A Holistic Approach To Teaching Speaking

The Teaching of Speaking
Introduction
The teaching and learning of speaking are a vital part of any language education
classroom; not only does the spoken language offer ‘affordances’ for learning as the
main communicative medium of the classroom, but it is also an important component of
syllabus content and learning outcomes. However, teaching speaking remains
challenging for many teachers. A key issue here is whether what happens in a speaking
classroom is concerned with ‘doing’ teaching or ‘teaching’ speaking. In this paper, I
consider some of the essential elements that comprise speaking competence and offer
a teaching-speaking cycle designed to address the teaching of speaking systematically.
The paper finishes with a brief analysis of the key aspects of the teaching-speaking
cycle, identifying how it covers areas that are central to planning a holistic and
sequenced approach to the teaching of speaking. Doing teaching or teaching speaking?
Comments such as the following are familiar to many teachers working in classrooms
which aim to develop speaking skills: All my students can read and write well, but they
are poor at speaking and listening. Many of my students are too afraid to talk in class.
They are shy and lack confidence. Some of my students sound very “bookish” when
they speak – it’s as if they are reading from a book! My students love to speak, but they
make a lot of grammatical mistakes.
These kinds of observations are not surprising, as learning to speak in another

language is a challenging undertaking. Speaking is a highly complex and dynamic skill
that involves the use of several simultaneous processes – cognitive, physical and socio-
cultural – and a speaker’s knowledge and skills have to be activated rapidly in real-time.
It is important, therefore, that speaking should be taught explicitly in language
classrooms – simply “doing” speaking activities is not the same as learning the
The Teaching of Speaking Page 1

knowledge, skills and strategies of speaking in order to produce spoken language in a
fluent, accurate and socially appropriate way, within the constraints of a speaker’s
cognitive processing.

Chapter 1- The Speaking Skill
Defining Speaking:
Reviewing previous research related to defining speaking, it was noticed that two main
approaches are adopted to define speaking, the bottom-up and the top down approach.
Explaining the bottom up view, Bygate (1987: 5-6) points out that traditionally the focus
in speaking was on motor perceptive skills. Within this context, speaking is defined as
the production of auditory signals designed to produce differential verbal responses in a
listener. It is considered as combining sounds in a systematic way, according to
language specific principles to form meaningful utterances. This approach is adopted by
audio-lingualism. Eventually, in terms of teaching speaking, the bottom-up approach
suggests that we should start with teaching the smallest units- sounds and move
through mastery of words and sentences to discourse (Cornbleet & Carter, 2001: 18).
Actually, the problem with this approach is that it overlooks the interactive and social
aspect of speaking, restricting it only to its psychomotor sense. Moreover, it is hard to
ensure a satisfactory transition from supposed learning in the classroom to real life use
of the skill. Alternatively, Bygate (1998: 23) advocates adopting a definition of speaking
based on interactional skills which involve making decision about communication. This
is considered a top- down view of speaking. Adopting this view, Eckard & Kearny
(1981), Florez (1999) and Howarth (2001) define speaking as a two–way process
involving a true communication of ideas, information or feelings. This top-down view
considers the spoken texts the product of cooperation between two or more interactants
in shared time, and a shared physical context. Thus, proponents of this view suggest
that, rather than teaching learners to make well-formed sentences and then -putting
these to use in discourse we should encourage learners to take part in spoken
discourse from the beginning and then they will acquire the smaller units (Nunan, 1989,

Attempting to elaborate more on the interactive nature of speaking, Burns & Joyce
(1997) and Luoma (2004: 2) define speaking as an interactive process of constructing
meaning that involves producing, receiving and processing information. Its form and
meaning are dependent on the context in which it occurs, including the participants
themselves, the physical environment, and the purposes for speaking. It is often
spontaneous, open ended, and evolving. However, speech is not always unpredictable.
Language functions (or patterns) that tend to recur in certain discourse situations can be
identified. It is this latter approach that is adopted in the current study, and speaking is
defined as the learner's ability to express himself/herself orally, coherently, fluently and
appropriately in a given meaningful context.
The Nature of Speaking
Oral communication is a two-way process between speaker and listener (or

listeners) and involves the productive skill of speaking and the receptive skill of
understanding (or listening with understanding). Both speaker and listener have a
positive function to perform. In simple terms, the speaker has to encode the message
he wishes to convey in appropriate language, while the listener (no less actively) has to
decode (or interpret) the message.
Aspects of speaking:
Eventually, aspects of the speaking skill need to be closely scrutinized and put into
consideration. These aspects pose some challenges and identify some guidelines for
understanding this skill and hence design instructional activities to prepare learners to
communicate effectively in real life situations.
a. Speaking is face to face:

Most conversations take place face to face which allows speakers to get immediate
feedback, i.e. “Do listeners understand? Are they in agreement? Do they sympathize
(Cornbleet &Carter, 2001: 16). Thus communication through speaking has many assets,
such as facial expressions, gestures and even body movements. Speaking also occurs,

most of the time, in situations where participants or interlocutors are present. Such
factors facilitate communication (El Fayoumy, 1997: 10, Widdowson, 1998 & Burns,
1998).
b. Speaking is interactive:
Whether we are speaking face-to –face or over the telephone, to one person or a small
group, the wheels of conversation usually turn smoothly, with participants offering
contributions at appropriate moments, with no undue gaps
or everyone talking over each other (Bygate, 1998: 30 and Cornbleet & Carter,2001: 27)
Turn taking, a main feature in interaction, is an unconscious part of normal
conversation. Turn takings are handled and signaled differently across different
cultures, thus causing possible communication difficulties in conversation between
people of different cultures and languages (Mc Donough & Mackey, 2000: 84).
c. Speaking happens in real time:

During conversations, responses are unplanned and spontaneous and the speakers
think on their feet, producing language which reflects this (Foster et al., 2000: 368).
These time constraints affect the speaker's ability to plan, to organize the message, and
to control the language being used. Speakers often start to say something and change
their mind midway; which is termed a false start. The speaker's sentences also cannot
be as long or as complex as in writing. Similarly, speakers occasionally forget things
they intended to say; or they may even forget what they have already said, and so they
repeat themselves (Miller, 2001: 27). This implies that the production of speech in real
time imposes pressures, but also allows freedoms in terms of compensating for these
difficulties. The use of formulaic expressions, hesitation devices, self correction,
rephrasing and repetition can help speakers become more fluent and cope with real
time demands (Bygate, 1987: 21; Foster et al., 2000 and Hughes, 2002: 76). Actually,
exposing students to these spoken discourse features facilitates their oral production

and helps them compensate for the problems they encounter. It also helps them sound
normal in their use of the foreign language.
Spoken versus written discourse:

Understanding the subtle differences between written and spoken discourse helps in
planning instruction in the light of these distinctions. It helps also to overcome the
problems with traditional approaches to teaching speaking overlooking such differences.
Basically, spoken discourse is different form written discourse in three main parameters:
planning, contextualization and formality. Speech is more commonly unplanned,
contextualized and informal than writing. In addition, speech is more reciprocal than is
writing (Yule, 1989: 165; Nunan, 1989: 26; Eggings, 1990 and Carter & McCarthy,
1997).
Specifically, speaking can be distinguished from writing in many areas.

These include:
� Discourse structure: the spoken discourse is characterized by: reciprocal openings
and closings, interactive negotiation of meaning and conversation structures. Besides, it

is characterized by the use of simple linking devices (discourse devices) such as ‘and, '
but’, 'anyway', 'right' rather than complicated ones used in written discourse (Nunan,
1999: 22; Dinapoli, 2000: 1 and Miller, 2001).
� Typical features of the speech stream (e.g. segmental and suprasegmental
features, pauses, hesitations, interruptions, and false starts) (Bygate, 1998, b: 21).
� Features related to the cultural nature of speaking. The spoken discourse contains
numerous social and contextual factors as well aspragmatic presuppositions (Carter &
McCarthy, 1997: 13).
� Grammatical and lexical features: As for grammar, the spoken language is
characterized by:
� Contractions and elliptical constructions lacking subjects or

rejoinders; ex: (sure, me too, or not now, thanks) (Widdowson, 1998).
� Incomplete sentences called “utterances” (Yule, 1989: 170).
� Fronting which refers to the movement of an element from its position and its
relocation as the first element in a construction to allow a focus to fall on it (Nunan,
1989: 26 and Foster el al, 2000)
As for lexis, spoken English has a lower lexical density than written English, using more
grammar words and more verb phrases than noun phrases. Furthermore, spoken
language is characterized by what is called "vague language" which refers to objects
and events in general terms especially when speakers are uncertain or don’t want to
sound too particular; e.g. (by the window or something) (Widdowson, 1998).Spoken
language is characterized also by fixed expressions that play an important part in
enhancing fluency during speaking. Examples of fixed expressions include expressions
such as "a matter of fact, once and for all…etc"(Carter & McCarthy, 1997: 18 and
Segaowitz, 2000).

Chapter Quiz
Name: ______________________ Year &Sec:_______________
Direction: Encircle the Letter of the correct answer.

1. He points out that traditionally the focus of speaking was on motor perceptive skills.
A. Bygate(1987)
B. Brown(1983)
C. Florez(1999)
D. Howarth(2001)
2. It is a two way process between speaker and listener.
A. Productive Skill
B. Oral Communication
C. Receptive Skill
D. Reading Skill
3. It is characterized by reciprocal openings and closings.
A. Typical feature
B. Grammatical feature
C. Discourse structure
D. Lexical structure

4. It is segmental and suprasegmental features, pauses, and interruptions.
A. Typical feature
5. It contains numerous social and contextual factors
A. Speech
B. Spoken discourse
C. Written discourse
D. Discourse structure
6. Incomplete sentences also called as?
A. Difficulties
B. Obstacles
C. Utterances
D. Differences
7. It refers to the movement of element from its position.
A. Utterances
B. Semantics
C. Lexis
D. Fronting

8. It is commonly unplanned and informal writing.
A. Poem
B. Discussion
C. Speech
D. Lecture
9. These are unplanned and spontaneous and the speakers think on their feet.
A. Response
B. Conversation
C. Writing
D. Speech
10. An interactive process of constructing meaning.
A. Speech
B. Speaking
C. Conversation
D. Lexis

II. True/False
Direction: Write T if the statement is correct and F if false.
1. Speech is not always unpredictable.
2. The listener has to encode the message.
3. Speaker and listener have a positive function to perform in simple terms.
4. A main feature in interaction is an unconscious part of normal conversation.
5. Speech is unplanned and spontaneous type of writing.
6. Time affect the speaker ability to plan.
7. The speaker response cannot be as complex as in writing.
8. Typical feature is characterized by reciprocal opening and closing.
9. Vague language refers to object and events in general term.
10. Utterances refer to the movement of an element from its form.

Chapter 2 - Purpose and Genres of Speaking
It was argued that the purpose of speaking can be either transactional or interactional.
Apparently, there are some differences between the spoken language used in both
transactional and interactional discourse. In transactional discourse, language is used
primarily for communicating information. Language serving this purpose is 'message'
oriented rather than 'listener' oriented (Nunan, 1989: 27). Clearly, in this type of
interaction, accurate and coherent communication of the message is important, as well
as confirmation that the message has been understood. Examples of language being
used primarily for a transactional purpose are: news broadcasts, descriptions,
narrations and instructions (Richards, 1990: 54- 55). Speaking turns serving this
purpose tend to be long and involve some prior organization of content and use of
linguistic devices to signal either the organization or type of information that will be
given (Basturkmen, 2002: 26).
On the other hand, some conversations are interactional with the purpose of
establishing or maintaining a relationship. This latter kind is sometimes called the
interpersonal use of language. It plays an important social role in oiling the wheels of
social intercourse (Yule, 1989: 169). Examples of interactional uses of language are
greetings, small talks, and compliments. Apparently, the language used in the
interactional mode is listener oriented. Speakers' talk in this type tends to be limited to
quite short turns (Dornyei & Thurrell, 1994: 43 and Richards, 1990: 54-55). However, in
spite of the distinctions between the two types, in most circumstances, interactional
language is combined with transactional language. This helps to ease the transactional
tasks to be done by keeping good social relations with others. In, other words, we can
say that speakers do one thing by doing another (Brazil, 1995: 29). So both purposes
can be viewed as two dimensions of spoken interaction. Analyzing speaking purposes
more precisely,

Kingen (2000: 218) combines both the transactional and interpersonal purposes of
speaking into an extensive list of twelve categories as follows:
1- Personal - expressing personal feelings, opinions, beliefs and ideas.
2. Descriptive- describing someone or something, real or imagined.
3. Narrative-creating and telling stories or chronologically sequenced events.
4. Instructive-giving instructions or providing directions designed to produce an
outcome.
5. Questioning-asking questions to obtain information.
6. Comparative-comparing two or more objects, people, ideas, or opinions to make
judgments about them.
7. Imaginative-expressing mental images of people, places, events, and objects.
8. Predictive-predicting possible future events.
9. Interpretative-exploring meanings, creating hypothetical deductions, and considering
inferences.
10. Persuasive-changing others’ opinions, attitudes, or points of view, or influencing the
behavior of others in some way.
11. Explanatory-explaining, clarifying, and supporting ideas and opinions.
12. Informative-sharing information with others
Speaking genres:
The genre theory assumes that different speech events result in different types of texts,
which are distinct in terms of their overall structure and kinds of grammatical items
typically associated with them (Hughes, 2002: 83). Carter and McCarthy (1997) classify
speaking extracts in terms of genres as follows:
� Narrative: A series of everyday anecdotes told with active listener participation.
� Identifying: Extracts in which people talk about themselves, their biography, where
they live, their jobs, their likes and dislikes.
� Language-in-action: Data recorded while people are doing things such as cooking,
packing, moving furniture… etc.

� Comment-elaboration: People giving casual opinions and commenting on things,
other people, events and so on.
� Debate and argument: Data, in which people take up positions, pursue arguments
and expound on their opinions.
� Decision-making and negotiating outcomes: Data illustrating ways in which people
work towards decisions/consensus or negotiate their way through problems towards
solutions. It is recognized that no speech genre can be entirely discrete; for example,
narratives can be embedded within other main generic categories. Furthermore,
speaking genres overlap with language functions explained before.
Speaking sub- skills:

Many people believe that informal everyday conversation is random. Moreover,
unfortunately, most ELT course books do not deal with speaking by breaking it down
into micro- skills. Instead, they often have the vague aim of "promoting learner's fluency"
(Sayer, 2005: 14).
However, a fundamental issue to understand the nature of speaking is to analyze it in

terms of competencies- underlying abilities- that characterize the speaking proficiency.
It is generally assumed that such underlying abilities have some sort of structure, made
up of different components, with some sort of interaction and interrelationship between
them. It is also assumed that different performances draw upon these underlying
abilities in different but comprehensible ways (Bachman, 1990 and Widdowson, 1998).
Of course, identifying these competencies will help in teaching them and hence
determining how far they have been achieved. Eventually, some of the taxonomies used
to define speaking sub-skills adopt a communicative stance assuming that speaking is
mainly used for communication. These are mainly general models of language ability
that are used to analyze speaking as well as other skills. However, there are other
taxonomies that are considered speaking-specific which concentrate on distinguished
characteristics of speaking. These taxonomies are based on analyzing competencies
underlying conversational skills. The models or taxonomies belonging to both previous
categories provide alternative frameworks for defining speaking skills. One model can

be selected or several ones can be integrated to provide a more comprehensive
perspective of speaking ability (Luoma, 2004: 60).
Communicative competence taxonomies:

As was argued before, these models consider speaking a manifestation of the learner's
communicative competence (McCarthy & Carter, 2001: 58). Sub-skills underlying
communicative competence are addressed by several researchers as follows:
The communicative competence model:

Canale (1984) developed a framework of communicative competence based on an
earlier version by Canale and Swain (1980). He distinguished among four elements in
communicative competence: Grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence,
discourse competence and strategic competence.
� Grammatical competence includes language rules such as vocabulary, formation of
words or sentences, and pronunciation.
� Sociolinguistic competence addresses the appropriateness in terms of both the
meaning and form, which can vary with the status of participants, objectives of the
communication and norms of the communication.
� Discourse Competence includes an understanding of how spoken texts are
organized and is related to the cohesion and coherence of utterances.
� Strategic Competence is compensatory in nature, drawn on when the developing
language system of the second/foreign language learner is deficient in some regard. It

refers to mastery of both verbal and nonverbal communication strategies. The criticism
directed to this model was mainly based on its lack of operational descriptions of how
these sub-competencies actually operate when speakers use language. In other words,
it focuses on language knowledge; and it does not say anything about skills in using
language (Yoshida, 2003: 3).

