BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

Biodiversity is the shortened form of two words "biological" and "diversity." It refers to all the
variety of life that can be found on Earth (plants, animals, fungi and micro-organisms) as well as
to the communities that they form and the habitats in which they live.

The Convention on Biological Diversity gives a formal definition of biodiversity in its article 2:
"biological diversity means the variability among living organisms from all sources including,
inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which
they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems".

Biodiversity is not only the sum of all ecosystems, species and genetic material. Rather, it
represents the variability within and among them. It can be distinguished from the expression
"biological resources", which refer to the tangible components of ecosystems. Biological
resources are real entities (a particular species of bird, a wheat variety growing in a field, oak
wood, etc.) while biological diversity is rather an attribute of life (the variety of bird species, the
genetic variability of wheat around the world, forest types, etc.).

Biological diversity is often understood at three levels:

 species diversity refers to the variety of different species (plants, animals, fungi and
micro-organisms) such as palm trees, elephants or bacteria; 

 Genetic diversity corresponds to the variety of genes contained in plants, animals, fungi
and micro-organisms. It occurs within a species as well as between species. For example,
poodles, German shepherds and golden retrievers are all dogs, but they all look different;

 Ecosystem diversity refers to all the different habitats - or places - that exist, like tropical
or temperate forests, hot and cold deserts, wetlands, rivers, mountains, coral reefs, etc.
Ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction with non living
components of their environment. Each ecosystem corresponds to a series of complex
relationships between biotic (living) components such as plants and animals and abiotic
(non-living) components which include sunlight, air, water, minerals and nutrients. These
biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy
flows.

Classification of Biodiversity

Terrestrial biodiversity: Terrestrial biodiversity is usually greater near the equator, which is the

result of the warm climate and high primary productivity. Biodiversity is not distributed evenly
on Earth, and is richest in the tropics. These tropical forest ecosystems cover less than 10 percent of
earth's surface, and contain about 90 percent of the world's species. 

Marine Biodiversity: Marine Biodiversity is usually highest along coasts in the Western Pacific,
where sea surface temperature is highest, and in the mid-latitudinal band in all oceans. There are
latitudinal gradients in species biodiversity. Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in hotspots, and
has been increasing through time, but will be likely to slow in the future.

IMPORTANCE:

Biodiversity is central to ecosystem functioning and, hence, the existence and maintenance of

ecosystems services. For example:

 insects, bats, birds, and other animals serve as pollinators;

 parasites and predators act as natural population controls;
 various organisms, such as earthworms and bacteria, are responsible for recycling organic
materials and maintaining the productivity of soils;
 legumes (such as peas, beans and hundreds of other species) fix the atmospheric nitrogen
and thus help fertilize soils;
 Wetlands serve as sponges to reduce the impacts of floods and to cleanse streams by
filtering sediments, nutrients, and contaminants from inflowing waters.

Biodiversity boosts ecosystem productivity where each species, no matter how small, all have an
important role to play. Greater species diversity ensures natural sustainability of all life forms. A
larger number of plant species means a great variety of crops because biodiversity is the origin of
all species of crops and domesticated livestock and variation within them. Today`s crop and
livestock biodiversity are the result of many thousands years of human intervention.

CAUSE OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS

Today, species and habitats are becoming extinct or disappearing at top speed. Why?  There are
five major causes for biodiversity loss.

1. Habitat loss and fragmentation is usually a direct result of human activity. It is an

important cause in the loss of species, populations, and ecosystems: when people cut
down forests, dig mines, build cities, or make roads, they destroy habitats or create
obstacles that fragment habitats. When the habitats become smaller, less food and shelter
are available. As a result, species living in these habitats compete with each other and
with humans for limited resources. Since their populations are so small, they have fewer
mates with whom to have offspring, diminishing the genetic diversity of their
populations. Smaller habitats are like islands, isolated from each other, and species have
greater difficulties migrating from one to another, as less suitable pathways are available.

2. Invasive species can disrupt entire ecosystems and have a major impact on populations
of native plants or animals. They can affect native species by eating them, infecting them,
competing with them, or mating with them. The invaders often are alien (exotic or non-
native) species which have been introduced voluntarily or involuntarily through human
activity: seeds catch on people's clothes, rats hitchhike on ships, marine species are
transported around the world through ballast water from ships and insects can be
 introduced with the international trade for food or timber. The numbers of species
introduced to areas in which they are not native are expected to increase as the scale of
international trade, transportation and tourism continues to grow.
3. Human-generated pollution and contamination (e.g. acid rain, oil spills, human waste,
and nuclear waste, over use of pesticides) can affect all levels of biodiversity.
4. Over-exploitation (over-hunting, over-fishing or over-collecting) of a species or
population can lead to its disappearance, as well as the over-exploitation of essential
resources for ecosystem functioning such as water and soil. Many of the world's natural
resources are being used by humans faster than they can replace themselves. Commercial
fish such as cod are over harvested, while species like dolphins and sea turtles often die
in fishing nets. People buy wildlife and wildlife products to use as pets, medicines,
gourmet foods or decorative objects.
5. Global climate change alters environmental conditions. As humans burn more fossil
fuels like oil and coal for energy, more carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere. Carbon
dioxide - or CO2 - acts like a greenhouse, letting sunlight and heat into the lower
atmosphere, but not letting heat back out. Other gases, including methane and nitrous
oxide, released to the atmosphere by human activities, also contribute to global warming.
As a result, average yearly temperatures on Earth have risen. Changes in the climate will
modify the ecosystems in which many species - including humans - live. Some species
and populations may be lost if they are unable to adapt to the new weather conditions or
relocate to adequate habitats while other species - such as certain diseases and pests -
may flourish and expand their ranges.
6. Population growth, coupled to current consumption and production patterns, is a strong
driver of the above-mentioned threats to biodiversity. Over 7 billion people live on Earth.
More and more resources are used for food, water, medicine, clothes, shelter and fuel.
This leaves fewer resources for the Earth's species and habitats.

STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY IN INDIA

India occupies only 2.4% of the world’s land area but its contribution to the world’s biodiversity
is approximately 8% of the total number of species, which is estimated to be 1.75 million (As per
Global Biodiversity Assessment of UNEP of 1995, described number of species so far is 1.75
million). Of these, 126 188 have been described in India. The species recorded includes
flowering plants (angiosperms), mammals, fish, birds, reptiles, and amphibians, constitute 17.3%
of the total whereas nearly 60% of India’s bio-wealth is contributed by fungi and insects. Such a
distribution is similar to that found in the tropics and the subtropics.

Biogeographically, India is situated at the trijunction of three realms namely afro tropical, Indo-
Malayan and Paleo-Arctic realms, and therefore, has characteristic elements from each of them.
This assemblage of three distinct realms probably is a fact which is believed to partly account for
its rich and unique in biological diversity. Based on the available data, India ranks tenth in the
world and fourth in Asia in plant diversity, and ranks tenth in the number of endemic species of
higher vertebrates in the world. There are 10 bio geographical zones in India. They can be
classified as under:
 Trans-Himalayas. The Himalayan ranges immediately north of the Great Himalayan
range are called the Trans- Himalayas. It is an extension of the Tibetan plateau,
harboring high-altitude cold desert in Laddakh (J&K) and Lahaul Spiti (H.P) comprising
5.7 % of the country’s landmass. The Trans-Himalayan region has the richest wild sheep
and goat community in the world. The snow leopard is found here, as is the migratory
black-necked crane. The vegetation is sparse include alpine shrubs and tundra meadows.

 Himalayas. The entire mountain chain running from north-western to northeastern India,
comprising a diverse range of biotic provinces and biomes, 7.2 % of the country’s
landmass. The Himalayas consist of the youngest and loftiest mountain chains in the
world. The Himalayas have attained a unique personality owing to their high altitude,
steep gradient and rich temperate flora. The forests are very dense with extensive growth
of grass and evergreen tall trees. Oak, chestnut, conifer, ash, pine, deodar are abundant in
Himalayas. There is no vegetation above the snowline. Several interesting animals live
in the Himalayan ranges. Chief species include wild sheep, mountain goats, ibex, shrew,
and tapir. Panda and snow leopard are also found here.

 Desert. The extremely arid area west of the Aravalli hill range, comprising 6.9% of the
country’s landmass. This region consists of parts of Rajasthan, Kutch, Delhi and parts of
Gujarat. The climate is characterized by very hot and dry summer and cold winter.
Rainfall is less than 70 cm. The plants are mostly xerophytic. Babul, Kikar, wild palm
grows in areas of moderate rainfall. Indian Bustard, a highly endangered bird is found
here. Camels, wild asses, foxes, and snakes are found in hot and arid parts of the desert.
.

 Semi-arid. Adjoining the desert are the semi-arid areas, a transitional zone between the
desert and the denser forests of the Western Ghats, comprising 15.6 % of the country’s
landmass.. The natural vegetation is thorn forest. This region is characterized by
discontinuous vegetation cover with open areas of bare soil and soil-water deficit
throughout the year. Thorny shrubs, grasses and some bamboos are present in some
regions. A few species of xerophytic herbs and some ephemeral herbs are found in this
semi-arid tract. Birds, jackals, leopards, eagles, snakes, fox, buffaloes are found in this
region.
 Western Ghats. The hill ranges and plains running along the western coastline, south of
the Tapti River, covering an extremely diverse range of biotic provinces and biomes.
5.8% of the country’s landmass. The mountains rise to average altitudes between 900
and 1500 m above sea level, intercepting monsoon winds from the southwest and creating
a rain shadow in the region to their East. The varied climate and diverse topography
create a wide array of habitats that support unique sets of plant and animal species. Apart
from biological diversity, the region boasts of high levels of cultural diversity, as many
indigenous people inhabit its forests. The Western Ghats are amongst the 25 biodiversity
hot-spots recognized globally. These hills are known for their high levels of endemism
expressed at both higher and lower taxonomic levels. Most of the Western Ghats endemic
plants are associated with evergreen forests. The region also shares several plant species
 with Sri Lanka. The higher altitude forests were, if at all, sparsely populated with tribal
people. Rice cultivation in the fertile valley proceeded gardens of early commercial crops
like areca nut and pepper. The original vegetation of the ill-drained valley bottoms with
sluggish streams in elevations below 100m would be often a special formation, the
Myristica swamp. Expansion of traditional agriculture and the spread of particularly
rubber, tea, coffee and forest tree plantations would have wiped out large pockets of
primary forests in valleys. The Western Ghats are well known for harboring 14 endemic
species of caecilians (i.e., legless amphibians) out of 15 recorded from the region so far
for example Nilgiri tahr, lion tailed macaque,

