationship between
counselor and client that leads to change in the client in one or more of the following areas
o Behaviour (overt changes in the ways clients act, their coping skills, decision-making
skills, and/or relationship skills)
. Beliefs (ways of thinking about oneself, others, and the world) or emotional concems
relating to these perceptions
o Level of emotional distress (uncomfortable feelings or reactivity to environmental stress)
Counselling can best be described as a process. This implies an identifiable sequence of
events taking place over a period of time. Successful and effective counselling may take as little
as thirty minutes, it may take a few sessions or it may take months. The sequence of events, the
dynamics involved and the nature and extent ofexploration differ with each individual counsellee.
However, the stages in the process are broadly similar for most individuals. The stages usually
include:
l. An initial appointment
2. A pre-counselling session involving an exploration of the client's concern(s)3
3. Development ofa facilitative relationship
4. Goal specification, identification and consideration of factors related the achievement of
 --:---r
I Centre for Distance Education 4.2 Acharya Nagarjuna un srtvl

Outcome goals are the intended results of the counselling process. They refer to what the
counsellee desires to achieve with the assistance of a counsellor. Process goals are those future
events, which the counsellor considers helpful or instrumental in bringing about outcome goals.
Process goals are often described in terms of the counsellor actions and also in terms of the effects
to be experienced by the client. For example, a counsellor may say to himself, "in order to help i
the counsellee, I must understand his attitudes and the way he behaves towards others, I must
understand the circumstances which have led to the present situation and those which are
reinforcing the counsellee's behaviour.

4.2 COUNSELLING _ CONTENT AND PROCESS

Counselling is a complex function which aims at changing the outlook of a counsellee :

from one marked by anxiety, pain and suffering to one of self-understanding, self-assurance an$
significant reduction in anxiety and maladjustment. Counselling is a one-to-one relationship in '

which a person who is in need of help voluntarily seeks assistance from a professionally
competent individual who is basically concerned with alleviating the suffering of the client
through a helping relationship. This relationship is a blend of several factors, such as rapport,
empathy, understanding, acceptance and above all a sense of commitment.

4.2.1 Physical Setting

Counseliing can bestle carried out under certain optimal conditions which include the physical
setting. The physical setting, that is, the room in which counselling is rendered niust be free from
outside disturbances. The room should be simple , should give a feeling of warmth, and should be
comfortable, with lighting that is neither too flashy and bright nor too dull and depressing. There
is a danger of taking the physical setting for granted, and more often than not, it is neglected to
such an extent that it seriously interferes with the counselling process.

4.2.2 Privacy
The essence of counselling is privacy - not only physical privacy but also psychological
privacy. The question of privacy is very intricately connected with that of recording counselling
interviews. Much controversy centres on the question of whether or not to record the counsellee's
responses. One view is that any attempt at recording may interfere with the very process of
counselling and harm the rapport established. It is also argued that the counsellee may become
defensive and inhibit his responses. The idea is that any suggestion of recording could have
adverse effects. Those who are in favour of recording feel that it is necessary otherwise the
. counsellor is forced to rely upon his memory which is know to be faulty and which can introduce

. new elaborations and distortions.

4.2.3 Value, Belief and Atlilude Change
Counselling is a one-lo-one relationship in which the counsellor provides a friendly and
warm enviroriment fbr. the counsellee to verbalize his problems and consider the appropriate
solutions. In this subtle relationship it is suggested that the counsellor may unwittingly modify the
attitudes, values and beliefs of the counseilee. This is a highly sensitive issue. However, it is
expected that the counsellor will take an objective attitude and not allow his subjective attitudes to
influence his professional relationship with the client. '
 4.2.4 Value orientations
The next issue concems the value system or orientation of the client. In most situations
clients are often plagued by value conflicts. There is no question of the counsellor forcing his
value system on the client. This is an outright unethical practice. However, when there are value
conflieis the counsellor should help resolve them by clarifying the issues, overcoming the
confusions of the client and adopting an attitude of unreserved acceptance.

4.2.5 Acceptance
Rogers (1961) attaches a great importance to the principle of acceptance. The nature of a
counselling relationship is defined alrd set by this principle of the counsellor regarding the client
unconditionally as a person of self-worth. A counselling situation reveals acceptance by words,
gestures, postures and the counsellee's as well as the counsellor's experience of the feeling of
. being unconditionally liked, respected and understood, In this sense, acceptance is the essence of
a counselling situation.

4,2.6 Understanding
Understanding is essentially the perception of another's attitudes, meanings and feelings.
To undentand is to clearly grasp what is sought to be understood - a person. object, event, idea or
word. In a counselling situation understanding has two connotations. First, it refers to the client's
. understanding of himself and his situation or environment and, second, to the understanding of the
counsellor of the client's position or situation. The counsellor is able to understand the feelings of
the client and consequently the counsellor is able to follow the client's mode of thought. Usually
four levels of understanding are identified. The first concerns knowledge about the individual,
thing, event, and so on. The second level consists of verbal and/or operational understanding. The
third concerns the understanding of one's own perceptions, experience, likes and dislikes. The
fourth concerns self-understanding and it may or may not be with the assistance of either intemal
or . - i€mal perceptions.

4.2.7 Rapport
Much of the success of counselling depends on counselling skills or counsellor skills such
as establishing rapport and empathy. Counselling is a helping relationship that is canied on in a
face-to-face and usually one-to-one relationship. Rapport is an essential step in such a situation.
Rapport is a warm, friendly understanding condition, which is essential for an effebtive
relitionship between the counsellor and the interviewee. It grows out of the. warmth of
relationships and the desire on the part of the counsellor to empathically understand.the counselee
and the counsellee's cooperation in trying to help the counsellor achieve a warm,, friendly and
trysting relationship. Rapport grows out of a cooperative effort. There are certain positive factors
that could help secure and maintain rapport. Some of these factors are: (1) warmth of
relationship, (2) Communication of this sensd of warmth to the counselee and (3) feelings of trust
which grow out of unconditional acceptance. Gestures such as moving out to receive the client.
greeting him warmly, putting him at ease and being sensitive to the counsellee's needs and moods
can help to sustain rapPort.
 4.3 STAGES OF THE COUNSELLING PROCESS
Thewordprocesshelpscommunicatemuchaboutthgessenceofcounselling.Aprocessis
an identifiable ,"qu"n"" of ivents taking place over time. Usually there is the implication of
process
progressive .tug", in the process. For example, there are identifiable stages in the healing
in the
ior? r.rioo. pi'ysical wound, such as a broken leg. Similarly, there are identifiable stages
processofhumandevelopmentfrombirthtodeath.Althoughthestagesinthisprocessare
commontoallhumanbeings,whathappenswithineachoftheseStagesisuniqueforeach
. individual.
Counselling also has a predictable set of stages that occur in any complete sequence'
Initially, the and client must establish contact, defin€ together "where the client is" in
"ounJ"llo, that
his or her life, and identify the client's current difficulties. This is followed by conversatron
of his or
leads to a deeper understanding of he client's needs and desires in the context
her
Finally, goals for
interpersonal world and to a mitually acceptable diagnosis of the problems.
goals. If a
chanle are defined, and appropriate ictionJare planned to-accomplish the identified
clienl comes to a counsellor to discuss a concein that is fairly specific and compartmentalized
may be accomplished in a
isuct as whictr of two job offers to accept) the entire sequence of stages
concem
single session. If a client comes to a counsellor with a fairly broad-based or long-standing
lsuih as learning how to live as a single parent or dealing with memories of sexual.abuse in
childhood), the stages may be accomplished over many sessions' Once rapport has been
Goals for
establishei and in-depth exploration has been undertaken, each problem will be defined.
resolving the problem wili then be developed, and, finally, a plan of action for -change.
will be
agreed ; and caried out. If new informition emerges that changes either the diagnosis
or the
goals for counselling, the process is adapted to meet these new circumstances'

4.3.1 THE FIRST STAGE: INITIAL DISCLOSURE

At beginning of counselling, the counsellor and client typically do not know one another
well. Mayb;he cJunsellor has some basic information about the client collected from an intake
form or a school record. Neither participant can know in advance the direction their discussion
will ultimately take, and the clientls probably a bit anxious about disclosing concems because he
or she is not iure how the counsellor will receive the disclosures. Hackney and Cormier (1996)
describe two sets of feelings clients have at the beginning of counselling: "I know I need help" and
' .,I wish I weren't here". Their description captures well the fundamental ambivalence clients often
feel in their initial encounters with a counsellor. One central task of the counsellor in the first
stage of counselling is to allay the client's fears and encourage self-disclosure. Without
honest
self-disclosure by the client, counselling is an empty enterprise'

Carkhuff (1973) and Egan {1998) both describe attending as important counsellor
behaviour at the outset of counseiling. Attending is simply paying careful attention to the client's
words and actions, one demonstrates attending by posture, facial expression, and eye contact. As
. a part of attending, counsellors observe clients' behaviour for indications of content and feeling
that may not be included in their verbal messages. Signs might include fidgeting, tone of voice'
failure io maintain eye contact, and so on. Being attentive to the client's verbal and nonverbal
behaviours is the first process goal that is implemegled with each client. Attending to the client's
verbal and nonverbal behaviours remains impqrtant tlgoughout the counselling process.
g
 In the initial disclosure stage of counselling, clienls must be helped to articulate their
personal concerns and to place those concerns in a context so that
the counsellor can understand
the personal meanings and significance the client attaches to them. To en._ourage
disclosuie, the
counsellor must set conditions that promote trust in the client. Rogers (i95lj
described these
trust-promoting conditions as the characteristics of the helping relatiorxhip:'
o Empathy - understanding another's experience as if it were you own, without
ever losing
the "as if quality
o congruence or genuineness - being as you seem to be, consistent over time,
dependable in
the relationship
o U.nc,onditional positive regard - caring for your client without setting conditions
for your
canng
Egan (1998) adds another condition that has relevance throughout the counselling
process:
. Concreteness - using clear language to describe the client,s life.

To communicate these conditions to the client, the counsellor must leam to respond
meaningfully
to what the client says. At stage, the most frequent kind of responie is restate'ment,
_this
paraphrasing, or interchangeable responding. It is the counsellor's task
to sort out ambiguous
statements and help the client find descriptions that wilr accurately portray
what is happening in
his or her life. Concreteness promotes clearer insight by the client into his or her
life
the counsellor with a fuller sense of the uniquenesi of tire client's experience. If all "na'p.ouia",
the co;ditions
are present in the initial disclosure stage of counselling, clients wili be encouraged
to talk freely
and to elaborate on their concerns. Gelso and Carter (1085) refer to this point in
iunselling as the
establishment of.a "working alliance".

4.3.2 THE SECOND STAGE : IN-DEpTH EXpLORATION

the second stage of counselling, the client should reach clearer understandings
of his or
her life concerns and begin to formulate a new sense of hope and direction. At this stage,
the
goals are not precisely defined and the means to reach them aie still unclear,
but a broad ouiine of
the pattern of desired change is emerging.
The process that facilitates formulation of a new sense of direction builds on the conditions
of th€ initial disclosure stage and. becomes possible only if trust has been built in that first srage
and is maintained. But the relationship has become less tenuous and fragile than it was
at the
beginning' and so the counsellor cal u:e a brcader range of intervention tools without increasing
tension beyond tolerable limits. The first stage merges into the second stage as the counsellor
perceives the client's readiness.

In the second stage, the counsellor begins, subtly at first. to bring into the discussion his or
her diagnostic impressions of the client's dynamic s and coping bJhaviours. The empathic
responses of the counsellor now include material from prior sessions and focus more on the
client's awareness of the unsatisfying nature of old ways of thinking and responding. Such
advanced-level empathy statements reassure the client that the counsellor has an understandins of
his or her world and provide a4 ippetus for still deeper exploration.
As the relationship becomes more secure, the counsellor also begins to confront the client
with obselvations about his.or her goals and behaviour. Broadly speaking,' constructive
 Centre for Distance Education 4'6

cbnfrontationprovidestheclientwithanexternalviewofhisorherbehaviour,basedonthe
. counsellor,s observations. The client ls free to accept,
reject, or modify the counsellor's
staJement, the client arrives
;;;;;;;;. In rh" pro."r, of considering how to use the i.ounsellor's quality o{. the
I"*fy Jt" ana r"nJui"ws of-self' Immediacy is another...
"i of counselling. to
""geO'
behiviour that becomes important in the second stage -According
"ounrAf*', ways' First' it can refer to general
Egan (1998), immediacy can be defined in three different
relationship' Second' immediacy-:"f:1t--t: uny
discussions about the progress of the counselling
reaction to the client's statements
statements in which the counsellor gives the clienl an immediate
The third kind of immediacy
or asks the client to disclose conen-t tttooght. about the counsellor.
i".po"r" i. a self-involving ,*"-"nt that"expresses the counsellor's personal response to a client
in the present.
client by the
it has been established that the focus of counselling is clearly on the
Because
,""ondrtug",thecounsellormaybeginsharingbitsofhisorherownexperiencewiththeclient
such self-disclosure can help
without fear of appeanng to ovlririptity the*clienfs problems.
that he or she
u tt bond between counsellor and cliJnt and suggest to the client
".iuttirf, "rupiutic
isnotaloneinfacingaparticularconcern.Althoughsomeinformationabouthowthecounsellor
-the
*iift . rl.ilar"situation might be relevant to client's solution. care must be exercised to
client to use the counsellor's
ioo't io. tf," differences in the cl-ient's situation and to permit the
".p"4
experience only if he or she sees clear application'
Thesecondstageofcounsellingfrequentlybecomesemotionallystressful,becausethe
and must begin to give up the
client must repeatedly iace the inadequi"y oi habitu.l behaviours
within a carin' relationship
familiar for the unfamiliar. This stresifuliask must be accomplished
client's past b€haviour' The thrust is
in which it is clear that the counsellor is not criticizing the
to present
io*uro t clients realize more clearly what they- do not like in their responses
be more
or iecision making and to gain a sense of what kinds of rcsponses might
,i*"ii.r,"tping
satisfying.
assessment
In the second stage, the counsellor and client come to a mutually acceptable
a process of information gathering and
and diagnosis of the problem or problems. Assessment is
client's'
rrypo,t ,""ing that results in a diagnosis of the problem(s) that takes into account the careful
primarily through
history,"1i.
life circumstances, and streniths. Diagnosis.is determined
assessment of he irru". pr"."nt"d in thJcounselliig session
itseli bui it often also includes the use
of behavioural observations, data from others ;onnected to the clients, and findings
from
variables. .Once a diagnosis is
standardized tests that focus on academic. career or personality
stage, the ideritification of specific
established, the counsellor and client can move on to ih" third
goals'
!oul, fo, und the selection of action plans to implement those
"hung"
4.3.3 THE THIRD STAGE: COMMITMENT TO ACTION
any
In the third and finai stage of counselling, the client must decide how to accomplish
have been defined and clarified
soals that have emerged during tf,e previous two itages. Concerns
i"i,fti" ,fr" ..*..t oT tne ctielnt's fife situation. The client has considered how his or her own
behaviour relates to accomplishing the goals that have been blarified
thlough the counselling
process.wtratremainsistooeciaewhagifany,overtactions'theclientmighttaketo.alleviate
'those problems. If no action is indicated, thln the third stage of.counselling can focus on
 4.7

increasing the client's commitment to a view that he or she has done everything possible or
desirable in the given situation.

The third stage includes identifying possible altemative courses of action (or decisions) the
client might choose and assessing each of thpse in terms of the likelihood of outcomes. Ideally,
the client develops various courses of action with encouragement from the counsellor, although it
is acceptable under most circumstances for the counsellor to suggest possibilities the client may
have overlooked. Together, the counsellor and client monitor the initial steps of the change
process.

To summarize, the third stage is a decision-making and action time. The client considers
possible actions and then chooses some !o try out. The counsellor gives support for trying new
behavioun and helps the client evaluate the effectiveness of new behaviourc or new conceptions
of reality as they may relate to the reduction of stress.

4.4 NONLINEARITY OF STAGES

As in all stage models, the process described here depicts each succeeding stage as
dependent on the preceding one. That is, unless problems have been defined, it is not possible to
establish goals; unless one has established goals, it is not possible to evaluate possible courses of
action effectively. Such a linear ccnception of stages is, nevertheless, an oversimplification, and it
is important to recognize the limitations of such a stage model.

STJMMARY
. The word process helps communicate much about the essence of counselling.
. Counselling has a predictable set of stages that occur in any complete sequence.
. One central task of the counsellor in the first stage of counselling is to allay the client's
fears and encourage self-disclosure.
. In the second stage of counselling, the client should reach clearer understandings of his or
her life concems and begin to formulate a new sense of hope and direction.
. In the third and final stage of counselling, the client must decide how to accomplish any
goals that have emerged during the previous two stages.

TECHMCALTERMS
Attending Paying careful attention to the client's words and
actions.

Confrontation Confronting the clients with observation about

his or her goals and behaviour.

Immediacy Self-involving statement that expresses the I

Counsellor's personal response to a client in the
present
MODEL QT]ESTIONS
l. Disiuss the various stages involved in Counselling?

2. What is Counselling? Discuss Counselling as a process'

3. Describe the skills required at the various stages of counselling'

REFERENCE BOOKS
iones, R.N. Basic Counselling Skills - A Helper's Manual. New Delhi: SAGE Publications. -
NarayanaRao,S(1991).Counse|lingandGuidance.NewDelhi:TataMcGraw-HillPublishing
Company Limited.

Patterson,L.E.'Welfel'E.R.(2000).TheCounsellingProcess.Bombay:ThomsonAsiafteLtd.
LESSON-5
COUNSELLING RELATIONSHIP
5.0 OBJECTIVES

r To understand the importance of the counselling relationship

I To understand the conditions required to establi3h a good counselling relationship

STRUCTT]RE
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Core conditions of counselling relationship
5.3 Ways to impede communication
5,4 Summary
5.5 Technical Terms
5.6 Model Questions
5.7 Reference Books

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The coie of the counseling process is the relationship established between the counselor
and the client. "Relationship" has immense significance in counseling. pepinsky and pepinsky
(1954) define this relationship "as a hypothetical construct to designate the inferred affective
character of the observable interaction between two individuals." pepinsky emphasizes the
affective or emotional elements in the relationship. Relationship building is the first important step
in the counseling process. If the total counseling experience is to be of benefit to the client, time
and energy must be devoted to developing a relationship that can be characterized by mutual trust,
openness, comfort and optimism about the value of continued counseling sessions. These
supportive conditions provide the necessary basis for counseling to evolve into an experience of
deeper exploration.

5.2 CORE CONDITIONS OF COUNSELLING RELATIONSHIP

To support clients' disclosure of meaniugful issues during the initial disclosure stage of ..
counseling, the counselor maintains an attitude of receiving the client, often referred to as the core
conditions of counseling. Three of these conditions - empathy, positive regard, and genuineness - .
were described by Carl Rogers (1957) as the necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic
personality change. The fourth condition, concreteness, is the counsellor's skill in focusing the,
client's discussion on specific events, thoughts, and feelings that matter, while discouraging a lot,
of iniellectualized storytelling.

5.2.1 EMPATHY
Rogers (1961) defined empathy as the counsellor's ability "to enter the client's
phenomenal world - to experience the client's world as if it were your own without ever losing the
'as if' quality". Bohart and Greenberg (1997) describe three categories of empathy:
 o Empathic rapport - "primarily kindness, global understanding, and tolerant acceptance of
the client's feelings and frame of reference".
. Experience near -understanding of the client's world - "what it is like to have the problems
the client has, to live in the life situation the client lives in, what it is like to be him." This
. perspective includes conscious as well as some unconscious elements of the client's
experience.
o Communicative attunement - "the counselor tries to put himself or herself in the client's
shoes at the moment, to grasp what they are trying to consciouslv communicate at the
moment, and what they are experiencing at the moment."

Some authors (carkhuff, 1969; Egan,1998;) have reasoned that there are different levels of
empathy meaning that the counselor may vary in the depth of understanding of the client's
-
and may make choices about how much of that understanding is communicated in
"*p".i"n""
responding to the ;lient. Sometimes the counselor will perceive attitudes and motives in the
cliint's statements that she/he is not yet ready to discuss directly. To stimulate client explorationi
the level of empathy communicated should be matched to the client's level of readiness. Primary
empathy is the levil that is usually facilitative in the initial disclosure stage of counselling and
advincid level empathy is often more appropriate for the in-depth exploration stage'

Empathy involves two major skills: perceiving and communication. Perceiving involves
an intense process of actively listening for themes, issues, personal constructs, and emotions.
Themes may be thought of as recurring patterns - for example, views of oneself, attitudes toward
others, consistent interpersonal relationship patterns, fear of failure, and search for personal power.
Issues are questions of conflict with which the client is struggling "what do I want for my future?"

George Kelly (1995) described the perceptual element of empathy as understanding the
client's personal constructs. He defined personal constructs as the unique set of thoughts a person
uses to process information, give meaning to life events, order one's world, explain cause-and-
effect relationships, and make decisions. They include beliefs about oneself and others'
assumptions aboui how and why events happen in the world, and private logic and moral premises
that guide one's world. The counselor can detect a client's personal constructs from his or her
descriptions of life situations, behaviours. decisions. or even responses to tests and inventories.

Beck (1976) and Meichenbau m (1977\ discuss "automatic thoughts" and "internal
dialogue", respectively, each describing how the client's cognitive structure (complex of personal
predisposes him or her to interpret events in certain ways. Emotions emanate from
"on.tr,,"t.)
these interpretations. Empathy then includes knowing not only what events have occurred in the
client's but also how his or her cognitive structure has led to interpretation of the events and to
lifi
consequent feelings.

In the communication component of empathy, the counselor says something that tells the
client that his or her meanings and feelings have been understood. Primary empathy is most often
communicated through an interchangeable verbal response (though facial expressions and other
nonverbal responses can also be used). Interchangeable responses are statements that capture the
essential themes in a client's statement but do not go deeper than the transparent material. A
 f.J

paraphrase such as "You felt degraded and angry because your girlfriend criticized you in front of
your friends" is a fairly typical response of this type. It captures both the feeling and the meaning
of the client's previous disclosure in simple language the client can understand. Advanced
empathy is communicated through additive verbal responses, in which the counselor adds
perceptions that were implied but not direcdy stated by the client. 4 |
Cultural sensitivity and the knowledge of cultures different from counsellor's own are
important to effective use of empathy. Okun (1997) states that, "while there are some basic skills
and strategies that cut across race, and culture, helpers must adapt their counselling style to
achieve congruence with value systems of culturally diverse clients". Cultural background will
influence not only the personal constructs through which individual interprets the world but also
the style of expression that is experienced as empathic.

Effectively communicated empathy has a number of desired effects on the initial disclosure
stage of counselling. First, the energy required to listen actively expresses caring and affirmation
to the client.
Second, the feedback that comes from the counsellor's contact with significant themes
helps the client see his or her own themes more clearly. This helps the client understand him or
herself more deeply and reexamine relevant perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs.

Third, such responding establishes expectations about the nature of the counselling
experience. Counselling is conveyed to the client as a process that involves attending to oneself,
exploring, searching, and perceiving oneself more clearly.

A fourth effect is that if the counselor is careful to offer a level of empathy that is
consistent with the client's level of readiness, the client will feel safe to continue the counselling
experience.'The client learns that nothing bad will happen as a result of tommunicating and that
something helpful is likely to occur.

A fifth effect is that empathy communicates to the client that the counselor has special
expertise to offer. Empathy is not routinely experienced in the events of daily life. A counselor
who can make empathic contact establishes him or herself as having some special skill, which in
ium helps the client experience a sense of optimism about future sessions.

. Bohart and Greenberg (199?) report that research over the years continued to show
correlations between therapist empathy and counselling outcomes. This has proven to be true
whether the empathy was rated by the clients themselves or by expert raters watching the
counselling - and it has been shown to be true across a variety of clients.

5.2.2UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD

Positive regard is caring for the client for no other reason than the fact that she or he is
human and therefore worthy. Caring is expressed by the enthusiasm one person shows for being
in the presence of another and by the amount of time and energy one is willing to devote to
another's well-being. The experience of being cared about helps develop and restore a sense of
caring for oneself. It creates endrgy and encourages a person to respond to the demands of lif'e. A
counsellor's caring can increase the client's enthusiasm for work and growth. 4'
Rogers (1957) developed the concept that the counsellor's caring for the client can be
unconditional. Because the counselor does not have a role in the client's life outside the
counselling situation, he or she can become the client's instrument for change without a lot of
preconceived ideas about what behaviours the client should exhibit. The counsellor's respect for
the dignity and worth of the individual remains intact regardless of client behaviours.

unconditional positive regard consists of two dimensions: level of regard and

unconditionality of regard. Level of regard, or possibly more cotrectly level of positive regard,
consists of positive helper feelings towards the client like liking, cafing and warmth.
Unconditionaiity of regard consists of a non-judgemental acceptance of the client's experiencing
and disclosures as their subjective reality. A key issue in unconditional positive regard is that
helpers are not trying to possess or control clientS to meet their own needs. Instead, helpers
respect clients' separateness and accept- their unique differences. Such acceptance gives clients
permission to acknowledge and fully experience their thoughts and feelings.

To work through feelings of disregard for a client, the counselor must firs acknowledge
them and take responiibility for their existence. After recognition, the counsellor's task is to
identify specific characteristics of the client that she or he does not like. For many counselors,
ling, defensiveness, manipulation, destructiveness to oneself and others, are traits that often trigger
dislike. Though the client's behaviour may have been very repugnant ifjudged through the moral
imperatives by which the counselor lives her or his own life, the counselor tries to understand the
meaning of the behaviour in the client's life without judgment so that strategies for change can be
devised.
. Several pafameters of human behaviour may help counselors work through their own
emotions. One is that the counselor may be tempted to impose "should" statements on the client.
In the case of a client who is an unfaithful marriage partner, the counselor may feel that the client
should behave more responsibly toward his or her spouse. The likelihood is that the client already
understands that there are negative consequences to his or her behaviours and yet has still chosen
the behaviours. Rather than being rejected for those behaviours, he or she needs help in finding
alternative behaviours that will have more positive consequences.

A second parameter is that anxiety often accompanies feelings of dislike for a client The
counselor may feel threatened by client behaviour that raises concern about his or her own
unlesolved isiues or by the fear that the client's problems are beyond his or her ability to help.
Excessive resistance by the client or power struggles in the counselling sessions can also trigger
counselor anxiety.

parameter is that some characteristics of he client may remind the counselor of

A third
some other person for whom there are feelings of anger or resentment. In such circumstances the
counselor does not perceive the client with full accuracy but instead has some distortions in his or
her imaee of the client.
 5.5

Keeping these parameters in mind, working through dislike for. a client requires that the
counselor give honest answers to the following questions:
o "What characteristics of my client interfere with my ability to find him or her likable?"
o "What do I think my client should be doing that he or she is not?"
o "How are my 'shoulds' what am I missing about my client as a result?'l
. "If I am imposing 'shoulds,' what am I missing about my client as a result?"
o "Am I experiencing an anxious rather than a calm feeling with my client?"
. 'With whom in my.life might I have important unfinished business?"
. "Is my own unfinished business interfering with my ability to feel caring for this client?"
Exploration of feelings of disregard for a client in conjunction with another counselor will help
the counselor determine whether the disregard can be understood and replaced with a more helpful
attitude or whether the client should be referred.

5.2.3 GENUINENESS
Rogers (1942) originally defined genuineness as the characteristic of transparency,
realness, honesty, or authenticity. Congruence or genuineness has both an internal and an external
dimension. Internally, helpers are able to accurately acknowledge their significant thoughts,
feelings and experiences. He has also used the term congruence to suggest that a genuine
counselor behaves in ways that are congruent with his or her self-concept and thus consistent
across time. The counselor shares thoughts and feelings in ways that do not manipulate or control
the client. Although genuineness does not give the counselor license to ventilate his or her own
emotions on the client, Rogers said that a counselor who is having trouble liking a client would do
well to share and try to resolve the feeling with the client rather than trying to hide it.

Genuineness may have to be established through persistent congruence over a longer

period of dme. Rogers believed that if the counselor behaves consistently over time, he or she
eventually would be perceived as real. Having this perception of the counselor will help the client
feel safer and develop a greater sense of trust and thus be more willing to engage in the intensive
gxploration work of counselling. Experiencing genuineness from the counselor in a climate of
safety enables the client to be more genuine and also encourages him or her to drop defenses,
games and manipulations. Transparency - that is, allowing the client to see into the counsellor's
thoughts and feelings - reduces the client's concem that there are hidden agendas, which the
counselor is going to try to manipulate the client into behaving in cenain ways.

To be fully genuine in the sense described by Rogers, counselors must know themselves
very well. They must have clear pictures of their personalities and how the elements of personality
are expressed in significant events and relations.with people.

Congruence does not mean ''lbtting it all hang out'. Helpers are able to use their awareness
of their own thoughts and feelings to nurture and develop'their clients. Though congruence may
include personal disclosures, these disclosures are'for'the benefit of clients in the interest of
humanizing the helping process and moving it forward and not in order to make helpers feel more
comfortable.
 for Distance Education 5.6 U

5.2.4 CONCRETENESS
. As Ivey (1994) states, "a concrete counselor promptly seeks specifics rather than vague
generalities". As interviewers, we are most often interested in specific feelings, specific thoughts,
and specific examples of actions. Concreteness is not one of the Rogerian conditions of the
helping relationship. In fact, the concept has emerged because it has been observed fhat
co;rnselors who are empathic, caring, and genuine may still encourage a client to ramble a great
deal and allow the client to avoid talking about important material. It is the counsellor's
rdsponsibility to identify which of the client's statements are central to his or her reasons for being
a client and to encourage talk about those issues. The client is still the. person who determines
what will be introduced as the content of the session, but the counselor manages the process in
such a way as to make it easier for the client to talk about what matters.