The communicative ability model:
The “communicative ability” model is developed by Van Ek (1987). This model consists
of six components: linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse, strategic, socio-cultural and
social competences. Other than socio-cultural and social competence, these
components are almost equivalent to the categories suggested by Canale’s model.
However, Van Ek separated socio-cultural competence from sociolinguistic competence
and added social competence as a distinct area. According to Van Ek, social
competence includes motivation, attitude and self-confidence to handle social situations
which are involved inthe skill to interact.
Bachman model (1990), (1996):

The Canale and Swain approach has been further developed byBachman (1990) and
Bachman and Palmer (1996), who proposed a similar but more complex detailed model.
According to this model, communicative competence is divided into language
competence, strategic competence and psycho physiological mechanism
Language Competence includes:
a. Organizational Competence including: grammatical competence and textual
competence involving: cohesion/coherence and conversational analysis.
b. Pragmatic Competence including:

(a) Illocutionary competence consisting of speech acts and language functions. These
might include the following functions:
� Ideational (which express people's experiences of the real world);
� Manipulative (which are used to affect the world around us);
� Heuristic (which extend people's knowledge of the world around us);
� Imaginative (which comprises creative language use for aesthetic purposes).
(b) Sociolinguistic competence: includes sensitivity to differences in dialects or

varieties, and register.
Strategic Competence consists of three phases: assessment, planning and execution

Psycho-physiological Mechanisms include factors such as: Channel -
visual/auditory, and mode - productive/receptive.
Therefore, the following can be inferred from Bachman's model: Textual competence
bears a close relationship to Canale and Swain's discourse competence, but it becomes
a part of "organizational competence", which implies that "textual competence" is
considered by Bachman a part of a somewhat autonomous knowledge base. There is a
more complex account of pragmatic knowledge in Bachman's model. This account is
broadly concerned with knowledge of how to use language appropriately and effectively
in different contexts.
The greater status given to strategic competence since it is seen as central to

communication. Actually, the problem with the communicative competence models is
that they overlook fluency- an important component of speaking skills that doesn't
belong to the previous categories. Thus, Faerch et al. (1984) and Chambers (1997)
consider fluency a part of communicative competence which is different from strategic
competence. According to their model of communicative competence, all competencies
interact, together and all should lead towards fluency which implies using the previous
competencies in real time without undue pauses or hesitation. Fluency, also, gives the
speaker confidence and makes his communication clearer and more impressive
(Segaowitz, 2000).
Conversational skills models:
These models are based on the assumption that communicative competence models
emphasize the language use situation and detract attention from the analysis of
interaction between language knowledge and the other knowledge components. Thus
these models provide a further attempt to depict the knowledge and skills underlying
conversational ability. Conversational models are as follows:

Speaking as an activity, Bygate (1987):
Bygate makes a basic distinction between the knowledge base that enables learners to
talk on the one hand, and the skills that are actually involved when they are engaged in
interaction on the other. Accordingly, Bygate divides speaking skills to: Planning skills,
selection skills and production skills. To enable planning in an interactive speaking
situation, learners need to know "information" and "interaction" routines. Information
routines may be identified as either expository or evaluative. The principal types of
expository routines are narration, description, and instruction. For example, narrative
routines consist of essential components: setting; time; participants and events (Albert,
2004). Evaluative routines typically involve explanations; predictions; preferences and
decisions (Foster, 2001). Actually, information routines suggested by Bygate
correspond in part to discourse competence adopted by Canale and Bachman.
Moreover, it is clear that they are similar to speaking genres suggested by Carter and
McCarthy(1997).
Thus, in message planning, the underlying knowledge of routines enables learners to

predict what might happen and pre-plan their contributions and interaction management
skills (Bygate, 1987: 39). Selection skills encompass the learners' ability to build on their
knowledge base of lexis, phrases and grammar to choose how to say what they want to
say. The skills related to this ability have to do with negotiation of meaning by choosing
an appropriate level of explicitness and ensuring understanding on the part of the
listener. Productions skills are closely related to the time-bound nature of speaking. The
related skills are facilitation and compensation to produce speech in real time. Speakers
can facilitate their speech production by simplifying structure using ellipsis, formulaic
expressions, fillers and hesitation devices, ex: “well, you see, right”. They can
compensate for difficulties by using self correction, rephrasing, and repeating. Having a
ready stock of these markers, speakers sound fluent even if the speaking situation is
demanding (Cornbleet &Carter, 2001: 61).

Weir (1993) & House (1996)
Weir and House draw their taxonomy from Bygate but used a quite different
classification. According to their taxonomy, spoken language skills are divided to routine
skills and improvisation skills. Routine skills are divided into information routines and
interaction routines. The information routines are the same identified by Bygate.
However, the Interaction routines are further divided to gambits, discourse strategies
and speech acts. Gambits are used to establish, maintain, and end contact. Three
classes of gambits are differentiated through their focus on the previous turn (Uptakers),
the following turn (Appealers), or the current turn (Clarifiers).

Chapter Quiz
Name: ______________________ Year &Sec:_______________
I. True/False
1. The purpose of speaking cam be either transactional or interactional.
2. Transactional task is done by keeping good social relations.
3. Descriptive means expressing personal matters.
4. Personal described something real or imagined.
5. Predictive means predicting possible future events.
6. Persuasive means changing others opinion.
7. Interpretative means exploring the meanings.
8. Explanatory means sharing information.
9. Comparative means mental images of people or ideas.
10. Questioning means asking questions to get information.

II. Matching Type
Direction: Match the column A to the description in column B.
A B
1. Narrative A. An interactive process of constructing meaning.
2. Identifying B. Data recorded while people are doing things.
3. Instructive C. Creating and telling a story.
4. Informative D. Giving instruction.
5. Language-in-action E. Unplanned and informal writing.
6. Comment-elaboration F. People giving casual opinions.
7. Debate and argument G. Sharing information.
8. Decision making H. People argue about their opinions.
9. Speaking I. Expressing personal feeling.
10. Speech J. Extracts in which people talk about themselves.
K. People work towards decision.

Chapter 3- Goals and Techniques for Teaching Speaking
The goal of teaching speaking skills is communicative efficiency. Learners should be

able to make themselves understood, using their current proficiency to the fullest. They
should try to avoid confusion in the message due to faulty pronunciation, grammar, or
vocabulary, and to observe the social and cultural rules that apply in each
communication situation.
To help students develop communicative efficiency in speaking, instructors can use a

balanced activities approach that combines language input, structured output, and
communicative output.
Language input comes in the form of teacher talk, listening activities, reading passages,
and the language heard and read outside of class. It gives learners the material they
need to begin producing language themselves.
Language input may be content oriented or form oriented.
 Content-oriented input focuses on information, whether it is a simple weather

report or an extended lecture on an academic topic. Content-oriented input may
also include descriptions of learning strategies and examples of their use.
 Form-oriented input focuses on ways of using the language: guidance from the
teacher or another source on vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar (linguistic
competence); appropriate things to say in specific contexts (discourse
competence); expectations for rate of speech, pause length, turn-taking, and
other social aspects of language use (sociolinguistic competence); and explicit
instruction in phrases to use to ask for clarification and repair miscommunication
(strategic competence).
In the presentation part of a lesson, an instructor combines content-oriented and form-

oriented input. The amount of input that is actually provided in the target language
depends on students' listening proficiency and also on the situation. For students at

lower levels, or in situations where a quick explanation on a grammar topic is needed,
an explanation in English may be more appropriate than one in the target language.
Guidelines for Communicative, Learner-

centered Instruction
These ten guidelines will help you make communicative language teaching and learner-
centered instruction part of your own instructional approach.
1. Provide Appropriate Input
Input is the language to which students are exposed: teacher talk, listening activities,
reading passages, and the language heard and read outside of class. Input gives
learners the material they need to develop their ability to use the language on their own.
Language input has two forms. Finely tuned input
 Is matched to learners’ current comprehension level and connected to what they

already know
 Focuses on conscious learning of a specific point: the pronunciation of a word,
the contrast in the uses of two verb tenses, new vocabulary, useful social
formulas
 Is controlled by the instructor or textbook author
 Is used in the presentation stage of a lesson
Roughly tuned input
 Is more complex than learners’ current proficiency and stretches the boundaries
of their current knowledge
 Focuses on authentic use of language in listening or reading passages

 Is used “as is,” with minimal alteration by the instructor or textbook author
 Is used in the activity stage of the lesson
Roughly tuned input challenges student to use listening and reading strategies to aid
comprehension. When selecting authentic materials for use as roughly tuned input, look
for listening and reading selections that are one level of proficiency higher than
students’ current level. This will ensure that students will be challenged by the material
without being overwhelmed by its difficulty.
2. Use Language in Authentic Ways
In order to learn a language, instead of merely learning about it, students need as much
as possible to hear and read the language as native speakers use it. Instructors can
make this happen in two ways.
Teacher talk: Always try to use the language as naturally as possible when you are
talking to students. Slowing down may seem to make the message more
comprehensible, but it also distorts the subtle shifts in pronunciation that occur in
naturally paced speech.
 Speak at a normal rate

 Use vocabulary and sentence structures with which students are familiar
 State the same idea in different ways to aid comprehension
Materials: Give students authentic reading material from newspapers, magazines, and
other print sources. To make them accessible,
 Review them carefully to ensure that the reading level is appropriate

 Introduce relevant vocabulary and grammatical structures in advance
 Provide context by describing the content and typical formats for the type of
material (for example, arrival and departure times for travel schedules)

Advertisements, travel brochures, packaging, and street signs contain short statements
that students at lower levels can manage. The World Wide Web is a rich resource for
authentic materials. Reading authentic materials motivates students at all levels
because it gives them the sense that they really are able to use the language.
3. Provide Context
Context includes knowledge of
 the topic or content

 the vocabulary and language structures in which the content is usually presented
 the social and cultural expectations associated with the content
To help students have an authentic experience of understanding and using language,

prepare them by raising their awareness of the context in which it occurs.
 Ask them what they know about the topic

 Ask what they can predict from the title or heading of a reading selection or the
opening line of a listening selection
 Review the vocabulary (including idiomatic expressions) and sentence structures
that are usually found in that type of material
 Review relevant social and cultural expectations
4. Design Activities with a Purpose
Ordinarily, communication has a purpose: to convey information. Activities in the

language classroom simulate communication outside the classroom when they are
structured with such a purpose. In these classroom activities, students use the language
to fill an information gap by getting answers or expanding a partial understanding. For
example, students work in pairs, and each is given half of a map, grid, or list needed to
complete a task. The pair then talk to each other until they both have all the information.

5. Use Task-based Activities
Fluent speakers use language to perform tasks such as solving problems, developing
plans, and working together to complete projects. The use of similar task-based
activities in the classroom is an excellent way to encourage students to use the
language. Tasks may involve solving a word problem, creating a crossword puzzle,
making a video, preparing a presentation, or drawing up a plan.
6. Encourage Collaboration
Whenever possible, ask students to work in pairs or small groups. Give students
structure in the form of a defined task and outcome. This structure will allow students to
collaborate as they develop a work plan, discuss the substance of the task, and report
the outcome. They will thus use language in a variety of ways and learn from each
other.
Effective collaborative activities have three characteristics.
 Communication gap: Each student has relevant information that the others don’t
have
 Task orientation: Activity has a defined outcome, such as solving a problem or
drawing a map
 Time limit: Students have a preset amount of time to complete the task
7. Use an Integrated Approach
Integration has two forms. Mode integration is the combination of listening, speaking,
reading, and writing in classroom activities. By asking students to use two or more
modes, instructors create activities that imitate real world language use.
Content integration is bringing content from students’ fields of study into the language
curriculum. University students often find it instructive to read, discuss, and write about

material whose content they already know, because their knowledge of the topic helps
them understand and use the language. They are able to scaffold: to build on existing
knowledge as they increase their language proficiency. For students who plan to study
and/or work in a field that will require them to use the language they are learning,
integration of content can be a powerful motivator.
8. Address Grammar Consciously
University students usually need and appreciate direct instruction in points of grammar
that are related to classroom activities. These students often have knowledge of the
rules associated with standard use of their native language (metalinguistic knowledge)
and can benefit from development of similar knowledge in the target language and
discussion of similarities and differences.
Discuss points of grammar in the contexts where they arise. Asking students to think
through a rule in the context of an effort to express themselves clearly is a more
effective way of helping them internalize the rule than teaching the rule in isolation.
Two types of grammar rules to address when using authentic materials:
 Prescriptive rules: State how the language “should” or “must” be used; define
what is “correct.” These are the rules that are taught in language textbooks.
 Descriptive rules: State how the language is actually used by fluent speakers.
The degree to which descriptive rules differ from prescriptive rules depends on
the setting (casual/formal use of language), the topic, and the backgrounds of the
speakers.
9. Adjust Feedback/Error Correction to Situation
In the parts of a lesson that focus on form direct and immediate feedback is needed and
expected. Encourage students to self-correct by waiting after they have spoken or by
asking them to try again.

Chapter Quiz
Name:____________________________ Year & Sec:_______________
I. True/False
1. Sociolinguistic competence addresses the appropriateness in terms of both the

meaning and form.
2. Discourse competence includes an understanding of how spoken texts are

organized.
3. Strategic competence is compensatory in nature.
4. Textual discourse is considered as autonomous knowledge base.
5. Van Ek seperated socio-cultural competence from socio-linguistic competence.
6. Evaluative routines typically involve narration.
7. The Canale and Swain approach has beem further developed by Hatchman(1990).
8. Fluency makes the speaker confidence.
9. Communicative competence is divided into language competence, strategic

competence and physiological mechanism.
10. The principal types of expository routines are descriptive and instructive.

II. Matching Type
Direction: Match the column A to the description in column B.
A B
1. Imaginative A. Involves explanation.
2. Heuristic B. Sensitivity to differences
3. Manipulative C. It provides further attempt to depict the

knowledge.
4. Ideational D. Involves conversational analysis.
5. Illucotionary E. Bears a close relationship to discourse

competence.
6. Textual competence F. Must be defined as expository or evaluative
7. Sociolinguistic competence G. Which are used to affect the world around us.
8. Information routines H. Consist of acts and language function.
9. Evaluative routines I. It extend people's knowledge of the world around

us.
10. Conversational Skill Model J. Comprises creative language use for aesthetic
purposes.
K. It expresses people experience.

Chapter 4- Components of Second Language Speaking
Knowledge of
Language and
Discourse
Second Language
Competence
Core
Communication
speaking
Strategies
skills
Figure 1. Components of second language speaking competence

(Goh & Burns,2012:53
The first component, Knowledge of Language and Discourse, requires mastering the
sound patterns of the language (in English and Swedish, this refers to being able to
pronounce the language intelligibly at segmental and suprasegmental levels), knowing
the grammar and vocabulary of the language (spoken structures, grammatical features,
lexis) and understanding how stretches of connected speech (discourse, genre) are
organized, so that they are socially and pragmatically appropriate (register). Core
Speaking Skills means developing the ability to process speech quickly to increase
fluency (e.g. speech rate, chunking, pausing, formulaic language, discourse markers). It
also involves being able to negotiate speech (e.g. building on previous utterances,
monitoring understanding, repairing communication breakdown, giving feedback), as
well as managing the flow of speech as it unfolds (e.g. initiating topics, turn-taking,
signaling intentions, opening/closing conversations).

The third component, Communication Strategies, involves developing cognitive
strategies to compensate for limitations in language knowledge (e.g. circumlocution,
paraphrasing, gestures, word coinage, approximation, avoidance), metacognitive
strategies (e.g. planning in advance what to say, thinking consciously about how you
say something), and interaction strategies (e.g. asking for clarification/ repetition,
reformulating, rephrasing, and checking comprehension). What this model implies is
that speaking lessons are not just occasions for practicing or “doing” speaking. They
need to be conceptualized as structured and supported learning opportunities for
developing these various components of speaking competence. It is important that
teachers guide learners systematically, introducing activities that are integrated and
sequenced and that allow students to raise their awareness of the knowledge, skills and
strategies needed for various types of interaction and discourse. Students may need
guidance on specific aspects of the language, such as pronunciation features, either at
segmental or suprasegmental level, or they may need support in relation to affective
factors, such as anxiety, nervousness or embarrassment about speaking in another
language. Comparing spoken and written language Many approaches typically used in
language teaching to teach speaking have taken little account of the nature of spoken
language, and have tended instead to fall back on grammars that are essentially based
on written text. Technological advances in recording speech and the establishment by
Linguists of corpora of speech utterances have led to much greater knowledge about
the similarities and differences between these two modes of communication. It is very
valuable for language teachers to be aware of some of the main differences and of the
features that typically characterize speech, as this will allow them to make more
informed decisions about what to teach

Table 1. Spoken and written language: Typical features
Spoken language Written language
Basic unit is the clause (utterance) Basic unit is the sentence
Clauses linked by conjunction (and, Clauses linked by subordination
but, so etc) to build the text (who, which, when etc) to build the text
Frequent use of formulaic chunks Little use of formulaic language
(I was lucky enough)
Informal language preferred Formal language preferred
(we used to get together) (commenced)
Range of noticeable performance Few/no noticeable performance
effects (hesitations, pauses, repeats, Effects
false starts, incompletion)
Frequent use of ellipsis (omission of Little use of ellipsis
grammatical elements, started at the
same time)
Frequent use of personal pronouns Little use of personal pronouns
(I, we)
Social and functional motivation

Another useful insight for language teachers who teach speaking relates to social and
functional motivation for speaking. The distinction has long been made between
interpersonally motivated speech and pragmatically motivated speech (Brown & Yule
1983). Pragmatic or transactional talk involves exchanging information or goods and
services (e.g. seeking information about a job, calling an ambulance) with the purpose
of getting things done in daily life. Interactional or interpersonal talk, on the other hand,
is primarily directed towards creating and maintaining social relationships
(e.g. chatting with friends or family, making small talk). These distinctions are useful
because they enable teachers to identify which major kinds of interactions are important
for their students. However, in practice most spoken interaction is a mixture of both
social and functional motivation: it would be surprising for business meetings not to

involve elements of interpersonal talk, even though the main purpose is primarily
transactional. However, these elements would be constrained by the speakers’
awareness of the main purpose of needing to get the business done and the typically
more formalized roles and relationships among the speakers. Similarly, a casual
conversation between friends, which is mainly interactional, might contain episodes
where the purpose is transactional, such as asking for information about a technical
matter or negotiating a price for goods being purchased. Spoken language typically
foregrounds interpersonal relationships in a way that is usually less common in written
Texts, so that the nature of the relationships between speakers inevitably has an impact
on how they select language. Speakers take into account their evaluations of
differences such as their relative social power, status or expertise, emotional, or
affective, distance or closeness, and the extent of regular contact they maintain.