 Deccan peninsula. The largest of the zones, covering much of the southern and south
central plateau with predominantly deciduous vegetation. 4.3 % of the country’s
landmass.. The highlands of the plateau are covered with different types of forests,
which provide a large variety of forest products.the Deccan plateau includes the region
lying south of the Satpura range.it extends up to the southern tip of peninsular India.
.Anai mudi is the highest peak of this region. The Deccan plateau is surrounded by the
western and the Eastern Ghats. These ghats meet each other at the Nilgiri hills. The
Western Ghats includes the Sahyadri, Nilgiris, Anamalai, and cardamom hills. Many
rivers such as Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kavery originates from Western Ghats
and flow toward the east. The Eastern Ghats are broken into small hill ranges by river
coming from the Western Ghats. Most of these rivers fall into the Bay of Bengal. The
Godavari is the longest river in the Deccan plateau .the Narmada and the Tapi flow
westwards and fall into the Arabian Sea. The important trees found are Tectona grandis,
Boswellia serrata,Acacia catechu,Dalbergia latifolia, Albizia lebbek .This eco region
harbours several of india`s threatened vertebrates like tiger (Panthera tigris), Wild
buffaloes ( Bubalus arnea),Wild dogs ( Curn alpines), sloth bear, chosingha, gaur, Black
Buck, Chinkara.

 Gangetic plain. In the North, does the Gangetic plain extending up to the Himalayan
foothills comprise 11% of the country’s landmass. This is the largest unit of the Great
Plain of India which are relatively homogenous.. Ganga is the main river after whose
name this plain is named The Great Plains cover about 72.4m ha area with the Ganga and
the Brahmaputra forming the main drainage axes in the major portion. The thickness in
the alluvial sediments varies considerably with its maximum in the Ganga plains. The
physio geographic scenery varies greatly from arid and semi-arid landscapes of the
Rajasthan Plains to the humid and semi-humid landscapes of the Delta and Assam valley
in the east. The plain supports some of the highest population densities depending upon
purely agro-based economy in some of these areas. The decidous trees belonging to these
forests are teak, sal, shisham, mahua, khair etc. These plains are habitats of large species
of animals like Rhinoceros, Buffaloes, Elephants, Wild Pigs, Deer, Bengal tiger, Asiatic
lion, Crocodile, while important birds are Sparrows, Kingfisher, Crow, Wood peckers
 North-east India. The plains and non Himalayan hill ranges of northeastern India, with
a wide variation of vegetation. 5.2% of the country’s landmass. North-east India is one
of the richest flora regions in the country. It has several species of orchids, bamboos,
ferns and other plants. Here the wild relatives of cultivated plants such as banana,
mango, citrus and pepper can be grown. This region is the part of both `Himalaya` and
Indo Burma biodiversity hot spots and blessed with a wide range of physiographic and
eco climatic conditions. It is called as a geographical gateway for much of India `s
endemic flora and fauna. This region is considered as a home of 17 crop species which
represent 47% of crop species diversity available in the country, and also having richest
repositories of medicinal or aromatic plants. Several endemic species like Khasi hill
frog, Assam painted frog, Manipur toad, dragonfly, Khasi hill forest lizard, orange
lipped forest lizard, Sikkim false wolf snake, Manipur bush quail,pink headed duck,
mammals like assam mole shrew, Namdapha flying squirrel, Gee`s golden langur.
Common endangered species find in North east India are Red panda, Eld`s deer, Bengal
Florican and Indian Rhinoceros.

 Islands. It is a group of 325 islands: Andaman to the north and Nicobar to the south.
The two are separated by about 160 kms. by the Ten Degree Channel of the sea., with a
highly diverse set of biomes. 0.03% of the country’s landmass. The rainfall is heavy,
with both Northeast and Southwest monsoons. At present, 21 of the 325 islands in the
Andaman & Nicobar Islands are inhabited. Many unique plants and animals are found
here. About 2,200 species of higher plants are found here of which 200 are endemic. The
Andaman & Nicobar Islands have tropical evergreen forests and tropical semi evergreen
forests as well as moist deciduous forests, littoral and mangrove forests. These islands
are the rich source of plant biodiversity of medicinal plants like Alstonia macrophylla,
Morinda citrifolia used by local ethnic tribes for the treatment of various ailments. A
total of 112 endemic species of avifauna, the Andaman water monitor, giant robber crab,
4 species of turtles, wild boar, Andaman day gecko and the harmless Andaman water
snake are found only in these islands. The Narcondam hornbill found only in
Narcondam is a large forest bird with a big beak. Coral reefs are stretched over an area
of 11,000 sq.km. in the Andamans and 2,700 sq.km. in Nicobar.

 Coasts. A large coastline distributed both to the west and east, with distinct differences
between the two; Lakshadweep islands are included in this with the percent area being
negligible. India has a coastline extending over 5,500 km. The Indian coasts vary in their
characteristics and structures. The west coast is narrow except around the Gulf of
Cambay and the Gulf of Kutch. In the extreme south, however, it is somewhat wider
along the South Sahyadri. The backwaters are the characteristic features of this coast. The
east coast plains, in contrast are broader due to depositional activities of the east-flowing
rivers owing to the change in their base levels.Extensive deltas of the Godavari, Krishna
and Kaveri are the characteristic features of this coast. Mangrove vegetation is
characteristic of estuarine tracts along the coast for instance, at Ratnagiri in Maharashtra.
 Larger parts of the coastal plains are covered by fertile soils on which different crops are
grown. Rice is the main crop of these areas. Coconut trees grow all along the coast.