Ivey (1994) suggests that asking directly for specific examples of troublesome events can
increase concreteness. For example, the frequently hear phrase "she is always picking on me"
tells little, but examples of specific interactions between the client and the other person will shed
much light on the relationship dynamics. "Picking on me" may actually mean "Every time I don't
have my homework done, the teacher calls attention to it in a public way and embarrasses me."

The language used by the client and by the counselor can also contribute to unfocused
discussion. Vagueness, abstractness, and obscurity are the opposites of concrete communication.
Therefore, the counselor should model direct communication as well as challenge the client to
become more specific.

5.3 WAYS TO IMPEDE COMMUNICATION

Just as certain attitudes and behaviours can facilitate client disclosure, other predispositions and
behaviours sabotage communication and build roadblocks to disclosure.

5.3.1 COUNSELLOR PREDISPOSITIONS

People learn to avoid emotional content in social interactions with others unless the relationship is
strong and the circumstances are private. It is important to remember that the client sees the
counselor as a stranger in the first session. The goal is to establish trust as quickly as possible by
employing the attitudes and core conditions of counselling. Another attitudinal banier that many
counselors struggle with initially is the feeling that as an expert they ought to be able to solve the
client's problems and relieve them of their psychological pain very quickly. This attitude will
shortcut the disclosure process because the counselor adopts the client's anxiety and tries to move
prematurely to solutions.

5,3.2 PREMATURE ADVICE GIVING

The client enters, communicating confu5ion, stress, exasperation, and/or helplessness.
Wanting to offer some relief, the counselor gives some advice (Why don't you...). The client
responds, "Yeah, but. .. .. .. . .," far from enthusiastic about the advice. Soon baniers are built in the
relationship. The client begins to feel more defensive. Feelings of exasperation grow in the
counselor and may result in rejection of the client.
In addition to impeding communication, premature advice giving has the effect of making the
client feel like an inadequate, dependent child and thus slows the development of responsible self-
reliance.
A counsellor's thoughts about how a problem may be solved are much more appropriate
later in the counselling process, after the circumstances have been thoroughly explored and the
counselor really knows something ofthe client's experience. At that point the counsellor's ideas
can be considered along with the client's as oPtions that might be useful.

5.3.3 LECTT]RING
I*cturing is really a disguised fbrm of advice giving. When lecturing, a counselor presents
himself or herself as an expert, developing a few paragraphs or more of "sage wisdom". The
hidden message is "You should do jt itr11gy. If you don't, you are stupid and i will be angry
with you." Diiregard for the client is sfi6TiTn several ways. During tong-winded lectures, clients
frequently shut off their listening receptors and often disregard the messenger as well as the
meisage itself. This is especially true for clients who have been involved in power struggles with
authority figufes. The client should not see the counselor as just one more authority figufe.

5.3.4 EXCESSWE QUESTIOMNG

Excessive questioning does not open communication; it conveys that the client's job is to
be passive and respond to the counsellor's questions. The counselor asks and the client responds.
The problem is that the client has little opportunity to do an initiating. The counselor is in charge,
but the client is the person who knows what the issues that need airing are. Excessive questioning
results in important information b€ing missed.

5.3.5 STORY TELLING

Counsellors often tell stories about their own lives, ostensibly to help- the client identify
with them and to communicate this message "I understand-what you are experiencing because I
experienced it, too." Generally this procedure impedes rather.than facilitates communication.
First, it is often difficult for clients to believe that the counselor could have ever been in a situation
exactly like theirs, and usually they are correct in their skepticism. Furthermore, an underlying
presumption is that, in a similar situation, the counselor held the same beliefs and experienced the
same emotions. By moving the focus of discussion from the client, the counselor intemrpts the
exploration process. He or she discounts the client and risks the introduction of "interfering noise"
into the session by projecting his or her own emotions onto thb client. Storytelling is often a way
for the counselor to cope with his or her personal anxiety. At the worst, the counselor may be
using the client as an audience to gtatify a need for attention.

5.4 SI,'ilIMARY
. The core of the counseling process is the relationship established between the counselor
and the client
. To support clients' disclosure of meaningful issues during the initial disclosure stage of
. counseling, the counselor maintains an attitude of receiving the client, often referred to as
the core conditions of counseling.
. Carl Rogers described empathy, positive regard, and genuineness as the necessary and
sufficient conditions of therapeutic personality change. '
 for Distance Education 5.8

. Empathy is defined as the ability "to enter the client's phenomenal world - to experience
the client's world as if it were your own"
. Unconditional positive regard is caring for the client for no other reason than the fact that
. she or he is human and therefore worthy.
. Genuineness is defined as the characteristic of transparency, realness; ..honesty, or
authenticity.
r A concrete counselor promptly seeks specifics rather than vague generalities.
. Just as certain attitudes and behaviours can facilitate client disclosure, other predispositions
and behaviours sabotage communication and build roadblocks to disclosure,

5.5 TECHNICAL TERMS

Unconditional positive regard Respecting clients' separateness and accepting
their unique differences

Empathy Understanding the client's personal constructs

Genuineness Being as you seem to be, consistent over time,

dependable in the rclationship

5.6 MODEL QITESTTONS

l.
Discuss the core conditions required to establish the ccunselling relationship.
2. What are the factors that affect the counselling relatioruhip?

5:7 REFERENCE BOOKS

l. iones, R.N. Basic Counselling Skills - A llelper's Manual. New Delhi: SAGE
Publications. j

2. Narayana Rao, S (1991). Counselling and Guidance. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-
Hill Publishing Company Limited.
3. Patterson, L.E., Welfel, E.R. (2000). The Counselling Process. Bombay:
Thomson Asia fte Ltd.
 6.1

LESSON-6
COUNSELLING SKILLS

6.0 OBJECTIVES
l. To understand the various counselling skills
2. To enable the student to use the appropriate skills at various stages of counselling

STRUCTURE
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Basic Counselling Skills
6.3 Other Skills
6.4 Summary
6.5 Technical Terms
6.6 Model Questions
6.7 Refcrence Books

6.I TNTRODUCTION
One application of the word 'skill' pertains to areas of skill: for instance, listening skills ot
disclosing skilis. Another application refers to level of competence for instance, skilled or unskilled in a
particular area. A third application of the word 'skill' relates to the knowledge and sequence of choices
intuiled in implementing a given skill. The essential element of any skill is the ability to make and
implement sequences of choices to achieve objectives. For instance, if counsellors are to be good at
lisiening deeply and accurately to clielts, they have to make and implement effectrve choices in this skill
area. Basic skills in counselling are much the same. With experience, counsellors integrate the components
so that they become "natural," and counsellors think about them only when confronted with clients who
present difficulties to them.

6.2 BASIC COUNSELLING SKILLS

The word 'basic' when used in conjunction with counselling skills implies il repertoire of central
counselling skills. Many basic skills are those that will enhance how well counsellon and clients connect
with one another. Such skills include understanding the client's internal frame of reference and refleating
their feelings. All counsellors require basic counselling skills for relating to clients and for helping them to
understand their concerns.
The basic counselling skills include attending and observation, responding by reflecting thoughts
and feelings and questioning.

6.2,T NONVERBAL ATTENDING AND OBSERVATION

Nonverbal behaviour usually is described as including eye contact, head nods, facial animation,
body posture and physical distance betwe€n counsellor and client. Attentiveness can be communicated by
body posture, head jrositions and nodding as well as by eye contact. Eye contact is supposed to
communicate attentiveness. Nonverbal attending, however, is a delicate balance between attention and
invasion. A steady but occasionally varying gaze usually is recommended.

Counsellor's body messages are important both when listening to and respondin&to clients. To be
a rewarding person with whom clients express willingness to talk, counsellors need to physically convey
their emotional availability and interest. Often this is refencd to as 'attending behaviour'.
i c"ntr" """"'!J
"..ityl
(a) Adopt a relaxeo unu oo"n o
A relaxed body posture, without slumping or slouching, contributes to the message that a
counsellor is receptive. If counsellors sit in a tense and uptight fashion, their clients may consiiously or
intuitively feel that they are too bound up in their personal agendas and unfinished business to be fully
accessible. There is research evidence that suggests that postural similarity, where two people take up
mirror-image posture, is perceived as a sign of liking.

ib) t-ean slightly forward

Whether a counsellor leans forward, backward or sideways is another aspect of their body posture.
If they lean too forward they look odd and clients may experience an invasion of their personai space.
However, in moments of intimate disclosure. a marked forward lean may build rapport rather than io be
perceived as intrusive. If counsellors lean too far back, clients may find this poiture to be distancing.
Especially at the start of helping, a slight forward trunk lean can encourage cliints, without threateni;g
them.

( c) Use appropriate gaze and eye contact

Gaze means looking at people in the area of their faces. Gaze can give counsellors cues about
when to stop listening and start responding. Good eye-contact skills involve counsellors lookins in the
client's directjon in order to allow the possibility of their eyes meeting reasonably often. The-re is an
equilibrium level for eye contact in any helping relationship, depending on the degree of anxiety in client
and how developed the relationship is. Staring can threaten clients because they may feel dominated or
seen through. Clients want an appropriate amount of eye contact from counsellors and may perceive them
as tense or bored if they look down or away too often.

(d) Convey appropriate facial expressions

There are seven important feelings - happiness, interest, surprise, fear, sadness, anger and disgust
or contempt - each of which can be conveyed by facial expressions. Much facial information is conveyed
through the mouth and- eyebrows. A friendly, relaxed facial expression, including a smile, usually
demonstrates interest. However, as the client talks counsellor's facial expressions need to show that they
are tuned into what they say. For instance, if clients are serious, weeping or angry, counsellors need to
adjust their facial expressions to indicate ahat they understand their feelings

(e) Use goglfgestures

Gestures are body movements dsed to convey thoughts and feelings. Perhaps the head nod is the
most common gesture in listening, with small ones to show continued attention, larger and repeated ones to
indicate agreement. Head nods can be viewed as rewards to clients to continue tatting. On the negative
side, selective head nods can also be powerful ways of controlling clients. Then unconditional acceftunce
becomes conditional acceptance.
Gestures may also illustrate shapes, size; or movements, particularly when these are difficult to
describe in words. Counsellors can respond with arm and hand gestures to show their attention and interest
tp clients. However. counsellors using expressive arm gestures too much or too little can be off-puttrns.
Negative gestures that can display inattentiveness and discourage clients from clear communication lnclud-e
fidgeting with pens and pencils, hands clenched together, finger drumming, fiddling with one's hair, one's
handover one's mouth, ear tugging and scratching oneself, arirong others.

(f ) Use touch sparingly

Touching clients may be appropriate in helping, though great care needs to be taken that it is noi an
unwanted invasion of personal space. For. example, counsellors' demonstrations of conferee may include
 6.3

toi'ching a client's hands, arms, shoulders and upper back. The intensity and duration of touch should be
sufficient to establish contact, yet avoid any kind of discornforL

(g) Be sensitive to personal space and height

Active listening entails respecting clients' personal space. Counsellors can be too close or top far
away. Perhaps a comfortable physical distance for counsellors and clients is sitting with their heads about
five"feet apart. If counsellors ari physically too far way, not only do clients havJ to talk louder, but alio
they may perceive them as emotionally distant.

Another basic skill is observation. Much information may be gleaned by paying close attention to
client's behaviour. In interpreting nonverbal behavior, however, it is important to see observations as
hunches to be checked out, not as conclusions. Clients who lean back when counsellors lean in might be
telling the counsellors that they are too close for the client's comfort zones.

6.2.2 ACTIVE LISTENING

If we look at the basic skills as a hierarchy, then we could say that the next step is listening. How
can counsellors create an emotional climate so that their clients feel safe and free to talk with them? Many
of the component skills of creating collaborative working relationships come under the heading of active
listening. A distinction exists between hearing and listening. Hearing involves the capacity to be aware of
and to ;eceive sounds. Listening involves not only receiving sounds but, as much as possible, accurately
understanding their meaning. As such it entails hearing and memorizing words, being sensitive to vocal
cues, observing body language and taking into account the personal and social cont€xt of communications.
Active listenin-g entails couniellors in not only accurately understanding spi:akers' comnunication, but also
showing that tfey have understood. As such, active listening involves skills in both receiving and sending
communlcanon.

In addition to the en€rgy required, there are other barriers to active listening. Manier times 'active
listening' is affected by mental errands. A person who is on a mental errand can't listen to others.
Therefore, mental errand acts as a barrier to active listening.
Another barrier to listening arises when counsellors begin thinking about themselves or their own
situations in respons€ to clients' statements. For example, if a client is discussing an issue with her teenage
son, then the counselor might begin to think about his or her own teenage son or about his or her own years
as a teenager. If the counsellor does this, the he or she probably has stopped listening at least temporarily'

Another potential barrier to effective listening is making assumptions about what clients are going
to say next. Counsellors assumptions often are rewarded by being right, so counsellors continue to make
them, but they can get in the way of truly hearing what is beipg said.

Another sot of listening barriers to overcome are those of not understanding what clients are saying.
This might be because the messages are confusing, because counsellors are not knowledgeable about the
subjects they are discussing or because counsellors have been momentarily inattentive.

6,2.2.I RESPONDTNG
Clients, however, know only about active listening by the ways in which counsellors respond.
Most people categorize these respoll9s into three main areas: Minimal encouragers, reflection of thoughts
and feelings, and asking questior6, .All of.these sills lead to facilitating both understanding and action
(D Minimit Encouragers
There is a citegory of responses that fall between nonverbal attending and actual responses,
termed by Ivey and Ivey (1999) as "minimal encouragers". They are comprised of utterances.such as
'uh-huh", "hmn...hmn", "and....?" And "then.'..?". Clients are encouraged to continue speaking, but
without any specific directions or assurances that counsellors understand. Minimal encouragers
perform an imponant and necessary function in maintaining clients' flows of thoughts and feelings
without influence from the counsellors. They are not sufficient, however, for adding to clients'
understanding.

(II) Reflection of Thoughis and Feelings

paraphrasing and reflecting feelings, involve counsellors feeding back to clients what they have
just communicaied. Client's experienc€s may seem more real to them if they verbalize rather than just
thin them, and even more real when they then hear these experiences verbalized again by their
counsellors. Such verbalizations may put clients more in touch with their own thoughts, feelings and
experiences. Furthermore, by verbalizing what cli€nts communicate, helper and client can engage in a
process of exploring and understanding more accurately the meaning of what clients communicate.

(ai PARAPHRASINC s KILts

A paraphrase expresses the meaning of a client statement or series of statements in different words.
Paraphrasing involves rewordihg at least the crux of rhe client's message. Counsellors try to
convey back to clients clearly and briefly what they have just communicated from their internal
frame of reference. When counsellors paraphrase, they may sometimes use clients' words, but
sparingly. A good paraphrase can provide mirror reflections that are clearer and mofe succinct than
orisinal statements.

6.2.2.2 REFLECTING FEEUNGS SKILI.S

Reflecting or mirroring feelings is possibly the main skill of active listening. Most counsellor
responses- that reflect ieelings are paraphrases that emphasize the emotional content of.clients'
communications.

(i)Identifying feelings
B;fore counsellors can reflect a client's feelings back to th€m, they need to accurately
identify or discriminate what they are. It is important that counsellors' distinguish between clients'
thoughts and feelings if they wish to be skilful at picking up feelings accurately. Following are
some ways of identif!'ing feelings:

. Body messages: Counsellors can pick up much about what theil client feels from just
k,oking at them. For example, clients may come for help looking tired, worried cr happy'
They may slump in the chair or sit upright Sometimes clients send mixed messages in
which their body messages are more important than their verbal messages.

. Vocal messages: Many of the messages about the intensity of clients feelings are conveyed
by the degree of vocal emphasis they place on them. Some clients, who are very out of
touch with their capacity to feel, may communicate in lather flat and distant voices.

r Feelings words and phrase: A godd but not infallibk, way to discover what a client feels is
g to listen to their feelings words ahil phrtises Feelings words include happy, sad, angry'
lonely, anxious, depressed. Feelings phraies are groupings of words that describe feelings.
 . Physical reactions words: Counsellors can also identify feelings by listening to clients'
physical reaction rvords. Clients may describe physical reactions with words like tense,
tired, pounding heart ad headache.

. Feelings idioms: Feelings idioms are everyday expressions or turns of phrase used to
communicate feelings. For example, "I'm over the moon" is a feelings idiom describing
the emotion ofjoy.
. Feelings imagery: Clients can intentionally use visual images to conjure up and
communicate feelings. The visual image provides a frame for understanding the feelings
content of their messages. For instance, to describe and illustrate embarrassment, clients
might use the image of 'I felt like crawling into a comer' or 'I felt like running out of the
room'.

(ii) Reflecting feetings

A simple guideline for reflecting feelings is to start responses with the personal pronoun
'you' to indicate being 'as if inside a client's internal frames of reference. Whenever possible,
counsellors should try to communicate back a client's main feeling. Even though clients may not
start with their main feeling, they may fe€l better understood if counsellors reflect their matn
feeling at the beginning of their response.
Counsellors should try to reflect the strength of feelings. For instance, after a ro1r, the
client may feel 'devastated' (strong feeling), 'upse!' (weak feeling). Sometimes clients use n any
words to describe their feelings. The words may cluster around the same theme, in which case one
may chose to reflect the crux of the feeling. Alternatively, clients may verbalize varying egrees of
mixed feelings ranging from simple opposites, for instance, 'happy/sad' to more complex
combinations such as 'hurUanger/guilt'. Good reflections pick up all key elements of feelings
messages. On occasions counsellors can assist speakers to find the right way to express their
feelings. Here reflecting feelings involve helping clients to choose feelings words that resonate for
them. Sometimes counsellors can reflect clients' feelings and reasons that they offer for them. A
simple way of doing thrs is to make a 'You feel...because...' statement that mirrors their internal
frame of reference.

It is crucial that counsellors check the accuracy of their reflections of feelings. Counsellors
can respond to their clients' feelings staternents with differing degrees of tentativeness depending
on how clearly the feelings were communicated and how confident they feel about receiving these
messages accurately.

An important consideration in reflecting feelings is to understand whether and to what

ext€nt clients possess insight into thems€lves; for example, acknowledging shame, anger, hun or
betrayal. Counsellors need to be sensitive about how much reality clients can handle at any given
moment in the helping process. Counselors can threaten clients. by prematurely or clumsily
reflecting foelings that they experience difficulty in acknowledging.

6.2.3 ASKING QUESTIONS

'
/ Questions have the..potential to damage counselling relationship sometimes beyond repair. For
example, insufficiently skilled counsellors may ask a series of questions, scarcely listen to the answers and
then go off on another tangent whether or not clients see this as relevant. ln addition, clients resent
intfusive questioning about sensitive personal matters.
 that
euestions usually are divided into tw,r categories: closed and open. Closed questions are those
with a yes or a no, for example, "Did you have a good time last night?" This category also
. can b,e answered
mav include "either/or" questions, for example. "were you relieved or disappointed that the family reunion
u,las lcanceled?" Open questions require a lengthier answer on the behalf of the responder. The most
freqirently used beings with an interrogative pronoun - what, how or why.

(a) huestions about communications and actions

. Ouestions
- about clients' communication and actions aim to elicit specific details of how they
Uenjue. Oflen clients' repons are .vague and fhey require assistance in becoming more specific.
Sor4etimes counsellors are poor at assisting clients o discover what actually happened in situations and so
the Vagueness persists.

(b) Interspersing activ€ list€ning with questlons

Clients ieel iirtenogated when counsellors ask aseries of questions in quick succession.
Counsellors can greaaly soften their questioning if they pause to see if clients wish to continue responding
and then reflect each response. Interspersing active listening has the added advantage of ensuring that
counsellors check the accuracy of their understanding. Questioning that is logically linked to clients'
responses creates a feeling of working together rather than being directed by a counsellor. At the end of
asking questions to clarify problem situations, counsellors can surnrnariz€ the main Points and check with
clients about the accuracy and completeness of their summaries'

6.2.4 SI,JMMARZINC SKILLS

Summaries are brief statements about longer excerpts from counselling sessions. Summaries pull
together, clariS and reflect back different parts of a series of client statements either during a discussion
unit, at the end of a discussion unit or at the beginning or end of counseling sessions.
Summaries at the start of the session help to move the session forward. Such summaries may
mirror back to clients segments of what they have said, check and clarify understanding or identify themes,
problem areas and problem situations. Furthermore, if clients tell their stories very rapidly, counsellors
may deliver summaries at a measured spec rate to calm clients down. Such summades tie together the
main feelings and content of what clients say. Basic reflection summaries serve a bridging function for
clients enabling them to con*inue with the same topic or move to another. Other function include making
sure counsellors listen accurately, rewarding clients and clarifying both parties' understanding' Another
useful summarizing skill for early in helping is to be able to provide an overview of different problem
areas. Furthermore, summaries can provide a basis for asking clients to prioritize either which problem is
most important or where they want to focus first'

6.3 THE OTHER SKILI"S

Although the basic skills described previously sometimes are sufficient to engender growth and
change, it often is useful for counsellors to have other skills in their repertoires that facilitate such growth
and change. The other skills that are essential are personalizing, confrontation, focusing and influencing.

6.i.1 PERSoNAuz[.lc
- According to Carkhuff, personalizing -can be seen as a series of steps. These steps range from
peponatizing meaning, personalizing problems] personalizing goals, personalizing feelings and then to the
goil of counselee understanding. Following these steps or using these cornponenti results in taking
corlnsellors' basic demonstration of empathy bcyond reflecting thoughts and feelings to helping clients see
thdr roles in whatever situations they are describing. Rather than saying, 'you feel excited because you are
goihg on a long dreamed of trip next week," counsellors might say, "you feel excited because you took the
initiative and planned a trip you have dreamed of for many years." Adding the "you" moves the reflection
 6;7

toward helping clients accept responsibility for their actions - posirive or negative - and there by increases
their self-understanding. Being able to use this technique effectively requircs tracking, that is, keeping
track of themes or recurring patterns in clients' behaviour or feelings.

6.3.2 CONFRONTATION
Ivey (1994) defined confrontation as the "ability to identify incongruity, discrepancies or mixed
messages in behaviour, thoughts, feelings or meanings." It is also defined as a response that enables the
client to face, that which is being avoided.
The incongruities addressed by confrontation may include discrepancies between two nonverbal
behaviours, between two verbal statements, between wbat one says and what one does, between verbal and
nonverbal behaviour, or between statements and the context.
Confrontation often can lead the client not only to self-understanding but also to taking action.
This does not always happen automatically. It often requires specific action during counselling sessions

6.3.3 FOCUSING
Ivey and Ivey (1999) present focusing as a way of directing client attention, that is, encouraging the
client to address certain areas rather than others. The idea of focusing is that the counsellor chooses the
. arena to pursue rather than letting the cli€nt continue in a particular direction. Focusing on a variety of
perspectives serues to increase clienis' understanding of the complexity of their issues and perhaps of their
wodd in general.
For Gendlin (1981), focusing is a technique to foster attention and concenfiation. Gendlin
identified 6 steps of focusing:
1. Clearing a space: Relax, set side concems, and focus on awareness of feelings.
2. Sensing: Select a problem, stand back from it, and feel.
3. Handling: Irt
a word or an image describe the feeling. Stick with it'until the word or image fits
just right.
4. Resonating: Go back and forth betwe€n the felt sense and the word or image. Check for accuracy
and allow either to change until it again feels just right.
5. Asking: Ask what it is about this problem that leads to this feeling or image. Stick with tbe
question until there is a sense of body shift or release.
6. Receiving: Stay with it and experience the release.
The skill of focusing then leads "back" to other skills - reflecting the feelings expressed, asking questions
about them and so forth.

6.3.4 INFLUENCING
All counsellor-client interactions llave the potential of influencing clients. When counsellors
respond to feelings, they influence clients to focus on feelings; when counsellors ask questions, they
determine the direction of subsequent conversations. The purpose of discussing influencing as a basic skill
is to make this process a.s conscious as possible so that counsellors are not influ€ncing out of their own
unconscious needs and that counsellors can belery careful not to be manipulative in their influence. Ivey
and Ivey (1999) identified six influencing skills:

l. Inter?retation-/reframing: Counsellors can assist clients in seeing their concems or issues in a new
way by using reframing. It is important to avoid overly optimistic or false reassurances, but
counsellors often can see other perspectives that may be useful to clients.
2. Iagical Consequences: Counsellors here are helping clients to understand the probabilities of
_ certain outcomes of behaviour. For example, one might say to an angry child, "if you smack your
younger sister when she touches your toys, you will probabty get in trouble. Is it worth it?"
Centre for Distance Education

used with geat caution' The standard

3. Self- disclosure: This rs an influencing sffategy that must b€
disclosure is to help the client rather than
rule of rhumb here i. to O" ,ur" it ut tt J motiviaon for the
might be to facilitate more client
to meet the counsellor,s n"Jr. rr," purpose of self-disclosure
new student l mad€ an
,.ti-Jir.rorur", for exampl", 'that happeneO to me when I was a
helpful to have assistanc€ in rethinking
aDoorntmenr with an acade#c Jul."r uira found it really
my major and mY academic goals'"
4'Feedl,ack:Thisentailsgivingclientsinformationonwhatcounsellorseeandhear.Thismaybe
' on h:w
rrr-"g if," observationi thai counsellors have made or providingininformation
this respect' Feedback'client
may
shtements might b" re"rtnJ by oth"'s; it is similar to selfdisclosure
when counsellors believe that there is enough trust developed
with clients to
be given at any time
b€ able to use the information'

5.Informationorsuggestions:Therearetimeswhencounsellorshaveinformationthatwouldbe
usefultoclients.Attimessuchasthese,itisappropriateforcounsellorstotellclientswhatthey
know rather withhold the rnio.*ution. it't"." typ"r
- -But
of int".uentions move the process awaV tr-om
selfdiscovery, so they must usJ with caution. at carefully selected times,.they are a critical
important for counsellors to remember
addition to the array of counselling skills' However' it is
that advice is useful only when it is sought'
6.Directives:Theseaferequeststoclientstoperformsomeactions.counsellorsmightgive
of losing control or
.,homework,, assignments t; keep track of times when clients fell on the verge
productivity at work'
to note what conditions seemed o lead to a greater sense of

oncecounsellorsacquiresomebasiccounsellingskills,theyarechallengedtobecomeevenmorc and
skilled. However, they work tn nunl"-ut context an; roles' have
widely disparate backgrounds
consequently, any suggestions for
;;;;;";", and aiso differ in their motivation ro improve rheir skills.
counsellors' evaluations of their current
##;;;;;; .tlrrJ be taken in the context;f individual
i"""r"ffi-"g ,tifft "."0
*d also of their personal agendas, work segments and career aspirations'

6.4 SUMMARY
. and for helping them to
All counsellors require basic counselling skills for relating to clients
understand their concerns.
.Counsellor,sbodymessagesareimportantbothwhenlisteningtoandrespondingtoclients.Tobe
arewardingpersonwlthwhomclientsexpresswillingnesstotalk,counsellorsneedtophysically
convey their emotional availability and interest'
. Actiye listening entaiis ct.:unsellors in not only accurately understanding
speakers' communication,
but also showing that they have understood
. Questions have the potential to damage counselling
relationship sometimes beyond repair'
. questions require a
closed questions are those that can be answered vrith a yes or a no. open
lengthier answer on the behalf of the responder'
.Summarizingasaskil|clarifiesandleflectsbackdifferentpartsofaseries.of.clientstatements
eitherduringadiscussionunit,attheendofadiscussionunitoratthebeginningorendof
counseling sessions.
. personalizing as a skill ranges from personalizing meaning, problems, goals and feelings of the
client leadin! to the goal of counselee understanding'
 ' Confrontation as a skill is the ability to identify incongruity, discrepancies or mixed messages in
behaviour, thoughts, feelings or meanings.

' Focusing is directing client attention, that is, encouraging the client to address certain areas rather
than others.
r Influencing as a basic skill is to make the counselling process as conscious as possible so that
counsellors are not influencing out of their own unconscious needs and that counsellors can be very
careful not to be manipulative in their influence.

6.5 TECHNICAL TERMS

. Reflection Minoring the emotional content ofthe client,s
statements

t Paraphrasing Rewording the crux of the client's message

. Focusing Encouraging the client to address certain

tian others
areas

. Confrontation ability to identify incongruity, discrepancies

Or mixed messages in behaviour, thoughts,
feelings or meanings.

. Summarizing Clarifies and reflects back different parts of a

series of client statements

6.6 MODEL QI]ESTIONS

l. Define Counselling skills? What are the basic counselling skills
2. Active Listening plays an important role in Counselling? Discuss the various listening skills
involved in Counselling.
3. Discuss the various counselling skills with examples.