Chapter Quiz
Name:___________________ Year & Sec:_________
I.MULTIPLE CHOICES
Direction: Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write your answer on the space
provided.
___1. The first component, requires mastering the sound pattern of the language.
A. Core Speaking Skills C. Knowledge of language and discourse

B. Communication Strategy D. Components of L2 Speaking Skills
___2. It is understanding how stretches of connected speech are organized.
A. Discourse Genre C. Lexis

B. Spoken Structure D. Grammatical Features
___3. This means developing the ability to process speech quickly to increase
fluency.
A. Knowledge of Language C. Core Speaking Skills

and Discourse
B. Communication Strategy D. Components of L2 Speaking Skills.
___4. The following are examples of Speaking Skills EXCEPT?
A. Speech rate C. Gestures

B. Pausing D. Discourse marker
___5. The third component that involves developing cognitive strategies,

metacognitive strategies, and interaction strategies.
A. Components of L2 Speaking Skills C. Core Speaking Skills

B. Knowledge of Language and Discourse D. Communication Strategies

___6. This strategy compensate for limitation in language knowledge.
A. Cognitive Strategy C. Interactive Strategy

B. Metacognitive Strategy D. Communication Strategy
___7. This is not just occasions for practicing or “doing” speaking.
A. Writing Lesson C. Learning Opportunities

B. Speaking Lesson D. Speaking Competence
___8. It prefers informal language.
A. Written Language C. Spoken Language

B. Second Language D. Speaking Competence
___9. It involves exchanging information or goods and services.
A. Interpersonal Talk C. Transactional Talk

B. Intrapersonal Talk D. Business Talk
___10. It creates and maintain social relationships.
A. Intrapersonal Talk C. Transactional Talk

B. Interpersonal Talk D. business Talk

II. True/False
_____1. Speakers take into account their evaluations of differences such as status or
expertise and relative and social power.
_____2. Chatting with friends or family is an example of transactional talk.
_____3. There is a distinction made between interpersonally and pragmatically
motivated speech(Brown And Yule 1083)
_____4. Written language prefers formal language.
_____5. Seeking information about a job is an example of interpersonal talk.
_____6. Teacher who teach speaking relates to social and functional motivation for
speaking.
_____7. Communication strategy involves being able to negotiate speech.
_____8. The first component of second language is Core Speaking Skills.
_____9. There are five (5) components of Second Language Speaking .
_____10. An example of metacognitive strategy is planning in advance what to say.

III. Matching Type
Direction: Match the column A to the column B.
A B
___1. Interpersonal Talk a. Thinking consciously about how to say

something.
___2. Transactional Talk b. Formal language preferred
___3. Spoken Language c. making small talk
___4. Written Language d. They study about the distinction made

between interpersonally and pragmatically
motivated speech.
___5. Communication Strategy e. The ability to process speech quickly.
___6. Metacognitive Strategy f. They study the components of L2 Speaking
___7. Cognitive Strategy g. Compensate for limitation in language

knowledge.
___8. Brown and Yule 1983 h. Calling an ambulance
___9. Goh and Burns 2012 i. Third component of L2 Speaking
___10. Core Speaking Skills j. It requires mastery of L2 Speaking.
k. Informal Language preferred

Chapter 5 - A Teaching-Speaking Cycle
Building on some of the concepts presented above, I present a model (Goh & Burns
2012: 153) for planning a holistic and sequenced series of speaking activities. The
model aims to highlight a number of key concepts that teachers can draw on to guide
their students:
• Use a wide range of core speaking skills

• Develop fluency in expression of meaning
• Use grammar flexibly to produce a wide range of utterances that can express meaning
precisely
• Use appropriate vocabulary and accurate language forms relevant to their speaking
needs
• Understand and use social and linguistic conventions of speech for various contexts
• Employ appropriate oral communication and discourse strategies
• Increase awareness of genre and genre structures
• Increase their metacognitive awareness about L2 speaking
• Manage and self-regulate their own speaking development

Focus
learners’attention on
speaking
Facilitate feedback on Provide input

learning and/orguide planning
Direct learners’ Conduct speaking

reflection on learning tasks
Focus on
Repeat speaking tasks language/skills/strategi
es
Figure 2. The Teaching-Speaking Cycle

Stage 1: Focus learners’ attention on speaking
This first stage is to do with raising metacognitive awareness about speaking and has
two main purposes:
a) To encourage learners to plan for overall speaking development
Learners are given prompts to encourage them to think about the demands of speaking
and how they can prepare themselves for it.
b) To prepare learners to approach a specific speaking task
Here the prompts focus on the speaking task that has been planned for the teaching
cycle. Learners prepare by familiarizing themselves with the outcomes of the task and
considering strategies they need to complete it.
Stage 2: Provide input and/or guide planning

Speaking in a second language can create a great deal of anxiety for language
learners, and so it is very important that teachers provide support for the speaking task,
giving learners time for planning what to say and how to say it. The purposes of this
preparation stage include:
• introducing or teaching new language
• enabling learners to reorganize their developing linguistic knowledge
• activating existing linguistic knowledge
• recycling specific language items, and easing processing load
• Pushing learners to interpret tasks in more demanding ways not just any assistance
which helps learners accomplish a task.
It is help which will enable a learner to accomplish a task which they would not have
been quite able to manage on their own, and it is help which is intended to bring the
learner closer to a state of competence which will enable them eventually to complete
such a task on their own.

Stage 3: Conduct speaking tasks
The purpose of this stage is to provide learners with a context where they can practice
speaking through a communicative task. The task should encourage the learners to
express meaning with whatever linguistic knowledge, skills and strategies they have. In
other words, this stage of the cycle encourages learners to develop fluency of
expression without having to pay too much attention to accuracy of form. This stage
should be less demanding for the learners because of the teacher-guided or individual
pre-task planning that has taken place in Stage 2.
Stage 4: Focus on language/skills/strategies

Stage 4 of the cycle is aimed at creating opportunities for learners to improve language
accuracy, as well as to enhance their effective use of skills and strategies. In this stage,
the teacher draws learners’ attention to selected parts of the fluency task they have
completed that need attention. The parts could include language features such as
pronunciation, grammar and text structures, as well as vocabulary.
Stage 5: Repeat speaking tasks

At this stage, learners carry out the speaking task(s) from Stage 3 again.
The difference between Stage 3 and Stage 5 is that learners have now had a chance to
analyze and practice selected language items or skills during Stage 4. Therefore, they
are able to apply this knowledge to enhance their performance. Repetitions could be
carried out by:
1. Repeating parts of the original task
2. Repeating the entire task
3. Having students change groups or partners
4. Introducing a new task similar to the one learners have just done (e.g. instead of
instructions about making your favorite food, learners could give instructions about a
topic of their own choice, so that they rehearse a procedure genre again).

Stage 6: Direct learners’ reflection on learning
Stage 6 encourages learners to self-regulate their learning through monitoring and
evaluating what they have learnt from the preceding stages. Reflection can be done
individually, in pairs, or even in small groups. Individual and group reflection often has a
cathartic effect on learners who may be feeling stressed and anxious, and think that
they are the only ones feeling that way. Learners’ reflection should be guided by
different types of metacognitive knowledge, and can focus on one or more of the
following points:
• demands of the speaking tasks which they have become aware of
• the strategies that are useful to meet the demands of the task
• their informal assessment of their capabilities and performance
• Areas of their performance that show improvement
• Areas to be further improved
• Plans for improving specific areas
Stage 7: Facilitate feedback on learning
In this final stage of the Teaching Speaking Cycle, the teacher provides learners with
feedback on their performance in earlier stages of the cycle, for example:
• comments or grades on an individual learner’s skills and performance from
observation sheets used during the speaking task
• exchange of written individual learner reflections and comments on each other’s
progress and achievements
• consolidated comments from the teacher based on written reflections from the class
• written comments in learners’ journals
• comments and informal assessment in learner blogs
The cycle that has just been presented is not meant to be completed in just one or two
lessons. It is an overall approach to supporting and scaffolding the learning of speaking
skills and strategies that can be introduced and extended over several lessons or even
a unit of work. A cycle could, for example, consist of a series of lessons based on a
specific theme or topic.
Chapter V

Chapter Quiz
Name: ________________________ Year & Sec:____________
I.True/False
___1. A teacher needs to use a wide range of core speaking skills.
___2. Use appropriate grammar flexibly to produce a wide range of utterances that can
express meaning precisely.
___3. The first step in speaking skill cycle is to provide input and/or guide planning.
___4. The language teacher needs to discourage learners to plan for overall speaking
development.
___5. Develop fluency in expression of meaning.
___6. The purpose of conducting a speaking tasks is to improve language accuracy.
___7. Employ appropriate oral communication and discourse strategies.
___8. Understand and use social and linguistic conventions of speech for various
contexts.
___9. Speaking in a second language can create a great deal of anxiety for language
teachers.
___10. The student needs to increase their metacognitive awareness about second
language speaking.

II.Multiple Choice
provided.
___1. At this stage, learners carry out the speaking tasks again.
A. Stage 2- Provide input and /or guide planning
B. Stage 3- Conduct speaking tasks
C. Stage 4- Focus on language/skills/strategies
D. Stage 5- Repeat speaking tasks
___2. This stage is to do with raising metacognitive awareness.
A. Stage 1- Focus learners' attention on speaking
B. Stage 2- Provide input and/or guide planning
C. Stage 3- Conduct speaking tasks again
D. Stage 4- Focus on language/skills/strategies
___3. In this stage, the teacher provides support for the speaking task.
A. Stage 2- Provide input and/or guide planning
D. Stage 5- Repeat speaking task
___4. In this stage, the purpose is to provide learners with a context where they can
practice speaking through communicative task.

___5. In this stage, it aimed and create opportunities for learners to improve language
accuracy.
___6. In this stage, it encourages students to self-regulate their learning.
A. Stage 3- Conduct speaking tasks
B. Stage 4- Focus on language/skills/strategies
C. Stage 5- Repeat speaking tasks
D. Stage 6. Direct learners reflection on learning
___7. In this stage, the teacher provide feedback.
A. Stage 4- Focus on language/skills/strategies
B. Stage 5- Repeat speaking tasks
C. Stage 6- Direct learners' reflection on learning
D. Stage 7- Facilitate feedback on learning

___8. A model for planning a holistic and sequenced series of speaking activities.
A. Teaching cycle
B. Teaching-speaking cycle
C. Speaking cycle
D. Speaking lesson
___9. It increases the metacognitive awareness of students.
A. Oral communication
B. Second language speaking
C. Spoken language
D. Written language
___10. The following are the stages of teaching-speaking cycle EXCEPT?
A. Facilitate feedback
B. Conduct speaking tasks
C. Repeat speaking tasks
D. Develop fluency

III. Matching Type
Direction: Match the column A to the column B.
A B
1. Stage 1 A. They provide feedback on the

performance of the learners.
2. Stage 2
B. Facilitate Feedback
3. Stage 3
C. It consists of a series of lessons
4. Stage 4
based on the specific theme or topic.
5. Stage 5
D. Focus on language/skills/strategies
6. Stage 6
E. Direct learners' reflection on learning
7. Stage 7
F. It encourages students to self-
8. Learners regulate their learning
9. Teachers G. Provide input and/or guide planning
10. Cycle H. Conduct speaking tasks
I. Focus learners' attention on speaking
J. Repeat speaking tasks
K. They are given prompt to think about

the demands of speaking

Chapter 6- Different views of speaking in language teaching
A review of some of the views of the current issues in teaching oral
communication can help provide some perspective to the more practical considerations
of designing speaking lessons.
1. Conversational discourse
The benchmark of successful language acquisition is almost always the
demonstration of an ability to accomplish pragmatic goals through interactive
discourse with other speakers of the language. Although historically, “conversation”
classes have ranged from quasi-communicative drilling to free, open, and
sometimes agenda-less discussions among students; current pedagogical research
on teaching conversation has provided some parameters for developing objectives
and techniques.
Though the goals and the techniques for teaching conversation are extremely
diverse—depending on the student, teacher, and overall context of the class—
language teachers have nonetheless learned to differentiate between transactional
and interactional conversation. Instructors have discovered techniques for teaching
students conversation rules such as topic nomination, maintaining a conversation,
turn-taking, interruption, and termination. Teachers have also learned to teach
sociolinguistic appropriateness, styles of speech, nonverbal communication, and
conversational routines. Within all these foci, the phonological, lexical, and syntactic
properties of language can be attended to, either directly or indirectly.
2. Teaching pronunciation
There has been some controversy over the role of pronunciation work in a
communicative, interactive course of study. Because the overwhelming majority of
adult learners will never acquire an accent-free command of a foreign language,
should a language program that emphasizes whole language, meaningful contexts,
and automaticity of production focus on these tiny phonological details of language?

The answer is “yes,” but in a different way from what was perceived to be essential;
a couple of decades ago.
3. Accuracy and fluency

An issue that pervades all of language performance centers on the distinction
between accuracy and fluency. In spoken language the question we face as
teachers is: How shall we prioritize the two clearly important speaker goals of
accurate (clear, articulate, grammatically and phonologically correct) language and
fluent (flowing, natural) language?
It is clear that fluency and accuracy are both important goals to pursue in
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). While fluency may in many
communicative language courses be an initial goal in language teaching, accuracy is
achieved to some extent by allowing students to focus on the elements of
phonology, grammar, and discourse in their spoken output.
The fluency/accuracy issue often boils down to the extent to which our
techniques should be message oriented (or teaching language use) as opposed to
language oriented (also known as teaching language usage). Current approaches
to language teaching lean strongly toward message orientation with language usage
offering a supporting role.
4. Affective factors
One of the major obstacles learners have to overcome in learning to speak is the
anxiety generated over the risks of blurting things out that are wrong, stupid, or
incomprehensible. Because of the language ego that informs people that “you are
what you speak,” learners are reluctant to be judged by hearers. Our job as teachers
is to provide the kind of warm, embracing climate that encourages students to
speak, however halting or broken their attempts may be.

5. The interaction effect
The greatest difficulty that learners encounter in attempts to speak is not the
multiplicity of sounds, words, phrases, and discourse forms that characterize any
language, but rather the interactive nature of most communication. Conversations
are collaborative as participants engage in a process of negotiation of meaning. So,
for the learner, the matter of what you say is often eclipsed by conventions of how to
say things, when to speak, and other discourse constraints.
David Nunan (1991) notes a further complication in interactive discourse: what

he calls the interlocutor effect, or the difficulty of a speaking task as gauged by the
skills of one’s interlocutor. In other words, one learner’s performance is always
colored by that of the person (interlocutor) he or she is talking with.

Chapter Quiz
Name:______________________________ Year& Sec: _______________________
I. Multiple Choice
provided.
___1. He notes a further complication in interaction discourse.
A. David Nunan(1991)
B. Brown(1983)
C. Goh and Burns(2012)
D. Yule(1983)
___2. The greatest difficulty that learners encounter in attempts to speaking.
A. Accuracy and fluency
B. Affective factors
C. The interaction effect
D. Teaching pronunciation
____3. One of the major factor obstacles learners have to overcome in learning to
speak is the anxiety.
B. Affective factor
C. The interaction effect
D. Teaching pronunciation

___4. In here, teaching language is being used.
A. Language oriented
B. Message oriented
C. Text oriented
D. Accuracy and fluency oriented
___5. Also known as teaching language usage.
A. Language oriented
B. Message oriented
C. Text oriented
D. Accuracy and fluency oriented
___6. The overwhelming of adult learners will never acquire an accent-free command of
a foreign language.
B. Affective factor
C. Teaching pronunciation
D. The interaction effect

___7. The benchmark of successful language acquisition is the ability to accomplish
pragmatic goals.
A. Affective factors
B. Accuracy and fluency
C. Teaching pronunciation
D. Conversational discourse
____8. The difficulty of a speaking task as a gauged by the skills of one’s interlocutor.
A. Interlocutor effect
B. Locutor effect
C. Interlocutor affect
D. Locutor affect
___9. Their task is to encourage the learners to speak.
A. Learners
B. Administrators
C. Teachers
D. Staffs
___10. They discovered techniques for teaching students conversation rules.
A. Teacher C. Learners
B. Instructors D. Administrator

II. True/False
___1. The goal and techniques for teaching conversation are extremely diverse
___2. Fluency and accuracy are both important goals to pursue in communicative
language teaching.
___3. An issue that pervades all of a language performance center on the distinction
between accuracy and pronunciation.
___4. Learners have also learned to teach sociolinguistics appropriateness.
___5. Language oriented also known as teaching language usage.
___6. Message oriented also known as teaching language usage.
___7. Conversations are collaborative as participants engage in a process of
negotiation of meaning.
___8. Current approaches to teaching speaking lean strongly toward message oriented
with language usage offering supporting roles.
___9. Fluency is achieved to some extent by allowing students to focus on the elements
of phonology, grammar and discourse.
___10. One of the teachers job is to provide the kind of warm and encourage students
to speak.