Apart from the biogeographic classifications described above ecosystems can also be
demarcated on the basis of purely geographical or geological features like mountains,
islands, valleys, plateaux, oceans; on the basis of vegetative cover like forests, grasslands,
mangroves and deserts; on the basis of climatic conditions like arid and semi-arid areas,
permanently snow-bound areas, high rainfall areas; on the basis of soil characteristic and
other such criteria. In some descriptions the biomes/ecosystems are clubbed together into
very general habitat classifications. The main natural habitat types are:

 Forests
 Grasslands
 Wetlands
 Mangroves
 Coral reefs
 Deserts
 GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS WITH SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON INDIAN

HOTSPOTS

INTRODUCTION

The British biologist Norman Myers coined the term "biodiversity hotspot" in 1988 as a
biogeographic region characterized both by exceptional levels of plant endemism and by serious
levels of habitat loss. In 1990 Myers added a further eight hotspots, including four
Mediterranean-type ecosystems. Conservation International (CI) adopted Myers’ hotspots as its
institutional blueprint in 1989, and in 1996, the organization made the decision to undertake a
reassessment of the hotspots concept. Three years later an extensive global review was
undertaken, which introduced quantitative thresholds for the designation of biodiversity hotspots.

According to CI, to qualify as a hotspot a region must meet two strict criteria: it must contain at
least 1,500 species of vascular plants (> 0.5% of the world’s total) as endemics, and it has to
have lost at least 70% of its original habitat. In 1999, CI identified 25 biodiversity hotspots in the
book “Hotspots: Earth’s Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions”.

Collectively, these areas held as endemics about 44% of the world’s plants and 35% of terrestrial
vertebrates in an area that formerly covered only 11.8% of the planet’s land surface. The habitat
extent of this land area had been reduced by 87.8% of its original extent, such that this wealth of
biodiversity was restricted to only 1.4% of Earth’s land surface. In 2005 CI published an updated
titled “Hotspots Revisited: Earth's Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial
Ecoregions”. 
 GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS: WORLD

AFRICA

A total of 8 Hotspots in African continent hold a diversity of plant and animal life, many of
which are found nowhere else on Earth. 

ASIA-PACIFIC

Composed of large land areas as well as islands dotting the Pacific seas, these 14 Hotspots
represent important biodiversity.

 EUROPE AND CENTRAL ASIA

From the Mediterranean Basin to the Mountains of Central Asia, these four Hotspots are unique
in their diversity.

 NORTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA

North and Central America play host to thousands of acres of important habitat.

SOUTH AMERICA

From Brazil's Cerrado to the Tropical Andes, South America has some of the richest and most
diverse life on Earth.

Life on Earth faces a crisis of historical and planetary proportions. Unsustainable consumption in
many northern countries and crushing poverty in the tropics are destroying wild nature.
Biodiversity is besieged. Extinction is the gravest aspect of the biodiversity crisis: it is
irreversible. While extinction is a natural process, human impacts have elevated the rate of
extinction by at least a thousand, possibly several thousand, times the natural rate. Mass
extinctions of this magnitude have only occurred five times in the history of our planet; the last
brought the end of the dinosaur age. In a world where conservation budgets are insufficient given
the number of species threatened with extinction, identifying conservation priorities is crucial.

The biodiversity hotspots hold especially high numbers of endemic species, yet their combined
area of remaining habitat covers only 2.3% of the Earth's land surface. Each hotspot faces
extreme threats and has already lost at least 70% of its original natural vegetation. Over 50% of
the world’s plant species and 42% of all terrestrial vertebrate species are endemic to the
35 biodiversity hotspots.

 
 World’s 35 Biodiversity Hotspots

I.      Africa III.  Europe and Central Asia

1. Cape Floristic Region 23. Caucasus

2. Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa 24. Irano-Anatolian
3. Eastern Afromontane 25. Mediterranean Basin
4. Guinean Forests of West Africa 26. Mountains of Central Asia
5. Horn of Africa
 
6. Madagascar and the Indian Ocean
Islands  
7. Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany
8. Succulent Karoo IV. North and Central America

 II.    Asia-Pacific 27. California Floristic Province

28. Caribbean Islands
9. East Melanesian Islands 29. Madrean Pine-Oak Woodlands
10. Himalaya 30. Mesoamerica
11. Indo-Burma
12. Japan  V.   South America

13. Mountains of Southwest China

31. Atlantic Forest
14. New Caledonia
32. Cerrado
15. New Zealand
33. Chilean Winter Rainfall-Valdivian
16. Philippines
Forests
17. Polynesia-Micronesia
34. Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena
18. Southwest Australia
35. Tropical Andes
19. Forests of Eastern Australia (new)
20. Sundaland
21. Wallacea
22. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
 

The map shows 34 biodiversity hotspots which cover 2.3% of the Earth's land surface, yet more

than 50% of the world’s plant species and 42% of all terrestrial vertebrate species are endemic to

these areas (Conservation International). These are the areas which are suffering biodiversity loss

and where attention is needed.

GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS: ASIA-PACIFIC

 
1. East Melanesian Islands
Once largely intact, the 1,600 East Melanesian Islands are now a hotspot due, sadly, to
accelerating levels of habitat loss.

2. Himalaya
The Himalaya Hotspot is home to the world’s highest mountains, including Mt. Everest.

3. Indo-Burma
Encompassing more than 2 million km² of tropical Asia, Indo-Burma is still revealing its
biological treasures.
4. Japan
The islands that make up the Japanese Archipelago stretch from the humid subtropics in the
south to the boreal zone in the north, resulting in a wide variety of climates and ecosystems.