REFERENCE BOOKS
|' Jones, R.N. Bcsic Counselling Skills - A Helper's Manual. New Delhi: SAGE Publications.
2. Narayana Rao, S (1991). Counselling and Guidance. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill Publishrng
Company Limited.
3. Patterson, L.E., Welfel, E.R. (2000). The Counselling Process. Bombay: Thomson Asia Pte
Ltd.
LESSON . T
COUNSELLING INTERVIEW
7.0 OBJECTIVES
. To understand the various interviewing techniques in counselling
. To understand the various factors affecting the counselling intervlew

STRUCTURE
7.1 lntroduction
7.2 Interviewing - Its essential aspecas
7.3 Non-verbal communication in interview
7.4 Interviewing techniques in counselling
7.5 Structuring the counselling relationship
7.6 kading
7.? Counsellee-Counsellor relationship
7.8 RelationshiP Techniques
7.9 Summary
7.10 Technical Terms
7.ll Model Questions
?.12 Reference Books

7.1 INTRODUCTION
purposes. In a
An interview is a face-to-face technique of obtaining information for a variety of
interview, the counselee, after hiving been put at ease, is encouraged to talk
freely. The
counselling
"^rurn",
the attitude of an interested, empathic and friendly listener. The essential characteristic
of a counselling intervrew consists in its being non-judgemental and non-evaluative. The counsellor
"oun."lo,
empathizes with"the counselee's emotional needs. He makes the counsellee aware
of being unconditionally
The counselor is concemed equally with what the counselee tries to express but fails
to
i.idJ understanding
communicate. The counselor is basically conierned with the clarifrcation, interpretation and
or stress
of the counsellee,s feelings, ideas and longings. In this process, there is no place for any anxiety
being put on the counselee.

7.2 INTERVIEiYING - ITS ESSENTIAL ASPECTS

(a) Association of Ideas Contained within the Intenlew

It is a common practice with counsellors to review the counselling session and such a review
reveals several interesting features of the counselling interview. For instance, the interview
may appear
pattem of consistency. The association of ideas
disjointed and repetitive bt-rt careful observation reveals a
bting to U" iore the counsellee's feelings which he may not be disposed to express otherwise.
-uy
(b) Shifts in Conv€rsation
The counsellee may appear to be rambling in his conversation, which may seem senseless' A
review of this could reveal ;ig;ificant material. What kinds of shifts did the client make? When did
such
shifts usually take place? Was the client trying to cover up something by changing the topic or was he
trying to iniroduc" n"* .ut"riul to help ilu.ify what was said earlier? Shifts also could suggest the
sensjtive areas of the client's experience.
( c) Opening and Closing Remarks
These remarks of the client may apparently mean nothing. However, the counselror may obtain a
srgnificant insight when reviewing thesi opening or closing remarks. For instance, they Inuy ,oggest
reluctance on the part of the client or they may indicate his insincerity.

(d) Recurrent Reference

When a client refers to a particular idea or experience in the course of the counselling interview several
times, it may be of special significance.

(e) Inconsistencies and Gaps

Some of them may appear self-contradictory but inconsistencies and gaps could suggest resistance or
traumabc exPenences, which the client unwittingly discloses in the conversation. During the interview the
counsellor may not realize the significance of such material.

(0 Review
In review, the counsellor is more likely to appreciate the concealed meaning of the client's statements or
inconsistencies or gaps in his conversation. In verbal communication the counsellor should also notice the
rapid or lhe halting way in which the client speaks the gaps in the speech and differences in tone and vorce,
which could provide a wealth of information.

7.3 NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION IN INTERVIEW

From the verbal material obtained in the interview the counsellor could gain significant insighr into
problem areas or disturbances in the client. While verbal expression is eloquent und dir"t, non--verbal
expressions could sometimes be more revealing. There have been instances when speech has been
misunderstood. And even if speech is not misunderstood, it cannot be assumed that all feelinss can be
adequately verbalized. Hence a counsellor should be alert to take note of the non-verbal commrinicarions
made by the client howsoever random and irrelevant they may appeiu. Non-verbal behaviour grows out of
the counselling relationship. Understanding of non-verbal communication is basically related to factors,
such as sensitivity, training and skill of the counsellor. Non-verbal communication provides for an intuirrve
understanding of the counsellee, and its importance, therefore, is enormous.

7.4 INTERVIEWING TECHNIQUES IN COI]NSELLING

Counselling techniques concern the specific procedures and skills employed by the counsellor in
securing his counselling goals or objectives. There could be variations in the techniques employed by
different counsellors, which could be either owing to subjective factors, such as responsibility, iea&ng ot
planning statements of the counsellor or to the specific nature of the counsellee's problem, or to b;th.
However, there is always a danger of t'.c^ . . .oo technique-oriented. This approach sometimes makes
.
the counsellor's position look ridiculous in his blind adherence to thumb-rules or fixed formulae. Similar
techniques cannot be applied to all clients. There is a subjective element involved in the choice of a
specific technique by the counsellor. usually counsellors develop varying styles based on their
appreciation of the counsellee's needs. The different techniques, at any time, are iir the constant process of
empirical validation.

The individual character of each technique can be identified from the time the counsellee makes his
first contact. This is a crucial stage and the imporlance of the 'opening technique' cannot be
overemphasized. How does tbe counsellor make his first move? In other words, how does he establish a
feeling of trust? There could be different techniques of securing the trusr of the client but it would be
fruitless to try to explain or describe them as they grow out of the counsellor's experiences and become
imDoftantskills.Forexample,somecounsellorsgoouttoreceivetheirclientswhentheyarrive'others
warmly greet them and yet others just smile at them'

three approaches may be good and successful -in securing

rapport and a feeling of.trust'
All the
others may not be very much corc-emed with
Some clienm may react warmly to ihJ"oo"i"llot't '"t"ption;
'il;-;;; Would it be
t,. q"&ion is thar oi breaking the ice. What kind of topics should be talked about? on
brief
trt" counsettin! ..ision straightaway. ot *ouid it help to have a conversation
t".
;;;;; ;i;d""it"rs ease? Counselling is a
ion-uffotiu" such that tn" Ztient feels cimfortable and puts hirnself at
positive progress, individual
JiJ"g"" *r,t o porpor" ano ttre counseltor is responsible for facilitating
rcsponses are more significant.

7.5 STRUCTURJNG TIIE COTJNSELLING RELATIONSHIP

Structuringdescrib".uny'tut"*"ntuythecofins€llor.thatletstheclientknowwhattoexpectofthe
and goals" of
coun.e ing. It may address "the nature, conditions, limits,
pro"".. -i our"in,", ofhelps purposeful. According to corey (1991)"'All the
!"""*ni"g. Structuring to keei the conversation
of strucnre in the counselling
1o *L in U;iJagreement on the npd for some type
"ppi"""-ft"i
e'xperience,
".."."ttiig
although they disagree over its nature and degr€e-"

exp€ct of counsalling' Others

Many clients arrive at a counsellor's office having no idea what to
iaaerson_(1974) has observed that many clients
arrive with unreasonable o, inupiiopriu," expectations.
who will give them-advice and solve their
;;;G;;; -a;;;;ith counselling'think of counsellors as experts

ilil;;. of a counsel-tor,s earliesr statemenrs to a client will suggest how the client might
clients lose momentum
oarticioate and what the counsellor will contribute to the conversation. when
maintaining the motivation to work on their concems or to move to a
["J"g""*"*rrr"g,
-ir^gt they need help in
."* i
rrt"tiior", -uybi necessary foi the counsellor to retum to structuring at various times
throughout counselling.

(a) STRUCTURING AT THE BEGINNING OF COUNSELLING

*' - the pattem of how_they will
ourirrg tr,e firrt coople of se."ions, tt e ctient ana counsellor establish
usually initiate specific discussion
work togetheri With adoleicent and aduli clients, the counsellor will
the counselling,
utoui length and frequency of counselling sessions, projected duration o.f
limits are usuallv
counsettli resionsiUititiei, ani possible out"-o'oo. With children, action
"ol,nO"ntiufity,
-J
"ii""i the counsellod')' Also, wording
oi*"..J* *"ff (for erample, "You'may not brcak the equi*nent or hit
of the other elements of strutture must be adjusted to the clienf s ability
to comprehend.

confidentialityfreesclientstotdlkaboutpersonalaspectswitttoutthefea'thatwhattheysaywill
ue ,"p"ut"a to others who might use the informaion against them
or think less well of them as a result.
other time it is introduced by the client
i-ir"ri..ing conna"ntiality eariy in the counselling procJss and any
i. it important. biscuision of the time ira-e for counselling tells the client what.to expect and
","foi"perspective for how.he or she will choose to use counselling. The most complex structuring
p;;;id* itself. Wallace (1986)
"
skills are those that convey to tne ciient what to expect of the counselling proc€ss
understanding that therapy is-a collaborative
*yr1t ur.t1"n . .hould leave the initial interview with a clear
in the therapeutic process, and that, although there is
eriort, tt ut tt are exp€cted to be active participants
"y
certainty reason to hope, there is no promise of success"'

(b) STRUCTI,JRING I.ATER IN THE COIJNSETIING PROCESS

to reaffirm or
structuring later in the counselling process serves to rcassure about confidentiality,
renegotiate time parameters, to remind ihe client of the nature of the
process, and_-to reinforce the
roles of the participants or to move counselling forward to a new stage. A
client who is about
il;prt""
 for Distance Education

to reveal i .rrticularly sensitive aspects may want to hear his or her counsellor reiterate the conditions of
privacy that prevail. The counsellor and client should also discuss periodically the client's progress related
to the initially planned duration of counselling and perhaps revise the plan.

7.6 LEADING
A counsellor is typically confronted every few seconds during a counselling session with a choice about
how to respond to the content and affect of what the client has just said. The potential range of choices is
infinite, and usually several responses have positive potential for advancing the counselling.

Robinson (19500 coined the tem leading to describe the counsellor's selection of a response that
anticipates the client's readiness to benefit from a particular kind of response. The concept of leading
includes the proposition that there is "a critical region, just ahead of but not too far ahead of the client,
where th€rapy takes place most efficiently". kad refers to the kind of communication, verbal or otherwise,
made by the counsellor which helps, invit€s, directs or prods the client towards making a response.

Robinson (1950) used a football analogy to describe what he meant by leading. When throwing the
football, the passer anticipates where the receiver will be when the ball arrives and throws the ball out
ahead of the receiver (leads the receiver) so that the ball and the receiver arriye at the same place at the
same time. Analogously, Robinson advised the counsellor to estimate where the client is going next and to
formulate a response that will intersect with the client's path and further his or her progress. The analogy
can be extended to include the concept of length of lead. If a counsellor underestimates the pace of a
client's progress, he or she forces the client to slow down and react to a statement that from the client's
viewpoint reeds no further work - much like a pass receiver must slow his pace or retrace his foot-steps to
catch a pass that is under thrown. If a counsellor overestimates a client's pace, he or she may make a
statement that is beyond the client's ability to cornprehend and intemalize, and the client may become
confused and defensive. When trying to estimate a client's leading edge, a counsellor includes everything
that has occurred in his or her experience with the client that the client intended as siEns.

(a) CONTINUUM OF LEAD

Some responses stay very close to what the client has just said and introduce vely little of the
counsellor's thoughts and feelings; other responses take a rather large step from the client's most recent
statement and introduce a considerable amount of the counsellor's perspective. Robinson (1950) suggested
that it is useful to arrange all fypes of response on a continuum from least leading to most leading, thereby
creating reference points that facilitate the choice of slightly more or less leading responses as they are
needed in counselling sessions. Such a continuum provides a convenient system f<-rr comparing the impact
of different counsellor responses. The various counsellor responses are silence, acceptance, restatement,
empathy affrmation, immediacy, interpretation, confrontation, reassurance etc.

It is important to realize that all categories of response indicated on the continuum of lead are
useful and appropriate at some time in the counselling process; none should be thought of as "good" or
"bad," "right" or "wrong". The degree of lead - that is, the distance the counsellor moves toward the most
leading end of the continuum - will depend on the client's readiness, the kind of concem being discussed,
and the predisposition of the counsellor.

The counsellor's decision about length of lead is related to effectiveness and efficiency. On the
one hand, it is important to keep length of lead modest enough to stay in contact with the client; on the
othpr hand, the longer the lead that can be achieved. It is generally recommended that inexperienced
counsellors make conservative judgments (short length of lead) while gaining expetience, because
 excessive numbers of longer leads can frigbten clients and preclude effectiveness
of counsolling. l,onger
leads become safer once diagnostic abilities have been honed through experience'

7.7 COUNSELLEE.COUNSELLOR RELATIONSHIP

The success of the counselling interuiew largely depends on the nature of the relationship between
The
the counsellor and the counsellee, thelatter's readiness to communicate and his real desire to improve
relationship, which reflects permissiveness
essence of the counselling interview lies in securing an effective
(tolerance and indulgencJ) and warmth. This relationship, if established, aids in resolving the counsellee's
problems so that hJshe is able to bring about greater personal balance, more frustration-tolerance. anil
Ltter integration of his personality. ThG means the cbunsellee has less anxiety: less unrealistic behaviour
and can resolve a number of his or her conflicts.

The crux of the problem lies in establishing an effective counselling relationship. Counsellors as
individuals bring into the situation their own needs, values, anxieties and conflicts. Some of them have
other roles to p-lay such as those of a teacher, parent, or supervisor outside the counselling situation.
Naturally, they wiil introject the attitudes of the concerned roles. They may interpret counsellee symptoms
as impuisive, obstinate and irrational. They may have rigid expectations conceming how
people should
conduit themselves and these could come in the way of establishing a good relationship, which is
characterized as an unconditional acceptance. Individuals as teachers and supervisors accept or praise
pupils or others so long as they conform to the norms expected of them. Such acceptance is called
ionditional acceptance. This is not expected of a counsellor in a counselling. situatioo What-is expected of
him is his unconditional acceptance of the client, that is, the counsellor does not prescribe or demand
compliance to his expectations. For example, the parent accepts his child and showers concem and
affection, notwithstanaing the fact that the child has committed an enor or misbehaved. For the parent,
he/shq is hiVher child, and this relationship does not end because of the misdeeds or mistakes committed by
the child. The parent's affection is unconditional. This does not preclude the fact that a parent may
experience unhappiness and misery owning to hivher child's behaviour.

7.8 RELATIONSHIP TECHNIQUES

The goal of the counsellor is to bring about the desirable change in the client's behaviour. The
behaviour eitrititeA by the client as a result of counselling is the proof of his acceptance and action as
influenced by the terhniques designed by the counsellor.

Rogers (1942) stresses the importance of relationship techniques, the first among which is the
reflection o1feeling. The client usually talks about his feelings in an unconcerned way as if his feelings are
sometl$ng apart from himself. This method selves as a defense mechanism. The counsellor, by trying to
make thJclient reflect on his own feelings, directs the attention of the client to himself. He makes the
client see that the feelings are part of the subjective self, and when once understood and aPpreciated, they
cease to be bothersome. But ihis is very difficult to accomplish. It is not only intangible but also very
subtle. The counsellor, according to Rogers (1951), attempts to minor the client's attitudes and feelings for
his improved self-understanding. The word 'mirror' is very important in this context. Notwithstanding the
fact that several mirors distort, sometimes grotesquely, the counsellol is supposed to be like a neutral
surface reflecting the client's feelings back to him such that he is able to gain a better understanding of
---bi:nself.

The second relationship technique between the counsellor and the client is the conveying of
dxperience through both verbal and non-verbal means. Clients' verbal or non-verbal behaviour conveys
feilings. The counsellor, on his part, may also communicate by reflecting his experience, employing the
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same means. There could be concordance or harmony between what is said verbally and what ts
communicated non-verbally. Often what is said verbally may not be reflected in the nonverbal gestures.
This common experience with human beings has often led to the pelplexing picture of discordant
reflections of experience. What is said verbally may not be really communicated through th€ non-verbal
channels of communication of gestures, tone, voice, posture and the like. It, therefore, becomes necessary
for the counsellor to acquire the skills and perfect them such that he is sensitive to the non-verbal
communication employed by the client to reflect experience.

7.8,T SPECIAL REI.ATIONSHIP PROBLEMS

While the counsellor may use and apply his chosen technique with all the wisdom and skill at his
comrnand, it is often found that certain psychological phenomena aid or limit his efforts. More otten than
not, counsellors are baffled when they encounter such situations t'hich ,usually hinder the process of
counselling, The phenomena, namely, transference, counter-lransf ercn:e ard rlsist:nce ltave been
rdentified as special relationship problems. It is recognized that counselling cannot ignore the special
relationship problems and they are considered to be as valid to counselling as they are to psychoanalysis.

(a) TRANSFERENCE
Transference is the "repetition of past relationships with significant others such that these earlier
feelings, behaviours, and attitudes are 'transfered' or projected onto the therapist or others outside the
therapeutic setting". Transference could be positive or negative in nature. Positive transference involves
the expression of feelings of affection or dependency, and negative transference involves the expression of
feelings of hostility and aggression towards the counsellor.

When a counsellor meets an oppositional client for the first time, what occurs often seems irrational
to the counsellor, as it would to an impanial observer looking in on the session. The counsellor offers an
accepting welcome, attends caringly to the client's communications, shows genuine interest in the client
and the difficulties he or she is experiencing, and expresses empathy for his or her situation. In r€tum, the
client is often initially sullen. silent, belligerent, or overly compliant ('lust tell me what you want from
me").

To undelstand why the counsellor is treated like an enemy when he or she acts more like a friend,
we look to the client's predisposition that the counsellor will be uncaring and demanding. Two kinds of
reaction are typical. The first and more common is a hostile stance testing each new authority figure and
putting him or her at a distance. The other is excessive compliance, perhaps initially based on the
misguided hope that doing exactly what is requested will win elusive acceptance. But compliant
personalities lose control of their own lives and, when things do not work out, often respond, "I only did
what you told me to do." Either reaction is detrimental to counselling because the former mtlitates against
the quick formation of the trusting relationship (therapeutic alliance) and the latter leads to depondency.
Dependent clients look to the counsellor for answers and do little productive work on theil conce.-"l.

THERAPEUTIC FUNCTIONS OF TRANSFERENCE

Strong transferences towards the counsellor are often complicated. But transference of a less
intense nature serves to build the relationship by allowing the client to eKpress distorted feeling without the
usual counter-defensive responses. Transference promotes the client's confidence in the counsellor through
his handling of the transference feelings. Such feeiings help to amplify the client's emotional involvement
with the problem and enable him to continue the counselling relationship. Transference further helps the
client become aware of the origin of his.feelings in his present life situation through interpretation.
 This will enable the client to
The primary technique tor resolving.the T-tf."t*"" 1:-1T^"ltance' feelings belong to him_self and not to
live or act out his feelings. The client ,""ogiir.,
that the transference
conceming what ihe ctrent
the counsellor. More ftequently il';;;;il;;"
ask clarifying ouesdons
'.il";;;i"r;;fl*,,
-if'" tr," tt-ir"."n"" feeling and by his process the
manifests in the form of anxrery. directly'
loun*"tto' tuy intemret the transference feeling
client sains more insight into no f""iingt' eartier interpersonal relationships and
The obiect of this is to th"".!i"ltlH.h,;;;;;.;e "iilnt's
"ralirv
his present behavlour'

(b) CbUNTER-TRANSFERENCE
Counsellorsottenexpene-ncerelationship-blockingemotionswhenfacedwithareludantc|ient.
whether counselling will succeed
The counsellor has a reality-uased concem ab'lut ""d lh:t-.]^"1]"*
On_ the other hand, the counsellor may
exPenence
;;;;;;;i-f" ,ng *j"",JA by another person.
,h;';ii;;, il; ;att rorttr to respond- in authoritadan
counrer-transference reacrions . tris or her tendency
Such counter-transference reactions
qt*l)-*-lJ:'
(conrolling parent) or a"p"na"n"i-iu-ii'Ji"g-A"ritfto"'
the nurturing process, and as with ffansference' the
are based on the counsellor's unresolved feelings about
roots of the feelings are largely beyond the counsellor's awareness'

Counter-transference is the projection of the counsellors

feelings t-o11ds t!: cllenl-
l]t:1^:
the

reacting in a similar fasiion as the client transferring his feelings.

Counter-transterence.
.oonr"tto, l,
therefore, reiers to the emotionar reJrons and projections
of the counsellor to the client. This could be a

serioushandicaptotheclient'stransferenceinthecounsellingprocess.Thecounselleebyhisbehaviour
to the counsellee affectively, which
n]"y i"_i"o the co|nsellor of some past €xperience and he may react
mayoe"ittrel.positiveornegative..Thecounsellormayviewthecounselleeasanimpulsive,headstrong giving is a
uni ,etn"n iniividual_ Thls is an instance of counter-transf'erence. Compulsive advice I
take an "if were you"
;;"p,i;;, and subtle form of counter-transference. counsellors tend to easilyfeeling is th€ idea that the
;;r;;h ;""" in the counselling relationships. A common counter{ransference
must somehow like the counsellor and be pleased with him'
"ounsellee
What are the sources oI counter-transference?
the need for
1. The counsellor's unresolved personal problems may be one source and they indicate
counselling the counsellor.
his latenr feeling:
2. Situationaipressures coinciding with the counsellor's problems may aggravate
his feelings to the counselli'."'
3. Counter-transfbr"n"" auy
"*uiut"
while the client is communicating
tbr sympainy
If the counsellor tends to be overly sympathetic it could be because of the underlying need
and attention on his part. The counsellor's value-structure could be a velitable source of cotitter-
Lransference.

RESOLVING COUNTER-TRANSFERENCE FEELINCS

of the counseilol
After an awareness of the feelings of counter-ransfelence the first step consistsfeelings
..Why is it so?" The coinsellor must accept the fact that he has varied about the
asking himself,
experience. The counsellor must be aware that
clieniand that he wiil change somewhat by the counselling
his anxieties could arise from insecurity in the counselling role'

possibility that
Every counsellor who feels uneasy about his responses to a client should admit the
p.oj."tront. All ihat may be riecessary is to admit this possibility
his comments are a fomr of his own
frarrtty ana arte'pr ro ch.irge. Though thire is no objectrve evidence to indicate that It
is uselul to discuss
refelence,
:ount.r-tranrl'"ren.e feeiingi with th; client it is found to be a mild, reassuring and intelpretative
reflected through the
reipfut rn allaying anxiet"vl The counsellor ian use bis own awareness of himself as
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therapeutic process to enhance his own growth and

resolve his difficulties. counter-transference
sometimes be handled easily by asking the;lient to discuss can
the problems in group therapy situations.

(c ) RESISTANCE
The term 'resistance' was rsed by Freud (1g03) to
indicate the unconscious opposition in bringing
material from the domain of rhe id into tire ego. iesisianc"
i.
of the eg<i. According to Brodin (1968), .,i.esistanc" i, tt. "*fir*o * on" or *,"-iroi"cti;;H;;,rr"
directly, realistically and construcrivetlr^tll
i.i."tion th";;;;i;idiriry ..0*f
impurses as thef appear"fduring the process of the*py.,,
lu
Resistance is an unconscious process whose pulpose is to prot;t' t-hi client rr"', r,"jri"g-i.
claim feelings and motivations that have rooti in hi. o. t er'p^t. ,.Resistance "-J"rJ ""0
words and behaviours of the client that prevents access
i""r"J", &"rytrr]'"g"i" tn"
to un"onr"rou. material,,and thus resistzmce
opposes the purposes of counselling. It is an intrapsychic process
that is experienced by a1 crients, norjust
reluctant ones. A client who has urges toward growih anj completeness
nevertheless still fears the pain of
recalling traumatic materiar and resists abandon'ing the certain jresent _
of facing the past or anticipating an unknown futurc.
*itr, ali i;;;;"ri"". _ ii"r*"",
SOI]RCE OF RESISTANCE
when the client perccives the counsellor or the situation or the specific topic
as threatemng,
resistance is exhibited. It could be either internal or external in origin. Intemal
resistance is the inctinatron
of anxious clients to withdraw from usually distasteful attempts to iek and to modify pattern.
.iil"ir""i.*
or personality structure. It, therefore, represents a fear of growing or of not wishing io setr-supportive.
the
common forms of pretence are also instanc€s of internal resistance. Extemal resiitance
o.ouliy g.o*. out
of poor techniques of coping on the prn of the client. Resistance may also result from lack of rcidiness
on
the part of the client. There are also r'rr.(ed sources of resistana., *hi.h may imply intemal resistance,
in
addition to external resistance. Knowing the sources of resistance would be of ionsiderabte value to the
counsellor in understanding the real nature of the problem he has to deal with.

FUNCTIONS OF RESISTANCE
Resistance has a defensive function for the client. Apart from this it also has value for the counsellor.
lt
gives an indication of the progress of the counselling interview. Resistance, if known to the counsellor,
off'ers valuable interPretative information. From the point of view of the client, resistance acts as a
protective mechanism to keep acute anxiety under control. Resistance may manifest itself in a number of
ways, which are usually negative. The most significani manifestation of resistance is silence or refusal to
speak or communicate. Resistance may take other forms as well, like refusing to get emotionally involved,
not being cooperative, maintaining a persistent aloof attitude, etc. Bugental 1i952j postulates five levels of
resistance varying from lagging, through inertia, tentative resistance, true resistance, to rejection. At the
lagging level the client is found to transfer responsibility to the counsellor. The response pattem is one of
distractions and slowness in responding. The inertia level exhibits a strong sense of disinterest
demonstrated by such behavioural signs as monosyllabic answers, disregard of counsellor leads etc.
Tentative resistance is indicated by behaviour, such as argumentation, exhibition of physical tension,
expression of hostility in an inhibited form and the like. True resistance is exhibited bv withdrawn
behaviour or by making vague or diffused answers to counsellor questrons. Rejection is the ixtreme form
of resistance which is exhibited by refusal to communicatd sufficiently in spite of pirsistent and persuasive
attempts on the part of the counsellor.

HANDLING RESISTANCE
Several techniques ar€ suggested for handling resistance.
 technigue is. another nP: f- isnorins the resistance by the
1. The noting but disregarding has muc-h to lolse because he will not be
counsellor. The counsellor, by resorting to this approach'
able to break through the resistance by merely
ignoring it'
2. In the minor adaptations re"n"iq"", til" ;;;".eiior aciively tries to reduce the client's resistance by
such technique consists of reducing the emotiolal.
impact
whate./er methods h"
"un "Inpidy.'one from the affective area' Another
of the discussion by movrng rnJ'" to*utOt the cognitive realm clients may experience
minor modification is to cnanle the pace of tra=nsactiol. .sometimes
such a situation a change in pace would naturally
'tt"[ri,Lin keeping pace witn tfi" .oonlllot' In judiciously'.help reduce resistance' There can be
difficulty
i" ,qtso tn! use or num"", if used
if humor
"""fJ,
backfires, that is, has an awkward e{fect'
a danger in this the
3.Anothermethodofreducingresistanceisbythetemporarydiversiontechnique.Theimlortant
The counsellor could also limit his
element in diversion tectrnique is rhat of ch;ging the iubject.
inuolu.In.n.intheprocessbyassumingamoredetachedanddisinterestedattitude.Acommon
technique of diversion is to suggest reading material'
to break the
+. it" ail* manipulation techriiiue consisis of the counsellor's-use of active methods
helping tl€ client to gain insight into
resistance. This ls done by interpreting resistance and thus
himself.
The
s. oir,", manipulations consist of such techniques as reflecting.feelings or resorting to threats. .
"If you do not want to achieve this we
latter is an extreme form in which the coun*ello. -nooo""s,
will stop doing anything about it".
questioning
6. The lasi of thi techniques suggested is direct confrontation, which employs in-depth
concerning the theme of resistance

7.9 SUMMARY
An interview is a face-to-face technique of obtaining information for a variety of puryoses'

non-
The essentiat characterishc ot a counselling interview consists in rts being non-judgemental and
evaluative

Counsellor should be alert to take note of the non-verbal communications made by the client
howsoever random and irrelevant they may appear.

in
counselling techniques concem the specific procedules and skills employed by the counsellor
securing his counselling goals or objectives

Structuring describes any statement by the counsellor that lets the client know what to expect of the
process and outcomes of counselling

kading refers to the counsellor's selection.of a response that anticipates the client's readiness to
benefit from a panicular kind of response.

while the counsellor may use and apply his chosen technique with all the skill at his command, it is
often found that certain psychological phenomena aid or limit his efforts'

Transference is the repetition of past relationships with significant others such that these earlier
feelings, behaviours, and attitudes are 'transferred' or projected onto the therapist or others outside the
therapeutic setting.

Counter-transference is the projection of the counsellor's feelings towards the client'

 Resistance is the reflection of the patient's inability to deal directly, realistically and constructively
with his impulses as they appear duiing the process of therapy.

7.IO IECTINICAL TERMS

Transference Past relationships with significant others are transfered
Onto the counsellor

Counter-rransfermce Projection of the counsellor's reelings onto the client

Resistance The unconscious opposition in bringing material from the
domain of the id into tbe ego

Stmcturing Any statement by the counsellor that lets the client know
what to expect of the process and outcomes of counselling

lzad counsellor's selection of a response that anticipates the

client's readiness to benefit from a particular kind
of resDonse

7,rr MoDEL QIJFSTIONS

.
1 What is a Counselling interview? What are the essential aspe.ts of the counselling interview?
2. What are the specific relationship problems that a counsellor encounters during the process of a
counselling interview?

REFERENCEBOOKS
Jones, R.N. Basic Couna€lting Skllls - A Helper's Manual. New Delhi: SAGE Publications.

Narayana F.ao, S (1991). Counselling and Guidance. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company Limited,

Patterson, L.E., Welfel, E.R. (2000). The Counselling Process. Bombay: Thomson Asia Pte Ltd.
LESSON.8

APPROACHES TO COUNSELLING
8.1. Objectives:

. l. To study the different approacher to counselling.

{'
Structure:
8,1. What is a theory?
8.2. The different approaches,
83, Humnistic appmach:
8.4. Behaviouristic Approach to counselling3
. 8,5, The F*lectic Approach:
8.6, Surnmary:
8.7. Technical terms.
8.8, Model questions
8.9, Reference Books.

8.1. What is a theorv?

A theory is considered acceptable if it meets the criteria, the most important being precision,
clarity, and comprehensiveness, with its scope as many facts or phenomena as possible, provide for
empirical and verifiability and stimulate research. Different approaches to counselling are based on the
varying conceptions of human personality structure and dynamics .