III. Matching type
Direction: Match column A with column B.
A B
___1. Teachers A. Also known as teaching language usage.
___2. Learners B. He notes a further complication in interactive

discourse
___3. Message oriented C. An issue that pervades all of language

performance centers on the distinction
between accuracy and fluency.
___4. Language oriented D. They encourage the learners to speak.
___5. Teaching pronunciation E. Major factor obstacles learners have to

overcome in learning to speak
___6. The interaction effect F. Controversy over the role of pronunciation.
___7. Accuracy and fluency G. Teaching language use
___8. David Nunal(1991) H. The greatest difficulty emcounter by the

learners in terms of speaking.
___9. Instructor I. They discovered techniques for teaching

student conversation rules.
___10. Conversational discourse J. They are responsible to speak accurately

and fluently.
K. The benchmark of successful language.

Chapter 7- Stages in a Speaking Lesson Stages in a
Speaking Lesson
What is the role of the language teacher in the classroom? In the first place, like any
other teacher, the task of the language teacher is to create the best conditions for learning. In a
sense, the teacher is a means to an end: an instrument to see that learning takes place. But in
addition to this general function, a teacher plays specific roles in different stages of the learning
process.
The Presentation Stage
This is also known as the pre-activity phase of the lesson where the teacher introduces
something new to be learned. At this stage of a speaking lesson, the teacher’s main task is to
serve as a kind of informant. As the teacher, you know the language; you select the new
material to be learned and you present this in such a way that the meaning of the new language
is as clear and as memorable as possible. The students listen and try to understand. Although
they are probably saying very little at this stage, except when invited to join in, they are by no
means passive. Always be on guard against the danger of spending too much time presenting
so much so that the students do not get enough time to practice the language themselves.
The Practice Stage
At the practice stage it is the students’ turn to do most of the talking, while your main
task is to devise and provide the maximum amount of practice, which must at the same time be
meaningful, authentic, and memorable. This stage is also called the While (or Main) Activity or
the Speaking Activity stage. Your role then as teacher is radically different from that at the
presentation. You do the minimum amount of talking yourself. You are like the skillful conductor
of an orchestra, giving each of the performers a chance to participate and monitoring their
performance to see that it is satisfactory.

The Production Stage
It is a pity that language learning often stops short at the practice stage or does not go
regularly beyond it. Many teachers feel that they have done their job if they have presented the
new material well and have given their students adequate—though usually controlled—practice
in it. No real learning should be assumed to have taken place until the students are able to use
the language for themselves; provision to use language must be made part of the lesson. At any
level of attainment, the students need to be given regular and frequent opportunities to use
language freely, even if they sometimes make mistakes as a result. This is not to say that
mistakes are unimportant, but rather that free expression is more important, and it is a great
mistake to deprive students of this opportunity.
It is through these opportunities to use language as they wish that the students become
aware that they have learned something useful to them personally, and are encouraged to go
on learning. Thus in providing the students with activities for free expression and in discreetly
watching over them as they carry them out, you, as teacher, take on the role of manager, guide,
or adviser.
Although the sequence described above—presentation → practice → production — is a

well-tried approach to language learning and is known to be effective in average (i.e., non-
privileged) classroom conditions; it should not, however, be interpreted too literally. These
stages are not recipes for organizing all our lessons. In the first place, the actual “shape” of a
lesson will depend on a number of factors, such as the amount of time needed for each stage.
Activities at the production stage in particular can vary a great deal in length. Also, stages tend
to overlap and run into one another; for example, some practice may be part of the presentation
stage.

Practice Activity to Teach Speaking Lesson
Warmer - Lead in (3-5 minutes)
 To set the lesson context and engage the students in the activities.
The teacher will review the context which was set in the previous lesson asking
some questions to the students.
Pre - Speaking Stage (7-10 minutes)
 Preparing the students for the context of " typical friends " and making it
much more understandable for the students through teaching a couple of
new vocabulary or the blocking vocabulary.
1. The teacher will put some flashcards on the board to teach " some vocabulary " to the
students and will give a piece of paper to the students, including a few of sentences
which describe the pictures on the board.
2. Then, the teacher will get the students to stand up and have them match the words to
the pictures.
3. For feedback, the teacher will check the answers with the whole class.
4. At the last stage of the pre-speaking, the teacher will try to teach the pronunciation of
the Target Language and have the students repeat the pronunciation of the TL.

While-Speaking ( Controlled Practice ) (10-20 minutes)
 Helping the students enhance their speaking ability giving them some
controlled practice activities.
1. The teacher will get to the students to work in pairs. Then, the teacher will give them
a piece of paper, including some questions. The students will ask these questions to
each other and then they will answer them using the words and pictures on the board.
These controlled practice activity help them gain more confidence to speak in English
without being shy.
2. Then, the teacher will give a text to the students, which is about " are men and
women the same ". They will read the text and then they will discuss the given
statement with their partners.
3. Later, the teacher will give some questions to the students to have them speak about
themselves. They will work in pairs. This controlled activity will help them speak
because the questions are related to their daily life. In that way, they can produce some
sentences and feel more comfortable.
4. As a last activity of the practice stage, the teacher will give the students some
phrases and words and the teacher will have them work in pair again with different
partners to make full sentences with these phrases and words. Then, they will talk about
" what do they do with their friends ?".
Post - Speaking (Production Stage) (5-10 minutes)
 Helping the students enhance their writing skills in the context of typical
friends.
1. The teacher will give a question to the students, which is about " Are you a typical
man friend or a typical woman friend ?". The teacher will ask the students to write a
short paragraph according the question individually.

2. If there is enough time, the teacher will have the students share their paragraphs
with the WC.
Back-up (freer activity ) (3-5 minutes)
 Helping the students enhance their speaking ability letting them

interviewing their classmates.
1. The teacher will have the students interview their partners about what they are doing
with friends. This will help them be free to speak in English.
Here are four sets of activities carry out before and after engaging students in more
cognitively and/or linguistically demanding tasks. The rationale for them is that they
facilitate the performance of the target task by providing the learners with opportunities
(a) to recruit as much relevant information as possible from Long-term memory and (b)
to practise the skills involved in the target task in ‘safer’ and more structured ways
before launching in less structured and more ‘stressful’ activities. The execution of these
activities not only results in greater learning, but also mitigates learner anxiety and
significantly impacts their sense of self-efficacy.
1. Pre-/Post-speaking task activities – Before engaging in a challenging speaking

task, especially when it is an unstructured one and requires spontaneous talk, I make
sure that the students have a full-on warm-up which involves all four skills and gives the
students plenty of formative feedback from myself or their peers.
Pre-task
Step 1. ‘Fun’ and challenging vocabulary building activities (see www.language-

gym.com/work-outs for online self-marking examples) and gapped model sentences
activities containing the kind of language which you predict students are likely to use.
‘Drum the words/phrases in’ as much as you can for 10-15 minutes.

Step 2. Narrow listening activities. By these I mean very short texts/model sentences
about the topic, which the students might find useful. Students have to note down the
gist of each text.
Step 3. ‘Public chatroom’; on Edmodo, Facebook or a Google doc, the students ask
questions generated by themselves or by the teacher about the topic-in-hand to specific
classmates, the whole class or even the teacher. A slow chat unfolds which is displayed
‘live’ on the screen, for everyone to see, in which students write to each other and
teacher monitors and gives concurrent feedback. Writing/talking mats maybe used to
scaffold this activity.
Step 4. Preparation; the students are given a few more minutes to prepare for the
speaking task, ask the teacher or their peers for clarification where needed, look at any
scaffolding material provided (e.g. writing/talking mats).
Step 5. The speaking task is carried out 2 or 3 times with different partners. Scaffolding
is allowed but gradually removed. – unless the students are still not very confident, they
should do the final ’round’ without any scaffolding
Post-task
Step 6. Students, rigorously without a script, carry out and record same task on mobile
phones or iPads.
Step 7. Students view the video-recording and have another go. Both recordings are
shared with the teacher.
2. Before using writing/talking mats for speaking or writing –Writing/Talking mats

are often used to scaffold oral or written production, but way too often are given to the
students before a demanding task without much of a chance for the students to
acquaint themselves with the meaning of most of the words, with the way the
information is organized, with how the vocabulary is pronounced, etc. I always carry out
the activities below – and more – before using the mats to scaffold a more cognitively
demanding task, to enable the students to use them more effectively and efficiently.

Step 1. Word/phrase hunt; give the student (either on paper or via google classroom) a
list of words/phrases to search for in the writing mats (under time constraints)
Step 2. Listening comprehension; (Provided that the writing mats are clear, well-
structured, not overly crowded and have bilingual translation) Put the mats on the
screen and give each student a mini-board (alternatively they can write on i-pad using
the ‘Educreations’ App). Make up sentences (incrementally more difficult), utter them
clearly and ask them to translate from L2 to L1 than from L1 to L2 on their mini-boards.
The sentences can be pre-recorded. I do this on my iPad using Voice Recorder Pro and
air-play them – a very quick and easy process that takes a few minutes only.
Step 3. Listening comprehension in groups; students do the same task you modelled in
Step 2, in groups, taking turns to make up sentences for their peers to understand and
keeping score as to who gets the most sentences right
Step 4. Gapped / jumbled / altered sentences for the students to ‘restore’ to the original
version in the mats
Step 5. Griting mats can now be used to scaffold writing, the teacher being safe in the
knowledge that the students are better acquainted with the mats and can use them
more rapidly and flexibly
3. Pre-/Post-listening and Pre-/Post reading comprehension activities – Before a

reading and listening comprehension task teachers may want to involve learners in two
types of activities in order to (a) facilitate comprehension and consequently learning; (b)
to consolidate the material they have just processed during the comprehension tasks.
The (a) type activities would involve two kinds of activities: firstly, schemata activation,
that is the activation of background knowledge about the target theme, what the
students know already about it. A very easy-to-prepare activity would be, prior to
reading an article about French eating habits, to brainstorm in groups of three or four
(possibly in the target language) all one knows about the topic. This activity
stimulates top-down processing skills in preparation for the reading task. The other
(a) type activities would include vocabulary building activities which recycle 4-5 times

the key vocabulary in the target text. These activities are equally important as they
support bottom-up processing skills. After completing the reading comprehension
task, activities could be carried out which include: (a) activities aimed at consolidating
the language learnt; (b) metacognitive activities involving the students on reflection on
what they found hard in the text and/or on three key things they learnt.
4. Pre-/Post-test activities – Before carrying out a test I always make sure that the
students have ten minutes at least to warm-up through vocabulary building activities on
words related to the topics covered by the test. I usually draw on my
website, www.language-gym.com as we use iPads. Even if the students come across
words that are in the tests’ reading/listening texts I do not see it as unethical; after all,
any assessment, to be valid and fair, should test students only on what they have learnt.
For the assessment to have a positive wash-back effect on learning, provided that there
is time for it, I make sure that the interesting language in the test is not wasted by
staying confined to the assessments task(s). Without carrying out any ‘post-mortem’ as
to how well the students did, I usually engage them in fun vocabulary-recycling activities
which involve some kind of dynamic learning and get the students moving round (e.g.
vocabulary treasure hunts around the classroom or MFL department corridors) and/or
elicit a strong competitive response (e.g. Kahoot quizzes). A good way to put an end to
the depressing and lethargic post-test atmosphere that sets in after an assessment
(especially when it was lengthy and challenging).

Chapter Quiz
Name:_________________________________ Year & Sec: _______________
I. Multiple Choices
Directions: Choose the letter of the correct answer in the space provided before each
number.
______1. This is also known as the pre-activity phase of the lesson where the
Teacher introduces something new to be learned
A. The Presentation Stage C. The Production Stage
B. The Practice Stage D. The Speaking Stage
______2. At this stage your main task is to devise and provide the maximum amount of
practice. This stage is also called the While (or Main) Activity or the Speaking
Activity Stage.
B. The Speaking Stage D. The Practice Stage
_______3. It is a stage that language learning often stops short at the practice stage or
does not go regularly beyond it.
_______4. Their task is to create the best conditions for learning.

A. Student C. Parents
B. Teacher D. Learner

_______5. The teacher main task is to serve as a kind of.
A. Dictator C. Instructor
B. Informant D. Predictor
_______6. The practice stage also called as.

A. Presentation Stage C. Speaking Activity Stage
B. Talking Stage D. Production Stage
_______7. It is the stage providing the students with activities for free expansion and in
discreetly watching over them as they carry them out.
A. The Presentation Stage C. Talking Stage
B. The Practice Stage D. The Production Stage
_____8. It takes on the role of the manager, guide or adviser.
A. Parents C. Learner
B. Teacher D. Students
_______9. In this stage, students listen and try to understand however, teacher
introduces something new to be learned.
A. The Practice Stage C. The Presentation Stage
B. The Production Stage D. Teacher Stage
_______10. Many teachers feel that they have done their job if they have presented the
new material well and have given their students adequate through usually
controlled practice in it.

_______11. How many stages does the speaking lesson have?
A. 3 C. 5
B. 4 D. 6
_______12. It is a well-tried approach to language learning is known to be effective.

A. Stages in speaking C. The Practice Stage
B. The Presentation Stage D. The Production Stage
_______13. This is task of the language teacher for the best conditions of learning.
A. To unclear C. Takes place
B. To create D. Plays
_______14. At this stage of a speaking lesson, the teachers’ main task is to serve as a
kind of informant.
B. The Production Stage D. The Speaking Lesson Stage
_______15. The teachers will the new material to learn.

A. Select C. Provide
B. Present D. Create
_______16. The ones who present this in such a way that the meaning of the new
language is as clear and as memorable as possible.
A. Students C. Teaches
B. Parents D. Teachers
______17. They try to listen and understand.

A. Teacher C. Informant
B. Parents D. Students

______18. They turn to do the most of the talking
A. Teacher C. Informant
B. Parents D. Students
______19. Their main task is to devise and provide the maximum amount of practice
which must at the same time be meaningful, authentic and memorable.
A. Teacher C. Students
B. Parents D. Co-parents
______20. At this stage, students turn to do most of their talking.

A. The Practice Stage C. The Production Stage
B. The Presentation Stage D. The Stage
______21. In this stage, you do the minimum amount of talking yourself.

A. The Presentation Stage C. The Practice Stage
B. The Production Stage D. The Stage
______22. In this stage, each of the performers has a chance to participate and monitor
their performance to see that it is satisfactory.
______23. No real learning should be assumed to have taken place until the students
are able to use the language for themselves.
A. The Presentation Stage C. Stages
B. The Production Stage D. The Practice Stage

______24. At any level of attainment, the students need to be given regular and
frequent opportunities to use language freely.
A. The Production Stage C. The Speaking Stage
B. The Lesson Stage D. The Practice Stage
______25. The teacher main task is to serve as a kind of.

______26. The practice stage also called as.

A. Presentation Stage C. Speaking Stage
______27. In this stage, students listen and try to understand however, teacher
_______28.. Many teachers feel that they have done their job if they have
presented the new material well and have given their students adequate
through usually controlled practice in it.
______29. It is a stage that language learning often stops short at the practice
stage or does not go regularly beyond it.
______30. Their task is to create the best conditions for learning.

Chapter 8 - Factors that Influence Learners’ Speaking
Factors that Influence Learners’ Speaking
The six factors below suggest that any learner who really wants to learn can
pronounce English clearly and comprehensibly. As the teacher, you can assist in the
process by gearing your planned and unplanned instruction toward these six factors.
1. Native Language
The native language is clearly the most influential factor affecting a learner’s
pronunciation. If the teacher is familiar with the sound system of a learner’s native
language(s) he will be better able to diagnose student difficulties. Many L1 to L2
carryovers can be overcome through a focused awareness and effort on the learner’s
part.
Deviating language transfer. Failure to effectively convey message using

another language can be due to inevitable influence of sender or receiver’s first
language. Traces of syntagmatic and phonetic features could be manifested in the
second language adopted as medium of communication.
According to Nolasco (2016) “The Mother Tongue was conveniently swept

under the rug because of the prevailing notion.
Some non-native speakers cannot understand the question/s, because the

one asking speaks too fast or because of the speaker’s accent (in case of an
Australian or a British speaker for example). They would often ask the speaker to
repeat the question several times or request the speaker to speak more slowly,
before they finally understand the question. Some, on the other hand, answer the
question/s impressively (with not many mistakes in grammar and pronunciation; good
explanations and examples; amazing fluency) just to find out in the end that he or she
misunderstood the question, and therefore gave an inappropriate answer.

According to Harmer (1991), there are some reasons why learners use mother-
tongue in their speaking classes. The first reason is that when teachers ask their
learners to talk about a topic that they do not have enough knowledge, they will try to
use their language. The second reason is that the application of mother-tongue is very
natural for learners to use. If teachers do not urge their learners to talk in English,
learners will automatically use their first language to explain something to their
classmates.
2. Age
Children under the age of puberty generally stand an excellent chance of
“sounding like a native” if they have continued exposure in authentic contexts.
Beyond the age of puberty, while adults will almost surely maintain a “foreign accent,”
there is no particular advantage attributed to age. A fifty-year-old can be as
successful as an eighteen-year-old if all other factors are equal. The belief that “the
younger, the better” in learning a language is a myth.
How old is a student when they start learning a foreign language?

While students of all ages can learn a foreign language, there is consensus
that certain aspects are affected by the age of the learner. It becomes harder for
students to have native pronunciation from the teen years. Some students also find
that it’s more difficult to fully acquire a foreign language as they get older, but this
isn’t true of everyone.
3. Exposure
It is difficult to define exposure. One can actually live in a foreign country for
some time but not take advantage of being “with the people.” Research seems to
support the notion that the quality and intensity of exposure are more important than
mere length of time. If class time spent focusing on pronunciation demands the full
attention and interest of students, then they stand a good chance of reaching their
goals.