5. Mountains of Southwest China

With dramatic variations in climate and topography, the Mountains of Southwest China support a
wide array of habitats including the most endemic-rich temperate flora in the world.

6. New Caledonia
An island the size of New Jersey in the South Pacific Ocean, New Caledonia is the home of no
less than five endemic plant families.

7. New Zealand
A mountainous archipelago once dominated by temperate rainforests, New Zealand harbors
extraordinary levels of endemic species. 
 
8. Philippines
More than 7,100 islands fall within the borders of the Philippines hotspot, identified as one of the
world’s biologically richest countries.

9. Polynesia-Micronesia
Comprising 4,500 islands stretched across the southern Pacific Ocean, the Polynesia-Micronesia
hotspot is the epicenter of the current global extinction crisis.

10. Southwest Australia

The forest, woodlands, shrublands, and heath of Southwest Australia are characterized by high
endemism among plants and reptiles.

11. Forests of Eastern Australia

Forests of East Australia Hotspot consists of a discontinuous coastal stretch along the Australian
states of Queensland and New South Wales, extending inland and further west, although it
includes the New England Tablelands and the Great Dividing Range. This region contains more
than 1500 endemic vascular plants.

12. Sundaland
The spectacular flora and fauna of the Sundaland Hotspot are succumbing to the explosive
growth of industrial forestry in these islands.

13. Wallacea
The flora and fauna of Wallacea are so varied that every island in this hotspot needs secure
protected areas to preserve the region’s biodiversity.

14. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka

Faced with tremendous population pressure, the forests of the Western Ghats and Sri Lanka have
been dramatically impacted by the demands for timber and agricultural land.

 
 BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS IN INDIA

1. Himalaya: Includes the entire Indian Himalayan region (and that falling in Pakistan,

Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, China and Myanmar)

2. Indo-Burma: Includes entire North-eastern India, except Assam and Andaman group of

Islands (and Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and southern China)

3. Sundalands: Includes Nicobar group of Islands (and Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore,

Brunei, Philippines)

4. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka: Includes entire Western Ghats (and Sri Lanka)

 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION METHODS

In-situ biodiversity conservation

In-situ conservation means the conservation of species within their natural habitats, this way of
conserving biodiversity is the most appropriate method for biodiversity conservation. In this
strategy you have to find out the area with high biodiversity means the area in which number of
plants and animals are present. After that this high biodiversity area should be covered in the
form of Natural Park/ sanctuary/biosphere reserve etc.   In this way biodiversity can be conserve
in their natural habitat from human activities. About 4% of the total geographical area of the
country is used for in situ conservation.There are 18 biosphere reserves, 104 National Parks and
543 wild life sanctuaries and 4 biodiversity hotspots in India.
Biosphere reserve
Biosphere reserves cover very large areas, often more than 5000 km2. They are used to protect
species for a long time. Currently, there are 18 Biosphere Reserves in India for e.g Nanda Devi
(Uttarakhand), Nokrek (Meghalaya),Manas (Assam), Sundarbans (W Bengal)
National parks
A national park is an area dedicated for the conservation of wildlife along with its environment.
It is usually a small reserve covering an area of about 100 to 500 square kilometers. Within
biosphere reserves, one or more national parks may also exist. Currently, there are 103 national
parks in India. Important among these are Kaziranga (Assam) for one horned Rhino, Gir
National Park (Gujrat) for Asiatic lions, Bandipur (Karnatka) for Tiger,Elephant, Dachigam
( J&K) for Hangul, Kanha (MP) for Tiger, Periyar( Kerala) for Tiger, elephant, Ranthambore
(Rajasthan) for Tiger.
Wildlife sanctuaries
A wildlife sanctuary is an area which is reserved for the conservation of animals only. Currently,
there are 543 wild sanctuaries in India. Among these are Hazaribagh (Jharkhand) for Tiger,
leopard, Ghana( Rajasthan) for 300 species of Birds, Sultanpur ( Haryana) for Migratory birds,
Abohar (Punjab) for Black buck, Nal Sarovar(Gujarat) for Water birds, Mudumalai (Tamil
Nadu) for Tiger, elephant, leopard, Vedanthanga (Tamil Nadu) for Water birds

Biodiversity hotspots
According to Conservation international, to qualify as a hotspot a region must meet two strict
criteria:

 it must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants (∆ 0.5% of the world's total) as
endemics,
 it has to have lost at least 70% of its original habitat.

The four biodiversity hot spots in India are The Himalayas, Western Ghats, North East and
Nicobar Islands

Gene sanctuary
A gene sanctuary is an area where plants are conserved. It includes both biosphere reserves as
well as national parks. India has set up its first gene sanctuary in the Garo Hills of Meghalaya for
wild relatives of citrus. Efforts are also being made to set up gene sanctuaries for banana,
sugarcane, rice and mango.
Community reserves
It is the type of protected area introduced in Wildlife Protection Amendment Act 2002 to provide
legal support to community or privately owned reserves which cannot be designated as national
park or wildlife sanctuary.
Sacred groves
They are tracts of forest set aside where all the trees and wildlife within are venerated and given
total protection.
Benefits
One benefit of in situ conservation is that it maintains recovering populations in the environment
where they have developed their distinctive properties. Another benefit is that this strategy helps
ensure the ongoing processes of evolution and adaptation within their environments. As a last
resort ex situ conservation may be used on some or all of the population, when in
situ conservation is too difficult, or impossible. The species gets adjusted to the natural disasters
like drought, floods, forest fires and this method is very cheap and convenient.
Reserves
Wildlife and livestock conservation is mostly based on nothing. This involves the protection of
wildlife habitats. Also, sufficiently large reserves are maintained to enable the target species to
exist in large numbers. The population size must be sufficient to enable the necessary genetic
diversity to survive within the population, so that it has a good chance of continuing
to adapt and evolve over time. This reserve size can be calculated for target species by
examining the population density in naturally occurring situations. The reserves must then be
protected from intrusion or destruction by man, and against other catastrophes.