The term 'approach' is used in preference to'theory" as no single theory has yet been able to
encompass all the aspects of counselling. Counselling therapies are broadly divided into two major
categories, l. supportive and 2. insight therapies. Supportive therapies believe in restoring the individuals
adaptive capacities by teaching him new ways to maintain an conffol by strengthening the existing defences
and capabilities against persuasion, pressurc and coercion, reassurance, environmental manipulation,
prestige suggestion, suggestive hypnosis, muscular relaxation, use of drugs and electric shock. while
Behaviour modification and learning theory are supportive therapy. Insight therapies like Rog€rs client
centred are reconstructive therapy.

Insight theories are broadly of two kinds, I )re-educative and 2)re-constructive .These therapies differ
from the supportive they try to release what has been called the self- actualizing tendency in the individual.
Insight therapies, instead of removing the anxiety-producing sources of factors in the life of the individual,
bolster behaviour that permits and enables individual to cope with anxiety. Re -educative approaches to
th€rapy ar€ directed toward producing more harmonious self-structure. Rogers client-centred approach is an
outstanding example of insight therapy with re-educative goals .The reconstructive therapy gains insight
into the individuals unconscious conflict, thereby bringing extensive alteration in the individuals character
structure and the release of energies for the devel<ipment of new adaptive capacities. Freudian and
Psychoanalytic approach adumbrate this point of view
 E,2. The different approaches.

Psychoanalysis comes from the two words," psyche' means "soul', ard analysis implies ..takrng
part" It d€velopment is closely associated with the work of Sigmund Freud. Psl'choanalysis ii a complete
theory of personality generated concurrently with its therapeutic techniques. ti ls UaseO on acquiring an
understanding of oneself and one's unconscious conflicts and reworking or reconstruction their;ffec; on
the individual. Freud's friend Breurer stumbled on the 'talking cure 'took the simplistic concept of
"catharsis" and developed it into a therapy that is intricately integrated with the theory of personality. '

Fine divides Freud's work into four periods, L The exploration of neurosis, from inception of
practice,Z. self analysis,3 .Id psychology., Finally, ego psychology involving a considerable extension of
ideas.. Psychoanalysis which was conceptualised by Sigmund Freud. psycho therapy is based on the
development of self understanding which leads to the resolution of the unconscious conflicts. Freud's
theory of the individr,al is a deterministic one. Freud believed that this psychic determinism suggests that in
the mind nothing happens by chance or at random .F-reud defined thre€ constructs of the mind. the
eonscious, the unconscious, and the preconscious. Freud further divided the mind into three parts, the id,
ego and the superego. The id functions by 'primary process'. The superego is the base of our moral and
social values. It emerges as a result of the introjection of the moralistic warnings and values of our parents
and other adults .The superego functions unconsciously and would instil altruistic behaviour in the
individual locking the person into rigid morality. The ego like the superego is not present at birth, both
structures evolve out of the id as the infant develops The id calls for gratification of all its without reE ard
for moral or social appropriaieness. The ego becomes the" middleman" between the id and superego. Thus
the ego's purpose is to permanently disengage the unacceptable instinctual drives by employing th€
appropriate defence mechanisms which makes secure its own boundaries..

Criticism of psychoanalysis suggests that the theory is far too deterministic and greatly reduces the
individuals responsibility for his behaviour. This therapy is also time consuming and expensive. The
deterministic view of the individual appears both pessimistic and animalistic in its o.rtlook toward the
human impulse .Qritics often clr.rge that insight alone does not cause people to change. Insiglrt needs to be
accompanied by attempts at behaviour change .Finally, criticism is levelled at psychoanalysis for a lack of
empirical validation. The only research used is case-study which yields limited results.

8,3. Humanistic approach:

In contrast to psychoanalysis, Carl Roger's 'tlient-centred" approach is more directly related ro the
field of psychological counselling. Client centred therapy, that is the practical application of humanistic
psychology made a great impact on the academic scene- Counselling aims at bringing about psychological
growth or maturity to the client. The helping relationship is also generally one-to one relationship. It could
also bee in some cases individual-group relationship. The course of treatment proposed was relatively brief
compared to that of psychoanalysis. Its dim was not to cure sick people but to help people live more
satisfying and creative lives. Rogers was influenced by phenomenological psychology popular during that
period. He is also counted as one of the important protagonists of the humanistic approach popularly known
as the "third forc€" of psychology.

. " Client-centred therapy, that is the practical application of humanistic psychology made a great
'impact on the acadd:nic scene. Rogers held that counselling is essentially of the same ndure as
psychotherapy and there is no justification for discrimination between counselling and psychotherapy.
 8.3 to

.Counselling aims at bringing about psychJlogical growth or maturity to the client. Thus helping
relationship is one to one relationship.

Rogers attaches enormous importance to helping relationship

These are:

l. It is meaningful to the persons involved-mutual self commitment.

2. It has a marked tone of feeling, the individuals who are involved experience cenain emotional
- states
3. It implies integrity-persons involved to be honest emotionally and intellectually to each
4. other.
5. It can exist only be mutual consent and when one is need of some kind of help which
6. another can reasonably provide.
7. It comes into existence or betomes necessary when one is in need ofhelp
8. It involves communication and interaction This may invol'ze non verbal behaviour, such as facial
expressions, gestures and the like and also direct verbal communication.
9. It is not vague or amorphous, it is often structured The helping individual knows what sort of help
he could provide and the individual receiving help knows what kind of help he is in need of.
10. It If
is sustained through mutual cooperation and collaborationi a certain kind of help is
help is provided which is not useful the receiver will indicate the same, and the helping person will
naturally, modify his approach..
11. The helping person must have a sense of security. An insecure person obviously cannot be of much
help to the individual who is in need of help.
12. The goal or object of the helping relarionship is ro change the client positively.

A helping relationship is essentially an a{titude which exudes a feeting of acceptance and a

democratic value of life. It implies tbat the helping relationship does not in any way make a person feel
superior to the one he helps. It also implies that the helping individual does not impose the values upon the
person being helped. Such an approach is essentially called the client-centred .However all therapies-the
orthodox psychoanalytic and the more recent approaches-are basically "client-centred" The goal of all
therapy is to help the client. So the object of very system of therapy is to help the client, for the
betterment and well-being of the client. Roger's theory of personality, more popularly known as the self-
theory of personality, has evolved from his counselling practice. Rogers theory basically views man as a
socialised,, forward moving, rational and realistic" individual.

Self concept therefore is the central construct of Rogers theory. It may be conceived as an
organised gestalt comprising.

l.The individuals perceptions of himself and the values he attached to them.

2.The individuals perceptions of himself in relation to other persons and the values attached to
them.

3. The individuals perceptions of the various aspects of the environment and the values he attached
to them. S€lf concept is not self awareness or unconscious Years of clinical observation of human
behaviour was recognised by psychologists., that ones attitude towards oneself is an important determiner
of one's behaviour .Therefore the changes of an individuals attitudes towards others seem to fbllow
 changes in his attitudes towards himself. Needs are basically determiners of behaviour When the urge to
satisfy a strong need conflicts with his self concept, then the individual may adopt devious measures to find
gratification. The core concepts of Rogers self theory are 1. The organism, which is the total individual, 2.
The totality of experience which'is the phenomenal field 3. The self, which is differentiated parr of the
phenomenal field which comprises of t along with the values attached to thgm. ..

E.4. Behaviouristic Approach to counselling:

Behavioural counselling involves the application of experimentally derived and estabtished

principles of learning to weaken or eliminate maladaptrve bebaviour and to build or strengthen replacement
behaviours that are adaptive. The foundation of behavioural counselling is learning theory developed bye
various philosbphers, clinical,psychologist, experimental psychologists, and researchers.

Counselling and psychotherapy are concemed with behaviour change and therefore according to
some theorist, must involve the applications of principles of learning and leaming theory. Ifaming here is
changes in behaviour which are relatively long lasting and not due to maturation or physiological factors
like fatigu€ and effect of drugs. However counselling, by and largc has developed outside the leaming
theory. It is only in recent times that the principles of learning theory have been sought to be applied in the
counselling technique All behaviour of organisms, including human beings ranging from simple to
complex behaviour. is learnt.

. The learning approach in the behaviouristic model would be classical conditioning or operant
conditioning model. From the behaviouristic point of view all behaviour adjustive or maladjustive is
primarily leamt in the same manner .The four basic principles (DCCR) ,The first is drive or motivation that
compels the organism to act. Drives could be primary needs or secondary needs (leamt). Without drive
there would be no action., no learning can occur. The second is the cue stimulus. the organism is hungry,
the stimulation by food would be mor€ effective. Reinforcement is the fourth principle of learning, it is
usually reward- The behaviouristic approach to counselling employs four principles, namely, drive, cue,
response and reinforcement.

The behaviourist approach t counselling differs from the psychoanalytic and medical appraocahes
with regard to its.attitude towards maladaptive or maladjusted behaviour. In psychoanalysis the concem is
with the past, that is, as to how a particular symptom or syndrome is caused. In sharp contrast to this view,
the behaviour therapist is least concerned with the past. He is concerned with the symptom here and
now-.Therapy essentially consist s of severirl simple steps

8.5. TIre Eclectic Approach:

There is no gain saying the fact that counsellors, like medical men adopt variations of their
'
theoretical positions in actual practice This kind of variation be{omes necessary to suit different individuals
and specific situations. It is argued that it is unscientific to stray away from any theory but with equal
vehemence that puritanical rigidity may be counter productive that if one wishes to succeed, one must
appreciate the realistic aspects of different expectations and goals.

Diagnosis is considered inimical to client-centr€d counselling.. Diagnosis is arrived at by a logical

process of inference. Diagnosis involves l. identifying the problem. 2.determinining the causes that is
searching for relationship, past, present, and future which help in the understanding the cause of the
symptoms. Diagnosis is always the nature of a hypothesis and is open to modifications. Diagnosis and
 strives to achieve There are no restrictions on the
prognosis are both relevanr to. thc gorls the counselee
solution as he likes till he is able to reach an optimal
client no limitations imposed, ne rs iree to try as many with new
the.as-sistance the counsellor gives to deal
solution. The last step is the foltow up ani includes them into a
view Doints and combines
problems of recurring nature.' tne ciunsellor adopts different eclecticism"'
iowards theory is described as "emerging
working theory. Thl, ,r"no in prurtiiJi'J.r"upp-ach
in building and orderly combination of compatible
English and English, (1g58) 0"t,."'""i*ii"l.',r theory
features from diverse sources ano incompatible
theoriei and systems into a harmonious whole' Brammer
and
91969) explains that eclecticrsm l"'"t"it"irtt! i"r"rs
rc sel;cting choosing' from various theodes
and
as one whiih is comprehensive and organised
systems. Garfileld (l9OC) summarize, ft o-"'Jryr,"tn gathered system
it still remains a loosely
which has brought together a vanety of methods though

Eclecticismistobedistinguishedfromunsystematicanduncriticalcombinationofthings'The
eclecticseeksconsistencyastaraspossible.Theformalistseestheeclecticpositionastoolooseand
dogmatic and rigid' The newer concppl ?l
uncritical. The eclectic finos tne schoii" ioo formal' -":t:::t:tt*
t*O i-ntegrated' coirprehensive and p*gmatic approach'
is not a theoretical. Individuals ttgl"ti " for an
other eclectipian'
This suggesr rhar the position of ev'e-ry eclectic counsellor
will naturallv differ from every
of this to be
making the position impossibt" ," a?ni'" "r J".Jibr
Tlt"y claim thai the openness 'pFroach
counselling Similarly the
an ;.'ilvantage. Thome, eclecticism it ii't" t"tt
practicable and apt aooroach to
apnmach suitable to one individual need
prolrlems of inclividuals vary uotn in content ani intensity and an
notnecessarilysuitanotherindividual.Thornethis.integrativepsvcholoev..andc|aimsthatitprovides
praciice. Ttrui from a-n eclectic point of view the self
systematic theoretical founoation. foi ""teciic clinical
to do things that are against its own interest' The
is able to regulate the whole organism and even cause it
core of beiig. Personality deYelopment is affected
self concept is crucial since ,t op"*t"r u. itr" i""ctional
as by the driie for self-actualisation .The powerful
by constitutional, biotogicaf ano cuiiural factors as well
drive of self -actualisation -;il;; human being towards improvement. or Perf€ction-^ Garfield
and organised and which has brought a variety
summarises Thom""r ryr,"- * oi" *t i"t i,
"ornpr.h"n'.ive
loosety gathered system'
oi-mettroOs ttrougn it still remains essentially a

8.6, SummarY:

Some of the approaches to counselling have been

outlined These approaches differ with regard to
the importance they attach to ,utioJiry in hr.r]man behaviour.
At one extreme, the behavioural approach to
psychoanalytic view
counselling tends to nu*^n *huviour as simply reactive to the environment. The
"ie* behaviour as mostly unconsciously caused by
takes a dim view of human,uurnuiiry una "*ptuin. hurnun The clienf
if any effect on the unconscious.
irrational forces. Ttrey uetieve tnai tire environ;ent exerts little
centred approach pfu"", u g"u, pi"tiut ont*t goodness and makes it the focal theme' The existential

view pointviews ,on porpo.Jfuf re.t ing tne *ining life and striving to determine his own destiny.
_of
^
ifr" ,l"i,-*O-f""", ^pp.a"h Believes in-the individuil's capacity to act rationally and
purposefully'
,esouries- The eclectic approach tries to
provided he is given the n""".r*y-^.i*n"e to use his.innati
combine into a consistent system the positive aspects of all
the systems

Alltheapproachesalmatreducingman'ssufferingand.increasinghisefficiency,productivityand
pilot steering his course and others consider him as a
t appin"ri. Som" ift.ories, they hold considir man as a
of"the environment by the counsellor. The
mere robot, automatica y co*rrri"Jlv .ri"ule manipulations
behaviouristicapproachestut."u*""huni.ti"viewandexP|ainhumanbehaviourtoresultfromsuitable
and factor ' existential and psychoanalytical
operations of environmental sn;ulations. Client,cenffed, trait
approacles
providing insight as a major technique of therapy 'Behaviourally oriented
"ipt"""i"rl".t "pon
are concemed with symptoms, oehaiiour and aitions
whiih they seek to eliminate , modify, and change by
suitably manipulating the environmental stimulations and reinforcements
 Counsellor education and training stress the need for developing a plausible
and consistent
approach which is meaningful in terms of ones values and expectationi.
However inexperienced a
counsellor may be, he impricitly operates on the basis of some theory. This he is perfectly
rr"" ,o ,noouy,
change or even abandon on the basis of his experience for another point
of view which he considers more
bene-qg!4t. Reality therapy, developed by w.illiam Glasser sees people
as acting to satisfy rheir needs, they
develop identities to achi€ve that end. Fcelings of being loved and wonhwhile
are essential in livine. Tbe
basic concePt of reality therapy is individual responsibility in initiating inappropri."
these needs' counselling is seen as a process ofinvolvement, communicationind
u.ir""i.r* i"'i"tirty
instruction..

8.7. Technical ternrs.

l'Counselling:is an interactive process conjoining the counselee who needs

assistance and the
counsellor who is trained and educated to give the guidance.

. - 2'Psychotherapy: a body of knowledge that gathers its data from a number of related professions
which are basically concemed with the helping function.

3.Diagnosis;Which identifies the problem and causes.

4.Follow-up Which attempts to find the outcome of counselling as well as help the client
- problems.
futurc
deat with

E.8. Model questions

'1. Describe the difierent approaches to counselling?
2. what are the differences between cognitive and behavioural approach to counselring?
3. What counselling process is followed by the trait_factor counsellor?
4. Compare classical conditioning to operant conditioning.
8.9, Reference Books.

Pietrofesa'J',Hoffman,A.,splete.H,r gg4,"counseling"an introduction, U.s.A. Houghton Mifflin

Company.

Narayan Rao,S.,l981,"counselling psychology ",New Delhi, Tata McGraw Hilr publishug

company, Ltd.
 LESSON.9

DIRECTIVE AND HUMANISTIC APPROACH

9.0. Objectives:

To learn about the Directive and Humanistic approach

to counselling.

Structure:
9.1. The Directive and Humanistic approach,
9.2. Importance of hurnan relationships.
9.3. Goals of client c€ntred therapy
9.4. Nin€t€en propositions to the theory of personality.
9.5. Summary
9.6, Technical terms
9.7, Model questions.
9.8. Reference Books

9.1. The Directive and Humanistic approach

The authoritarian point of view,.is largely associated

with the work of Sigmund Freud. The
Direcdve or Aurhoritarian iooroach the clien, i,
d";;;;;u*ur"
are deeply embedd",rl in ttt" on"o'nr.iou.-irt"'"ri*,
of the."a"on for his difficurties or
lynerlle ltric.tr
therapist who has to plav rhe rore of interpreting , is therefore h€lpless and it is the
tn" *;i"iiur fo;'him or her. Ttt. ;;;;:tpr" il;;" *
determinism. The pe.rsonality struiture is e*ptain"o
Tl:h"rrry:l
superego The id is the source of aI energy understandine
io comprise of rhe id, the ego and the
on.ieif or in u t un,,unr.ti"-*i'f ,lfir",
delving into this Dhenomenolosical worl-d-. rather ttran -otr,e;
fr?surning rt trom what some would calls .tacts
theory is a modei tn"ar, continues. to_ give peopre
"Humanistic a way of accepting these inherent and
and a means of dealing with thJm ina humanrstrc
manner through relationships and
:T::TITJ::"*"s
In contrast to psychoanalysis, carl Rogers 'client
centred approach to counselling is more directly
rh* fierd of psvchorogicar counselrin'g .Th. .;t;;J;l;""henr
::lif.1.r
raclrrtatrve conditions that aflow the client the freedom
centred therapy is on providrns
ind safety necessary for growth. client centred
the 'rpy and Carl Rogers are almost synonymous
counselli rg from his intimate clin
.The Rogerian .y.t.. as a set ofprocedures in
"."rg"a
nol arise
fiom
psycr,"p,in.i"ey. i;'ii;T:'#:',1 fr: T:,_T..""J:.ffi ii;:ffi,":;iil:i" ffiyJll;;i;
and creative tives. Since t942, when his book ,counselling
ulrJirv"t otr,.r"pi,f;;'. il;;;;jir*,i.
cenrred therapy has been continuousry deveroped
as approuih r-i'ir- g.owth and change. "ii"",
Rogers therapy can be divided into three concepts
even tho:gh_each concept cannot be accuratery
assessed independent of the other two.'The organism
being' their rhoughts and behaviour.
i.'"o-po.Jori' ,n"i i"Ji"li""ri." ,i""ri if,i,ii"a
rn" o.i-ir,n
alteration of any part mav aroduce^c,!11g". ininy
l-iiH;;: a btal organised system in which
ottr". funi'i"li"ia*r. then react to the rotal perceptual
field which is their reality. What is imponant i,
and subjective.
if," p"r""ption oi,li" makino rc,lirr, r-r: . ,
"u"n,
 As a person interacts widt the environrnent in his or her perceptual field, the self conc€pt starts
developing, percePtion of experiences influence by a need for positive regard. Any experience that is not
consistent with the self-concept is seen as a threat, as it would disturb the self concept .The client centred
approach conceptualises the individual as motivated in positive direction.

9.2. Roger attaches enormous importance to helping relationships.

It is meaningful !o the persons involved, implies mutual self commitment.

It has a marked tone of feeling, individuals who are involved experience certain emotional states.
It implies integrity-the persons involved are intellectually and emotionally honest with each
other.
It can exit by.mutual consent only, no compulsion.
5. It comes into existence or becomes necessary when one is some kind ofhelp.
6. It involves communication and interaction.
.|
It is often structured , that is, it is not vague and amorphous.
8. It is sustained through mutual cooperation and collaboration.
o The helping person must have a sense of security.
10. The goal or object of the helping individual is to change the client positively.

A helping relationship is essentially an attitude which exudes a feeling of acceptance and a

democratic value of life. It implies that the helping relationship does not in any way make a person
feel superior to the one he helps. It also irnplies that the helping individual does not impose his
values on to the client. Such an approach is called the client-centred approach.

9.3. Goals of client centred therapy

All therapies-the orthodox psychoanalyic and the more recent ones arc all client centred. The
therapist is the centre gf the stage, and it is he who directs the course of the therapy interprets the client's
communications and lerminates the session. Rogers theory of personality, more popularly known as self
theory has evolved from his practice. Rogers views rnan as a "socialised, forward moving, rational and
realistic ''individual. The basic goal for the client is to become more ftrlly functioning. Some that can be
expected with client centred counselling are that clients beaome more.

i. More realistic in their self-perception.

2. Morc confident and self directing.
3. More positively valued by themselves.
4. Less likely to repfess aspects of their experiences.
5. More maturc, socialized and adaptive in their behaviour.
6. I-ess upset by stress, and quicker to recover frorn it.
7, Morc like the heahhy, integrated well functioning person in their personality structures.

The counsellors goal is to recognise and confront the incongruency between the clients experiences
and self-concept. Client centred therapy is an if-then proposition. If certain conditions are prcsent, then the
client will become more self-actualised. Rogers avoided evaluation, interpretation, probing questionq
reassurance, criticism, praise, or description, while generally encouraging, reflecting, and restating.
 9.3 Directive and Humanistic

9.4. Nineteen propositions to the theory of personality.

Rogers postulated a theory of personality in series of 19 propositions

l. The individual exists in constantly changing world of his own experilnce of which he is the
centre.
2. In individual's private world of experience can be known in any genuine and complete sense to
the individual self. The reality is his own perceptual field.
3. The individual reacts as a whole to the phenomenal field.
The individual has a basic tendency to actualise, maintain and enhance himself.
5. Behaviour is fundamentally goal-diiected and it is the expression of the individual who satisfies
the needs as they are perceived.
6. Feelings and emotions accompany goaldirected behaviour and facilitate the expression of it.
7. The best way of understanding the significance of any behaviour is from the intemal frame of the
individual himself.
8. The self is differentiated from the total phenomenal field.
9. The differentiation of the self is the result of interaction between the individual and the
environment.
10. The values attached to experience and self structure taken from others may be perceived in a
. distorted fashion.
ll. New experiences are encountered by the individual in his day to day life. Occasionally these
experiences are ignored.
12. The modes of behaviour adopted by the individual are those, which arc consistent with the concept
of the self,
13. Behaviour is also caused by organic experiences and needs. Tbe individual does not accept the
responsibility for his action.
14. Psychological maladjustment is essentially the result of the individuals refusal to be4ome aware oi
signifi cant experiences.
15. Psychological adjustment obtains in a state in which the individual accepts all the experiences and
integrated them into his self struchrre.
16. Any experience inconsistent with the structure of the self may be perceived as a threat.
' 17. Under certain conditions, which are inconsistent with the individual self structure and hence
threats to it may be perceived and assimilated into the self-structurc.
18. When the individual is able to perceive and accept experiences distorted and integrated into self
structure, dismissing the cause of conflict.
19. When the individual is able to accept experiences with any distonion, he is able to lead a healthy
and integrated life.

The self theory is basically phenomenological in nature and depends heavily on explanatory
concept. The theory looks upon congnrence between the phenomenal freld of experience and the conceptual
structure of the self is essential to healthy adjustment. Absence of this congruence results in internal strain,
anxiety, and tension .The major thrust for the client centred is to create the proper relationship, climate and
conditions for enhancing the process of therapeutic growth. Client centred is an if+hen proposition and if
certain conditions are present, then the client becomes self-actualised. Empathetic understanding is the crux
for client centred therapy .If the three therapeutic conditions are met, the client will first explore feeling and
attitudes at deeper levels, new meaning and understandings previously not developed will be achieved.
Clients develop more self-acceptance .Rogers avoided evaluation, interpretation, probing questions,
reassurance, criticism, praise or description, while generally encouraging, reflecting, and restating.
9.5. Summary

Th9 cfienl centred approach reflects a sincere commitment to ihe self-actualisation process. Much
emphasis is placed on the I-thou relationship of counsellor and client-a relationship if founled on
certain
conditions , may well be sufficient to encourage client change. Some of the repreientative approaches
co
counselling have been outlined, sevetal lacunae are evident in these approaches. The client centred therapy
approach reflects a sincere commitment to the self actualisation proceis. Much emphasis is placed
on the I- .
thou relationship of counsellor and client .The major contributions of client {entred therapy have been the
identification of the necessary therapeutic characteristic of the counsellor during the counselling process
and development of a philosbphy that conceptualises the individual in a positive giowth-oriented
c-ontext.

A major difficulty with the client centred approach is with individuals whose perceptions are
significantly different from the perception of others and who because of distortion, continuously engage in
self-defeating behaviours that may be destructive of themselves and others According to ro-e of
client centred therapy, the establishment of the therapeutic reladonship will be ini.rfficient to "ritli.
change
lnaccurate perceptions outside the therapy situation. This implies that counsellors must recognise and
confront the incongruency in the client between the experience and the self-concept .The psych"oanalyuc
view takes a dim view of human rationality and explains human behaviour as mostly unconsciously caused
by inational forces. The client centred view of man presents a pessimistic and unedifying view oi human
nature. All the approaches aim at reducing man's suffering and increasing his efficiency,
lroductivity, and
happiness. It is through the 'talking out' process thar the individual gains insighi into himseif and
understands the significance of the symptoms underlying his difficulties .No one therapy is best for all
clients, but an understanding of the various theoretical approaches to counselling, enables tie counsellor to
maximise personal therapeutic strengths.

9.6. Technical terms

Organism: is composed of all that individuals are, their physical being, their behaviour, and their
thoughts.
Perceptual field: the reality.
' Self-concePt: is a leamed sense of self and is based on individuals perception of tbe regard they
have received from outside the self.

9.7. Model questions:

l. Describe the various conceprs of Rogers client centred therapy?

2. What are the basic goals of Rogers therapy?
3. Elucidate the nineteen propositions that Rogers postulated in his theory of personality?

9.8. References:

l.Narayan.Rao.,S.,l98l,Counselling Psychology. New Delhi. Tata McGraw Hilt publishing

Company Ltd.

2.Pietroffesa..Hoffman,spletre, "Counselling, An lntroducrion,lg34, U.S.A.,Houghton Mifflin

Company.
 '
F6ii-seitrl 10.1 Behaviouristic Approacli

LFSSON - 10 7c
BEHAVIOURISTIC APPROACH
10.0. Objectives

1. To study and understand the Behaviouristic Approach to Counselling.

Structure:
10.1. Intmduction
10.2. Fsctors in Learning Behaviour
10.3. Steps in the Therapeutic Proc€ssl
10.4. Techniques of Behavioural couns€lling:
105. Summary:
10.6. Technical terms:
10.7. Model questions.
10.8. Reference Books.

10.1. Introduction

Behavioural counselling involves the application of experimentally derived and established

principles of learning to weaken or eliminate maladaptive behaviour and to build or strengthen replacement
behaviours that are adaptive. The foundation for behavioural counselling is leaming theory developed by
numerous philosophers, clinical psychologist, experimental psychologists, and researchers. There is no one
thinker who discovered and developed this theoretical approach.

Gray 1032 is credited as the first to use the term behaviour modification, when he promoted its use
in the educational setting. Behaviour therapy was introduced by Skinner and Lindsley, 1954 in their repon,
"studies in Behaviour Therapy" The field of behavioural counselling began with animal research from
which evolved learning theory[, The early 1950's saw the testing of theory on people. During the middle
and late 1950's rechniques of behaviour change were emphasized. More recently the field stretched into
cognitive' behaviour modification. Attention has mainly focused on how people leam and can change
unhelpful and troublesome leaming.

Counselling and psychotherapy are concemed with behaviour change and therefore some theorists
must involve the application of the principles of learning and learning theory' From the
behaviouristic point of view all behaviour adjustive or maladjustive is primarily leamt in the same manner.

Attention has focused mainly on how people learn and change unhelpful and troublesome leaming.
Most b€haviourists adhere to the tabula rasa, or blank slate, theory of John Locke .People are bom into this
world neither intrinsically good nor bad they are neutral. As they interact with their environment, their
experiences and resultant behaviour are recorded on the slate.

Behaviourist believe that behaviours are leamed through three paradigms classical conditiontng,
operant conditioning and imitative learning. The leaming approach employed in the behaviouristic model
 for Distance Education 10.2

could be either in the classical or in th€ operant conditioning rnodel. All behaviour of organisms, including
human beings ranging from simple to conrplex behaviour is leamt Four ba.sic principles (DCRR) are
involved in learning. The fnst is drive or motivation which impels the organism to act. The drives could be
primary, tissue needs or secondary, (learn). Without drive, there can be no action, consequenlly no leaming
can occur. The second is the stimulus. Thus drive and cue together determine the response of the organism.

1. Classical Conditioning: A number of things in our environment elicit a human response

spontaneously. Therefore the response is not learned. Since the reaction is natural, like loud
noise. salivation. the stimulus is called unconditioned stimulus. When the response follows
spontaneously it is callei the unconditioned response .A rreurral response is one that does not
elicit a specific response repetitively. A preriously neutral stimulus that has been paired with
. an unconditioned stimulus in eliciting the unconditioned response is called a conditioned
stimulus The response is leamed and is called a conditioned response. Pavlo., rr'd his dogs are
an example of learning through classical conditioning. The presence of food (unconditioned
stimulus) caused the dog to salivate (unconditioned response) This type of behaviour is an
innate characteristic, which enables an organism to maintain itself. When the ringing of the
bell is added to the appearance of food, the dog learns to salivate. Phobias and sexual
perversions are examples of classical conditioning.