4. Innate phonetic ability
Often referred to as having an “ear” for language, some people manifests a
phonetic coding ability that others do not. In many cases, if a person has had
exposure to a foreign language as a child, this “knack” is present whether the early
language is remembered or not. Others are simply more attuned to phonetic
discriminations. Some people would have you believe that you either have such a
knack, or you don’t. Strategies-based instruction, however, has proven that some
elements of learning are a matter of an awareness of your own limitations combined
with a conscious focus on doing something to compensate for those limitations.
Therefore, if pronunciation seems to be naturally difficult for some students, they
should not despair; with some effort and concentration, they can improve their
competence.
How attainable does the language feel to the student? Linguist Stephen Krashen
is known for developing the input hypothesis of second-language acquisition. In this
context, the titular “input” is the language curriculum. Krashen wrote that teaching at
just any level of difficulty isn’t sufficient: the input received by a student must be
comprehensible. In other words, the curriculum must reach a child at their current
level and challenge them with activities and just 1 level beyond their current stage. If
the material feels out of reach, the student can feel “shut down” and have trouble
engaging with the lesson. To make sure that students feel motivated to learn, it’s
important to ensure that they feel like they have the ability to progress to the next
level of learning.
Some people wonder why there is a need to have grammatical accuracy in
English, when even some native English speakers commit grammatical mistakes
themselves. I used to ask that myself too, but as I listened more carefully to how both
(native English speakers and non-native English speakers) express their thoughts,
the reason dawned on me.
Native English speakers can say what they want without much difficulty due to
their familiarity of the language. If they have difficulty expressing a certain

concept/thought in a certain way, they can just use other ways of saying those things.
They may commit some mistakes in grammar, but the mistakes do not distort or
change the meaning of the sentences they want to convey, thus, it doesn’t give the
listener much of a problem understanding them. On the other hand, the mistakes
many non-native speakers of English commit are those that often change the
meaning of sentences they want to express, and thus create a misunderstanding.
That’s exactly the reason why non-native speakers have to study grammar more than
native speakers.
5. Identity and language ego

Another influence is one’s attitude toward speakers of the target language and the
extent to which the language ego identifies with those speakers. Learners need to be
reminded of the importance.
Pride. Though decorum and tactfulness are complied, some receivers are
reluctant to take the message sincerely relayed by a sender. They tend to ignore a
number of sender’s statements believing that they are belittled and their profile is
being lowered by the letter.
The second problem is that learners complain that they cannot remember
anything to say and they do not have any motivation to express themselves. This is
supported by Rivers (1968) who thinks that learners often have nothing to say
probably because their teachers had selected a topic that is not appropriate for them
or they do have enough information about it. Baker and Westrup (2003) also supports
the above idea and stated that it is very difficult for learners to answer when their
teachers ask them to tell things in a foreign language because they have little
opinions about what to say, which vocabulary to apply, or how to use grammar
accurately. The third problem in the speaking class is that the participation is very
low. In a class with a large number of students, each student will have very little time
for talking because just one student talks at a time and the other students try to hear
him/her. In the speaking class, some learners dominate the whole class while others
talk very little or never speak.

A student’s personality can affect how they learn a second language. More
introverted students have been shown to take longer to acquire a language because
they’re more hesitant to make mistakes. Extroverted students, on the other hand, are
more likely to go out on a limb and try out their newly learned vocabulary. To ensure
that both personality types succeed, it’s important to create an environment where
students understand that mistakes are part of the learning process and it’s more
important to speak than to be perfect
6. Motivation and concern for good pronunciation

Some learners are not particularly concerned about their pronunciation, while
others are. The extent to which learners’ intrinsic motivation propels them toward
improvement will be perhaps the strongest influence of all six of the factors in this list.
If that motivation and concern are high, then the necessary effort will be expended in
pursuit of goals. As the teacher, you can help learners to perceive or develop that
motivation by showing, among other things, how clarity of speech is significant in
shaping their self-image and, ultimately, in reaching some of their higher goals.
Is the child being forced to learn, or do they want to learn the language? When a
child understands the importance of understanding a language and can see how it
directly applies to their life, they learn faster. We’ve found that a contextual, theme-
based curriculum can help get students more excited to dive into language learning.
When they are interested in learning a language and they see meaningful
connections to their lives, they begin to take risks to produce language, which helps
them to acquire it faster to understand English pronunciation
It is quite common for non-native speakers of English to mispronounce English
words. However, it is not something we have to be ashamed of, but something we
ought to understand. We have to get to the root/s of the problems, in order for us to
improve our pronunciation. Here are some tips I hope could help you understand
English pronunciation better.
Inhibition is the first problem that students encounter in class. When they want to
say something in the classroom they are sometimes inhibited. They are worried
about making mistakes and fearful of criticism. They are ashamed of the other

students’ attention towards themselves. Littlewood (2007) expressed that a language
classroom can also create inhibitions and apprehension for the students.
English is not phonetic
Unlike other languages, English is not phonetic. What does that mean? It means
we don’t always say English words the way we spell them. Let’s compare two
languages as an example.
Example:
The Japanese word “honto” (really) is pronounced the way it is spelled.The
English word “really” is not pronounced as "re-a-li" or "re-a-lai", nor is the word
“really” spelled as “rili”.
Another example is the word “read”. At times it is pronounced as [red] and at

times as [ri:d]. Although the spelling may not change, the way it is pronounced
changes depending on the tense you are using.
That’s one of the main reasons non-native speakers of English get confused in
pronouncing many English words, especially if their native tongue is phonetic.
The Sounds of –ed
The past simple tense and past participle of all regular English verbs end in “ed”.
However, the “ed” added to the verbs may have different sounds which depends if
the base verb’s sound is voiceless or voiced.
What is the difference between voiced and voiceless sounds?

VOICED - A consonant is voiced when it makes the vocal cords vibrate.
VOICELESS -When a consonant is pronounced without vibrating the vocal cords.

Problems that language learners face during speaking
Students often think that the ability to speak a language is the product of language
learning, but speaking is also a crucial part of the language learning process. Effective
instructors teach students speaking strategies—using minimal responses, recognizing
scripts, and using language to talk about language—that they can use to help
themselves expand their knowledge of the language and their confidence in using it.
These instructors help students learn to speak so that the students can use speaking to
learn.
Douglas Brown (2000) identified eight factors that can make speaking difficult.
1. Clustering
Fluent speech is phrasal, not word by word. Learners can organize their output both
cognitively and physically (in breath groups) through such clustering.
2. Redundancy
The speaker has an opportunity to make meaning clearer through the redundancy of
language. Learners can capitalize on this feature of spoken language.
3. Reduced forms
Contractions, elisions, reduced vowels, etc., all form special problems in teaching
spoken English. Students who don’t learn colloquial contractions can sometimes
develop a stilted, bookish quality of speaking that in turn stigmatizes them
4. Performance variables
One of the advantages of spoken language is that the process of thinking as you
speak allows you to manifest a certain number of performance hesitations, pauses,
backtracking, and corrections. Learners can actually be taught how to pause and
hesitate. For example, in English our “thinking time” is not silent; we insert certain
“fillers” such as uh, um, well, you know, I mean, like, etc. One of the most salient

differences between native and nonnative speakers of a language is in their
hesitation phenomena.
5. Colloquial language
Make sure your students are reasonably well acquainted with the words, idioms, and
phrases of colloquial language and those they get practice in producing these forms.
6. Rate of delivery
Another salient characteristic of fluency is rate of delivery. One of the language
teacher’s tasks in teaching spoken English is to help learners achieve an acceptable
speed along with other attributes of fluency.
7. Stress, rhythm, and intonation

This is the most important characteristic of English pronunciation. The stress-timed
rhythm of spoken English and its intonation patterns convey important messages.
8. Interaction
Learning to produce waves of language in a vacuum—without interlocutors—would
rob speaking skill of its richest component: the creativity of conversational
negotiation.

Chapter 8 Quiz
Multiple Choices
Directions: Choose the letter of the correct answer in the space provided before each
number.
_______1. It is the most influential factor affecting a learner’s pronunciation.

A. Native language
B. C. Exposure
C. Age
D. Language
_______2. The children under the ______ of puberty generally stand an excellent
chance of “sounding like a native.”
A. Native language
B. Age
C. Exposure
D. Language
_______3. Often referred to as having an “ear” for language, some people manifests a
phonetic coding ability that after do not.
A. Identity and Language Ego
B. Exposure and Language
C. Innate Phonetic Ability
D. Motivation and Concern for good pronunciation
_______4. It is difficult to define it. One can actually live in a foreign country for some
time but not to take advantage of being “with the people.”
A. Exposure
B. Age
C. Language
D. Ability
_______5. Some learners are not particularly concerned about their pronunciation,
while others are.
B. Motivation and Concern for Good Pronunciation
D. Native Language

_______6. Another influence is one’s attitude toward speakers of the target
language and the extent to which the language ego identifies with those
speakers.
A. Innate Phonetic Ability
C. Native Language
D. Identity and Language Ego
_______7. The speaker has an opportunity to make meaning clearer through the
redundancy of language.
A. Clustering
B. Reduced Forms
C. Performance Variables
D. Redundancy
________8. Fluent speech is phrasal, not word by word.

A. Clustering
B. Reduced Forms
D. Redundancy
________9. Learning to produce waves of language in a vacuum without

interlocutors would rob speaking skill of its richest component: the
creativity of controversial negotiation.
A. Clustering
B. Reduced Forms
C. Interaction
D. Redundancy
_______10. One of the language teacher task in teaching spoken English is to help
learners achieve in acceptable speed along with other attributes
fluency.
A. Rate of delivery
B. Stress, rhythm and intonation
C. Colloquial language
D. Redundancy

_______11. This allows you to manifest a certain number of performance
hesitations, pauses backtracking and corrections.
A. Colloquial Language
B. Performance Variables
C. Reduced Forms
D. Redundancy
_______12. Students are reasonably well acquainted with the words idioms and
phrases of colloquial language and those they get practice in
producing these forms.
B. Rate of delivery
C. Clustering
D. Redundancy
_______13. Contractions, elisions, reduced vowels. Students who don’t learn

colloquial contractions can sometimes develop a stilted, bookish
quality of speaking.
B. Redundancy
C. Reduced Forms
D. Clustering
_______14. This is the most important characteristics of English pronunciation. The

stress timed rhythm of spoken English and its intonation patterns
convey important messages.
A. Interaction
B. Rhythm
C. Intonation
D. Stress, Rhythm and Intonation
_______15. It produces waves of language in a vacuum---without interlocutors.

A. Conversation
B. Discussion
C. Interaction
D. Negotiation

_______16. One of the language teachers task in teaching spoken English is to
help learners achieve in acceptable speed along with other attributes
fluency.
A. Rate of delivery
B. Fluency
C. Reduced Forms
D. Clustering
_______17. The proponent identified eight factors that can make speaking more
difficult.
A. Brown
B. Allan and Waters
C. Douglas Benedict
D. Douglas Brown
_______18. They often think that the ability to speak a language is the product of
language learning, but speaking is also a crucial part of the language
learning process.
A. Douglas Brown
B. Parents
C. Teachers
D. Students
_______19. It helps learners to perceive or develop that motivation by showing,

among other things, how clarity of speech is significant in shaping their
self-image and, ultimately in reaching some of their higher goals.
A. Douglas Brown
B. Parents
C. Teachers
D. Students
_______20. It influences the one’s attitude toward speakers of the target language.
A. Identity and language ego
B. Motivation
C. Concern
D. Rate of delivery

______21.Students proven that some elements of learning are a matter of an
awareness of your own limitations combined with a conscious focus on doing
something to compensate for those limitations.
B. Rate of delivery
C. Clustering
D. Redundancy
______22. It helps teacher to diagnose student difficulties if s/he is familiar with the
sound system of a learner.
A. Native Language
B. Age
C. Exposure
D. Ability
______23. The belief that “the younger, the better” in learning a language is a myth.
A. Native Language
B. Age
C. Exposure
D. Ability
______24. One can actually live in a foreign country for some time but not take
advantage of being “with the people.”
A. Ability
B. Exposure
C. Redundancy
D. Clustering
______25. It pronunciation seems to be naturally difficult for some students, they should
not despair; with some effort and concentration, they can improve their
competence.
A. Native Language
B. Redundancy
C. Clustering
D. Innate Phonetic Ability

______26. Learners need to be reminded of the importance.
A. Motivation and concern for others
B. Motivation and concern for good pronunciation
C. Identity and language ego
D. Rate of delivery
_______27. Learners can organize their output both cognitively and physically
through it.
A. Clustering
B. Redundancy
C. Reduced forms
D. Performance variables
_______28. Learners can capitalize on this feature of spoken language.

A. Clustering
B. Redundancy
C. Reduced forms
_______29. Learners can actually be taught how to pause and hesitate.

A. Redundancy
B. Clustering
C. Reduced forms
_______30. This is the most important characteristics of English pronunciation.

A. Stress, rhythm and intonation
B. Interaction
C. Redundancy
D. Clustering

Chapter 9- Speaking Tasks for Communicative Outcomes
Type of Performance Task/Response
Imitative Speaking • student simply parrots back (imitate) a word or

phrase or possibly a sentence.
• Tasks:
– word repetition
– pronunciation drills (stress, intonation)
Intensive Speaking • one step beyond imitative speaking to include any

speaking performance that is designed to practice
some phonological or grammatical aspect of
language
• Tasks:
– directed response
– read-aloud
– sentence/dialogue completion tasks
– oral questionnaires
– picture-cued tasks
Responsive Speaking • short replies to teacher- or student-initiated

questions or comments (a good deal of student
speech in the classroom is responsive); replies do
not extend into dialogues; such speech can be
meaningful and authentic.
• Tasks:
– question and answer
– eliciting instructions and directions

– paraphrasing a story or a dialogue
Interactive Speaking : • Transactional dialogue—carried out for the purpose

of conveying or exchanging specific information;
• Transactional (dialogue)
involves relatively long stretches of interactive
• Interpersonal (dialogue)
discourse
• Interpersonal dialogue—carried out for the purpose

of maintaining social relationships
• Tasks:
– interviews
– role play
– discussions (arriving at a consensus, problem-
solving)
– games
– conversations
– information gap activity
– telling longer stories
– extended explanations
Extensive Speaking • usually for intermediate to advanced levels; tasks

(monologue) involve complex, relatively lengthy stretches of
discourse; extended monologues can be planned or
impromptu
• Tasks:
– oral reports
– summaries
– short speeches
– picture-cued storytelling
– retelling a story or a news event

Classifications of communicative tasks:
Previous research in the domain of task- based interaction has provided insight into a
variety of task types, and the potential effect of those types on oral performance.
Reviewing previous research on task types relevant to developing speaking skills, it is
apparent that tasks can be grouped in different ways:
� Pair/ Group tasks: According to Scarcealla &Oxford (1996: 159) pair tasks involves
students' work one-on-one with others in class. On the other hand, group tasks involve
more than two students.
� Closed/ open tasks: Closed tasks have just a single correct answer. They are very
structured and have very specific goals. On other hand, open tasks are more loosely
structured, with a less specific goal, for example exchanging anecdotes on a theme
(Nunan, 1999: 53 and Willis, 1996, a: 28).
� Information gap tasks: When one conversation partner has knowledge relevant to
the situation discussed, which is unknown by the other partner, an 'information gap' is
said to exist. The need to acquire the information triggers communication between the
two which bridges the 'information gap' (Nation, 1990; McDonough & Mackey, 2000 and
Slimani- Rolls, 2005: 196).
In this type of tasks, one student can have some information, and the other student has
to find it out by asking questions. On the other hand, both students can have different
pieces of information and they tell each other to reach a final goal (Nunan, 2005: 66). In
other words, information gap tasks can be a one way or a two-way activity. Information
gap tasks are considered to be effective in developing speaking as learners are
encouraged to use and extend their range of positive communication strategies, which
they employ as means of overcoming any shortcomings in language competence. They
also include the dimension of negotiation of meaning -a significant component in the
speaking process (Legutke & Thomas, 1993: 85 and Ellis, 2003).
� Opinion gap/ reasoning gap tasks: Opinion gap tasks involve identifying and
articulating a personal preference, feeling, or attitude. The task may require using
factual information, formulating arguments, and justifying one's opinions. A reasoning

gap task involves deriving some new information from given information through the
process of inference or deduction and interacting with others to deliver these inferred
new information (Ellis , 2000: 199 & Liao , 2001: 41).
� Information processing tasks: In this type of tasks, all the participants have access
to the same information. However the task requires some sort of cognitive or emotional
involvement. Examples of this task are listing and ordering, comparing, ranking, and
problem solving tasks:
a) Listing and ordering tasks:
Listing means that students have to refer to their previous knowledge and agree on a
list of items/ aspects/ features which serve the task goal. The processes involved,
according to Willis (1996, a: 26) are:
� Brainstorming, in which learners draw on their own knowledge and experience either
as a class or in pairs;
� Fact finding in which learners finds things out by asking each other;
� the outcome would be the completed list.
Ordering tasks, involve three main types:

� Sequencing items, actions or events in a logical or chronological order;
� Categorizing items in given groups under given headings;
� Classifying items in different ways where the categories are not given (Ur, 1981 and
Klippel, 1984: 59).
b) Comparing tasks:
These tasks require students to discuss and define differences and similarities between
various elements (Klippel, 1984: 59). Hence, students should be familiar with
expressions such as: both, neither, all, something, and nothing in common…..etc
(Swain et al, 2002).
c) Ranking (rating) tasks:
In this task, the group has a collection of several concepts, usually expressed in words
or short phrases, which all belong to one recognizable set.