Agriculture
In agriculture, in situ conservation techniques are an effective way to improve, maintain, and use
traditional or native varieties of agricultural crops. Such methodologies link the positive output
of scientific research with farmers' experience and field work.
First, the accessions of a variety stored at a germplasm bank and those of the same variety
multiplied by farmers are jointly tested in the producer’s field and in the laboratory, under
different situations and stresses. Thus, the scientific knowledge about the production
characteristics of the native varieties is enhanced. Later, the best tested accessions are crossed,
mixed, and multiplied under replicable situations. At last, these improved accessions are supplied
to the producers. Thus, farmers are enabled to crop improved selections of their own varieties,
instead of being lured to substitute their own varieties with commercial ones or to abandon their
crop. This technique of conservation of agricultural biodiversity is more successful in marginal
areas, where commercial varieties are not expedient, due to climate and soil fertility constraints.
Or where the taste and cooking characteristics of traditional varieties compensate for their lower
yields.
Ex-Situ conservation methods

Ex-situ conservation is the process of protecting an endangered species, variety or breed, of

plant or animal outside its natural habitat; for example, by removing part of the population from
a threatened habitat and placing it in a new location, which may be a wild area or within the care
of humans. This involves conservation of genetic resources, as well as wild and cultivated or
species, and draws on a diverse body of techniques and facilities. Agricultural biodiversity is also
conserved in ex situ collections. This is primarily in the form of gene banks where samples are
stored in order to conserve the genetic resources of major crop plants and their wild relatives.

Ex-situ Biodiversity conservation can be done as following:

1. Gene banks are a type of bio repository which preserves genetic material. For plants, this
could be by in vitro storage, freezing cuttings from the plant, or stocking the seeds (e.g. in a seed
bank). For animals, this is the freezing of sperms and eggs in zoological freezers until further
need. With corals, fragments are taken which are stored in water tanks under controlled
conditions. Plant genetic material in a 'gene bank' is preserved at -196° Celsius in Liquid
Nitrogen as mature seed (dry) or tissue (meristems). In an effort to conserve agricultural
biodiversity, gene banks are used to store and conserve the plant genetic resources of major crop
plants and their crop wild relatives. There are many gene banks all over the world, with the
Syalbard global seed bank of Norway being probably the most famous one. The database of the
largest gene banks in the world can be queried via a common website, Genesys. India's first
National Wildlife Genetic Resource Bank was inaugurated at Centre for Cellular and Molecular
Biology's (CCMB) Laboratory of Conservation of Endangered Species (LaCONES) facility in
Hyderabad, Telanagana. Aug 13, 2018

Types of Gene banks:

Seed bank A seed banks preserves dried seeds by storing them at a very low temperature. Spores
and pteridophytes are conserved in seed banks, but other seedless plants, such as tuber crops
cannot be preserved this way. The largest seed bank in world is the Millennium Seed bank at
West Sussex, near London.

Tissue bank
In this technique, buds, proto corm and meristematic cells are preserved through particular light
and temperature arrangements in a nutrient medium. This technique is used to preserve seedless
plants and plants that reproduce sexually.

Cryobank

In this technique, a seed or embryo is preserved at very low temperatures. It is usually preserved
in liquid nitrogen at -196 °C. This is helpful for the conservation of species facing extinction.
Cryo banks are utilized for the conservation of animal genetic resources.

Storage of pollen
This is a method in which pollen grains are stored. We can make plants which are facing
extinction in the present world. Using this technique, we can make plants with one set of
chromosomes. The pollen is stored in liquid nitrogen. This method is useful for crossbreeding.

Field gene bank

This is a method of planting plants for the conservation of genes. For this purpose, an ecosystem
is created artificially. Through this method one can compare the differences among plants of
different species and can study them in detail. It needs more land, adequate soil, weather, etc.
Germ plasma of important crops is conserved through this method. Approximately, 42,000
varieties of rice are conserved in the Central Rice Research Institute in Orissa.

2. Botanical gardens, zoos, and aquariums

Botanical garden is a garden dedicated to the collection, cultivation, preservation and display
of a wide range of plants labeled with their botanical names, while a zoo (also called an animal
park or menagerie) is a facility in which all animals are housed within enclosures, displayed to
the public, and in which they may also breed . Botanical gardens and zoos are the most
conventional methods of Ex-situ conservation. Also in ex- situ conservation, all of which house
whole, protected specimens for breeding and reintroduction into the wild when necessary and
possible. These facilities provide not only housing and care for specimens of endangered species,
but also have an educational value. They inform the public of the threatened status of endangered
species and of those factors which cause the threat, with the hope of creating public interest in
stopping and reversing those factors which jeopardize a species' survival in the first place. They
are the most publicly visited ex situ conservation sites, There are about 1100 organized zoos in
the world which receive more than 600 million visitors annually. Globally there are an estimated
total of 2,107 aquaria and zoos in 125 countries.