2. Operant Conditioning: B.F. Skinner is credited with defining the laws of operant conditioning.
This approach suggests thar behaviour (stimulus) occurs spontaneously or at random and son1e
event follows the behaviour rhar is experienced as giving pleasure (reinforcement).This
reinforcement increases the chance that the stimulus will reoccur in the future. Thus a dog
comes when she is called and is rewarded with a piece of food. The likelihood of coming the
next time she is called has been increased. If no reinforcement is given, including petting or
any kind of attention, the probability of her coming the nexl time will not change .Dollard and
Millers reinforcement theory is a thought provoking approach. They define neurosis as a
learned behaviour. Thus unwanted and maladjusted behaviour is acquired or leamt. This
includes phobias, compulsions, hysterical symptoms, regression, alcoholism, etc .most
behavioural reactions are maladaptive. The therapeutic situation is characterised by
permissiveness which leads to the removal of repression. The process is slow and difticult one
because fear and anxiety accompany the repressed ideas . The reinforcement theory of Dollard
and Miller is an integration of psychoanalytic concepti with behaviouristic techniques. But the
approach has been useful in stimulating other thinkers and therapists to explore the use of the
leaming approach in counselling.

3. Imitative t-eaming: Imitative leaming is also known as modelling, social learning, and
observational learning. Bandura's work has refined this theory which "teaches " hint what to
cony. lf the model is rewarded for the behaviour , the lesson is strengthen€d. If the b.lraviour
is performed by the observer and is reinforced, the leami'rg is strengthened. Commercials and
styles of clothing worn as well as behaviours adopted from admired athletes are vivid
examples of the potency of imitative leaming This explains why the saying "Do as I say and
not as I do" has nb effect.

10.2. Factors in Learning Behaviour

Reinforcements are those events that when they follow. increase its probability of recurring. There
are two types of reinforcement, positive and negative. Positive reinforcement: is the presentation of a
 reinforcing' examples are
followlng some behaviour
"iclta Any form of-recognition may be
'positive
reinforcements ate determined by
Dleasurable event the recipient'
oresentations of a gift' t"*v tt
be^reinforcement for Bill' Careful attention
iaditiona y what constirures ". ,il,iii'*.'igr'i"".-^gtr,
nl"n"" given t9 $f postible
It increases the
una
must be given to tt" inoiviouurt.{ioe'
t.inror".t*t is'einfor""-ents'
the operation of removtng an
tiketihood that the behavrour *,,it";#;;;-ii;u'tiu. in aversive response .after
.p"niJhment is trre apilication of event that
aversive stimulus contrngcnr "";";;;.; oefinition ifie applicarion of an aversive
the display of a disupptouttt
"p.;
u"nuuiiJ;ffiilffi [ ;t
*ifiiJr.L",n" fikiiih''od oi the targets behaviours recurrence' .1

qt*ig of the aPplication of providing a

Schedules of reinl'orcement: The
frequency
a *fr"a"i"""f''."iri"i""*"nt.
"$
The best schedule of reinforcement
to initially
reinforcemenl is called while. lhis schedule is best to condition a new
condition a response i. .*r.a .o'iiio"uru;;i;i;;;;",
il;i"*, it shows the r"*""'iion^"1"'l"i"i"f;'u""t'"51"::fil$il:ifJln,ffi"."":1;irui:
oi
:l*lju*:*,* .:ilil**i"*?::ffil6:4i$rld;;ru;;;;ngft
*hf";;;;;. E"iiction
leaming and inrermirtent
will Bihaviour has been conditioned
bo'ltr imi'la'live
occur for as long

asitelicitsintermlnentrelnlorc"..""''*irrresultinthebehaviourdisappearing.Anintervalschedu|ehas
'The cessation of
all reinforcement
to do with the lapse of time """" t#'f^i "t""ti
i"infot""o
'"'pons"
result in the behaviour disappeanng"
to
us to uansfer learning from one situation 'another
Generalisation is the principle that permits
whenthereisson.:similarityinthe'situations.Discriminationisaoersonsabilitytodiscriminatebetween is a
r€sponses to the conditioned stimulus 'Discrimination
two or more similar sdmuli ,nurli* Jiff-Ln, to the
persons ability to discriminate til; ffi';;;;i" .i. ut sri,'il',rli that give different rcsponses

condirioned stimulus.

with tearnins behaviours and then using the

Shaping is the leamrng of complex behaviours -stans successively more
;;#;ii."i;"and of course, reinforceirent to learn
la*.s of discriminarion .*tinctioi,
ls learneo'
complex behaviours until the target behaviour

10.3. Steps in the Therapeutic Process:

The behaviourist takes much time with the

client'

all the circumstances sunounding the inappropnate

l. Problem deirnition: lt is necessary to determine
and limitations are- noted Essentially the counsellor
behaviour. The clients, strengths' *"ukn"tt"''
needs to ascertain when the probleniLi"tt'
*rt"t p*""aes and what follows it md what about the
behaviour is reinforcing to the client' '
The clients historv is valuable insofar ils it
may
Ascertainment of Development and Social History' about the clien's
delineate many problem areas dt";;;;;tnt; lpecifically seeks. information
development, the changes that oc"trr"J how hi adapted to these changes' The client's sense of
""0 to relate to others
;;i;;;;;]ii" ufr r,i, p-ur"r. needs .o be asseised. The clients ability the client's
iinally' the seeks to understand
and to his environment i, ul'o ^"tt"O'
counsellor
historica! and current perspecuve"
iuf,*", uufu" :,t","ture and behavioural norms from both a

Specification of counselling Goals: The goals

for an individual client will depend on the specific
oioblem. The client and counsellor co*"io *ug""rn"nt on what actually is the problem 'It is-thc
ffi;iffi'6;;riuiri,y ," o."ia"-ii tt" goalis within the realm of expertise. Goal setting
 for Distance Education

depends on the data conected Goals need to be specified in terms that are behavioural
observable to ensure. and

4' selection of Methods to be utilized. while techniques

used in the counselling process wi, vary,
they must be compatible with-the clients gout..
cou'nsetting consists of whatever ethical activitres
counsetor undertake* i" a
.ff?T to herp-the crienr engagJ in those types
I
to a resolution of lhe clients problems. "i
u"i""i.*
*ii'.r, r""a
5' Evaluation and rermination. The client's progress toward
the specified goats will be evaluated at
regular intervals. If the evaluation yierds nelative ."rut,, ,n" goals or techniques need further
assessment and possible altefttion. If the evaluation -and
is positive trre gour* t iue uien-uitlin"o
then the crient is ready to either determine new goars
to Jork toward or to terminate counselling.

The principres of reward,

avepion, omission and punishment (RAop) are emproyed
indivrdually or in combination as requiied in specific cases either
cri'ticirms or unauloural counselling generally
stress tie meaninglessness of the mechanistic view ofhuman behaviour.
.

According to Wolpe, all behaviour conforms to causal laws. changes in the behaviour of any
organlsm-are caused by l- growth,2.resions, 3.rearning. According
to wolpel t"a-ing i" to ruue
occurred if a response has been evoked in temporal conliguity ^ru.J
wittia grven sensory stimulus and it is founrl
that the stimulus can evoke the response although it
the relation between the stimulus and the response is"ou'io
not have done so before. rh" .ar"nd""i"g .f
called reinforcement. Reinforcement is.i.""gi-i"".a
by several factors such as optimal interval between the conditioned
and the unconditioned stimulus:wolpe
is a protagonist, according to him, reciprocal inhibition eliminates or weakens
an old response by-the
substitution of new ones. In therapy this process follows the basic assumptron
that neurotic behaviour rs a
learned behaviour' Anxiety is unprea:au and may often interfere
with p"rforrn-"" .r" tr,i, t""i"if""
counter conditioning, anxiety is eliminated.by a competing response by means "r
or u .."ipro"J int idition.
This principle is also the basis for aversive therapy. PositivJ reconditioning in the
technique of establishrng
new behaviour And experimental extinction is the procedure that consists of continued non
-pattem.
reinforcement of a habit such that it is progressively weakened and disappears.
.

10.4. Techniques of Behavioural counselling

Training: Training in relaxation is appropriate for anyone rn tension or anxious It

- -Relaxation
introduced as deep muscle relaxation by Jacobson and popularised by wotpe
was
'
as systematic oesensiiisation.
Essentially the client is taught to flex muscle groups toi it uining point uni ro.u. on tt i"Ji"e pr;d"."d,
recognizing it as tension' The client is then told to retax thosJ muscles by 'lening go' " of ihi tension,
gradually and notice the resultant feelings of relaxation, calmness and warmnJss.
.
Systematic Desensitisation. This_ technique is used when anxiety is the product
of either thoughts
about or exPosure to a specific , identifiable event Therefore the client 'unleams' io associate
'' the event with
'anxiety and le3ms to associate relaxation with it.

Wolpe suggest three steps to the procedure:

1. Training in deep muscle relaxation.

2. The construction of anxiely hierarchies.

 10.5 Behaviouristic

3. Counter posing relaxatiop and anxiety-evoking stimuli from the hierarchies.

Assertiveness Training: Assertiveness is the appropriate expression of a person's feelings other than
anxiety. Assenive people usuall| feel good about tbemselves and frequently achieve their wishes people
who are assertive are able to express their opinions, desires, wishes, disappointments regrets, and feelings
of hurt, sad, happy or angry .Assertive people usually feel good about themselves and frequently achieve
their wishes. Assettiveness is leaming to express one's hones feelings in an appropriate manner, it should
make the client feel good about herself or himself not manipulate others.

The Behaviouristic approach to counselling employs the four principles of learning, namely, the
drive, cue, response, and reinforcement therapy essentially consist of several steps, like identifying the
undesirable, unwanted, maladjusted and maladaptive behaviour. Careful analysis of the maladaptive
behaviour into small units. Each unit is eliminated by an appropriate technique

10.4. Summary:
Behavioural modification is a technique or rather a group of techniques which employ the learning
:heory. The behaviouristic approach takes a mechanistic view and explains human behaviour to result from
;uitable operations of environmental stimulations. Behaviourist believe that personality is the composite of
what the person has learned in the process of interacting with the environment. The counsellor who
ronducts behaviourdl counselling will be a warm, empathetic person and will establish strong relationship
,vith the client and take a detailed behavioural history. Behavioural counselling has fostered the application
:f behavioural goals to counselling .Finally, behavioural counselling makes no attempt to treat that which is
not overt and quantifiable, it ignores the realms of feeiings and conflicts that defy definition. Behaviourists
believe that personality is the composite of what the person has leamed in the process of interacting with
the environment.

The three modes of learning are classical conditioning, operant conditiotring, and imitative
leaming. There are few innate influences on our feelings and behaviour and they are not amenable to
change. Therefore the counsellor who conducts behavioural counselling will be warm. empathic person and
will establish a shong working relationship with the client and take a detailed behavioural history.
Behavioural counselling has fostered the application of behavioural goals to counselling. These goals
permit the counsellor and the client to identify specific limits to their counselling, specify the criteria fot
termination , permit the use of contracts and incorporate a built in method for measuring results. Finally
behavioural counselling makes no attempt to treat that which is not over, and quantifiable , it ignores the
realm of feelings, and conflicts that defy definition.

Some of the representative approaches to counielling are outlined. The behavioural approach to
counselling tends to view human behaviour as simply reactive and entirely determined by the environment.
The psychoanalytic view takes a dim view of human rationality and explains human behaviour as mostly
unconsciously caused by irrational forces. The client centred places great premium on mans goodness and
makes it the focal theme. However the counsellor is pcrfectly free to modiff, change or even abandon on
the basis of his experience for another point of view which hc considers more beneficial

10.6. Technical terms:

Systematic desensitisation: a techniqu" urJ i the product of either thoughts about or .i'd
exposure to a specific idendfiable event.
 Assertiveness is the appmpriate expression of a persons feeling other than anxiety.

Punishment: is the application of an ave$ive r€sponse aftcr the display of disapproved behaviour.

10.7. Model questions.

l. Trace the theorctical Beginnings of Bdravioural counselling.
2.. Describe, classical conditioning, operant conditioning and Imitative behaviour?
. 3. What are factors in leaming behaviour?
4. Stale the steps in the Therapeutic process?
5. Elucidate the t€chniques of Behavioural counselling.

10.8. RcferenceBooks.
Pietrofesa. ,J., Hoffman, A,Splete.. Howard 1984 .,Counselling, An Introduction,, Boston, U.S.A-,
Houghton Mifflin Company.

Narayana Rao.' J., counselling Psychology, l98l.New Derhi, Tata Mcgraw -Hill publishing
Conpany Ltd.
LESSON - lr
COUNSELLING SPECIAL GROUPS I
ll.0 Objectives

l.Toprovideanoverviewofthevariouscounselingproceduresinvolvedwithlearningandbehavioural
problems in chil&en
based on their needs
2. To study the interventlons ror children with mentat retardation
;. i; ilil;;ihe nature of uootescence and counselling them better adjustment
for

Structure
I l' I Introduction
ll.2 Counselling children with leaming problems
1 1.3 Counselling children with behavioural
problems
11.4 Counselling for the mentally retarded
I 1.5 Counselling adolescents for better adjustment
11.6 Summary
I1.7 Technical Terms
I 1.8 Model Questions
I 1.9 Reference Books

ll.l Introduction
who are in,control
counseling children and adolesceirts often necessitates counseling for the adults
that could be the
of the younger peion with the problem. Sometimes it is the adult's disturbed behaviour
that the adults
of th"-probl"m or aggravating the misbehaviour of the child. At times it could happen
"uur"nor r"utiy iesponsibli for tt'e abnormal behaviour in the child but the emotional burden of
-"
;;.rn-.d",ilg and controlling the child's behaviour takes a toll on the psychological well being of the
*utt'
present lesson we will be discussing the challenges that parents face in handling- special and
,n,n"
gifteO children, and also adolescents. Adolescence is a transition from childhood to adulthood
where
their privileges, which
idol"."*t, are required to assume the responsibilities of adults but cannot have
often lead to between parents and children. Relation problems, emotional disturbances and
problems in the acadtjmic environment that require counselling for better adjustment in adolescents
"onhi"t has

been discussed in the lesson'

112 Counselling children with learning pmblems

some.students are unable to leam reading, writing, and spelling or do arithmetic,

in spite of good
set of leaminB
intelligence, good health, no psychopathology and a ielatively happy home' These
that are exhibited by children that lead to
Aisauiiitio arJ a syndrome or clusier of ctraracieristics symptoms
heavily on aiademic rewards, the.punishment that
Ji sott. of teUte1problems. In a culture that emphasizes
awaits the non-leimers is nothing short of ostracism from the mainstream of cultural life, including
educational advancement, job opPortunities and even recreation' a
.lear4ing disability' (LD) emerged fron a necit to identify and serve students who
The term -and
continually fail in school yet are not mentally retardd. The concept of LD has undergone Cistinct
phas:s o{.d:v:lgpment in history. strauss and colleagues in the early 1940s were pioneers in studying
leamjng- disabilities. The term they used for these children was 'Brain
-injured children., In 1960s a shitt in
terminology occured with the introduction of the term 'Minimal Brain liysfurrcrion (MBD)'.
Kirk i; 1962
coined the term Irarning disability. The DSM IV definition is as follows:Larning oi.ofeir
when individual's achievement on individually administered, standard testing in-reading, -"
Jiugnor.d
mathemalics or
written expression is substanqially below that expected for age, schooling and tivel of inteiligence.

There is no single cause to explain the origin of learning disabilities. A variety of factors
have been
linked with its occurrence such as biophysical factors that include genetic, chen;cal imbalances,
head
trauma, brain injuries, fetal distress, unfavorable uterine environment and environmental deprivation.
Family disintegration, poverty, social class discriminatibns and other negative social and cultural factors
can. also give rise to learning problems. Educational factors such aslrowded
classrooms, poor study
habits, inadequate and inappropriate teaching can also give rise to leaming problems.

Children wiLh LD have academic problem in Jhe area of reading, writing, spelling and mathematics.
Characteristics of LD include difficulties in area of perception, cognition, memory, attention, emotions and
fine motor skills. A student with leaming problem may show a combinatior of the above-mentiened
factors' Counselors and academicians have tried to come up with techniques that would help teacheriin
dealing with children with various kinds of scholastic problems.

11.2.1 Intenentions for Specific Learning Disabilities

The treatment methods emphasize both the psychological processes and abilities that und.rrlie
leaming and the behaviaural orientation that stresses on the skills of academic tasks. The psychological
processes, which interfere with leaming, are to be assessed and remediated in the first approach. There is a
greater maladjustment, immaturity and inadequacy among underachievers leading to behavioural and
emotional problems manifested in aggressive or withdrawn behaviours. Counselling essentially focuses on
building positive thinkrng.

Behavioural orientation involves manipulation of the environment, rather than on the intemal
processes of the child. Mrny chrldren experience difficulty in reading. tack of word processing efficiency
has been identified in poor readers. They are poor in recognizing simple common words and have difficulty
in exploiting the system of phonetics.

The target for remedial education would include - improving their basic sight words and improving
their phonic skills. For improving spelling, it is necessary that children with learning disability learn
decoding of words and letter-sound combinations through phonic rules. Errors leaming disabled children
with writing disabilities can be attributed to improper holding of pen, wrong positioning of the writing,
illegibility of some letters, incorrect spacing, enors in punctuation, omission of words, adding new words,
overwriting and illegible writing under pressure of speed. To improve the spe€d of writing, behavioural
charts that monitor the progress of the child can be made.

Arithmetic problems are common at all age levels. The errors developed by children are the result
of incomplete concept formation. The principles involved for remedial math offer - writing specific
objeclives to deal with specific problems, arranging regular practice sessions, providihg immediate and
positive feedback during practice sessions, providing for concrete learning experiences, keeping an accurate
record of eror levels and response rat€s, encouraging children to set goals, asking questions and diagnosing
errors regularly. For teaching basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division it is
advisablg to use concrete operations, then semi-concrete operations and then abstract op€rations,
11.3 Counselling children with behavioural proLl<'ms
The behivioural problems exhibited by children are subsumed under the headings of externalizing
and internalizing syndr;mes. Behaviours included under the externalizing syndrom€s are conduct
disorders, or juvJnile delinquency, and are primarily reflected in conflict with the environment.
Among the
problems, *f,i.h u." listed-under this category, are aggressiveness, temper tantrums, lying, stealing'. and
i.oun"y. ityp"rkinesis is also included undir this category because the manifest symptoms of impulsivity
ano overactiivity are overt behaviours. The internalizing syndromes are problems of depression'
withdrawal, anxiety, fears, obsessions, somatic complaints and schizoid features

Itis evident that children are likely lo experience leaming problems due to behavioural problems,
emotional distulbances and interPersonal difficulties. Both multimodal and behavioural aPproaches to
individual counselling although different in scope and focus have th€ir roots in behaviorism. Counselors
often employ behavi-oural stiategies to alleviate behaviour problems. Behavioural counselling includes
learning or leaming behaviours that are important for success in the social environment, be it in school
or
with the family. Counselors reinforce appropriate b€haviours and eliminate maladaptive behaviours by
well-established procedures known as posilive reinlorcement accompu]t\ed by a procedure known as
extinctian. Other strategies include

. Shaping which includes new behaviours by reinforcing behaviours that aPproximate the target
behaviour
o Modeling which exposes children to respected individual, either in real life or on tape who
demonstrate behaviours that they are expected to learn
. Role-playing which engages children in simulations to practice appropriate behaviours
. Desensitization helps to eliminate anxiety and fear by progressively involving the pairing of
relaxing responses with incompatible, anxiety-producing stimuli to gradually eliminate the anxiety
that inhibits the desirable behaviour

11.4 Counselling for the mentally retarded

The DSMIV defines mental retardation as "significant sub average general intellectual functioning
that is accompanied by significant limitations in adaptive functioning in certain skill areas such as self care,
work, health and safety. Mental retardation is thus defined in terms of level of intellectual behavioural
performance usually occurring before the age of 18."

The psychological situation of person who has acquired a pronounced impairment of intellectual
functioning ifter 17 must be considered as dementia rather than mental retardation. This distinction
highlightslhe impairment of intellectual functioning after attaining maturify as different from that of a
peison whose intellectual resources were subnormal throughout all most of hiVher developmental.

Mental retardation has also been used as a defining characteristic or symptom of other disorders
such as Down syndrome and Prader Willi syndrome. It usually occurs among children and is a challenge
and potential source of stress to the family as an economic and social burden on the community. From
identification through treatment or education, families sffuggle with questions about cause and prognosis as
well as guilt abour i seitse of loss and disillusionment about the future. This section focuses on prpvl:[t]-
information related to assessment and common interventions involved in the treatment of mental
retardation.

I1.4.1 Assessment
As mental retardation is defined in terms of both intellectual and social competence, it is essential
to assess both these characteristics before labeling a person mentally retarded. Assessment for mental
retardation also establishes the eligibility for special educational and psychological services needed by the
child and the family. Assessment process iniludes an evaluation oi ttre chil-O's cognitive and adaptive
fuoction, including behavioural concems and an evaluation of the family, home, and classroom to establish
goals, resources and priorities.

.' A variety of assessment instruments are criticized for insensitivity to cultural differences and
atcu_sed of resulting in misdiagnosis. However assessment has many valid users. They allow for the
mdasurement of change and evaluation of the effectiveness of a program. They also provide a srandard for
evaluating how well all children have learned the basic cognitive and academic skills for survival in our
culture. It is therefore necessary to understind assessment and its purpose so that tools that are available
can be used correctly and the results intelprered in a valid way.

The use of more than one assessment procedure provides a wealth of information about the child,
permitting the evaluation of the biological, cognitive, social and the intelpersonal variables that affect the
child's current behaviour. In the diagnostic assessment of children it is importance to obtain information
from parents and significant individuals in the child's environment. For school age-children, teachers are an
important additional source of information. Discrepancies among the findings must be resolved before any
diagnostic decisions or recommendations are made.

In mental retardation, attempts to define varying levels of impairments have tended to rely on
measur€ments by means of standardized intelligence (IQ tests). The DSM fV recognizes four degrees of
severity of mental retardation based on the IQ ranges as mild, moderate, severe and profound. In assessing
children's cognitive functioning a number of instruments have been used. These include

o Bayley's scales.of Infant Development (2 mdnths -3.5 years)

o Mullen Scales of Early trarning Oirth -68 months)
o The deferential ability scales (2.5 years-l7 years)
o Wechsler Preschool &Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI 3-7 years)
. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Ill (WISC 6-16 years)
r Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale IWAIS-II for age range of l6 years 0 monrhs -89 years)
. Stanford Binet 2 years-23 years

Adaptive behaviour is an important and necessary part of the definition and diagnosis of mental
retardation. It is the ability to perform daily activities required for personal and social functioning. There
are more than 200 adaptive behaviour measures and scales. The most commonly used scale is the Vineland
Adaptive Behaviour Scale. Vineland Adaptive Beahviour Scale is a revision of Vineland Social Maturity
Scale designed by Doll in 1953 and it assess the social competence of individuals with and without
disabilities from binh to age 19 ears It is an indirect assessment where someone farniliar with the individual
behaviour (like the mother) is questioned. This scale measures four domains that include communicatron,
Jaily living skills, socialization and motor.

:Intelligent tests are predictors of scholastic mhievement however Achievement tests are dependent
on fomg learning, and culturally bound and tend to sample more specific skills than do intelligence tests.
Amongithe achievement assessment tools Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, Revised (PPVT-R) is
approp4iate for individuals between the ages of 2.5 and adulthood and measures receptive knowledge and
vocabul4;y. It is a multiflg-choice test requiring only a pointing response and no reading ability.

Based on assessment, interventions can be planned that can be psycho-educational, sociaV

interpe6oxal or psychophannacological based on the ne€ds of the children or a combination of all. The
 priorities and concems of the
needs of the child are determined
by the team of professionals based on the
family.

11'4'2rnterv:lt*nJcationar
services to in{ants
- anf toojrers
int"*"ntion for sensorv
*T:,*:i
-11^i3 imoairments'"i^Tlff 3friil;,t*
family counseling'
services include ursi,tiu" tethoo'Lgy' based services where an
occupational therapy and pnyt""l"ti"""t'*t"iiti
*r,oti
"iiratii ",1'have-centerchild's skills services to
tha( aims for imorovinq the
individual plan can be developed for iniirvention physical therapy' language
such children include specrar .ou.*i*
uy counseling, occupational thera'py,
or counseling'
ii"r"py, t""i"",i."al actlvities and parent training
be both preventive and therapeutic' A variety
of group
Social and interpersonal interventions can parties, attendance at
-;;;, programs such as birthday
activities are included in the child,s
";;;, educational and visrrs to
puii"6ution in youth sporr acriviries
recreational activities (such ^
rc teach aPproDriate social skills relevant to
group
community sites. The goal of tiese activities is
par;;ts also benefit ai'thiy get respite from,proviglc-^:*"
oarticipation and buitding ..lf ;;;;. been mel '
#d.".$;i;;"-n".Or] pal"n,. can be much more effective when their own needs have
child
families may include family therapy' individual
Therapeutic intervention with the children and children that focus on
behaviour therapy, parent ;;;;;t ft"3p{ fot mild. mental retarded
to and
""t"t;;
developing appropriate socid sriils. ctrito uetravioiat
interventions can be used teach self-care

survival skills.
only when u- plrti"*t psychiatric
Psychopharmacotogical intervention should be considered
Retardation. Drug treatment
tni*o to benJfit from a particular drug co-exists with Mental and not as a form of chemical
"onaiti*-i,
should be used as only on" of an overall treaunent apDroach
resource in evaluating and
restraint. Most imponant t cr,irii, ?a",liy .tt."rii"
"otpon"ni it""r*a. as an invaluable
" an integral part of decision-making regarding
treating children wirh mental ,;;;;;;.: Family forms and their
treatment or management th"-;hild'; ;.;b;;1. counseling in'volves understanding families
"f
concerns relating to the developlieni of'*re ctrltO.
Family sliould be educated and provided knowledge
options. Involving families in the treatment of
relating to the disability uno $r"."rvi"" and treatment
for all involved'
i"rrtal"lv retarded children can ultimately be rewarding and beneficial

11.5 Counselling adol€scents for better adiustment

The developmental needs of youn!"dtli".d
peoplgs a varietv of ar€as termed as "BASIC ID" by
;P{
thi domains of psychological functioning with the
psychologist Amold l_azarus tiSgt.'FI"
acronym,BASIClDtnatstandsforthefollowing:Behaviour,Affoct'sensation,Imagery,Cognition'
to,adulthood is a stressful period for adolescent-
Interpersonal relations, ano oieJ physiology. The-trinsition *
and emotioral phases of
bovs and more so for girls as rt involves physical' mental "djT'111b:l*"*
mav be at risk
context' they
ffii fi#;;;;i?nJ u,,i uJ"r,o*^.ir. ,itoutior,. and obstacles. In such a

for the exacelbation of *itt'in ttt" relational matrix' Problems need to be understood
"rnotror,u'iOi,oiJ"o The counselling relationship
within the,elational context, rn;uaiif uortr.pur, and current relationships. family system and tries to
io-"ipiore tie strengths and weakness in the
tbrd;;;i;;-,
provides a meaningful
""p"."n""1"t*"in the two. co:unselling involves problem-solving. and
preventive
.a"ti*rrtip skills'
negative outcomes by ttaining indiuiduals in social
interventions ihat are un uu".pi'o pi"u"nt

Emotionsldistrrrbancesinadol€scentshavebeenassociatedtotheconfi]sionbetweenthe
morality leamed by the cn o anJ the ethics to be developed bv rhe adult. As described by Erikson
adolescenceisstageofroleidentityversusconfusion;wheresomgadolescentsmightisolatefromclose
to selfdisclosrre
;ilr.'htp". fffuour .oun."iiiniuy u nonjudgmental and emparhic counselor can lead
 Centre for Distance Education

and identify /evaluate their emotions' counselors in

brief counselling affirm the clients, strengths and
resources and attempt to helD to help clients establish clear and concrete goals that
Individuat counselling to."r.J oi.g,.:-":,".' issues inctuoing-pre.Jnting are achievable.
esteem and identity, loss and recovery issues.
,i*Lri,pr, *ff_
"on"._i,lub*,
T'be muhimoihl framework is a particularly useful
model by which counselors help students to
function effectively in the academic enviionment. ir't" rollo*ing
u," some aspects of human functiorung
that requires the attention of the counselors

o Behaviour' adolescent students need to--listen carefully in class

also need to respect teachers. They
mlst be willing to ask for help with difficult subject marter. Counselors
una t"u"t ur"
of role models to promote appropdate learning bJhaviours "ra "un-rut"
' Affect- student should have positive feelings about school and about
themselves as individuals.
Students also should feel comfortable in academic environment but
should understand that leamrrrg
might create some necessary tension and anxiety. counselors shourd encourage
feelings openly
si;;;;;;;-;;pr"*
Sensation -the classroom environment should be stimulating place to
' aware of how to use their senses in the rearning process. counserors
f"u* *rr"a" r,ra"nts become
may help relieve some of the
tension involved in leaming ir'..:ugh relaxation aciivities involving various
senses.
. ' /magery- students need to be aware of the creative aspects of education. Counselors
can make good
use of the students mental imagery to stimulate leaming, creativity and also -relieve
to academic
stress
c Cognirion - students need. to think positivery about what they are leaming and their rearning
abilities. Theyneed_ to get rid of irrational beliefs about failure. iounselors
can-pro-ot" ,u"ces, by
helping students to learn from mistakes and build on achievemenrs
o Interpersonal relations- learning involves working with others. Students necd to experience
cooperaaive educational activities with one another and also teachers in the learning process
without fear of unnecessary punishment and disgrace. counselors can serve *
cooperation in various classroom activities.
-ia"ta ro.
i Diet/physioloTy- students need_ to have nutritious food, get sufficient sleep and exercise regularly.
Counselors should monitor student's physical well-being and recommend changes when neclssary.