Students have to rate these and put them in order of priority or importance according to
various criteria. The criteria may be given to the group, or they may not be given at all.
This rearranging phase is usually followed by a period of discussion, when students
explain or defend their choices in pairs or small groups (Willis, 1998). For instance,
students can rate personal characteristics in order of their importance for a given role or
job. Another example is survival games which are based on an account of a group of
people who are in an isolated situation cut from civilization. The students have to decide
which of given list of items are most essential for their survival and return home, and to
place them in order of priority (Ur, 1981& Bygate, 2002). As for language functions,
ranking tasks enable students to practice agreeing, comparing, contradicting,
disagreeing, and giving reasons. The procedures of using ranking tasks, according to
Klippel (1984: 59) are as follows:
� The students are made familiar with the task through an oral presentation by the
teacher or by reading some handouts.
� Each student works on his own and writes down his solutions.
� When each student has finished his list, the students sit down together in small
groups and try to agree on a common listing, which has to be presented and defended
in a final general discussion.
d) Problem solving Tasks
Problem solving tasks are considered the most authentic tasks, since they resemble
tasks that take place in real life situations (Bruton, 1999: 7). Problem solving tasks can’t
be considered information gap tasks because all participants have the same
information. However, it is a reasoning gap task, because different students will have
different opinions on how to solve the problem (Klippel, 1984: 102-103 & Martin, 1997:
131). Actually, some of the problems require just one correct solution, however, most of
the tasks under this category lead to a discussion of several ways of solving the
problem. The problem tasks range from the imaginary to the more realistic which the
learners might conceivably have to face outside the classroom. Badrawi (1997: 97),
Willis (1996 a: 27) and Liao (2001: 40) classified problem solving tasks to: short
puzzles, real life problems, guessing tasks and completion tasks.

The language needed for problem-solving tasks depends on the topic of each task, but
in general students will have to make suggestions, give reasons,
accept, modify or reject suggestions and reasons given by others (Nation,
1991).
� Social interactive tasks:
These tasks are those involving a relatively detectable degree of role transparency.
Examples of these tasks are role-play, drama, scenario, and interviews. Role play and
interviews are discussed below.
a) Task -based role plays:
Role play refers to all sorts of tasks where learners imagine themselves in a situation
outside; sometimes playing the role of someone other than themselves (Dinapoli, 2000:
6 and Liao, 2001: 40).
The most critical element to consider when designing role-play tasks is that they should
satisfy communicative tasks criteria especially the focus on a certain outcome to be
achieved at the end of the task. In other words, role play tasks should include a problem
solving element (Willis, 1996,b: 54).
Bygate (1987: 67) and Swain el al. (2002) identify different kinds of role play according
to the kind of control practiced as follows:
� Role-playing controlled through cued dialogues.
� Role-playing controlled through situation and goals.
� Role-playing in the form of debate or discussion.
It is apparent that the second and third types conform to the definition of communicative
tasks since they give learners a goal to achieve without too much control on what they
are supposed to say.
(b) Interview tasks:
Interviews can encourage students to share personal information of different kinds. This
includes: anecdotes (talking about terrible accidents), personal reminiscences (talking
about past regrets of doing or not doing something), attitudes, opinions, preferences
(talking about favorite places to go) and personal reactions (what makes you annoyed/
stressed/ happy and soon) (Martin, 1997).

Interviews encourage students to use the necessary question-and-answer structures.
With advanced learners, language functions like asking for confirmation (Did you mean
that ...? Do you really think that...?) hesitating (well, let me see ...), contradicting and
interrupting (hold on a minute) can be practiced as well (Dinapoli, 2000).
Reviewing the previous task classifications, it becomes evident that some of them
categorize tasks according to their purpose or according to the distribution of
information among participants. Others consider how much freedom of turn taking and
negotiation learners are allowed. However, what is obvious in all these classifications is
the general overlap between different types of tasks; most of the previously explained
tasks can fall under more than one category (O' Brein, 1996).

Chapter Quiz
Name:________________________________ Year & Sec:_________________
Multiple Choices
Directions: Choose the letter of the correct answer on the space provided before
each number.
_____1. Student simply parrots back a word or phrase or possibly a sentence.

A. Intensive Speaking
B. Imitative Speaking
C. Extensive Speaking
D. Interactive Speaking
_____ 2. It is designed to practice some phonological or grammatical aspect of
language.
A. Intensive Speaking
C. Extensive Speaking
D. Interactive Speaking
______3. Short replies to teacher or student-initiated questions or comments, but
speech can be meaningful and authentic.
A. Responsive Speaking
B. Transactional Speaking
C. Interpersonal Dialogue
D. Extensive Speaking
______4. It is carried out for the purpose of conveying or exchanging specific
information.
B. Transactional Speaking

______5. This purpose carried out for maintaining social relationship.
A. Extensive Speaking
B. Monologue
D. Transactional Dialogue
______6. Usually for intermediate to advanced levels, tasks involve complex, relatively
lengthy stretches of discourse.
C. Intensive Speaking
______7. This can be planned or impromptu.

A. Conversation
B. Discussion
C. Monologue
D. Oral reports
______8. This tasks have just a single correct answer.

A. Pair group tasks
B. Information gap tasks
C. Tasks
D. Closed/Open Tasks

______9. This involves students’ work one-on-one with others in class.
A. Pair group tasks
C. Tasks
______10. This tasks involve identifying and articulating a personal preference,

feeling or attitude.
A. Pair group tasks
B. Opinion gap tasks
C. Listing and ordering tasks
D. Information processing tasks
______11. In this type of tasks, one student can have some inform and the other
student has to find it out by asking questions.
A. Information Gap Tasks
B. Opinion Gap Tasks
C. Pair Tasks
______12. This tasks involve identifying and articulating a personal preference feeling or
attitude.
A. Information Gap Tasks
B. Pair Tasks
C. Closed/Open Tasks
D. Opinion Tasks

______13. All the participants have access to the same information. However, the task
requires some sort of cognitive or emotional involvement.
A. Listing Tasks
B. Opinion Gap Tasks
C. Information Processing Tasks
D. Ordering Tasks
______14. This type involve three main types: sequencing items, categorizing items,
classifying items.
A. Ordering Tasks
B. Comparing Tasks
C. Ordering Tasks
D. Listing Tasks
______15. These tasks require students to discuss and define differences and similarities
between various elements.
A. Ranking Tasks
B. Rating Tasks
C. Comparing Tasks
D. Listing Tasks
______16. This task considered the most authentic tasks, since they resemble tasks that
take place in real life situations.
A. Listing Tasks
B. Ordering Tasks
C. Guessing Tasks
D. Problem Solving Tasks

______17. This tasks involving a relatively detectable degree of role transparency.
A. Social interactive tasks
B. Task-based role tasks
C. Problem-Solving tasks
D. Listing Tasks
______18. This task can encourage students to share personal information of different
kinds.
A. Social interactive tasks
B. Role playing tasks
C. Interview tasks
D. Listing tasks
______19. The most critical element to consider when designing task, this should
satisfy communicative tasks criteria especially the focus on a certain
outcome to be achieved at the end of the tasks.
A. Interview
B. Role play
C. Problem Solving
D. Guessing tasks
______20. In this task, the group has a collection of several concepts, usually
expressed in words, or short phrases which all belong to one recognizable
set.
A. Ranking tasks
B. Guessing Tasks
C. Interview Tasks
D. Ordering Tasks

______21. This tasks student should be familiar with expressions such as: both, neither,
all, something and nothing in common.
A. Ordering Tasks
B. Listing Tasks
C. Comparing Tasks
D. Interview Tasks
______22. Listing means that students have to refer to their previous knowledge and
agree on a list items/aspects/features which serve the taste good.
A. Listing and Ordering Tasks
B. Ordering Tasks
C. Comparing Tasks
D. Interview Tasks
______23. This task may require using factual information, formulating arguments and
justifying one’s opinion.
A. Listing and Ordering Tasks
B. Opinion Gap
C. Interview Tasks
D. Comparing Tasks
______24. Usually for intermediate to advanced levels, tasks involve complex, relatively
lengthy stretches of discourse.
C. Intensive Speaking

______25. This can be planned or impromptu.
A. Conversation
B. Discussion
C. Monologue
D. Oral reports
______26. This task has just a single correct answer.

A. Pair group tasks
C. Tasks
______27. This involves students’ work one-on-one with others in class.

A. Pair group tasks
C. Tasks
______28. These tasks involve identifying and articulating a personal preference,

Feeling and attitude
A Pair group tasks
C. Listing and ordering tasks
D. Information processing tasks

______29. One student can have some information and the other student has to find
it out by asking questions.
A. Information gap tasks
B. Pair tasks
C. Closed tasks
D. Opinion tasks
______30. It involves identifying and articulating a personal preference feeling or

attitude.
A. Information gap tasks
C. Pair tasks
D. Closed tasks

Chapter 10- Students’ Difficulties in Speaking English and
How to Solve It
Since English is a foreign language in our country, most student especially

senior high school students are not familiar with it (Hetrakul, 1995). Kavin Hetrakul also
said that they use English more frequent only inside the class and less frequent outside
the class. Whereas, students’ have limited time to learn English in class, and they still
do not have enough encouragement to practice English outside the class in order to get
familiar with English. This case brings a problem that make senior high school students
have difficulties to communicate in English. This article will analyze the causes that
make the students difficult to communicate in English and suggest some solutions that
can overcome the difficulties.
The first cause that makes the students difficult in speaking English is that the
environment does not support the students to speak English frequently. The
environment here means the people outside the class. Those people may think that the
students just want to show off when they speak English for daily conversation. The
response that the students get makes them loose their self-confidence to improve their
speaking. Since the students do not want to be rejected by the people around them, so
they use their native language in daily conversation. That makes the students unable to
communicate in English fluently outside the class.
The second cause is problem with grammar. English always deals with reference of
time while Indonesian does not have one. Moreover, there are singular and plural forms
that the students have to distinguish and still many forms that have to be learned. Most
students are very easy to get confused with English grammar, while grammar is very
needed to form a right sentence. If the students do not have grammar mastery, of
course they will not be able to produce sentences that grammatically right. Realizing
that the grammar students have is very weak, so they feel embarrassed when they want
to produce English sentences orally.

Now, English is an international language. Even technology and working world use
English. It is believed that the students want to be the winner in working world
competition that is getting tight day by day. One of the conditions that the students must
require is having ability to speak English fluently. This skill will be their plus point in
facing the working world. From now on, the students have to try hard to overcome their
difficulties to speak English fluently.
There are two ways to encourage students to overcome their problem. The first one is a
way for the teacher to do. It is considered necessary for the teacher to force the
students only to speak English during the class. The teacher may fine the students
every time they speak their native language. The teacher himself must be able to
convince his students to be brave to speak English, does not matter if they have very
bad grammar. Just say whatever the students want to say. And the teacher must
convince his students that making errors is a normal thing in learning. This way will
raise students’ confidence to try to speak English. It will be better if the teacher does not
give correction every time his students make errors, but he should give feedback and
give explanation for every error after the students finish their speech.
The second solution is for the students themselves. They can have an English
conversation club that consists of their own classmates. They can share and talk about
anything in English during that time. In this club, they can learn together. Students can
correct each other without feeling embarrassed. English will become students’ routine
by doing that activity (Hetrakul, 1995).
Every problem can be solved, likewise the problem to speak English fluently that senior
high school students have. Even though the problem seems as students’ problem, but
in fact teachers also play an important role in solving this problem. Students’ difficulties
to communicate in English must be solved as soon as possible considering their needs
in facing the working world. In conclusion, by forcing the students only to speak English
during the class and having conversation club will solve their difficulties to speak
English.

Problems and challenges in teaching and learning speaking at advanced level
The article deals with the problems of teaching and learning speaking, in particular
those which are most relevant in the context of developing oral skills at the advanced
level of foreign language proficiency. The complex nature of spoken discourse must be
taken into account and reflected at each stage of the learning process. Thus, the article
examines the difficulties connected with choosing the appropriate framework and
approach and discusses the typical patterns of interaction in the foreign language
classroom. It also examines forms of control and evaluation and suggests some
speaking activities which seem most suitable for advanced language learners in the
light of the above theoretical considerations.
1. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN TEACHING SPEAKING
The position of speaking in the hierarchy of language skills has evolved over the
centuries. Rather ignored in the Grammar – Translation Method, it became a primary
skill in the Direct Method. Audiolingualism brought even more focus on speaking,
although the linguistic principle it was based on viewed oral discourse as imitative
routine behavior in typical and predictable situations. The grammatical syllabus of the
Cognitive Method incorporated activities in all language skills, attaching equal
importance to each of them.
Nowadays, in spite of the inevitable criticism of available methods, techniques or

resources, speaking is generally perceived as the most fundamental skill to acquire.
Since the onset of the communicative era it has been treated as the ultimate goal of
language training and its proper development has become the focus of attention of both
teachers and learners. However, it is also a commonly recognized fact that achieving
proficiency in foreign language speaking in classroom conditions is not an easy task.
Even advanced learners often finish a language course with the conviction that they are
not sufficiently prepared for speaking beyond the classroom. This difficulty results
basically from the character and inadequate frequency of speaking opportunities in the

classroom in comparison to the abundance of natural varieties and genres of oral
communication. In fact, selecting the most appropriate types of spoken discourse for
classroom practice in a particular language course is a very hard decision which,
unfortunately, hardly ever reflects the natural occurrence and distribution of
communicative situations. languages
Other problems that are commonly observed in the language classroom
are related to individual learners’ personalities and attitudes to the learning
Problems and challenges in teaching and learning speaking at advanced level 39
process and learning speaking in particular. They can be defined as follows
• inhibition – fear of making mistakes, losing face, criticism; shyness;
• nothing to say – learners have problems with finding motives to speak, formulating
opinions or relevant comments;
• low or uneven participation – often caused by the tendency of some learners to

dominate in the group;
• mother-tongue use – particularly common in less disciplined or less motivated

classes, learners find it easier or more natural to express themselves in their native
language.
2. CHOOSING AN APPROACH
Designing a speaking syllabus depends on several factors, the most obvious being the
age and level of learners, the learning context and the aim of teaching. First, it must be
defined how much emphasis can be given to speaking within a particular course and
whether speaking is to be taught separately or integrated with the teaching of other
skills and areas of the language. Secondly, it is essential to choose an approach which
defines the teaching procedure. The selection between task-based approaches, a genre
based one or the combination of both types is the most crucial step in designing the
course as it influences all the elements of the learning process in progress.

Nevertheless, a modern multi-layered syllabus should specify the target aspects of the
speaking skill to be taught, as well as the grammar and
vocabulary components (Thornbury 2007). A genre-based approach focuses on the

notion of the communicative situation which centres around a particular spoken genre or
genres. Needless to say, the variety of types of communicative situations is virtually
unlimited. As a consequence, the teacher faces the necessity of deciding which
situations should be included in the language course he or she coordinates. This
selection, however well-thought-out it may be, is always connected with eliminating or
ignoring a number of relatively significant situations and concentrating on those which
seem most relevant to the particular learning context. The next step is defining the most
important parameters of the selected situations, such as the topics, goals, discourse
genres, social and cultural norms. The actual teaching procedure starts from
establishing the social purpose and cultural context of a given genre, later a typical
example is presented and analyzed, finally learners create their own samples of
appropriate communicative events (Thornbury 2007: 121). In contrast, a task-based
approach stems from the general idea that “a language is best learned through using it,
rather than learned and then used” (Thornbury 2007: 119). Consequently, it is believed
that accuracy results from fluency, in other words the need to communicate effectively
leads to the refinement of learning and language. A task-based syllabus, then, takes the
form of a sequence of integrated tasks which involve speaking and which reflect the
situations that learners are likely to meet in real circumstances. Both approaches have
their advantages and drawbacks. The task-based approach has been criticized for
giving priority to the process of using language rather than focusing on the language
that learners actually produce. The genre-based approach has been considered
inadequate as it relies too heavily on imitating models and this is not necessarily the
way in which people communicate in real life. It seems, however, that more advanced
learners may benefit more from a genre-based framework since it emphasizes the
importance of social context, purpose, register and interlocutors’ expectations, that is
the components of a communicative situation which are seldom covered or analyzed in
classrooms at lower levels of language proficiency. It must be stressed that all oral
discourse stems from a communicative intention, that is the speaker has a defined aim

which he or she wants to achieve in a particular communicative situation. This situation
may require creative thinking and producing a highly personal individualized utterance
or relying on automatic reactions in accordance with established social and cultural
norms. Yet, in order to implement a communicative goal, a speaker must enable the
interlocutor to understand, interpret and evaluate the information being passed. Seen
from such a perspective, speaking seems a very complex activity which combines the
processes of intending, planning, constructing and monitoring. Additionally, these
operations have to be executed in fractions of seconds according to the demands of
communicative fluency (Dakowska 2005: 233). In the light of the above assumptions it
may be claimed that ongoing language performance is an extremely significant element
in the process of developing speaking skills. In other words, it seems obvious that in
order to learn to speak or develop this ability, learners have to speak. As Skehan (1998)
claims, a comprehension-based approach is not sufficient on its own, Problems and
challenges in teaching and learning speaking at advanced level 41 and relying on
listening tasks as the only source of language input does not guarantee success in
language learning. He underlines the importance of output, that is the actual practice of
interactive speaking, and identifies the roles it may play in interlanguage development
(Skehan 1998: 16–19):
• to generate better input – speaking is used as a signaling device to obtain better

input, it enables the negotiation for meaning in the form of clarification requests and
comprehension or confirmation checks;
• to force syntactic processing – being aware that they have to speak makes learners
more attentive to syntax while listening, as a result listening tasks become more
effective for interlanguage development;
• to test hypotheses – it should not be assumed that the learner will individually
receive relevant information for the specific needs of his or her inter language at the
right moment, by speaking the learner controls the present state of his inter language,
tests hypotheses, takes risks and looks for relevant feedback;

• to develop automaticity – to become effective as a speaker, the learner needs to
achieve a degree of ease and a natural level of speed and rhythm, frequent speaking
practice is the only way of acquiring such fluency;
• to develop discourse skills – speaking practice cannot focus only on “short turns”
but it should also give opportunities for taking part in extended discourse, this allows for
developing discourse management and turn-taking skills, which underlie the negotiation
of meaning in ongoing communication;
• to develop a personal voice – learners who rely exclusively on what others say are
not likely to develop a personal manner of speaking, they are dependent on the
meanings they are exposed to and cannot steer conversations, each learner should
learn how to meaningfully influence ongoing discourse and find ways of individual
expression.
The above approach suggests that frequent and well-planned speaking practice has a
great impact on learners’ interlanguage development. However, the question of whether
it is a sufficient and efficient condition for language learning still remains open for
theoretical and practical consideration (Skehan 1998).
3. PATTERNS OF INTERACTION IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASSROOMS
In every foreign language classroom, language functions as the medium through which
teachers teach and students demonstrate what they have learned (Johnson 1995).
Teachers use the target language to control both the content and the structure of
classroom interactions, learners try to respond to their teachers’ use of language.
However, the overall picture of classroom communication depends rather on the types
of relationships between teachers and learners, and the actual patterns of
communication established and maintained during regular lessons. Interestingly, these
patterns are hardly ever permanent, but they tend to be reconstructed and modified
according to the requirements of the ongoing learning process. This flexible nature of
classroom discourse creates the specific dynamics of classroom communication which,
in spite of many similarities, are always unique and unpredictable.