3. Captive Breeding

Captive breeding is the process of maintaining plants or animals in controlled environments,

such as wildlife reserves, zoos, botanical gardens, and other conservation facilities. It is
sometimes employed to help species that are being threatened by human activities such as habitat
loss, fragmentation, over hunting or fishing, pollution, predation, disease, and parasitism. In
some cases a captive breeding program can save a species from extinction, but for success,
breeders must consider many factors—including genetic, ecological, behavioral, and ethical
issues.

Advantages of ex situ conservation methods

 Organisms are completely protected from predation and poaching

 Health of individuals can be monitored and medical assistance given as required
 Populations can be more effectively managed and divided if disaster strikes
 Genetic diversity of the population can be measured
 Selective breeding programmes can be put into place
 Modern reproductive technology can increase the chances of reproductive success
 Animals and plants can be bred to increase their numbers if endangered
 research into reproductive physiology, lifestyle and ecology of an endangered species is
made easier
 conservation sites can be used as attractions to raise funds for further conservation efforts
 Conservation sites can be used for education

Disadvantages of ex situ conservation methods

 Captive population have limited genetic diversity

 Animals can be exposed to a wide range of different diseases
 the organisms are living outside their natural habitat
 Nutritional issues may arise
 Animals may not behave as normal making reproduction difficult
 Correct survival environmental conditions may be difficult to achieve
 Expensive to maintain
 animals may not survive reintroduction into the wild
 There can be difficulties with acceptance by the existing wild members of the species
 Biological Diversity Act, 2002
The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 is an Act of the Parliament for preservation of biological
diversity in India, and provides mechanism for equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use
of traditional biological resources and knowledge. The Act was enacted to meet the obligations
under Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD), to which India is a party.

The Act was enacted to meet the obligations under Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD), to
which India is a party in 2002.

Biodiversity and Biological resource

Biodiversity has been defined under Section 2(b) of the Act as "the variability among living
organisms from all sources and the ecological complexes of which they are part, and includes
diversity within species or between species and of ecosystems". The Act also defines Biological
resources as “plants, animals and microorganisms or parts thereof, their genetic material and by-
products (excluding value added products) with actual or potential use or value, but does not
include human genetic material

National Biodiversity Authority and State Biodiversity Boards

The National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)is a statutory autonomous body, headquartered in

Chennai, under the Ministry of Environment and Forestry, Government of India established in
2003 to implement the provisions under the Act. State Biodiversity Boards (SBB) has been
created in 29 States along with 31,574 Biological management committees (for each local body)
across India.

Functions

 Regulation of acts prohibited under the Act

 Advise the Government on conservation of biodiversity
 Advise the Government on selection of biological heritage sites
 Take appropriate steps to oppose grant of intellectual property rights in foreign countries,
arising from the use of biological resources or associated traditional knowledge.

Regulations

A foreigner, non-resident Indian as defined in clause (30) of section 2 of the income tax act,
1961 or a foreign company or body corporate need to take permission from the NBA before
obtaining any biological resources or associated knowledge from India for research, survey,
commercial utilization. Indian citizens or body corporate need to take permission from the
concerned State Biodiversity Board.

Result of research using biological resources from India cannot be transferred to a non-citizen or
a foreign company without the permission of NBA. However, no such permission is needed for
publication of the research in a journal or seminar, or in case of a collaborative research made by
institutions approved by Central Government.

No person should apply for patent or other form of intellectual property protection based on the
research arising out of biological resources without the permission of the NBA. The NBA while
granting such permission may make an order for benefit sharing or royalty based on utilization of
such protection.

Benefit sharing

Benefit sharing out of usage of biological resources can be done in following manner:

 Joint ownership of intellectual property rights 2 3 4 transfer of technology

 location of production, research development units in the area of source
 payment of monetary and non-monetary compensation
 setting up of venture capital fund for aiding the cause of benefit claimers

Penalties

If a person, violates the regulatory provisions he will be "punishable with imprisonment for a
term which may extend to five years, or with fine which may extend to ten lakh rupees and
where the damage caused exceeds ten lakh rupees such fine may commensurate with the damage
caused, or with both."

Any offence under this Act is non-bail able and cognizable.

 SOME IMPORTANT TERMS REGARDING BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the number of species is a given area or the amount of biological or living
diversity per unit area. It includes the concepts of species diversity, habitat diversity and genetic
diversity. It is necessary to preserve for future generations because our agriculture, medicines,
and own survival are dependent on a bio diverse planet.

Biodiversity documentation
Biodiversity documentation is the process of identifying/recording species of plants, fungi, etc in
a given area. It is the foundation of any conservative action. So, for proper management of
biodiversity, there is a need for documentation of biodiversity and traditional knowledge at local
level with involvement of local people. These documents are provided in the form of data base
for each and every species throughout the world and should be linked to a net work of local,
national and international levels that make the information accessible to the people. WCMC,
IUCN, WWF and UNEP are the examples of such a collection of global biodiversity.

WCMC (World conservation monitoring centre) of United Nations (UN) is an executive agency
having responsibility of biodiversity assessment and provides data and other information
regarding biodiversity to international conventions such as CBD, Convention on International
Trade in Endangered species of wild fauna and flora (CITIES). It manages the world database of
protected areas and publishes a series of world atlases on biodiversity.

IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) is an international organization working

in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. It is involved in data
gathering and analysis, research, field projects, advocacy, and education. Its aim is to promote
conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity in the region for e.g updating the red list of
endangered species. It also assists governments to develop their National biodiversity strategies
and action plans for the conservation of biological diversity and implementation of species
focused initiatives ( e.g vultures, tigers, rhinos) across the region.