Holistic counselling or promoting wellness involves a multidimensional scbema that varues

balancing the various tasks of life such as vocation; family; recreation; spirituality; and physical,
emotional,
social, and intellectual health. wellness counselling may be anothei way of saying'..whole person,'
counselling which incorporated inte€ration of mind, body and spirit. Thesi programs-may take'various
-
forms such as stress management and assertiveness skills trainine.

115 Summary

karning disorders are diagnosed when individual's achievement on individually administered, standard
testing in reading, mathematics or written expression is substantially below that expected for age, schooling
and level of intelligence.

A variety of factors have been linked with its occurrence such as biophysical factors, social and cultural
factors and educational factors such as crowded. classrooms that give rise to leaming problems. Children
lvilh LD have academic problem in the area of reading, writing, ipelling and mathem^atics. Interventions
include psychological and behavioural models that stresses on the skills o] academic tasks and on"building
positiye thinking.
 under the headings of extemalizing and
Behavioural problems exhibited by children are subsumed..
that include procedures such as positive
internalizing syndromes. Multimod-il and behavioural counselling help to promote
;;i;f;;;;ffi, extinction, shaping and modeling Role playing .and desensitization
intemalizing syndromes'
O"riiuUt" U.ttunlours in children with both extemalizing and

MentalretaldationiSdefinedassignificantsubaveragegeneralintellectualfunctioningaccompaniedby
ocgurring before the age of 18' Based on
limitations in adaptive fon.tioninf"*"n as self-care uiO tuf"ty'
assessment, interventions can be"planned that
can be psycho-educational, social and interpersonal or
of the children or a combination of all'
i"ry"'f,""p-tt-."""f.gical based on the needs
as it involves physical, mental and
The transition to adulthood is a stressful period for adolescents and
ptt^", of adjusting behaviour as well as habits of work and attitudes towards situations in
"rn",i"".l emotional disturbances associated
.^rr.i""f".. f-ff"-r *ro"iut"i wiih the period of adolescence include
relational matrix and academic environment'

The counselling relationship explores the strengths and weakness

in the fimily sysem and brings a
and preventive interyentions' such as
harmonious relationship berween ihe two. It invol-ves problem solving
body and spirit
muilimoaal or ttotistic ;ounselling that integrate integration of mind'

l l.6Technical Terms
pairing
Desensitization helps to eliminate anxiety and fear by progressively involving the
oi ietaxing responses with incompatible, anxiety-prodncing. stimuli to
gradually eitininate the anxiety that inhibits the desirable behaviour

Ext e rnalizing sYndrome s Behaviours seen in children presented as conduct disorders, orjuvenile
delinquency, and are primarily reflected in conflict with the environment
are extemalizing syndromes

Holistic counselling Counselling that promotes wellness involving a multidimensicnal schema

for balancing the various tasks of life

I nt emalizing slndrome s Behaviors of depression, withdrawal, anxiety, fears, obsessions, somatic

complaints and ichizoid features observed in children can be called as
intemalizing syndromes

Leaming disorders A cluster ofcharacteristics exhibited by children with individual's

achievement on individually administered, standard testing in reading'
mathematics or written expression is substantially below than expected for
age, schooling and level of intelligence

Modeling Behavioural techniques which exposes children to resPected individual'

either in real life or on tape who demonstrate behaviours that they arc
expected to leam

Role-playing Behavioural technique, which engages children in simulations to practice

appropriate behaviours
 Behavioural technique which includes new behaviours by reinforcing
behaviours that approximate the rarget behaviour

11.? Model Questions

l' what are counselling techniques involved for children with leaming and behavioural problems?
2. Briefly explain the interventions included for treating chitdren witlirnentally retardatiln
3. How can counselors promote better adjustment in ad6lescents?

ll.8 Reference Books

Hirisave, u', oommen, A. & Kapur, M. (2002). psychorogicar Assessment of children in the crinicar
Settrzg. Bangalore: NIMHANS.

y: rt' & Bhol4

INMHANS. P. (2001). psychorogicar rherapies with chitdren and Adorescents. Bangalorc:

Kaplrr,M. (1997). Mental heahh in Indian sciools. New Delhi: Sage publications ,
Karanth, P. & Rozario, J. (2003). lzamin| Disabitities in India-wi ing the Mind to lzarn. New Delhi:
Sage Publications

Locke' D'c., Myers, J.E., & Hen, E.L. (2001). The Handbook of counseting. california: sage publications

Narayana Rao, S. ( 1997). Counselling and Guidance. New Delhi: Tata Mccraw-Hill
 l2'l Counselling Specia! Groups : Women'"|

LESSON - 12

COUNSELLING SPECIAL GROUPS: WOMEN,

MARITAL AND FAMILY COTJNSELLING
12,0 Objectives
1. To have an overview of the various considerations and approaches involved in counselling
women
2. To understand the different issues in counselling women
3. To introduce the issues involved in marital counselling
4. To understand the role of family and the issues involved in family counselling

Structure
L2.l Introduction
12,2 Approaches to Counselling Women
12.3 Considerations in Counselling Women
I2,4 Issues in Counselling Women
12.5 Maritalcounselling
12.6 Family counseling
12.7 Summary
12.8 Technical Terms
12.9 Model Questions
12.10 Reference Books

12.1 Introduction
Depression, anxiety and eiting disorders are more commonly diagnosed in women than
men. This because of
o socialization practices that encourage traditional gender roles of passivity and
submissiveness in women
. disproportionate burden of care giving and domestic responsibilities on women and girls
. impact of physical, psychological or sexual abuse
In this lesson the first section deals with counselling women and the next two sections would
focus on marital counselling and family counselling. In Counselling women one has to take into
account the broader social context in understanding their needs. We will examine in the next
section the trdditional approaches to counselling. The evolution of these approaches, their
strengths and limitations and critical appraisal from a feminist perspective are also discussed.

12.2 Approaches to Counselling Women

Traditional approaches that have been applied to counselling women have been severely
criticized, as they have not provided gbnder fair treatment. The traditional or standard approaches
to counselling women include the psychodynarrric, humanistic, cognitive-behavioural, and family
systems therapy. The traditional psychoanalytic concepts of Freud described women's character
 as passive, masochistic. It held views of women having Electra complex and, penis envy, and led,
to an analysis that women were secondary to men, resser-deveroped human beings, and were
natural or instinctive mothers and homemakers. Most mental health professionals'rejected
the
psychodynamic concepts while object relations and Jungian approacbes have gained prominence.
Object relations viewed interpersonal relationships and first J years of life, rJher than biological ,,
drives and oedipal conflicts as central to development. They placed emphasis on early family
relationships, especially with the mother as instrumental in development of the self. Feminist
critics objected the exclusive emphasis on mothering in early developmental experience and felt
that these approaches highlighted blaming mother for any psychological dlsorder of the
individual.

Jungian archetypes of anima and animus respect the feminine instincts as valuable lbr
ma]<inq one's life_meaningful. But feminist critics view these archetypes as socially constructed
.
and culture specific and that they may not be relevant to other culiures. The perion-centered
therapy acclaimed as a complete model for working with women was also criticized by the
feminist framework because of an overemphasis on autonomy, internal locus of control. Such an
individual reemphasized by the person-centered therapy may be potentially disempowering as it
encourages the client to blame herself for factors outside herself such as sexism oi violence ano
oppression.

Muy conceprs of cognitive Behavioural rherapy (cBT) are comparibre with the
counselling needs of women as it encourages clients to establish their own soals and take charse
of their lives' Many CBT tools such as modeling. self-monitoring and reinforicement, assertiveneis
training and restructuring were used effectively in increasing women's confidences for pursurng
their goals. The training in CBT is based on an understanding of the complex relationship-between
,
women's social status and personal esteem and it encourages women to develop theii strengths
'and accept shortcomings. In recent years cBT methods have
been efficaciously applied to
problems experienced by women such as depression, eating disorders and post t.uu.uii" ,t."r,
disorder.

' 12.3 Considprations in Counselling Women

This section provides the different concepts that play a role in the approaches to working
.with women. These concepts help the counselor to better understand the cultural identity
. development processes of the clients and how these cultural dynamics influence counselling
process.

12,3.1 ldentity development processes of women

Influenced by the early models of Black racial identity, many theorists proposed that
women and other people representing the minorities can shed their negative views of self worth by
moving away to situations where they can internalize a secure and positive sense of cultural
' identity. Recent feminist theorists such as Dowing and Rousch have proposed a five level model
' of feminist identity model for women. The first stage of this model is passive acceptance, which
is marked by women's acceptance of traditional gender roles and notions of superioiity of men. In
the sbcond stage, revelation, women begin to question the negative societal images of women. In
this dtage their previous denial is broken down through a series of crises or contadictions. ln the
third stage, embeddedness-emanation, women develop close emotional connections with other
similar iomen, providing them with opportr:nities to vent theif anger in a supportive environment.
The fourth stagi, syntheiis, is characterized by the development of a positive feminist. identity'
irt
wherein oppreision-related explanations for events and other casual factors are considered
making aceurate attributions. The fifth stage, active commitment is characterized by the
translaiion of the newly developed consolidated feminist identity achieved in the previous stage.
The progress through tfie stageJof development may depend on various types of interpersonal
and
environmental factors.

12.4 Issues in Counselling Women

women have unique needs with respect to normative physical issues such as puberty and
menstruation, pregnancy and postpartum and menopause. In such situations they need information
and support to negotiate these life transitions. The experiences of such normative physical issues
involvi understanding both the biological changes and also how gender socialization meets these
changes. This section provides an overview of the development of women and the unique_
life
tasks that they undertaie during each phase of the life span development and the how to address
their concerns.

As adolescents most girls are influenced by the dominant cultural stereotypes on issues of
physical appearance and popularity. They also report difficult experiences with regard to
relationship conflicts and ability to be assertive. Counselors need to understand the social world of
girls as the problem chiefly rests in cultural issues and not in individual pathology. Girls need to
l-earn about Lealthy resistance to unhealthy cultural scripts and also try to resurrect the submerged
self of adolescence. Counselors need to talk to adolescent girls by making explicit the issues of
power and power dynamics, dominance, marginalization and discrimination. Girls who tolerate
abuse and are not helped go on to become the women who tolerate abuse and drown in it. Their
sense of positive esteem becomes so submerged that they believe they deserve the mistreatment.
Counsellors should encourage girls to break down rigid gender stereotypes and help them move
through adolescence with self-assurance.

Most girls develop their female's sense of self as well as her self-esteem and self worth
from their competencies and effectiveness in nurturing and maintaining relationships. Implicit in
female personality development and gendered communication styles is the pervasiveness of-power
disparities that continue to impact the lives of women. In intimate relationships. effective
communication, problem solving and conflict resolving skills as well as the presence of social
support and the sharing of power lead to satisfaction. However the lack of such skills and factors
sucir as physical and psychological violence, substance abuse and the inability to regulate conflict
are panicularly harmful to relationships. The role of the counselor in intimate relationships
involves offering guidelines for couples in regulating conflicts.

Pregnancy and chitdbirth are the two most central and life+ransforming events during
the repro<luctive life cycle. It is the time involving many physical and psychosocial changes'
Clinicians can provide anticipatory guidance to increase the awareness of the symptoms and the
risks during pregnancy. It is through attention tci factors such as coping, social support and
cultivating positive emotions that affect the well-being of women during the pregnancy, childbirth
and postpartum periods.

, Much has been discussed about the complexity of the women's roles today and the
imponance of understanding the expanding opportunities and the role str:iin that follows. It is
assumed that a good mother prcvides constant supervision and stimulation for her children.
Societal views expect women to subordinate their career desires and assume the roles of nurturers.
It thereby promotes the view that being ambitious and career minded is selfish. In counselling
women to balance the ideal mother and ideal worker anxiety, it is essential for counsellors to
examine their own hidden biases. Because of the fixed gender role stereotypes counselors may not
be aware of their own preconceptions or hidden biases. Professionals suggest the "balance-focused
coping strategies " for individuals, partners, families and workpldces thal heip in inaking use of
their resources to balance the multiple demands.

For midlife women there is interaction arnong several variables in their lives such as
physical changes and also the quality of their intimate relationships experiencing menopause.
Women in this life stage have to be provided with biomedical information related to menopause
within the culture and the value system of the woman.

Owing to the disintegration of the conventionally held beliefs and values, some women
have eiercised their choices freely. A few decades ago, for women marriage was the only option
and continues to be so for many even today. But with education, wider and more athactive
opportunities for employment, this belief has eroded and women are pursuing occupations and
preferring to remain single. An important area of counselling deals with instilling confidence in
women to express themselves freely.

Counselling women thus concerns preparing women to face the challenges of transitions in
life situations. Counselors have to be aware of the considerations in counselline women.

12,5 Marital Counselling

Marital counselling is designed to address two people or a couple in marriages, who are in
conflict with each other over one parameter or a variety of parameters-social, emotional, sexual or
economic. Owing to the traditional nature of the Indian society, marital counselling gradually
gained importance. It is looked upon as a form of crisis intervention. A crisis in marriage
relationship could occur due to the intrusion of a third party. When this third party has affective
relationships it could cause an emotional turmoil causing a crisis. Another factor that could pose a
threat to a marriage is the change in the family structure. Onc more source of crisis in maritai
relationship could be illness in the family. An important source of conflict in a marital relationship
is the difference in lifestyles of the couples. Other causes may be financial upsets and changes in
the work situations that could cause stress and strain in the family. The conventional idea of
mariage as a sacred bond between two individuals or as an indissoluble union becomes difficult
to accept with the stresses and strains of rapid industrialization and urbanization. In westem
societies liberal attitudes, civil laws for soldmnizing marriages and the secular ideas of marriage
h1\'e propagated that marriage are matters of convenience and marriages can be dissolved when
ri,.)e of the partners wishes to come out of the relationship and exercise his freedom to do so.
People enter onto marriage for happiness, companionship and affection. Incompatibilities in
marriages can probably change these aspects when couples prefer to part ways. The role of the
counseilor is to trelp the couple understand each other for what he or she is and not to be swayed
by fanciful misconceptions that societal stereotypes propagate about ideal partner.

The counselor in this relationship establishes a therapeutic contract with the couple and
communibates methods to change maladaptive patterns of behaviour and to encourage personality
growth and developmenf. Marital counselling is geared to restructuring the interaction between the
iouple. Marital counselling emphasizes in helping the partners to cope effectively with their
problems. Most importantly it aims to alleviate emotional distress and disability and promote the
levels of well being of both partners together and each as an individual. The counselor moves
toward these goals by strengthening the shared resources of the couple in problem solving, by
encouraging the substitution of more adequate controls and defenses for pathological ones, by
enhancing emotional coping strategies when they are upset. This also assists in the growth of the
relationship.

The integral part of counselling is to persuade each partner in the marriage to take
responsibility in understanding the psychodynamic make up of his or her personality.
Accountability for the effects of behaviour of one's own life, the life of the spouse and the life of
others in the environment is emphasized which often results in a deeper understanding of the
problems that created the marital discord. However marital counselling does not ensure the
maintenance of any marriage. Indeed, in certain instances it n;ry show the partners that thev arF !::
a nonviable union that should be dissolved. In those cases the couple may continue to meet the
counselor'to work through the difficult process of separating and divorce. Counselling may not be
of any particular help in cases of patients with severe forms of psychosis, particularly patients with
paranoid elements; one or both of the partners wants to divorce; or one spouse refuses to
participate because of anxiety or fear-

12.6 Family Counselling

Family counselling is concemed with the family system and changes that can be made in
that system. In a sense the client is the family. If the interaction of the family with one of its
individual msmbers leads to stress it is a symptom of a sick system. The symptom if allowed to
persist may not only cause much misery to the individual but also to the rest of the family. The
focus in family counselling is on the pattems of family interactions and the discord in relationships
within the family. Family counselling is systems based. It embraces a causality apprpach and
assumes that interactions within families are dynamic. This perspective tends to eliminate blame
due to a single cause, thereby helping family members to explore interactions more thoroughly
and to examine themselves and the systems they live in more constructively.

The framework of family counselling includes the following concepts:

o All systems seek homeostasis
o All systems incomorate feedback loops so as to function
o Hieranhy is an integral part of systemic functioning, including all the roles, rules, and
subsystems necessary. Boundaries arg necessary to facilitate the existence of roles, rules,
and subsystems.
 for Distance Education 12.6

o The system cannot be understood by reductionism (analyzing the individual parts of the
system); rather it must be examined as parts of a whole
a Change in one part of the system creates change in all parts of the system

. Four major theoretical orientations wee developed in the family systems field that provide
framework for training in marriage and family counselling. Popular family counselling approaches
include structural, strategic, experiential, transgenerational and behavioural.

Salvador Minuchen formulated structural family therapy in response to working with

children. This therapy focuses on learning clear boundaries - having overt role expectations and
family rules as well as the hierarchical system. The structural family therapist strives to change
dysfunctional family transaction patterns and to realign the family structure. The goal of therapy is
to assist family members in learning alternate and more satisfying ways of dealing with one
another.

Strategic family therapy is present oriented, brief, directive and positive. The goal of
therapy is to replace maladaptive sequences of behaviour with more satisfying sequences' There
are two varieties of strategic therapy: problem-focuseil and solution focused. In problem focused
strategic therapy (Snider, 1992), the goal is to solve the presenting problem on which the family
has agreed to work, not to provide insight or understanding. Directives or assignments to be
completed outside therapy sessioim are given to the clients. Solution focused strategic therapy
looks for the exception to the problem - the times when the problem does not exist. Some of the
techniques used in this modality incltde reframing (attributing different meaning to beahviour),
pretending, positioning and paradoxical intervention that helps to defining the problem creatively
for the client.

Experiential family therapy does not rely on therapy but relies on the relationship or
involvement of the therapist with the family. This therapy emphasizes free will, choice and the
human capacity for self-determination and self-fulfillment. Experience is valued over rational
thought or intellectualizing. They focus on the here -and - now ongoing experiences of families.

Trangenerational family therapy conceived by Murray Bowen and rooted in

psychodynamic and general systems theory, believes that past is active in the present.
Understanding the past therefore is the key to understanding the present. It conceptualizes family
dysfunction as the "result of the family's emotional system over several generations". The major
tool ifor discerning this pattern is the genogram. A genogram provides a visual representation of
three to four generations of the family complete with relational patterns. An important construct in
this iherapy is differentiation of self which implies the individual distinguishing between the
feeling process and the intellectual process, thereby allowing the individual to detach from the
family-'s emotional entanglement. Objectivity and neutrality are of utmost importance in this
therapy.

Many techniques are used in the ,fgmily .therapy, which are common to the theories
mentioned above. Some of these are reframing, genogram, the empty chair, family rituals,
tracking, enactment and reenactment and behavioral assessment. Reframing is the art of

)
attributing different meaning to behaviour so that the behaviour would be seen differently b) the
family. Genogram provides a visual presentation of a three-generational family's emotional field.
The impty ciair tichnique helps in expressing thoughts and feeling to absent family members,
which ihey are unable to express directly to that person. Rituals are often prescribed by the
therapist to improve the structure of the family such as family eating dinner together, having
partnirs spend time alone, having a set home work time for children, specific rules and roles for
ij:ese rituils that might include only positive talk and no problem solving at dinner time' Tracking
adopts family symbols- life themes, values, and significant family events - gathered from
communication and deliberately use them in conversation. It is common to ask the family to bring-
an outside problematic interaction into the session and lo reenact the situation. This two-part
technique empowers the clients to use their knowledge of how to change the problem and
strengthens their ability through action. Family therapists assess either by observation or
assessment instruments to determine treatment plans and family behaviours.

Family therapy has been criticized for emphasizing on equality of power in family systems
that does not exist in reality. Another criticism of this therapy is the pathologizing of the
woman/wife/mother. Many of the early theories blamed the mother or wife for the dysfunction in
the family and devalued the role of women in the family. Many of the family therapy approaches
have recognized these weaknesses and adapted to a'gender and culture sensitive perspective with
their therapy. Family therapy is both a traditional and a changing field and the practioners must be
aware of the societal changes and the variety of family arrangements that they will encounter.

12,8 Summary
Women have been found to be more affected by disorders. such as depression, anxiety and eating
disorders. This is mainly because of traditional gender roles that emphasize submissiveness and a
secondary status for women, burden of care giving and violence against women Hence
counselling women has to adopt gender sensitiveness.

Counselling women involves preparing women to face the challenges of transitions in life
situations sgch as puberty, marriage and childbirth, balancing ideal mother ideal worker conflict,
mid life women and menopause.

Marital counselling is designed to address two people or a couple in marriages, who are in conflict
with each other over one parameter or a variety of parameters-social, emotional, sexual or
economic. It is viewed as crisis intervention. Incompatibilities in marriages lead to couples
preferring to part ways. The role of the counsellor is to help the couple understand each other for
what he or she is and not to be swayed by fanciful misconceptions that societal stereotypes
propagate about ideal partner.

Family counselling is concerned with the family system and the client in the counseling situation
is the dysfunctional family. If the interaction of the family with one of its individual members
leads to stress it is a symptom of a sick system and the focus in family counselling is on the
patrerns of family interactions and the discord in relationships within the family. Approaches in
family counselling include Trangenerational, experiential, behavioural, structural, strategic.
solution focused and narrative therapies.
 for Distance Education 12.8

12,9 Technical terms

Empty chair technique A technique that helps in expressing thoughts and fer ''ng to
absent family members, which they are unable to express
dfuectly to that person.

Exp e rient i al fami ly the rapy Closely associated with Carl Whitaker's work this therapy
emphasizes free will, choice and the human capacity for self-
determination and self-fulfillment.

Fanily counselling Ttle focus in fumily counselling is on the patterns of family

interactidns and the discord in relationships within the
family.

Genogram This provides a visual presentation of a three-generational

family's emotional fi eld.

Matital counselling Counselling that is designed to address two people or a

couple in marriages, who are in conflict with each other over
one parameter or a variety of paramet€rs-social, emotional,
sexual or economic.

P roble m foc ur e d the rapy In this system of family counselling the goal is to solve the
pres€nting problem on which the family has agreed to work,
not to provide insight or understanding.

Reenact This is two-part technique that empowers the clients in a

family to use their knowledge of how to change the problem
and strengthens their,ability through action where an outside
problematic interaction is brought into the session and
reenacted in the counselling situation.

Refrarning It is the art of attributing different meaning to behaviour so

that the family would see the behaviour differently.
I

Rituals These are rules prescribed by the therapist to improve the

structure of the family positive talk and no problem solving
at dinnertime.

Solution focus e d therapy In this system of family counselling the goal is to look for
the exception to the problem such as the times when the
problem does not exist.
 12.9 : Women..

Structural family therapy This therapy focuses on leaming clear boundaries - having
overt role expectations and family rules as well as the
hierarchical system.
;
I
Tracking This process adopts family symbols- life themes, values, andi
significant family events -gathered from communication andi
deliberately used in conversation to foster familial.
relationships.

Trangenerational family the rapy This family therapy was conceived by Murray Bowen, which
focuses on the understanding of the past as the key to
understanding the prcsent. It conceptualizes family
dysfunction as the result of the family's emotional system
over several generations. The major tool for discerning this
pattem is the genogram,

12.10 Model Questions

1. What are the various considerations, issues and approaches involved in counselling
women?
2. Elaborate on the issues involved in marital counselling
J. Explain the role of family and the issues involved in family counselling

12.11 Reference Books

l. Kopala. M. & Keitel. M.A. (2003). Handbook of Counselling Women. New Delhi. Sage
Publications
2. Locke. D.C, Myers. J.E & Herr.E. (2Nl). The Handbook of Counseling. Califomia: Sage
Publications
J. Narayana Rao.S (1997). Counselling and Guidance. Tata Mc Graw Hill
LESSON . T3

COUNSELLING THE ALCOHOLIC AND DRUG ABUSE

GROUPS

13,0 Objectives

l. To study counseling interventions involved in alcoholic de-addiction

2. To comprehend
. the dynamics of drug abuse and their treatment modalities

Struc'ture
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Alcoholism
13.3 Drug Abuse
13.4 Summary
13.5 Technical Terms
13.6 Model Questions
13.7 Reference Books

13.1 Introduction

In the past few decades there has been tremendous change in the socio-economic conditions of the
youth. There is growing frustration in the faith and value of education. During this stage young people also
experience unrest, stress and strain. This vulnerable stage often makes them victims of drug addiction and
often use of drugs becomes a means of escape from feelings of emptiness and helplessness. In the early'
decades of the twentieth century, alcoholism posed a serious social problem involving adults and older
persons while experimenting with drugs is fashionable among adotescents and youth.

13,2 Alcoholism
Alcohol abuse accounts for thousands of deaths each year and severe economic loss and treatment
costs. Originally characterized as a social ill, alcoholism is now recognized as disease. As a health issue
alcohol is linked to a number of disorders, including cinhosis of liver, cancer, foetal alcohol syndrome and
physiological abnormalities that arise out heavy drinking.

Alcoholism encompasses a vanety of specific behaviour patterns that have physiological and
psychological needs. These include increasing stereotyped drinking, drinking that maintains blood alcohol
at a particular level, the ability to function at a level that would incbpacitate less tolerant drinkers,
experiencing increased frequency and severity of withdrawal, drinking earlier in the day and in the middle
of the night, a sense of loss of control over drinking and subjective craving for alcohol. These
characteristics can occur with or without physical and psychological dependency.

132,1 What leads to Alcoholism

Several theories have beeh offered to address the origins of alcoholism. One approach maintains
that biological and genetic factors, such as predisposition to addiction, account for alcoholism. However the
process that acknowledges the interdependent roles of physiological, behavioural and sociocultural variable
in maintaining alcoholism seems to meet the criteria for alcohol use and abuse.
F
For years alcohsl abuse was regarded as resistant to intervention. Relapse is a major difficulty in
treatment for alcohol abuse. Craving for alcohol is one of the outstanding features of alcoholism that many
alcoholics experience expressed as nervousness, restlessness, fatigue and depression. Craving aPpears to
involve an interrelated set of psychological, physiological, behavioural and biochemical response.

13.2.2 Treatnents oriented toward abstinence

Treatment approaches to alcoholism deal with the full complexity of alcohol abuse. Alcohol abuse
depends not only on personal attitudes but also social and cultural environments. Drinking occurs in
particular environments and those environments can elicit and maintain drinking behaviours.

Decades of research and treatment programs reveal that alcohol abuse can be modified. A number
of alcoholics "mature out" of alcoholism cutting down or eliminating their alcohol intake in the later yea$
of their lives. The most promising approaches in the treatment of alcohol dependence are
. Motivational enhancement therapy ing€_ests that when the individual is motivat€d to change he will
muster his intrinsic resources to deal with the problem behaviour
. Skills training holds that training in behavioural skills is necessary for abstinence from alcohol as
most individuals are deficient in refusal skills and asseniveness.
. Relapse prevention focuses on cognitive behavioural model of relapse prevention.

13.2.3 The Multimodal relapse prevention model

By thems€lves *"h of the three models are not self-sufficient' A multimodal approach
combining several treatment modalities has the advantage of being more comprehensive than any one
model of treatment. Multimodal and broad-spectrum cognitive-behavioural therapy also treats biological
and environmental factors. The goals of these approacbes are to decrease the reinforcing properties of
alcohol, to teach people new behaviours that are incompatible with alcohol abuse and to modify
environment to include poiitive reinforcement for activities that do not involve alcohol. Multimodal
approaches combine various methods of cognitive behavioural change to modify drinking behaviour and
the environment in which it occurs. They identify the life problems that may be related to alcohol abuse and
to deal with them by instilling a broad range of coping skills. Relapse prevention techniques are
customarily built into these programs to enhance long-term maintenance.

In treating alcoholic abuse, the frrst phase of treatment is detodfication. Since this can produce
severe symptoms and health problems, it is typically conducted in a carefully supervised and medically
monitored sening. Then the therapy begins which is a short term, intensive, and inpatient treatment
followed by a period of outpatient treatment. Some patients attend follow-up sessions, whereas others are
discharges to supervised living arangements.

A vadefy of behaviour modification techniques have been incorporated into alcohol treatment
prograns. The aversion therapy is one such technique that follows the classical conditioning of pairing
alcohol with an aversive agent, a chemical called Emetlne. The ingestion of emetinq and alcohol produces
nausea and vomiting. Some programs pair alcohol consumption with electric shock or other chemical
asents such as Antabuse.
transition back into their family. Despite these programs relapse is quite common. However relapses should
not be considered as set backs in along the way. Relapse could be perceived best as an important step
toward maintenance and as an opportunly for intervention rather than as failure or lack of self-control.

Thus an effective approach to alcohol abuse appears to be one in which biological and
environmental factors are acknowledged and treated simultaneously. Combining aversion therapy with a
supporting resrructuring of the patient's environment as well as long-term relapse prevention skills appears
to be the most successful approach. The multimodal or broad-spectrum approaches have proven to be
successful but complete abstinence occurs in very small percentage of drinkers.

13.3 Drug Abuse

Both legal and illegal drugs pose potential health hazards. However, illicit drug create many serious
problems as they have impurities and they have no insurance and they can also be dangerous. For any drug
io have an effect it must intervene in biological processes. All drugs have potential hazards, but drugs
termed safe are tested by the federal Food and Drug Administralion (FDA) and are termed safe. The FDA
considers a drug safe if its potential benefits outweigh its potential hazards. Many dmgs such as antibiotrcs
have been approved even though they produce severe side effects in some people.