In an attempt at constructing an integrated view of communication in second language
classrooms, Johnson (1995: 9) presents a framework which may be used for analyzing
and describing classroom interaction. The most essential elements of the framework
include:
• forms of teachers’ control of classroom communication – shaped mostly by their

professional and practical knowledge;
• students’ perceptions of these patterns – norms and expectations based on their

previous learning experience, including preconceived notions of “appropriate” classroom
communication;
• students’ use of the target language;
• the extent to which the existing patterns of communication create opportunities

for students to use the target language for learning.
Analysis of the above elements may prove particularly useful in teaching
speaking at advanced level as it allows for the adequate tailoring of the language
of instruction and introducing more elements of natural social discourse
in a given learning context.
There are two basic types of interaction which may be observed in second and foreign
language classrooms: teacher-student and student-student interaction. The most
traditional version of teacher-student interaction is illustrated by the so-called IRE model
(teacher initiation, student response, teacher’s evaluation of that response). However,
the extent of a teacher’s control over classroom communication may vary, connected
with the pedagogical purpose of the language course or lesson. The teacher usually
relies on a variety of interactive questioning strategies but in less-tightly controlled
classes modifications in the IRE model are often observed and learners can take on
some part of this sequence. When learners take on all of them (initiation, response,
evaluation), the sequence is abandoned altogether and the pattern changes into
student-student interaction.

4. SPEAKING ACTIVITIES AT ADVANCED LEVEL
According to Thornbury (2007: 40), the process of developing speaking skills consists of
three stages:
• awareness – learners are made aware of features of target language
knowledge,
• appropriation – these features are integrated into their existing knowledge-base,
• autonomy – learners develop the capacity to mobilize these features under real-time
conditions without assistance.
It seems that at the advanced level of foreign language proficiency students and
teachers’ efforts should be focused on the stage of appropriation and its effective
movement towards autonomy in target language use. Forthat purpose they need a
range of speaking tasks that encourage a considerable degree of independence by
relying on extensive oral practice (treated as a source of meaningful input and
feedback) mainly in the form of student-student interactions. The speaking activities
presented below take into account the above assumptions.
Conversations in foreign language classrooms are considered to be not the result of

language learning but rather the context in which learning actually occurs (Thornbury
2007). On the other hand, it is not easy to incorporate meaningful conversational
interactions into a planned lesson as casual conversation is, by its very nature,
spontaneous and unstructured. It becomes easier when conversation activities are
based on a set of selected themes which are previously negotiated with learners. Useful
conversational routines (opening and closing formulas, interrupting, asking for
clarification) and helpful communication strategies (paraphrasing and reformulating,
using vague language and hesitation fillers) should be taught and practiced beforehand
to give students the appropriate devices for successful communication but elements of
personalization should be given an equally important status. Conversation activities may

proceed from more controlled ones, in which the language is limited by instructions,
through awareness activities which make use of audiovisual materials, fluency practice,
to feedback sessions during which students analyze their own interactions (Nolasco and
Arthur 1987). Interviews are demanding tasks in the sense that they require from the
interviewer some preparation in the form of research, the selection of relevant questions
and the prior analysis of native speaker interviews so as to properly evaluate both the
questions and the elicited information (Dakowska 2005: 245).
A class survey is a version of a collaborative interview which, if properly carried out,

may engage a large group of students in a communicative task- based activity. Learners
prepare a set of survey-type questions connected with a particular topic and they mill
around in the classroom, asking the questions and noting the answers. Next, they return
to their original groups to analyze the findings which are later reported to the class by a
group spokesperson.
Finally, the class decides whether the original claim put forward by the group is justified
or not (Thornbury 2007: 83). Problems and challenges in teaching and learning
speaking at advanced level 45 Discussion is another popular and useful form of
classroom interaction.
However, it must be stressed that the actual potential of this activity for developing an
individual learner’s speaking ability can be implemented only under certain conditions
(Dakowska 2005: 245), particularly that:
• the topic is controversial enough to open different perspectives and interpretations,
• learners participate in the choice of the topic and are given enough communicative
autonomy to be able to express their personal opinions and ideas,
• students are interested in the topic and their general knowledge is sufficient enough to
discuss it (this may require appropriate preparation – studying relevant sources and
processing the teacher’s or peers’ input),
• discussion is planned as a complex activity which combines working in pairs or groups

and open-class or panel forms of interaction.

A more formal version of discussion is referred to as debate. It involves discussing a
topic from two opposing points of view which are earlier ascribed to members of the
debating teams (Dakowska 2005: 246). Additionally, new points and arguments may
emerge during the discussion. It is important that the arguments are logical and well-
balanced and that they are presented in accordance with the social and cultural norms
of the target language community..
5. PROBLEMS OF EVALUATION
Testing the oral proficiency of foreign language students is a complex task which may
cause considerable problems at any stage of the process. The difficulties concern not
only the choice of the appropriate elicitation technique and form of assessment, but they
may also emerge while designing or administering the test. Practitioners and
researchers are divided in their opinions as to the validity of oral testing and put forward
arguments for and against it. The most common arguments in favor of testing oral
fluency are as follows (Ur 1995: 134):
• Each general language test should include all aspects and areas of the language,
therefore it should include speaking;
• Speaking is generally considered to be the most important language skill, that is why it
should take priority in any language test;
• An oral proficiency test at the end of the course will guarantee that teachers and
students devote more time to speaking practice during the course (the wash back
effect), otherwise a tendency to neglect extensive speaking practice or not to give it
enough time and effort can be observed;
• There are many students who speak well but write badly, a test based on writing may
discriminate such learners and their overall assessment will not reflect their actual skills
and abilities.

Chapter Quiz
Name: __________________________________Year & Sec:_________________
I. Simple Recall
Directions: Identify the words or group of words being referred by the following.
________1. It is fear of making mistakes, losing face, criticism and shyness.
________2. Learners find it easier or more natural to express themselves in their native
language.
________3. It is often caused by the tendency of some learners to dominate in the
group.
________4. It focuses on the notion of the communicative situation which centers on a

particular spoken genre or genres.
________5. It is an approach where language is best learned through using it, rather
than learned and then used.
________6. The actual practice of interactive speaking, and identifies the roles it may
play in inter language development.
________7. It enables the negotiation for meaning in the form of clarification requests
and comprehension or confirmation checks.
________8. It should not be assumed that the learner will individually receive relevant
information for the specific needs of his or her inter language at the
right moment.

________9. This allows for developing discourse management and turn-taking skills,
which underlie the negotiation of meaning in ongoing communication.
________10. Learner should learn how to meaningfully influence ongoing discourse
and find ways of individual expression.

II.True or False
Direction: Write TRUE, if the statement is correct and FALSE, if not.
1. Speaking is generally considered to be the most important language skill, that is why
it should take priority in any language test.
2. An oral proficiency test at the end of the course will guarantee that teachers and
students devote more time to speaking practice during the course.
3. Each general language test should not include all aspects and areas of the language,
therefore it should include speaking.
4. A test based on writing may discriminate such learners and their overall assessment
will not reflect their actual skills and abilities.
5. It is important that the arguments are logical and well-balanced and that they are
presented in accordance with the social and cultural norms of the target language
community.
6. A class survey is a version of a collaborative interview which, if properly carried out,

may engage a large group of students in a communicative task- based activity.
7. Conversations in foreign language classrooms are considered to be not the result of

language learning but rather the context in which learning actually occurs.
8. The frequent and well-planned speaking practice has a great impact on learners’
interlanguage development.
9. Learners who rely exclusively on what others say are more likely to develop a
personal manner of speaking.
10. It is believed that accuracy results from fluency, in other words the need to
communicate effectively leads to the refinement of learning and language.

II.Fill in the blanks
Direction:Fill in the correct words in the blank. Choose your answer in the words
below..
1. A speaker must enable the interlocutor to understand, interpret and _____ the
information being passed.
2. Speaking seems a very _____ activity which combines the processes of intending,
planning, constructing and monitoring.
3. Language functions as the medium through which teachers teach and students
_____ what they have learned.
4. Teachers use the target language to _____ both the content and the structure of
classroom interactions.
5. The actual patterns of communication established and maintained during _____

lessons.
6 – 7. This difficulty results basically from the character and inadequate _____ of
speaking opportunities in the classroom in comparison to the abundance of natural
varieties and ______ of oral communication.
8 – 9. It must be defined how much _____ can be given to speaking within a particular
course and whether speaking is to be taught separately or _____ with the teaching of
other skills and areas of the language.
10. It is essential to choose an approach which defines the teaching _____.
evaluate complex demonstrate process
control regular frequency separately
genres emphasis integrated procedure

Preliminary Examination
Name: __________________________ Year & Sec:_________________________
Multiple Choices
Directions: Write the letter of the correct answer in the space provided before each
number.
____1. They tend to be called as “bookish” when they speak, as if they are reading from
a book.
A. Students
B. Parents
C .Teachers
D. Speakers
____2. It is an approach suggests that we should start with teaching the smallest units
sounds and move through master of words and sentences to discourse.
A. Speaking approach
B. Top-down approach
C. Bottom-up approach
D. Research approach

____3. It is defined as the production of auditory signals designed to produce differential
verbal responses in a listener.
A. Reviewing
B. Speaking
C. Teaching
D. Listening
____4. This approach is adopted by audio-lingualism.
A. Top-down approach
B. Bottom-up approach
C. Speaking approach
____5. It is a two-way process between speaker and listener and involves the
productive skill of speaking and receptive skill of understanding.
A. Nature of Speaking
B. Speaking
C. Aspects of Speaking
D. Oral Communication

____6. This is needed to be closely scrutinized and put into consideration.
B. Speaking
D .Oral Communication
____7. These speaking constraints affect the speaker ability to plan, to organize the
message and to control the language being used.
A .Speaking happens in real time
B .Speaking is interactive
C. Speaking is face to face
D. Speaking
____8. Spoken language is characterized by what is called?
A .Terms language
B .Vague language
C. Spoken language
D. English language
____9. It is characterized also by fixed expressions that play an important part in

enhancing fluency during speaking.
A Terms language
B. Vague language
C. Spoken language
D. English language

____10. It creates and tells stories or chronologically sequenced events.
A. Narrative
B. Instructive
C. Personal
D. Descriptive
____11. It expresses mental images of people, places, events and objects.
A. Predictive
B. Descriptive
C. Interpretative
D. Imaginative
____12. It explores meanings creating hypothetical deductions and considering
inferences.
A. Persuasive
B. Interpretative
C. Questioning
D. Personal

____13. It changing others’ opinion, attitudes or points of view, or influencing the
A. Descriptive
B. Questioning
C. Persuasive
D. Personal
____14. It shares information with others.
A. Informative
B. Comparative
C. Personal
D. Narrative
____15. Extracts in which people talk about themselves, their biography, where they
live, their jobs, their likes and dislikes.
A. Language-in-action
B. Identifying
C. Comment-Elaboration
D. Narrative

____16. Data, in which people take up positions, pursue arguments and expound on
their opinions.
A. Decision making
B. Debate and Argument
C. Language-in-action
D. Comment-Elaboration
____17. The competence includes language rules such as vocabulary, formation of
words or sentences and pronunciation.
A. Sociolinguistic Competence
B. Grammatical Competence
C. Discourse Competence
D. Strategic Competence
____18. This competence addresses the appropriateness in terms of both the meaning
and form, which can vary with the status of participants, objectives of the
communications.
A. Discourse Competence
B. Strategic Competence
C. Grammatical Competence
D. Sociolinguistic Competence

____19. It consists of three phases: Assessment, Planning and Execution.
D. Textual Competence
____20. It includes an understanding of how spoken texts are organized and is related
to the cohesion and coherence of utterances.
C. Textual Competence
D. Grammatical Competence

II. True/False
1. The purpose of speaking cam be either transactional or interactional.
2. Transactional task is done by keeping good social relations.
3. Descriptive means expressing personal matters.
4. Personal described something real or imagined.
5. Predictive means predicting possible future events.
6. Persuasive means changing others opinion.
7. Interpretative means exploring the meanings.
8. Explanatory means sharing information.
9. Comparative means mental images of people or ideas.
10. Questioning means asking questions to get information.

III.Multiple Choices
Direction: Write the letter of the correct answer in the space provided before each
number.
____1. They tend to be called as “bookish” when they speak, as if they are reading from
a book.
A. Students
B. Parents
C. Teachers
D. Speakers
____2. It is an approach suggests that we should start with teaching the smallest units
sounds and move through master of words and sentences to discourse.
A. Speaking approach
B. Top-down approach
C. Bottom-up approach
____3. It is defined as the production of auditory signals designed to produce differential
verbal responses in a listener.
A. Reviewing
B. Speaking
C. Teaching
D. Listening

____4. This approach is adopted by audio-lingualism.
A. Top-down approach
B. Bottom-up approach
C. Speaking approach
____5. It is a two-way process between speaker and listener and involves the
productive skill of speaking and receptive skill of understanding.
B. Speaking
____6. This is needed to be closely scrutinized and put into consideration.
B. Speaking

____7. These speaking constraints affect the speaker ability to plan, to organize the
message and to control the language being used.
A. Speaking happens in real time
B. Speaking is interactive
C. Speaking is face to face
D. Speaking
____8. Spoken language is characterized by what is called?
A. Terms language
B. Vague language
C. Spoken language
D. English language
____9. It is characterized also by fixed expressions that play an important part in
enhancing fluency during speaking.
A. Terms language
B. Vague language
C. Spoken language
D. English language

____10. It creates and tells stories or chronologically sequenced events.
A. Narrative
B. Instructive
C. Personal
D. Descriptive
____11. It expresses mental images of people, places, events and objects.
A. Predictive
B. Descriptive
C. Interpretative
D. Imaginative
____12. It explores meanings creating hypothetical deductions and considering
inferences.
A. Persuasive
B. Interpretative
C. Questioning
D. Personal

____13. It changing others’ opinion, attitudes or points of view, or influencing the
A. Descriptive
B. Questioning
C. Persuasive
D. Personal
____14. It shares information with others.
A. Informative
B. Comparative
C. Personal
D. Narrative
____15. Extracts in which people talk about themselves, their biography, where they
live, their jobs, their likes and dislikes.
A. Language-in-action
B. Identifying
C. Comment-Elaboration
D. Narrative

____16. Data, in which people take up positions, pursue arguments and expound on
their opinions.
A. Decision making
B. Debate and Argument
C. Language-in-action
D. Comment-Elaboration
____17. The competence includes language rules such as vocabulary, formation of
words or sentences and pronunciation.
B. Grammatical Competence
D. Strategic Competence
____18. This competence addresses the appropriateness in terms of both the meaning
and form, which can vary with the status of participants, objectives of the
communications.
C. Grammatical Competence
D. Sociolinguistic Competence

____19. It consists of three phases: Assessment, Planning and Execution.
D. Textual Competence
____20. It includes an understanding of how spoken texts are organized and is related
to the cohesion and coherence of utterances.
C. Textual Competence
D. Grammatical Competence
_____21. He points out that traditionally the focus of speaking was on motor perceptive
skills.
A. Bygate(1987)
B. Brown(1983)
C. Florez(1999)
D. Howarth(2001)

_____22. It is a two way process between speaker and listener.
A. Productive Skill
B. Oral Communication
C. Receptive Skill
D. Reading Skill
_____23. It is characterized by reciprocal openings and closings.
A. Typical feature
_____24. It is segmental and suprasegmental features, pauses, and interuptions.
A. Typical feature
_____25. It contains numerous social and contextual factors
A. Speech
B. Spoken discourse
C. Written discourse
D. Discourse structure

_____26. Incomplete sentences also called as?
A. Difficulties
B. Obstacles
C. Utterances
D. Differences
_____27. It refers to the movement of element from its position.
A. Utterances
B. Semantics
C. Lexis
D. Fronting
_____28. It is commonly unplanned and informal writing.
A. Poem
B. Discussion
C. Speech
D. Lecture
_____29. These are unplanned and spontaneous and the speakers think on their feet.
A. Response
B. Conversation
C. Writing
D. Speech

_____30. An interactive process of constructing meaning.
A. Speech
B. Speaking
C. Conversation
D. Lexis

II. Matching Type
Directions: Match the column A to the description in column B.
A B
1. Imaginative A. Involves explanation.
2. Heuristic B. Sensitivity to differences
3. Manipulative C. It provides further attempt to depict the

knowledge.
4. Ideational D. Involves conversational analysis.
5. Illucotionar E. Bears a close relationship to discourse

competence.
6. Textual competence F. Must be defined as expository or evaluative
7. Sociolinguistic competence G. Which are used to affect the world around us.
8. Information routines H. Consist of acts and language function.
9. Evaluative routines I. Which extend people's knowledge of the world

around us.
10. Conversational Skill Model J. Comprises creative language use for aesthetic
purposes.
K. Which expresses people experience.