Many psychological asp€cts of drug addiction represent non-x'.|i,, :' ,. behaviour that some
individuals resort to. Broadly speaking the reactions of drug addicts fall i:,r-: , ,i.e category of character
disorders. In the last three decade the phenomenon of drug abuse has assume.i i.lormous proportions and
has become a serious threat to order and society's survival. Many of these drugs provide the kind of
experience emotional and psychotic reactions. They make the users progressively depressed and bring
obout r"uere physiological states of drug craving which makes them desperate for drugs. This leads to
indulgence in all kinds of crimes and delinquency.

The dynamics of drug use are complex and involves a numbet of socio-cultural and psychologipal
factors. The personality traits of drug addicts suggest impulsiveness, rebelliousness and dependency. They
are also characterized by low frustration tolerance, inability to endure tension, feelings of inadequacy and
self-devaluation. Many addicts are immature and dependent individuals with urealistic levels of
aspirations and are unable to face failures. Using drugs is a kind of reaction formation so that it alleviates
their insecurities, anxieties and tensions even though for a short while.

Itis beneficial for counsclors working in medical settings to have some training in,addictions and
substance abuse. All counselors should have
Basic knowlecge of addiction such as physical and psychosocial effects of substance abuse
,I
.Knowledge and skills to screen clients for addiction
.Knowledge of community treatnent programs and support groups for referral purpose'
ii Some of the aruli ttrat are fre4uently abused along with the physicat and psychosocial effects are
'preiented in this section

13.3.1 Drugs that are abused

.i S.d'"tiro are drugs that induce relaxation and sometimes intoxication by lowering the activity of
the Lrain. the neurons, thJ muscles, and the heart by slowing the metabolic rate. In high doses these
drugs
cadse loss of consciousness. and can result in coma and death due to inhibitory effect on the brain
center
that controls respiration. Sedatives include barbiturates, tranquilizers, opiates and methadone, but the
commonly used irug is alcohol. Depressant effects are a major problem with sedative drugs and these
eftects ar; additive when taken in combination. The effects of mixing two or more drugs can be dangerous.
Sedatives when mixes with other depressants provides a lethal combination that do not
nullify each other
but triggers both sets of effects.

Barbiturates are s1'nthetic drugs used medically to induce sleep' Barbiturates produce effects
pills'on
similar to alcohol and pmduce tolerance and dependence. People who take barbiturates as sleeping
a regular basis are not ;ble to sleep without 6; and manifesf withdrawal symptoms wheo they stop taking
theri. Withdrawal is similar to that from alcohol and includes tremors, nausea, vomiting, sweating and
sleep disturbances and some hallucinations and deliriurns.

Tranquilizers are chemical compositions of benzodiazepine group. The effects arc not severe and
and
lethal if taken-in small quantities but large amounts of these drugs can cause disorientation, confusion
even rage, a paradoxical effect for a tranquilizer.

Another category of depressants is the opiates' drugs derived from the opium poppy' Opium can
also be refined into riorphine, *hich be further chemically treated to produce heroin, which is po.pular
"un
among young adults and high school students. synthetic compounds, including methadone are similar to
-and used for centuries for both medical and
ttr" oii"t". produce similar effects. Opium has been
,""r"utional purposes. It can be ingested by swallowing, sniffing, smoking or injecting under the- skin, into
, muscle or lntravenously making it one of the most versatile drugs for transmission into the body' pain The
principal medical use oi opiates is to relieve pain where the person's subjective experience of
dirninishes.

Stimulant drugs tend to make some people feel more alert and energetic, able to concentrate and
able to work long houis. They make other users feel jittery, anxious and unable to stand still. Stimulants
produce alertness, reduce feelings of fatigue, elevate mood and decrease appetite. It is mosdy students_who
abuse stimulants. A mphenminis are stimulant drugs that are abused for their mood altering effects. They
also produce physical symptoms as increased blood pressure, slower heart ratQ and relaxation of bronchial
lnusci".. Theifi""ts of thii drug can be dangerous to the cardiovascular system. The psychological effects
of this drug include hallucinations and paranoid delusions. Amphetamines produce undesirable effects such
as dependence and tolerance. Cocaine \s another stimulant capable of blocking neural transmission and
hence is used for its anesthetic effects in medical surgery. The use of Crack, a form of freebase cocaine is
commonly used by college students and young adults because it is cheaP and widely available.

Marijuana produces the psychological effects of euphoria; a sense of well-being, feeling relaxed
and heightene-d sexual responsiveness. Its potential for serious health consequences is still debated-
Neverthiless any drug used chronically and in heavy doses poses a danger to health. Thus marijuana has
some potential to impair health and is frequently used would be harmful to the respiratory system.

Many athletes have been banned from participation in competitions because of doping Use of
anabolic steroids increases muscle bulk and dec-reases body fat that make them attractive to athletes and
body builders despite their harmful effects that include prevention of normal functioning of adrenal glatid'
that secretes endogenous steroids, risk for coronary diseases, altering reproductive functioning, abnormal
liver functioning and producing severe mood and psychotic impaiments.

Most people believe that some drugs are acceptable and even desirable because of their medical
benefits but most of them are potentially harmftl to health as they have the capacity for tolerance or
dependence. Treatment for the use and abuse ol illegal drugs is similar to treatrnent of alcohbl abuse. The
goal of treatment for all types of illegal drug use is total abstinence.
 13.5 the Alcoholic and...

133.2 Screening individuals for substance abuse

According to the Substance Abuse and Mental llealth Services Administration (1998) publication,
Addiaion Counselling Contpetencies, the following competencies are deemed necessary for screening
individuals for substance abuse:

1. Establish rapport including management of crisis situation and determination of need for additional
professional assistance.
2. Gather data systematically from the clients and other available sources using screening instruments.
' Data should include current and history of substance abuse, health, mental health, mental status and
current social, environmental and e.onomic constraints.
3. Screen for psychoactive substance toxicity, intoxication, and withdrawal symptoms, aggression or
danger to others; potential for self-inflicted harm or suicide; and coexisting mental health problems

4. Assist the client in identifying the impact of substance abuse on hiyher current life problems and
the effects of continues harmful use or abuse

5. Determine the client's readiness for treatment and chan'se as well as the needs of others involved in
the current situation

6. Review the treatment options that are appropriate for the client's needs, characteristics, goals, and
hnancial resources
7. Apply accepted criteria for diagnosis of substance use disorders in making treatment
recommendations
8. Construct with client and appropriate others an initial action plans based on client needs,
preferences and resouces available
9. Based on initial action plan, take specifis steps to initiate an admission or referral and ensure
follow-through

13.4.3 Interventions for drug abuse

Interventions may involve medical, psychological and sociological procedures. Medical
proc€dures include drug therapy that helps in alleviating psychotic and neurotic symptoms it however does
not resolve inner conflicts or personality chauge. Therefore there may be a relapse when trcatment is
withdrawn. Psychological treatment aims at alleviating the individual's rnaladjusted behaviour and strives
to bring about personality change to foster more effective adjustment. Psychological treatment includes
three types

Supportive pslchotherap! aims at helping the individual feel more adequate to face his problems
confidently

Behafiour modificalioz aims at modifying the individual's maladaptive behaviour tfuough substitution of
more effective coping techniques

. Re-educalive psychothempy helps gain an insight into oneself such that one is able to modify and change
faulty assumptions and attitudes, paving the way for fundamental change in personality organization. It
would also be necessary to deal with the individual's social environment and his or her adjustment to it.
Conditions of stress in the individual's life situations that interfere with his adjustment should also be
modified.
 for Distance Education 13.6 iuna Uni

In most cases, changes in family situation help make more effective adjustment possible. An
effective program of treatment should include medical, psychological and sociological approaches.
Psychological preventive measures need attention in public education, concerning the detection and
correction of pathological tendencies at the earliest stage. Rehabilitation of the weaned drug addicts is of
vital importance as relapse is quite common among those who have quit.

133.4 Prevention Programs in Educational institutions

As mentioned earlier it is mostly the youth who succumb to drug abuse therefore it is essential for
implementing effective substance abuse prevention program in schools and colleges under the guidance of
school counselors. In education institutions, curriculum integration is a substance abuse prevention
approach that school counselors can employ to further guidance and involve greater numbers of teacbers in
the total process. For example an English teacher might teach spelling and integrate knowledge of the risk
of marijuana smoking using a spelling list of words such as carcinogen Similarly, a social studies teacher
might teach personal decision-making steps in relationship to critical decisions made at some point in
history. This integration does not require additional time to achieve the objective of counseling for
substance abuse and also allows the substance abuse prevention program components such as - decision
making, social skills, coping skills, assenive skills and the like to overlap as apart of a comprehensive
developmental guidance program.

13.4 Sumnary
Alcoholism is a social problem that also affects the health of the individual. It encompasses a variety of
behaviour pattems that have physiological and psychological needs characterized lack of control over
drinking and subjective craving for alcohol.

Intervention programs involved in counseling alcohol dependence are: motivation;l enhancement therapy
skills training and relapse prevention. By themselves each of the three models are not self-sufficient. A
multi-modal approach combining several treatment modalities has the advantage of being more
comprehensive than any one model of treatment

Most drugs provide the kind of experience similar to emotional and psychotic reactions. A number of
socio-cultural and psychological factors are involved in drug abuse. Drug addicts show the traits of
impulsiveness, rebelliousness and dependency.

It is beneficial for counselors working in medical settings to have some training in addictions and substance
abuse. Interventions may involve medical, psychological and sociological procedures. Medical procedures
include drug therapy that helps in alleviating psychotic and neurotic symptoms it however does not resolve
inner conflicts or personality change

13.5 Technical terms

Craving An interrelated set of psychological, physiological,
behavioural and biochernical response seen in alcoholics

Curriculum int e g ration It is a substance abuse prevention approach that school

counselors can employ

Multimodal approach This is a comprehensive approach to alcohol abuse that

includes several treatment modalities and treats biolosical
and environmental factors alike
Pounr"tting

13.6 Model Qoestions

l. Examine thc interventions involved in alcoholic de'addiction
2. what are the diffqent drugs abused and explain their treatnont modslities

13.7 Referenc€ Bookg

Locke, D.C., Myers, J.E & Hen .E.L (2mD. Th4 Handbook of couueling. califomia: SagO hrblicati,ou

Narayana Rao, S. ( 199). Counselling and Guidance. Ncw Dethi: Tata Mccraw-Hill
LESSON 14

CoUNSELLING FORANXIETY, STRESS AND BURNOUT

14.0 Objecflves

l. To provide an over.view of counselling for anxiety related problems

2. To comprehend the dynamics of counselling for stress and bumout

Structure
I4.1 Introduction
14.2 Counsellinganxiety
14.3 Counsellingstress
14.4 Counsellingburnout
14.5 Summary
14.6 Technical Terms
14.7 Model Questions
14.8 Reference Books
14.1 Introduction

Anxiety is a state of emotional tension characterized by apprehension and fearfulness

leading to stress, which thfeatens to upset the organismic equilibrium. Stress is regarded as an
external force perceived as theatening by the individual. The most common mental component of
harmful stress is abnormal anxiety. Harmful stress is so crippling that it stops a person from doing
anything. Bumout is brought about by unrelieved work stress. In this lesson we shall learn about
counselling for anxiety related problems, stress and burnout.

14.2 Counselling anxiety

Anxiety occurs when a person thinks there is some kind of threat. This may take the form
of a physical danger such as a fear of having a heart attack or a social danger such as a fear of
being rejected. Anxious thinking concems future events- often "what if..." thinking. l,azarus first
identified two stages of appraisal when a person becomes anxious. First the person judges whether
the situation one is confronting is a threat. The person estimates the probability of the harmful
outcome occurring and assesses the degree of potential harm. At the second stage the person
estimates his or her ability to cope and deal with the threat. The degree of anxiety experienced is
therefore determined by how threatening the situation seems to be and by the person's confidence
in ones ability to cope with the situation. When a person has an anxiety disorder the person
functions like an oversensitive alarm system and tends to overestimate danger and under estimate
coping resources. In all anxiety problems, there is a tendency for the person to overestimate the
probability of bad things occurring and to catastrophise about the consequences of the predicted
bad event.
 for Distance Education 14.2

14.2,1 Types of Anxiety

Anxiety problems tend to fall into patterns of disorder and each disorder is characterized
by certain types of anxious thinking. In panic disorder, the client experiences recurrent, distinct
periods of intense fear. In agoraphobia there is a central fear of being trapped in places from
rvhictr it is difficult to leave. In social phobia a person is anxious about any situatio,n in which he
or she may be scrutinized by others. Generalized anxiety disorder is characterized by persistent
experiences of anxiety and worry about his or her life circumstances. In counselling clients with
problems related to anxiety cognitive behavioural counselling is effective.

14.2.2 Cognitive behavioral counsellingfor Anxiety

Anxiety can be divided into three inter related components or systems: the cognitive,
behavioural and somatic. The cognitive component refers to the client's anxious thinking and
imagery. The behavioural component refers to the client's avoidance of facing up to the problems
and sornatic component concerns the client's physical symptoms such as tension or dizziness.

Cognitive aspects of anxiety involves handling of fear. A key part of this strategy is to
i:rckle the client"s self-defeating beliefs about his anxiety. The client is usually frightened by his
,.,.rlrloms and may have all sons of anxious beliefs about his anxiety (fear of being ridiculed
because of his anxiety) which has to be tackled in the beginning ofthe counselling. The counsellor
ir('lps the clienr to weigh up the evidence for and against his self-defeating inferences and
tl;, ri us. -iire ccunsellor should not jt:mp in with reassurance that the feared outcome will not
occur but should help the client to question the inference. Using the question technique the
counsellor can help the client to deal with embarrassment, which may mean that he or she is not
an awful person. Clients find it easier to challenge unrealistic inferences when he is removed from
the feared situation. It is helpful if the counsellor anticipates this obstacle and makes suggestions
about how the problem can be overcome. An imagery exercise that involves an exercise called
time projection is a useful tool in helping the client to imagine himself or herself perhaps two or
three years hence and what he would be feeling then. Helping the client to see the possibilities will
reduce his or her hopelessness.

In the behavioural aspects of anxiety, avoid.ance is a very common feature of anxiety

problems. The client may try to ignore a problem situation hoping that it will go away. In helping
the client to counter avoidance the counsellor nireds to identify the negative beliefs that underlie
avoidairce. The most common reasons for avoidance are fear of negative evaluation by others and
fear of failure. The cticnt should then be challenged behaviorally. Graded exposure is one
method to overcome avoidance. In this method the client is assisted to put together a list of
situations that the client avoids. The client then rates the degrees of difficulty on a scale of 0-100,
where a score of '0' would mean 'no difficulty' and a score of 100 would mean ' the most
difficult'. The counsellor and the client put the situation in the order of difficulty and then choose
the easier situations and gradually move into the difficult situations for the client to master.

Somatic aspects of anxiety include feeling breathlessness, dizziness, quickened heartbeat

and tingling sensations. The client usually interprets these unpleasant feelings as loling control
and becomes even more anxious. The client is taught to modify his breathing by \ansof
exercises. Physical tension is a common feature of anxiety problems and this can be reliev.ed by
means of relaxation methods. Relaiation is taught in the form of exercises derived from Jacobson
(1938) in which the client systematically relaxes and tenses groups of muscles throughout the
body. Alternative fomls of exercise include thinking relaxing imagery or concentrating on
counting breaths. Anxiety is olten the client's major problem. It can also be a secondary feature of
other m;jof difficulties. such as depression.

14.3 Counselling stress

There is a wide spread use of the term stress in everyday conversation. Most of us have
more than first hand experience with stress. In the following section let us examine what is stress
and what can be done to moderate stress.

14.4.1 Stress and stressors

Stress can be defined as a negative emotional experience accompanied by predictable

biochemical, physiological, cognitive and behavioural changes that are directed either toward the
stressful event or accommodating to its effects. Stressful events are called as stressors. Events
such as crowding, a bad relationship, a round of job interviews or commuting to work may tre
considered as stressors. Some ofthe experiences mentioned here might be stressful to some people
but not to others. How one perceives potential stressors determines whether or not one will
experience stress. So it is the relationship between the individual and the environment that
determines stress. Stress is the consequence of a person's appraisal processes; the assessment of
whether their personal resources are sufficient to meet the demands of the environment. Stress
produces many changes, including adverse emotional reactions, cognitive responses and
physiological changes.

The most important contribution to the field of stress is Hans Selye's work on the general
adaptation syndrome. According to this concept when an organism confronts a stressor it
mobilizes itself for action. This mobilization effort is directed by the adrenal glands. The response
itself is non-specific with respect to the stressor. That is regardless of the cause of the threat the
individual will respond with the same physiological pattern of reactions. Over a period of
prolonged exposure to stress, there will be wear and tear on the system. The general adaptation
syndrome consists of three phases. The alarm phase is the first phase where the individual
becomes mobilized to meet the threat, In the second phase, resistance, the organism makes efforts
to cope with the threat through confrontation. The third stage, exhaustion, occurs if the organism
fails to overcome the threat and depletes all its physiological resources in the process of tryipg

Lazarus is a chief proponent of the psychological view of stress. He maintains that when
individuals confront a new or changing environment they engage in a primary appraisal to
determine the meaning of the event. Events may be perceived as positive, neutral or negative in
their consequences. Negative events are further appraised for their possible harm, threat or
challenge. Once primary appraisal has occuned secondary appraisal is initiated which is the
assessment of one's coping abilities and resources. Although people can adapt to stress to a certain
degree, highly stressful events remain so over a period of time. The daily hassles in life can also
affect health adversely as can chronic exposure to stress. Occupational stress includes work
 for Distance Education 14.4 Nagariuna U

overload, work pressure, role conflict and ambiguity, inability to develop satisfying job
relationships that can lead to increased illness, job dissatisfaction, absenteeism and tardiness.
Multiple tasking or role combination may enhance self-esteem but on the other hand, lack of
control and role ove oad may produce psychological distress and have adverse health
imolications.
\s'
14,3.2 Coping with stress
People respond very differently to stress. Some may throw up their hands in despair when
the slightest thing goes wrong with their plans while some are able to meet obstacles and failures
by bringing their personal and social resources to cope with the problem. Coping is the process of
managing demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person. Coping
involves efforts that are both action-oriented and intrapsychic to manage enrironmental and
internal demands and conflicts among them. Coping efforts are guided by internal resources
(personality factors -- negativity, hardiness, optimism and control) and external resources (time,
money, the presence of other simultaneous life stressors and social support). Coping styles consist
of predispositions to cope with stressful situations in particular ways. Avoidance, confrontation
and catharsis are some styles of coping. Coping efforts may be directed at solving problems or at
regulating emotions. Most stressful events evoke both types of coping strategies.

14.3.3 Counselling for stress problems

Counselling stress related problems involve three stages. In the first stage clients leams
what stress is and how to identify the stressors in their own lives. In the second phase they acquire
and practice skills in coping with the stress. In the final phase they practice these stress
management techniques in the targeted situations.

Cognitiye behavioral counselling is highly effective stress management. A wide range of

stress management techniques are used to combat stress such as self-monitoring, the modification
of internal dialogues, goal setting, homework assignments, positive self talk, self instruction and
contingency contracting (rewarding for appropriate behaviour). Meichenbaum developed stress
inoculation training that enables people to confront stressful events with a clear plan in mind and
Several techniques of stress management so that the individual has a broad set of skills to choose.
In this manner an individual can discover the skills that work best for him or her. The individuals
can thereby inoculate (immunize) themselves against stress.

Most of these techniques are designed to provide cognitive insights into the nafure and
control of stress. Another set of techniques - relaxation techniques- are designed to att'ect the
physiological experience of stress by reducing arousal. Relaxation training includes progressive
muscle relaxation training, guided imagery, transcendental meditation and other forms of
meditation such as yoga and hypnosis. These techniques can reduce heart rate, skin conductance,
muscle tension, blood pressure, energy utilization, self-reports of anxiety and tension.

14.4 Counselling burnout

In recent years increasing attention has been paid to the phenomenon of burn out in human
service professions. Bumout appears to be a response to interpersonal stressors in the job in which
:u ,.rverload of contact with people results in changes in attitudes and behaviour towards them. In
the next section we will be dealing with this debilitating psychological condition brought about by
unrelieved work stress.

Bumout is not simply excessive stress. Rather, it is a complex human reaction to ongoing
stress, and it relates to feeling that one's inner resourceS are inadequate for managing the tasks and
situations presented to them. The signs and symptoms of bumout are similar to those of stress, but
bumout includes an emotional exhaustion and an increasingly negative attitude toward your work
and, perhaps, ones lii.. Paine (1982) has observed that Bumout Stress Syndrome (BOSS), the
consequence of high levels of job stress, personal frustration and inadequate coping skills, have
major personal, organizational and social costs. BUrnout can be defined as:

. A slate of physical, emotienal and mental exhaustion caused by long term involvement In
emotionally demanding situations

. A state of fatigue or frustration brought about by devotion to a cause, way of life, or

relationship that failed to produce the expecied reward

Exhaustion and disillu.sionment are the most destructive components of bumout. There can
be tbur types of consequences a) depletion of energy reserves, b) lowered resistance to illness, c)
increased dissatisraction and pessimism, d) and increased absenteeism and inefficiency at work.
Bum out can be defined as the end result of stress experienced but not propedy coped with,
resulting in symptoms of exhaustion, irritation, ineffectiveness, discounting of self and others and
problems of health. Burnout occurs at an individual level and is an internal psychological
experience involving feelings, attitudes, ruotives and expectations, It is a negative experience for
the individual. in that it ccncerns problems, distress, discomfort. dysfunction and negative
consequences of depression or unhappiness that eventually threaten the person's j<lb, relationships
and health. Burnoul is associa:cd with situations in which a person feels:

. Overworked
. Under apprecialed
. Confused about expectations and priorities
. Concerned about job security
. Over committed with responsibilities
. Resentful about duties that are not commensurate with pay

Knowing the signs of unmanaged stress and burnout can help reduce the risk of burnout.
Identifying the causes of stress, recognizing one's limited control of any given situation, and
taking care of oneself emotionally and physically can help avoid burnout. Also leaming to manage
stress will help find greater enjoyment in life and career. Bumout proceeds in stages that blend
into one another that a person might not realize what is happening until he/she is in a state of
despair and physical :irrC emotional breakdown.

To prevent or treat burnout, one must become familiar with its symptoms and should try ro
identify possible causes and make changes so as to improve their physical, mental and social v"'ell-
 for Distance Education 14.6 -Aeharya N lU

being. To address the physical effects of bumout the individual must have a through physical
check-up with your doctor and discuss the symptoms noticed. One must ensure that one gets the
sleep that the body desperately needs. The person needs to inculcate healthy eating habits that help
sustain energy tfuoughout the workday and should also begin exercising or practice yoga or
relaxation.

Burnout often occurs when life feels out of balance-feeling that one is giving too much of
their life to jobs or others and are constantly in a state of stress and anxiety without any time to
relax and enjoy life. To address the psychological effects of bumout they can develop coping
skills for dealing with stress including using muscle relaxation techniques, mental imagery and
positive self+alk. By understanding and being self aware of one's strengths and weaknesses they
can deal with day-to-day stress. Symptoms of depression need to be checked and medically
treated. To help the individual develop control over work and home life, they must consider
taking more time off, scheduling more frequent breaks while at work, or delegating tasks. Settt'ng
rcalistic goals will add direction, clarity and focus to their lives. The person experiencing burnout
sympioms need to establish personal meaningful goals, and divide them into short- and long-term,
and establish a plan for achieving them and setting new ones. Striving, learning and reaching for
new accomplishments will give a real sense of purpose.

, Maintaining a balanced life also means spending time cultivating relationsntps with others.
Poor relationships can contribute to blrnout, but positive relationships can help prevent or reduce
it. Steps one can take to improve social relationships include: Nurturing closer relationships with
partner, children or friends that can help restore energy and alleviate some of the psychological
lffects of bumout, such as feelings of being under appreciated. Joining a religious, social, or
support goup can give a place to talk to like-minded others about how to deal with daily stress.
Expressing feelings to others who will listen, understand and not judge as in an empathic
counselling situation would help ventilating emotions out in healthy, productive ways.

14.5 Summary
Anxiety is a siate of emotional tension characterized by apprehension and fearfulness leading to
stress, whiCh threatens to upset the organismic equilibrium. Stress is regarded as an external force
perceived as threatening. Burnout is a state of physical and emotional exhaustion caused by long
ierm involvement in emotionally demanding situations, in particular at the work place

Anxiety bccurs when a person thinks there is some kind of threat, which may take the form of a
physical.danger such as a fear of having a heart attack or a social danger such as a fear of being
ie-ilcted. In counselling clients with problems related to anxiety cognitive behavioural counselling
is effective
1

Stress is 'defined as a negative emotional experience accompanied by predictable biochemical,

physiological, cognitive and behavioural changes that are directed either toward the stressful event
of accorimodating to its effects. Cognitive behavioral counselling is highly effective stress
t

management
 l
To recover from burnout, one should learn to cultivate methods of personal renewal, self-
awareness, and connection with others, and focus on creating a balance in your life. To enjoy a
healthy, sustainable life, it involves physical, psychological and social well-being.

14.6 Technical terms

Anxiety Anxiety occurs when a irerson perceives threat which may be
a physical danger such as fear of having a heart attack or a
social danger such as fear of being rejected

Agoraphobia In agoraphobia there is a central fear of being trapped in

places from which it is difficult to leave

Burnout It is a debilitating psychological condition brought about by

unrelieved work stress

Coping Coping is the process of managing demands that are

appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person.

G e ne ral adaptation sytdrome syndrome consists of three

Hans Selye's general adaptation
phases. The alarm phase is the first phase where the
individual becomes mobilized to meet the threat. In tire
second phase, resistance, the organism makes efforts to cope
with the threat through confrontation. The third stage,
exhaustion, occurs if the organism fails to overcome the
threat and depletes all its physiological resources in the
process of trying

Graded. exposure A method to overcome avoidance where situations that are

anxiety provoking are arranged in the order of difficulty and
then the easier situations are chosen while relaxing by the
client and gradually the difficult situations are mastered

Imagery exercise An imagery exercise involves time projection which helps

the client to imagine two or three years hence and what
he,/she would be feeling then. Helping the client to see the
possibilities will reduce his or her hopelessness.

Panic disorder In panic disoider, the client experiences r€curent, distinct

periods of intense fear

Relaxation techniques Techniques such as progressive muscle relaxation and yoga

that are designed to affect the physiological experience of
stress by reducing arousal are called relaxation techniques.
Sociat\Phobio In Social Phobia a person is anxious about any situation ln
.t
I which he or she may be scrutinized by others.
:
' Stress '' A negative emotional experience accompanied by
predictable biochemical, physiological, cognitive and
behavioural changes that are directed either toward the
stressful event or accommodating to its effects.

'It is a stress management program where individuals have a

S t re s s inoc ulation t rainin g
broad set of skills to choose and discover the skills that work
best for them wherein they can immunize themselves against
strEss.

Stressors Stressful events are called as stressors.

14.7 Model questions

1. Examine the various counselling approaches for anxiety related problems
2. Discuss briefly the issues involved in counselling for stress and bumout
14.8 Rbference books
Locke. D.C, Myers. J.E & Herr.E. (zml)' Thz Handbook of Counseling- Califomia: Sage
hrblications

Narayana Rao.S (197). Counsetling and Guidance. Tata McGraw-Hill

Pestonje. D.M. (1998). Stress and Coping. New Delhi: Sage Publications

Trower. P, Casey. A & Dryden. W. (19%). cognitive Behavioural counseling. califomia: sage
Publications
 l5.r

LESSON. T5

DEPRESSION
15.0 Objectives

L To understand depression within a counseling framework

2. To leam techniques of counseling for depression

Structure
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Assessing depression '
15.3 Depressive thenns :

15.4 Counseling for depression

15.5 Behavioral techniques
15.6 Summary
15.7 Technical Terms
15.8 Model Questions
15.9 Reference Books

15.1 Introduction
'
Depression affects us in many different ways, and symptoms fonning a pattern are spread
over different aspects of functioning. It is predominandy an affective state and changes can be
observed in a variety of dimensions:

> Motivation: apat$, lass of energy and interest Things seem pointless and the future hopeless.
> Affective : depressed mood, guilt, arciety, atger . Tlrc capacity for positive emotions is reduced
and the person may lack the capacity !o experience pleasure. Negative feelings can increase
and there can be heightened experiences of anger or resenhrent, anxiety, shame, envy and
guilt. ;'
> Behavioral: decreased activity, re&ued coping, social skills deficits. The person stops
engaging in behaviors that have been enjoyable or pleasurable in the past, and there is an
increasing withdrawal from social activities.
> Cognitive: negative thinking, indecisiyeness, poor concentration Memory can also be affected
and cognitive contents become negative, with negative ideas about self, the world, and the
future.
> Biological: sleep disturbance, loss of appetite, dccreased sexual interest. Co$nonly observed
arc physiological changes in su€ss honmones and neurotansmitters such as serotonin and
t"T*il**r,
parr of depr€ssion is nsgative thlnking - the depressed person thinks
negativcly about ongoing experiences, the fututp, :andrhi.rn/h9 rself. The predictable thought pattem
includes unhappiness with present life sitqtion;,feeliqgg of ihability to alter the situation, and an

.l
inability to understand how the present situation can change in the future. The person's negative
thinking tends to centre on the theme of loss or failure to achieve a desired goal.

15.2 Assessing depression

Depression is a sequence of interacting processes that spiral a person downwards, and all
interventions (drugs, psychological and social support) are aimed at breaking into this spiral. As
mentioned earlier, depression affects various domains of functiohing, and assessment typically
focuses on the psychological, social and biological areas of functioning of the individual.

The most commonly used self-rcport scale for depressiop is the Beck Depression Inventory
(BDI), which enables the counselor to gain an overall imprespion of the pattem of symptoms and
to monitor recovery. The inventory also allows the counselor to gauge the risk for suicide and
indicates that further exploration is required. Apart from the BDI, the counselor's assessment of
depr€ssion must also focus on the following key areas:

Psychological
l What does the client think and feel about hinself? What qfe his attribution styles?
ii. What does the client think and feel about the fuhrre?
lu. What are the client's current life circumstances?
lv. How long has the client felt depressed?
Is the depression a change from his normal mood 3tate or an accentuation of rnore chronic
low mood? Is there a loss of previously enjoyed activities?
Does the client see his depression in psycholcgical and/or relationship terms, or is there a
'
belief that he/she is physically ill?

r Social
i, Are there any major life events or upsets tlnt might have triggered the depression?
ii. What are the client's perceptions of social relationships? Have there been any major
losees? Is thq home environment aggressive or neglectful? Does the client have feelings of
hostility to others anrVor feelings of being let down?
iii. What are the sources of social support, friends, and family relationships? Can the client use
these if available or have they gradually withdrawn from social contact?
iv. Does an unstimulating sbcial environment play a role?
v. Are there major practical problems that may need other sourcbs of help?

* Biological
i. Is there any sleep disorbance?
ii. Are there major changes in appetite and weight?
iii. How serious is fatigue and loss of energy?
iv. Are there any psychomotor changes - especially agitation and rctardation?
v. .Wqulda trial of antidepressant drugs help to break up a depressive pattern?

153 Depressive themes

The intemal self-evaluations and self-schema that clients bring irrto the counseling . '
relationship need to be focused on to understand how they view themselves.'Negative views of
 .3

self may k, inherent or may be activated by life events. Understanding how depressed people
think and feel about themselves is essential in counseling.
Some of the key self-focused themes involved in depression are approval, achievemen!
self-worth, social comparison, self-criticism, efficacy, defeat and affect management. For each
theme, there are three issues:
how people judge themselves,
^r how theyjudge others and
r how they'think others will judge them.
The basic self-other beliefs which people have help to organize social behavior and
relationship style. For instance, believing one is inferior to others may lbad to inhibited and
cautious or anxious social behavror.

15.4 Counseling for Depression

Heinz Kohut stressed on the importance of internal experiences and the client's nesd to
feel valued and approved (mirroring), the need to have others whom he/she can turn to and feel
comforted (idealizing), and the need to feel like others (belonging).
Kohut explains depression as the loss of extemal inputs or the internal positive dimensions .

of self-experience that facilitate positive feelings about the self. The goal of counseling therefore,
is to facilitate and develop the client's contact with internal positive self objects. Kohut places
importance on helping the client express his/her sense of disappointment of unrealistic aspirations,
misinterpretations or unmet needs.

15.4.1 Basic aims of counseling

Counseling for depressed clients follows a structure that is discussed below:
Developing Rapporl. Rapport and a good working retationship need to be established in order to
enable the depressed client gain a sense that someone is going to work with her and take her views
and feelings seriously. It is also the counselor's role to do what he/she can to put the client at ease
while acknowledging that depressed clients have a heightened sense of powerlessness and
inferiority. The counselor must appear as non-threatening as possible to the client; interpersonal
skills such as smiling, sitting in an open posture, and creating an informal, relaxed atmosphere will
reassurc the client.

Exploring fears, concems and expectations. M4ny of the fears of the depressed person relate
to shame. Depressed clients are usually too frightened to discuss their fean with the counselor as
they are worried about what the counselor may think of them. Fears of being seen as inadequate,
weak or bad can be addressed in the early sedsions of counseling. The counselor must clarify these
fears and doubts verbally and nonverbally by reassuring and offering unconditional positive regard
to thc client.

Shared meaning. For the client, the feeling of being understood comes from being given an
opportunity to tell how bad things are. The counselor must make contact with the reality of tle
client's experience. For example, if sleep disturbances are the most troubling symptom to the
client, and the counselor does not address this, the counseling is not proceeding according to the
client's experience.
 Centre for Distance Education 15.4 N

Exploring the stoty. The counselor will need to use directive and closcd-ended questions in order
ro obtain the full story. When the counselor has a general idea of the life events, helshe may focus
the discussion and share the difficult problems. It is also essential to gather information about the
key relationships in,the client'i life, and the attitudes and beliefs that may have formed in these
- relationships. At this stage, it is also important to gain information on how the client evaluatos the
self (negative self-evaluation is a key thcme in depression).

Shaing therapeutic goals. 'Ihis means establishing with the client an agreed focus for work,
and agreeing. that there is a potential for change. Asking the client about therapeutic goals allows
him/her to begin the process of working toward change, The counselor needs to be extremely
skillful in guiding the client towards goals that are workable and helpful.

Explaining the therapeutic rationale. After the first few sessions, the counselor introduces and
educafcs the client about the rationale of the padcular approach that he is using with the client.
This ii usually important as it enables the client to understand and take an active part in counseling
and to make the therapeutic goals clearer. Further, it helps clients when they learn that there aro
things that they can do to help themselves and that the counselor will guide them in thcse issues.

lncreasing 4i,wareness. Once the counselor is sure that the client has understood the approach,
he/she can bcgin to use various techniques to increase awareness and challenge dysfunctional
thoughts. The counselor can begin to challenge the thoughts one by one by looking at the evidence
for the thought, and/or exploring alternatives.

Chatlengiig and moving to alternative frameworks. To help develop alternatives, it is

important to help the client recognize that their self-attacking is often triggered by disappointment.
The crux of the counselor's focus should therefore enable the client to reconsider the self-attacking
cycle, anb reCognize his/her genuine emotions. At this stage, the counselor explores images,
feelings or memorics, enabling the client to gain deeper insight into how disappointment and
emptinoss triggers the self-attack. The counselor's empathy for the disappointment is important in
the healing process.

Monitoing internal feelings and cognitions. A major aspect of all therapies is to increase
awareness outside the colnseling situation. Cognitive counselors talk about developing the
observing sef - depressed clients can distance themselves from their thoughts and look at
themselves as a tbird person, which has been found to be helpful. This process of increasing self-
awareness via self-monitoring can be very helpful with some,clients. Tcaching self'-awareness and
increasing the activity of the observing self helps put a buffef between the thoughts and the affect
associated with them.

. Homework and atternative role enactments. Cognitive

"oinselor.
firmly believe that helping
clients make changes in their, actual social behavior is more important tha4. waiting for it to
happen. The value of homework depends to a great extcnt on the client's collaboration, rathgl than
hiVher compliance.
1 5.4.2 Cognitive iounseling
Cognitive counseling focuses on our thoughts .and styles of interpretation of the
cnvironment and social events, and also the implications we derive about ourselves. The three
basic concepts of cogriltive counseling arc:

1. Automalic thoughts: these are the immediate ideas and interpretations thdt spring to mind. In
dcpression, they are often self-evaluative and carry implications for the future.
2. Rules for living and basic attitudes: these are the ideas and beliefs that guide our lives and
set us in particular styles of living. Basic attiodes are not easily accessible and the client may
hzrdly be aware of them.
3. Self-other schemata: these represent internal organizing systems that form the basis of our
self-judgements and experienies on one hand, and oui judgements and experiences of other
pcople on the other.
Many times, we are not fully aware of our automatic thoughts, and only experience
emotions. Cognitive counseling begins with thought catching - increasing our awareness of our
thinking. Depressed clients are taught to attend to their automatic thoughts, changes in moods or
feelings, and become attentive to these changes. Thought catching is a key aspect of the cognitive
approach as the typical way people interpret situations is the focus of therapy.

The ABC model of cognitive therapy is used to highlight the relhtionship between events,
thoughts and emotions. The client is encouraged to list out the Activating event, the Beliefs and
meanings attached to the event, and the Consequences in terms of emotions and behavior. llnking
thoughts and feelings in this manner helps in identifying how the interpretation of an event is
associated with emotional, behavioral and biological changes.

Automatic thoughts are meaningfiil. Thus, an important procedure of cognitive counseling

is to cxplore the immediate (automatic) thoughts, teach how to recognize these thoughts as they
occur and how to challenge them.
Once depressed clients understand the link between thoughts and feelings, it is possible to
deepen the exploration by searching for some underlying, deeper meanings and extreme
cvaluations and beliefs. Through the technique of guided discovery, inference chain or laddbring
is used to enable the client to associate one idea or outcome to another. Inference chains are the
ways our thdughts and interpretations are linked together.

The cognitive counselor is active and directive in the use of questions. In exploration, the
counselor does not suggest ideas, but lets the client discover by himself, with the belief that self-
discovery works better than interpretation. Cognitive counselors use Socratic r:/pe questions
('what' or open questions) in two basic ways:
^ To probe the ways people are reasoning, to explore their basic construg1s, and to'
illuminate the links in the chains of their reasonine.
r To stimulate people to challenge and reflect on this reasoning and see if it holds good. .
Socratic questioning aims at seeking information that a person can give, providing help in
redirecting attention and refocus on the nature of the problem, ahd moves from the specific to the
more general in order to help the client develop skills to challenge and change key beliefs.
Centre for Distance Education 15.6

Dcpressed clients are often vague about things that trigger mood changes and need to
become more focused. Cognitive counseling is thus concerned about the specificiry of events and
the eliciting situations. Specificity helps to target interventions and focus the client on the fact that
things can become manageable and controllable.

Writing thoughts down is an activity that engages the client in thought catching and in
tracing out the linkages betwe€n his/her thoughts and feelings. Thought records are usually used to
enable the client maintain a record of his/her thoughts.

15.4.3 Cognitive distortions

As clients link ideas together there can be various distortions in their thinking. 1-tris may be
because they focus on negative details and exclude positive alternatives. Beck (1979) suggests that
there are particular types of distortions. in the reasoning and automatic thoughts of depressed
clients:

l. Arbilrary inference - drawing a negative conclusion in the absence of supporting data.

2. Selective abstraction - focusing on a detail out of context, leaving out more relevant
information.
3. Overgeneralirltion - drawing conclusions over a wide variety of things on the basis of single
events.

4. Magnifrcation and minimization - making errors in evaluating the importance and

implication of events.
5. Personalization - relating external (negative) events to the self when there is little reason for
doing so.
6. Absolutistic, dichotomous thinking - thinking in polar opposites (black and white).
Something is all good, or totally bad and a disaster.
Some depressed ireople derive a sense of self-worth by social comparison' In depression,
people tend to look upwards and compare themselves with others who are superior to them in
some way. As they don't feel as good as those they compare themselves with, they often feel like
failures.
Negative social comparisons can often trigger feelings of disappointment in the self and
self-criticisms. It is thus necessary fOr the counselor to check out how the client compares
him/trerself with others, the targets they choose to compare themselves with, and the emotional
consequences of such comparisons, .

15.5 Behavioral techniques

r We have looked at the basic cognitive concepts in dealing with depressed cliens. We will
now focus on the techniques used for bringing about change. The very first step involved before
implpmenting change strategies is to psycho-educate the client to recognize that depression affects
people at many different levels which interact with each other, and how the strategies used in
counseling will help to tackle hiVher depression.
 Cognitive counseling is not about positive thinking, looking on the brighr side, ignonng
negative or social realities or painful dilemmas. It involves exploring personal meaning and
atternpting to change states of mind through a process of exploration, growth and change,
Described below arc some ofthe techniques used to bring about a change in the depressed client,

155.1 Collaborative empiricism

Cognitive counsJ[ng for depression is based on collaborative empiricism - first,
continually checking with the person that you have a mutual understanding and engaging the
person to become involved in the process of change. Second, there is a focus on the evidence and
the nature of interpretation of that evidence, Collaborative approaches require the couns6lor to be
sensitive to the client's issues, fears and abi.lities, and the interpersonal style of the client.

15.5.2 Monitoring and recordlng.

Clients need to understand what is going on in &e counseling, and his/her understanding
involves him in the process. Various methods of monitoring includq self-monitoring (becoming
aware of and then monitoring his/her thoughts/feelingVemotions), journal (a diary oi tire client's
thoughts each day), agenda setting at the beginning of the session (monitoring feelings and
'thoughts
of previous session, checking mood, homework, and areas to be cov;d in present
session).

155.3 Awareness iraining.

This involves helping the depressed client gain an increased awareness of the role of their
beliefs and personal meanings in theii depression. Fantasies can be an inspiration, a way of
escaping reality, or our projections into the future, Once the client is made aware of hiVlrer
fantasies, the video play technique can be used to obtain information on actual <ir imagined
sequences or scenes, enabling the client to mod.ify the thoughts, feelings or behavior in the scene
to more adaptive methods. Role play is a useful way of eliciting affect and involves the re-
enactmelt of previous distressing episodes and subsequently include alternative behaviors and
cognitive responses,

15,5.4 Behavioral approaches.

Actlvity scheduling can be worked out collaboratively between the client and counselor,
Clients can learn to schedule activities on an hourly,or daily basis, focusing on the doable and
increasing ihe difficulty level. ActivitieS should ideally include things that thc client finds
, rewarding. Honework is an essential part of cognitive counseling to develop new skills and r.
expectancies. Homework should be challenging, not overwhelming and should aim at getting
ktter, not feeling better. The 0ounselor should avoid "disqualifying achievements" as simptc oi
eaEy to do.

The counselor must also help the client to select short-terr& obtainable chanses or tasks. A
depressed client's goals can be quite unrcalistic and over-idealized. Tirus, in collaboiation with the
client,_the counselor sets long-tenn and short-term goals for change. For depressed clients *ho
have difficulties in interpersonal skills, instructions and behavioral practice known as social skills ,.
. trdning can prove to be very helpful.
Centre for Distance Education 15.8

'lle role of behavioral practice, homework, and social sk{ls training in the form of
developing new social and interpersonal behaviors or becoming mord assertive, offers deprcssed
clients a sense.of regairiing a measure of control over their lives, Blending these behavioral
techniques into the counseling session is not an easy task to achieve, but offer powerfiil means by
which we can engage a depressed person's self-experience and help him/her shift out of these
states of mind.

15,6 Summary
Depression is predominantly an affective state and changes can be observed in a penon's
motivation, affect, behavior, cognition, and biological states.

Counseling for depression aims to break the downward spiral consisting of how people Judge
themselves, how they judge others and how they think others will judge them.

Cognitive and Lrehavioral techniques have been found to be successful in counseling cliens with
depression.

15.7 Technical Terms

negative thinking negative thoughts a penion has about ongoing experiences,
the futurc, and him/herself.

Cognitive counseling focuses on thoughts and styles . of interpretation of the

environment and social events

collaborative empiricism mutual understanding between counselor and client to

engage the person to become involved in the process of
change

15.8 Mode) Questions

1. What arc the themes of depression?
2. Briefly explain cognitive.techniques of counseli4g for depression.
3. Explain Kohut's and Rogersr view of depression.

15.9 Reforence Books

Scot! M. J., Stradling, S. G., & Dryden, W. (1995). Developing Cognitive-Beluvioral

Counselling. Lonilon: Sage Publications.

Gilbert, P. O. Cuuscllingfor Depression

 Lr^csoN - 16

GUIDANCE AND CAREER COUNSELING

16,0 ObJectives
LTo understand the growth of guidance movement
2. To leam about career counseling techniques
Structure
16. I Introdrrction
16.2 Early Antecedents: Rtucarion
16.3 Early Antecedents: Vocational Guidance
16.4 Career Counseling
16.5 hocess of Career Counseling
16.6.Career Counseling in India
16.7 Summary
16.8 Technical Terms
16.9 Model Questions
16.10 Reference Books

16.1 Introduction
c,ounseling evolved from the guidance movement which began in the tancr part of the part
of the 19* century, George Menill established the first systcmatic vocational progrdmme in lli95,
followed by Whitmer, who started the first psychological clinic in l8%. Thc gluidance morement
gained popufarity with the publishing of Eli wcaver's clooshg a careei
119C6) and Frank
Parsons' Cioosin g a Vocation (lW9).

The vocational guidance movement grcw out df voluntary efforts by various individuals in.
the fields of education, civic and social work. There was a growing cohcern in society at largc
regarding the welfare of young people. Educationists and schools were gradually convinced thg it
was essential to provide guidance to students to help them lcarh effectively and efficiently.

In the early stages, guidance consisted mainly of providing information to young people
regarding the most appropriate occupation. Gradually, guidance bedame popular and was used in
ascertaining vocational interests of people with the help of psychometric tools and t€chniqucs.
with the publishing of Robert Hoppock's Job satisfaction in 1935, the guidance movemcnt gained
a psychological orientation.

16.2 Early Antecedents: Education

B. Ddvis hds been identified as the first individual to att€mpt to make guidance.a
Jesse
systematic part of the school cuniculum. Davis was surprised by the -significant ;ocial.and
vocational problems of his students resulting from the dramatic changes brought on by
industrialization. It was educators like Davis, weaver, and witrner who wcre-the
for what later became school guidance and counseling, "*ty-"oro"uto,
 In the early 1930s, Arthur J. Jones published the second edition of Piinciples of Guidance.
In his book, Jones stated that lre need one another as social beings; all must make decisions about
life; and with help, we hope to make them more "wisely". Jones noted that children "especially"
need help due to factors such as changing conditioils of the home, changing conditions of labor
and industry, changes in populatiop (urban vs. rural), changing standards of living, increase in the
demand for general education, elimination from school (drop out rates), leisure time. moral and
religious conditions and leadership.

16.3 Early Antecedents: Vocational Guidance

As noted earlier, Parsons paved the way for the guidance movement. The world wars
increased the need for more accurate and specific means to assess the capabilities of men for the
armed services. Researchers such as Binet contributed to a scientific basis for guidance, leading to
an increass in research and development of measurement techniques. The National Vocational
Guidance Associalion (NVGA) was established in 1913 in Michigan.
The Second World War ogce again highlighted the need to use personnel in the most
efficient manner possible. At that point of time, vocational guidance consisted primarily of giving
information about occupations, assessing interests and matching people with occupations. It was
only towards the middle of the 20tn century that any major reconceptualizations took place in the
vocational guidance movement, identifying three themes:
. There is a basic importance of personality dynamics in vocational choice anti adjustment'
. There began a rirove away from the notion of matching p€rsons with jobs toward a view
that individuals move through stages of career development
. There was a gradual change in the meaning of work
During the past sewral decades, rapid changes in science, technology, and society have
evolved the conceptualizations of career counseling. However, the term 'career counseliqg' limits
a comprehensive view of the client, distinluishing career counseling from personal counseling.
Even as the definition of career continues to evolve, our understanding of the underlyilg
assumptions of career counseling also continue to be modified.

16.4 Career Counseling

The general view of career counseling is that it is a simple proceis to help individuals find
out more about 'themselves and occupations so that they can make a good choice. In his book,
Parsons held the view that career choice is a three-step process:

1. developing awareness of self

' 2. analyzing and understanding occupations, and
3. using "tnte reasoning" to choose an occupation.
A more scientific approach called job anatyris developed a new model'fuhich includes:
l. developirrg sblf-awareness using tests, invehtories, and various other procedures tq identify'
trails
 2' studlng occupations to determine which occupations
offer a potential match for your
train, and
3. using true reasoning to choose an occupation.
However' even this simplistic approach is-undergoing
increasing awareness that some peopt"
modification as thefe is an
-iy
requires both personal and career counseling.
rtuu"
-n.r "-o.plex career-related problems, which

Another emergins ooint is that we need

more complex approaches to career counseling _
the tife-rote p".*p""u=""] This p".spec;;';;ldffi;;;":, shourd be pranned arong with other
life roles such as familv and reiiure. pr"""i";
f;;;;;;;iJ-*ur,ou, considering rhe.others creares
rather than resolves problems.

Career counselors today are more concerned

about helping people plan a career path, and
enabling rhem ro dear with nroblems trrat inrriuit
The stereotypical uno"t tunoinl oi
oi pievent'tr,.o, irJ-lrud"r'i"i",
"ri.g"r,*.
lr-:;'""rr"r, and the currenr definition
"-".r'"""it."irl;
career counseling is considerably different
from the eu'.Ii". ui"*,
of

Career counseline is an inlerpersonal process

designed ro assist individuals with cureer
development probrem' Cireer deveropment is that proc"rs iy choosing,
d!^r!!-e in an occupation. It,is a lifetong pry:2n;.gi*i entering, adjusting,o, and
other life roles. career problems inclutte,-tu, |r""ess that interacts dynamically with
ir" noiit^i*['i,"
undecidedness' w-ttrt performance' stress ""r"iittririiii; ,*
and adjustment, incongruence of rhe person and work
envtronment, and inadequate or.ulsatisfaglo,ry .
iitegration of life roles with other tift roles (e.g.,
parent, fiend, citizen) (Brooks a Srowi,
lOU1.

16.5 Proccss of Career Counseling

career counserors must be. ibre to distinguish
between cri€nts who do not have
coglitive
clarity and rhose who are undecided.
the ability ro objectivery
rno".iriu"'tnJiuiJuilil;;ilffi;;;;,#il *
*l:11 ": situations. The process assess
envrronmental
one's o*n rii"ngtt^ and weaknesses and rerare ro
''-- -:
of career counselint consists typically, of:
r Relationship with client
' Personal assessment relating to career (interview,
tests, inventories, personal checklists,
feedback from counselor)

I'
Explore occupations (written or audio-video
materials, interviews with workers)
Integrate information and choose

16.5,1 The first interview

There are five asDects.^of firu intervidw: preparation, greering and establishing a
relationship with the clieni. structuring,
_th.e
making a .uutiou, ulr"..rnent of issues that
are imoortani
to thc ctienr, and termination. The cliJnt
must be understood that there is. no
mustiil;;;;;;;;il;;ffi;;il;;##r, u
standard f;;; ;;;;i;ith any of
interview, and the counselor must go rhese issues in ihe first
along with the clieni
 ifoiSiGnce Bducution 16.4

and interYcntion
-"'-- hiterview based asscssment
16.5?
id the. beginnine noint of assessment. If the client
e*r".ri"g the degree ;a;;;brity
-
"f
has severe mental health p,oUf"-*t, tf'tn his cognitive-
clariiy will be imnllred, and.career
p-ersonal problems first. The client's motivation
counseling will have to be p"rp""J'a o""r with
importance of thc situation'
l"y l" fiif.a o "ognitin" "tity, Lui fu"totr such as appralsal ofoftheperformance' also influence
outcome expcctations. ,"ff-"ondA"*", uJ'p"ttonut
itanaaras
r**"1T;::fl:lt"!lril*."* to assess any current (and if required, future)rote
conll,rf:r $ar
The counselor should be aware that one life role
the client might be facing in ni.'"-io", roles.
'.may influence the work role' and vice-versa'

16,5.3 Tests and inventories

personality, and values inventories to help-
Career counselors often use vocational interest,
The selection of tess should
clients make career decisions. did;;Ait ;; also frequently
"ied'
the counselor, and only reliable and valid tests
be a collaborative process betwJeiitr" "ti"nt and
should be selected

16,5.4 Interests and valucs

Intorests are indications of what individuals want
to do or what they enjoy or like' The
counselor assesses a person's interests in order to
. devclop self awareness.
.. identify occupational alternatives
. differentiate occupational from leisure preferences ,
. identify sourcesoioccupationaVeducationaldissatisfaction
' stimulateoccupationalexploration'
pursue or avoid an activity or state of
Values are those belicfs that motivate us, to either
to the'process oi counseling' once values are
mind. Assessment of values it "ut""t
"*"iii"r
assessed, they need to be int"gtut"J*iirt o*er
asessment data such as information about
interests

iu,t aito estimate the choices or' adjustments that will lead to
and aptitudes. 1.f,"
"oun."toi
reinforcement of the client's values'

16.5.5 Assessing inter-role relationships

The work role intera"ts i"iir other roles across the life span. career.counseling
" "imterof attempt to "fit" the career into the life space
as
should consider th" nutur" .rr ir,"r" interactions and jobs that offer little
smoothly as possible, *i,n"*'iir-pii"g o-tt er J"s.
wtren clients are stuck in
other ways' carper counseling aims at enhancing
reward, are highly ,tre.stot or i.e inloripatible in
thc carecr role'
oit rif" .rcJu, a means of compensating for the deficits in
",
16.6 Carecr Counseling in India
vocational guidance figured as an
Neither counseling pti"iologv nor its forerunner'
was offered as a course' It was left to private
important service at universities wheii psychology in Bombav'
agencies to establish p.;iil iliJu'n" nttt in Calcuna' and then' consequently' for six vears'
""d *u. fountied in 1941 and functioned
i?;;il"y il",ioo"r'c"iii".i-i-ur"-
at various places in the country'
initiating vanous tratntng courscs for a Car@r Masters
 Guidance anO Career Cour,""ri

,n",guidance movement was

Or,Or"li#?fi"i"jn1,f rhe esrabtishment of rhe Vocarronal
jt;.$filg*i'","",^+li',:,,,",i._.T:,ff.,",utlH"lljl%il["'.TJl;f";l
;:"j",ffi: to examine the issue of oroviding,
government ul.o est"bli.l"s! guidance at-a""ui""
Govcrnment of Bombay,rt"o
tnt Burcau of Psycholoey at.attatauac. schools. ].he up
"iu,.r,
,q ,r,.
."nu,"a rr," r^rit;;;;1+::,:,#iiilil:XfL*, up a vociional guia"n"" Lu."ui"Jr,jlr,'i^ u""n

The Government of.rndia set.

up- thc cenrral Bureau
Guidancc in 1954 Durins,,1l1 of Educationar antr Vocatronal
,ir ,rr. r*"ro rhird five-vear prans rhere was an
ry1;oa "?oresurted
;:ilil;":.rt-,::l,t?.tTji'1::': 'ovement i" r"ai".ir,,i. in the opening or numcrous
arkchcdro,r'Jsiui"di;;,ff":T?i1"r"TJl*. reachers. n" e"l,r"""."i"r"i""lrrX. *
neccssitated rhe need ro
0",.."J11"#3t"*?;T::it ,y::td.war render assisrance ro ex-derense
r,^* J"""r"o.,il'",",*
mmru_""r^l'*.':,:,":J1ffiF,fi:',ffiX1,iil1"::::_*r'i"r'
*"'J'""#i"o'l,l
and'rraining ar *",;*"r""1#,::lm,*: ,113;::l'"TlJil"il'r',""1"i"::
'I'he agencies
which render vocationar guidance
can be-crac.ified undcr three
' ;I".1:lnil'i,f,ffl"ll''^11-"''o'n,
heads:
?""t"-""a li,!.srate. 'rne service provided
ffi*', "il;
'r'" by thcse
guidance cett tras vo^i'.Ying,cmployment information ro p.orp""tiu" il
pcr;oaicarry aii !;"";::::':ffi,_,?::*?ff;U::^:" ;il;;'; ii,ll?n..,.
' ffJrf"":?ftnffii,i,!: vocalional Guidance socie,ty^in Catcuua, the united
chnsrian
conrribution,",n"rr,li"ii jl;:x:;,"" YMCA' YwcA, erc. iue making significant

3. Univcrsity and collesc agencies like thc cuidance

Bombay, and M. Sl:-run eyr,eag at.St. Xavier,s collegc
in

f;,,.*,*:;l.t*ii,"",,fi #:J"J:H,*Jn::nlij{,"}l;.:,;m

," ,n" ,tJJ:I:1#::ffi:"fiJ: Il::-1:r-ll{,:, is vasrry dirrcrent rrom what is being pracriccri
I I *j*l;
j*{ri::i:*rin;i*
:{liiliiiir*:":s,*;lrini:*::,i:ru:iilit:
*
n::lf,:$:::k;#T.'il,tx.''ilxilffff .i[*#xJ"ff "#:"*fll
,i
16.7 Sunrmarv '"a:,,Jx"ff
H:"::llTff;':;;H:lLF:':::,|.3;::,:I,:,:l"I;"i13'1.#: of E,i weaver,s cho,,sins a
 6i5istanc" r4g9at!9l'-
movement grew out ur 4 srvrrr"o to provide guidance
The vocational guidance consensus that it *u.
iv'lifJ#ffig"people' There was a-eeneral and efficientlv'
"s.endat
I""rlio"""i" rt;ir; them leam effectivel-y
: '-rce, technology, and society
have re-framed the conceptualizations
raPid changes tn scten
Ilowever,
."ri*"ting' as it is known today
"i"**i to assist individuals with career
is an interpersonal process designed
Career counseling
develoPment Problem'
path' and eriabling them
about helpin'n:T]:-ll:" " *"er
Career counselors are Tor?:glcerned t'it rnuting choices altogether'
to deal with probl"*' *"'
'n"toiio'"J'J""niit'"t
16.8 Technical Terms. to assist individuals with
interDersonal process designed
Career counseung
careir develoPment Problem'
other life
be planned along with
the uiew that'career should
life-role PersPective tersure
roles such as familY and
and
assess one's own' strengths
the ability to objectively
cognitive claritY envrrunm€ntal situations
weaknesses and relate to

16'9 Model Questio

^ nrslory cf the guidance movement'
BrieflY trace the "'^'^"'
(
l.
i' wt'ut it
"t""T:li::.t:l% t" career counseling'I
3. What are the steps lnvol'

16,10 Reference B99S. Delhi: Tata McGraw-flill'

Narayana Rao. S' ^
-seting and Guidince. New
( 1991)' cbun'

Boston: Allyn and Bacon'

(1991)' Career Counseling Techniqzes'
Browri, D. & Brooki, L'
oaks:
of counseling- Thousand
E.L. Q00r). The Handbook
Locke, D.c., Myers, J.E. & Hen,
Sage Publications '