Midterm Examination
Name: _________________________________Year & Sec:__________

I.Multiple Choice
provided.
______1. This is also known as the pre-activity phase of the lesson where the
Teacher introduces something new to be learned
B. The Practice Stage D. The Speaking Stage
______2. At this stage your main task is to devise and provide the maximum amount of
practice. This stage is also called the While (or Main) Activity or the Speaking Activity
Stage.
_______3. It is a stage that language learning often stops short at the practice stage or
does not go regularly beyond it.
_______4. Their task is to create the best conditions for learning.

_______5. The teacher main task is to serve as a kind of.
_______6. The practice stage also called as.
A. Presentation Stage C. Speaking Activity Stage
_______7. It is the stage providing the students with activities for free expansion and in
discreetly watching over them as they carry them out.
A. The Presentation Stage C. Talking Stage
B. The Practice Stage D. The Production Stage
_______8. It takes on the role of the manager, guide or adviser.
A. Parents C. Learner
B. Teacher D. Students
_______9. In this stage, students listen and try to understand however, teacher
_______10. Many teachers feel that they have done their job if they have presented the
new material well and have given their students adequate through usually controlled
practice in it.

_______11. It is a well-tried approach to language learning is known to be effective.
A. Stages in speaking C. The Practice Stage
B. The Presentation Stage D. The Production Stage
_______12. At this stage of a speaking lesson, the teachers’ main task is to serve as a
kind of informant.
______13. Their main task is to devise and provide the maximum amount of practice
which must at the same time be meaningful, authentic and memorable.
A. Teacher C. Students
B. Parents D. Co-parents
______14. At this stage, students turn to do most of their talking.
A. The Practice Stage C. The Production Stage
B. The Presentation Stage D. The Stage
______15. In this stage, you do the minimum amount of talking yourself.
B. The Production Stage D. The Stage
_______16. It is the most influential factor affecting a learner’s pronunciation.
A. Native language C. Age
B. Exposure D. language

______17. Often referred to as having an “ear” for language, some people manifests a
phonetic coding ability that after do not.
B. Exposure and Language
D. Motivation and Concern for Good Pronunciation
_______18. It is difficult to define it. One can actually live in a foreign country for some
time but not to take advantage of being “with the people.”
A. Exposure
B. Age
C. Language
D. Ability
______19. Some learners are not particularly concerned about their pronunciation,
while others are.
D. Native Language

_______20. Another influence is one’s attitude toward speakers of the target language
and the extent to which the language ego identifies with those speakers.
C. Native Language
D. Identity and Language Ego
_______21. The speaker has an opportunity to make meaning clearer through the
redundancy of language.
A. Clustering
B. Reduced Forms
D. Redundancy
________22. Fluent speech is phrasal, not word by word.
A. Clustering
B. Reduced Forms
D. Redundancy

________23. Learning to produce waves of language in a vacuum without interlocutors
would rob speaking skill of its richest component: the creativity of
controversial negotiation.
A. Clustering
B. Reduced Forms
C. Interaction
D. Redundancy
_______24. One of the language teacher task in teaching spoken English is to help
learners achieve in acceptable speed along with other attributes fluency.
A. Rate of delivery
B. Stress, rhythm and intonation
C. Colloquial language
D. Redundancy
_______25. This allows you to manifest a certain number of performance hesitations,
pauses backtracking and corrections.
B. Performance Variables
C. Reduced Forms
D. Redundancy

_______26. Students are reasonably well acquainted with the words idioms and
phrases of colloquial language and those they get practice in producing

these forms.
B. Rate of delivery
C. Clustering
D. Redundancy
_______27. Contractions, elisions, reduced vowels. Students who don’t learn colloquial
contractions can sometimes develop a stilted, bookish quality of speaking.
B. Redundancy
C. Reduced Forms
D. Clustering
_______28. This is the most important characteristics of English pronunciation. The
stress timed rhythm of spoken English and its intonation patterns convey
important messages.
A. Interaction
B. Rhythm
C. Intonation
D. Stress, Rhythm and Intonation

_______29. It produces waves of language in a vacuum¬---without interlocutors.
A. Conversation
B. Discussion
C. Interaction
D. Negotiation
_______30. This is the most important characteristics of English pronunciation.
A. Stress, rhythm and intonation
B. Interaction
C. Redundancy
D. Clustering

I. Matching Type
Direction: Match the description of column A to the column B.
1. Stage 1 B
2. Stage 2 A. They provide feedback on the
3. Stage 3 B. Facilitate Feedback
4. Stage 4 C. It consists of a series of lessons

based on the specific theme or topic.
5. Stage 5
D. Focus on language/skills/strategies
6. Stage 6
E. Direct learners' reflection on learning
7. Stage 7
F. It encourages students to self-
8. Learners
regulate their learning
9. Teachers
G. Provide input and/or guide planning
10. Cycle
H. Conduct speaking tasks
I. Focus learners' attention on speaking
J. Repeat speaking tasks
K. They are given prompt to think about

the demands of speaking

II. True/False
Direction: Write T if the statement is correct and F if false
___1. The goal and techniques for teaching conversation are extremely diverse
___2. Fluency and accuracy are both important goals to pursue in communicative
language teaching.
___3. An issue that pervades all of a language performance center on the distinction
between accuracy and pronunciation.
___4. Learners have also learned to teach sociolinguistics appropriateness.
___5. Language oriented also known as teaching language usage.
___6. Message oriented also known as teaching language usage.
___7. Conversations are collaborative as participants engage in a process of

negotiation of meaning.
___8. Current approaches to teaching speaking lean strongly toward message

oriented with language usage offering supporting roles.
___9. Fluency is achieved to some extent by allowing students to focus on the

elements of phonology, grammar and discourse.
___10. One of the teachers job is to provide the kind of warm and encourage
students to speak.

FINAL EXAM
Name :___________________________Year & Sec:________________
I. MULTIPLE CHOICE.
Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer.
1. It considered as the most authentic tasks, since they resemble tasks that take
place in real life situations.
a. problem solving tasks c. comparing tasks
b. ordering tasks d. ranking tasks
2. These tasks require students to discuss and define differences and similarities
between various elements.
a. comparing tasks c. problem solving tasks
b. ordering tasks d. ranking tasks
3. It means that students have to refer to their previous knowledge and agree on a
list of items/ aspects/ features which serve the task goal.
a. ranking c. listing
b. ordering d. comparing
4. It involves students' work one-on-one with others in class. On the other hand,
group tasks involve more than two students.
a. closed/open tasks c. information gap tasks
b. reasoning gap tasks d. ordering tasks
5. It carried out for the purpose of conveying or exchanging specific information;

involves relatively long stretches of interactive discourse.
a. transactional c. instructional
b. responsive d. intensive

6. It is one step beyond imitative speaking to include any speaking performance that
is designed to practice some phonological or grammatical aspect of language.
a. intensive c. responsive
b. imitative d. transactional
7. Student simply parrots back a word or phrase or possibly a sentence.
a. responsive b. intensive
b. extensive d. imitative
8. Learning to produce waves of language in a vacuum—without interlocutors—

would rob speaking skill of its richest component: the creativity of conversational
negotiation.
a. rate of delivery c. interaction
b. colloquial language d. performance variables
9. The way of speaking allows you to manifest a certain number of performance

hesitations, pauses, backtracking, and corrections.
a. interaction c. reduced forms
b. performance variables d. rate of delivery
10. Students who don’t learn colloquial contractions can sometimes develop a
stilted, bookish quality of speaking that in turn stigmatizes them.
a. redundancy c. clustering
b. rate of delivery d. reduced forms

11. This is also known as the pre-activity phase of the lesson where the teacher
a. presentation stage c. production stage
b. practice stage d. preparation stage
12. This is not to say that mistakes are unimportant, but rather that free expression
is more important, and it is a great mistake to deprive students of this
opportunity.
a. preparation stage c. production stage
b. practice stage d. presentation stage
13. One of the major obstacles learners have to overcome in learning to speak is the
anxiety generated over the risks of blurting things out that are wrong, stupid, or
incomprehensible.
a. affective factors c. interaction effect
b. accuracy and fluency d. teaching pronunciation
14. It comes in the form of teacher talk, listening activities, reading passages, and
the language heard and read outside of class.
a. message c. language input
b. feedback d. language output
15. It focuses on information, whether it is a simple weather report or an extended

lecture on an academic topic.
a. content–oriented input c. form–oriented input
b. strategic competence d. sociolinguistic competence

16. According to their taxonomy, spoken language skills are divided to routine skills
and improvisation skills.
a. Canale and Bachman c. McCarthy
b. Weir and House d. Bygate
17. It consists of three phases: assessment, planning and execution.

a. textual competence c. sociolinguistic competence
b. psycho-physiological d. strategic competence
18. It consists of speech acts and language functions.
a. illocutionary competence c organizational competence
b. textual competence d. strategic competence
19. It includes an understanding of how spoken texts are organized and is related to
the cohesion and coherence of utterances.
a. grammatical competence c. textual competence
b. strategic competence d. sociolinguistic competence
20. He distinguished among four elements in communicative competence.
a. Canale c. Swain
b. McCarthy d. Bygates

III. MATCHING TYPE.
Direction: Match the words in Column A with those descriptions in Column B.

A. B.
___1. narrative a. series of everyday anecdotes
___2. identifying b.extracts in which people talk about
themselves
___3. language-in-action c. data recorded while people are doing
things
___4. personal d. expressing personal feelings, opinions,
beliefs and ideas
___5. questioning e. asking questions to obtain information
___6. informative f. creating hypothetical deductions
___7. descriptive g. sharing information with others
___8. predictive h. expressing mental images
___9 imaginative i. describing someone or something
___10. persuasive j. changing others’ opinions, attitudes, or
point of view
k. providing directions

IV. IDENTIFICATION
Direction: Identify the following words or group of words being referred by the
following.
_______ 1. It is characterized by the use of simple linking devices such as ‘and, '
but’, 'anyway', 'right' rather than complicated ones used in written

discourse.
_______ 2. The spoken discourse contains numerous social and contextual factors
as well as pragmatic presuppositions.
_______ 3. It refers to objects and events in general terms especially when
speakers are uncertain or don’t want to sound too particular.
_______ 4. Language is used primarily for communicating information.
_______ 5. It plays an important social role in oiling the wheels of social intercourse.
_______ 6. It is the vital part of any language education classroom.
_______ 7. It is highly complex and dynamic skill.
_______ 8. It is considered as combining sounds in a systematic way, according to

language specific principles to form meaningful utterances.
_______ 9. It comes in the form of teacher talk, listening activities, reading
passages, and the language heard and read outside of class.
_______ 10. This is also known as the pre-activity phase of the lesson where the
teacher introduces something new to be learned.

V. ALTERNATE–RESPONSE:
Direction: Write TRUE, if the statement is correct and FALSE, if not.
1. Exposing students to these spoken discourse features facilitates their oral

production and helps them compensate for the problems they encounter.
2. Understanding the subtle differences between written and spoken discourse
helps in planning instruction in the light of these distinctions.
3. Forting which refers to the movement of an element from its position and its
relocation as the first element in a construction to allow a focus to fall on it.
4. Spoken language is characterized also by fixed expressions that play an
important part in enhancing fluency during listening.
5. The “communicative ability” model is developed by Van Ekon.
6. According to Bachman model, communicative competence is divided into
language competence, strategic competence and psycho physiological
mechanism.
7. Many people believe that informal everyday conversation is random.
8. According to their model of communicative competence, all competencies
interact, together and all should lead towards fluency which implies using the
previous competencies in real time without undue pauses or hesitation.
9. Learners who rely exclusively on what others say are more likely to develop a
personal manner of speaking.
10. It is believed that accuracy results from fluency, in other words the need to
communicate effectively leads to the refinement of learning and language.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
REFERENCES
Cazden, C.B., 1988. Classroom discourse: The language of teaching and learning.
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Dakowska, M., 2005. Teaching English as a Foreign Language. A Guide for

Professionals. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.
Johnson, K.E., 1995. Understanding Communication in Second Language

Classrooms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nolasco, R., Arthur, L., 1987. Conversation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Skehan, P., 1998. A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.
Thornbury, S., 2007. How to Teach Speaking. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
Ur, P., 1995. A Course in Language Teaching. Practice and Theory. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Webb, N.M., 1982. Student interaction and learning in small groups. In: Review of
Educational Research 52 (3), 421–445
https://www.professorjackrichards.com/stages-speaking-lesson/
Brown, H. Douglas. 2001. Teaching by Principles: an Interactive Approach to

Language Pedagogy. New York: Addison Wesley Longman Inc.
http://ummykhoirunisya.blogspot.com/2014/07/types-of-classroom-speaking-
performance.html

https://ijreeonline.com/article-1-38-en.pdf
https://gianfrancoconti.wordpress.com/2015/06/02/four-useful-sets-of-pre-and-post-
task-activities-that-enhance-learning/
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=pre-speaking+while-speaking+post-
speaking+activities&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiF9ufz0ZraAhULGZQKHTvgA5gQ1QIIpA
EoAg&biw=1366&bih=613
https://www.edonline.sk.ca/bbcswebdav/library/Curriculum%20Website/English%20
Language%20Arts/Resources/Core/speaking.pdf
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=stages+of+speaking+skills&sa=X&ved=0ahU
KEwiX1Jfq0ZraAhWKl5QKHccqAkIQ1QIIoAEoAQ&biw=1366&bih=662
https://www.whitbyschool.org/.../9-factors-that-influence-language-
learningfile:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/Factor_Effecting_Students_English_Speaki
ng_Skills.pdf
http://etd.aau.edu.et/handle/123456789/83899

A Holistic Approach To Teaching Speaking

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The Teaching of Speaking

These kinds of observations are not surprising, as learning to speak in another

The Teaching of Speaking Page 1

The Teaching of Speaking Page 2

The Teaching of Speaking Page 3

The Nature of Speaking

Oral communication is a two-way process between speaker and listener (or

a. Speaking is face to face:

The Teaching of Speaking Page 4

c. Speaking happens in real time:

The Teaching of Speaking Page 5

Spoken versus written discourse:

Specifically, speaking can be distinguished from writing in many areas.

� Discourse structure: the spoken discourse is characterized by: reciprocal openings

and closings, interactive negotiation of meaning and conversation structures. Besides, it

� Typical features of the speech stream (e.g. segmental and suprasegmental

� Grammatical and lexical features: As for grammar, the spoken language is

� Contractions and elliptical constructions lacking subjects or

The Teaching of Speaking Page 6

� Incomplete sentences called “utterances” (Yule, 1989: 170).

The Teaching of Speaking Page 7

Name: ______________________ Year &Sec:_______________

Direction: Encircle the Letter of the correct answer.

2. It is a two way process between speaker and listener.

3. It is characterized by reciprocal openings and closings.

The Teaching of Speaking Page 8

5. It contains numerous social and contextual factors

6. Incomplete sentences also called as?

7. It refers to the movement of element from its position.

The Teaching of Speaking Page 9

10. An interactive process of constructing meaning.

The Teaching of Speaking Page 10

Direction: Write T if the statement is correct and F if false.

1. Speech is not always unpredictable.

2. The listener has to encode the message.

3. Speaker and listener have a positive function to perform in simple terms.

4. A main feature in interaction is an unconscious part of normal conversation.

5. Speech is unplanned and spontaneous type of writing.

6. Time affect the speaker ability to plan.

7. The speaker response cannot be as complex as in writing.

8. Typical feature is characterized by reciprocal opening and closing.

9. Vague language refers to object and events in general term.

10. Utterances refer to the movement of an element from its form.

The Teaching of Speaking Page 11

The Teaching of Speaking Page 12

The Teaching of Speaking Page 13

Speaking sub- skills:

However, a fundamental issue to understand the nature of speaking is to analyze it in

The Teaching of Speaking Page 14

Communicative competence taxonomies:

The communicative competence model:

� Grammatical competence includes language rules such as vocabulary, formation of

words or sentences, and pronunciation.

� Sociolinguistic competence addresses the appropriateness in terms of both the

� Discourse Competence includes an understanding of how spoken texts are

organized and is related to the cohesion and coherence of utterances.

� Strategic Competence is compensatory in nature, drawn on when the developing

language system of the second/foreign language learner is deficient in some regard. It

Name: ________ Year &Sec:_

Name: ________ Year &Sec:_