WWF (World Wide Fund) for Nature is an International non government organization founded
in 1961, working in the fields of the wild life preservation, and the reduction of human impact on
the environment. Its aim is to ensure the integrity of the most outstanding natural places on
Earth, to stop deforestation, provides multimillion funds for forest conservation and to train park
officials about forest management.

UNEP (United Nation Environment Programme) is an agency that coordinates its environmental
activities and assisting developing countries in implementation of environmentally sound
policies and practices.

Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a large community of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in a
particular area. The living and physical components are linked together through nutrient cycles
and energy flows. The major types of ecosystems are forests, grasslands, and deserts, tundra,
freshwater and marine. The word “biome” may also be used to describe terrestrial ecosystems
which extend across a large geographic area, such as tundra.

Biome

A biome is a community of plants and animals that have common characteristics for the
environment they exist in. They can be found over a range of continents. Biomes are distinct
biological communities that have formed in response to a shared physical climate for e.g Tundra,
Rainforest, Savanna, Taiga, Temperate forest, Temperate grasslands ,Alpine and Chaparral.

Tropical Rainforests
A broadleaf evergreen forest found in wet and hot regions near the equator The world's
largest tropical rainforests are in South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia. Tropical
rainforests receive from 60 to 160 inches of precipitation that is fairly evenly distributed
throughout the year. Rainforests are populated with insects (like butterflies and beetles),
arachnids (like spiders and ticks), worms, reptiles (like snakes and lizards), amphibians (like
frogs and toads), birds (like parrots and toucans) and mammals (like sloths and jaguars).
Different animals live in different strata of the rainforest. Important trees include Ceiba, Rubber
tree, Cecropia Kapok and Banana tree. Tropical Rainforests of India are found in the Andaman
and Nicobar Islands, the Western Ghats, which fringe the Arabian Sea, the coastline of
peninsular India, and the greater Assam region in the north-east Small remnants of rainforest are
found in Odisha state.
.
Temperate Forests
A temperate forest is a forest found between the oceans and arctic regions in the area of space
with the widest seasonal changes, the temperate zone. They fall into one of several main types:
deciduous, coniferous, broadleaf and mixed forest and rainforest.

Temperate Grasslands
Biome characterized by deep, nutrient rich soil that supports many grass species. Temperate
grasslands are located north of the Tropic of Cancer (23.5 degrees North) and south of the Tropic
of Capricorn (23.5 degrees South). There are four types of grasslands in the world. One of them
is the plains and prairies of North America. There are the steppes in the Soviet Union and the
veld of South Africa. The last type of grasslands is the pampas of Argentina.

Desert
A desert is a barren area of landscape where little precipitation occurs and, consequently, living
conditions are hostile for plant and animal life. The lack of vegetation exposes the unprotected
surface of the ground to the processes of denudation. About one-third of the land surface of the
world is arid or semi-arid. The Sahara Desert is the largest desert in the desert biome. It covers
over 300 million square miles. The vegetation does not grow very tall so the desert biome can
only accommodate small animals, rodents, and reptiles. There are some deserts in Antarctica that
are known as cold deserts. The Thar Desert also known as the Great Indian Desert, this arid
region covers about 92,200 squares miles and is the seventh largest desert in the world. The other
deserts of India are the Deccan Thorn Scrub Forests, White Salt Desert of Kutch, and Spiti
Valley Cold Desert.
Deciduous Forests
A deciduous forest is a biome dominated by deciduous trees which lose their leaves seasonally.
The Earth has temperate deciduous forests, and tropical and subtropical deciduous forests, also
known as dry forests. Another name for these forests is broad-leaf forests because of the wide,
flat leaves on the trees. Temperate deciduous forests can be found in the eastern part of the
United States and Canada, most of Europe and parts of China and Japan. The temperate
deciduous forest is a biome that is always changing. It has four distinct seasons: winter, spring,
summer and fall. Winters are cold and summers are warm. The Eastern Highlands moist
deciduous forests is a tropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregion of east-central India. The
ecoregion covers an area of 341,100 square kilometers (131,700 sq mi), extending across
portions of Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha,
and Telangana states. Deciduous trees are giant flowering plants. They include oaks, maples,
and beeches, and they grow in many parts of the world.

Evergreen Forests
The tropical evergreen forests usually occur in areas receiving more than 200 cm of rainfall and
having a temperature of 15 to 30 degrees Celsius. They occupy about seven per cent of the
earth's land surface and habours more than half of the world's plants and animals.
These evergreen forests are found in the rainy slopes of western ghats plains of West Bengal and
Odisha and the North-eastern India. Indian Mahogany,Ashoka, Gulmohar, Curry, Peepal and
Bahyan are evergreen trees.

Mangroves
Mangroves are a group of trees and shrubs that live in the coastal intertidal zone. Mangrove
forest in Loxahatchee,Florida. There are about 80 different species of mangrove trees. All of
these trees grow in areas with low-oxygen soil, where slow-moving waters allow fine sediments
to accumulate. Mangroves protect shorelines from damaging storm and hurricane winds, waves,
and floods. Mangroves also help prevent erosion by stabilizing sediments with their tangled root
systems. They maintain water quality and clarity, filtering pollutants and trapping sediments
originating from land. The Pichavaram mangroves in Tamil Nadu is India's one of the largest
mangrove forests. The Bhitarkanika Mangroves Forest of Odisha, by the Bay of Bengal, is
India's second largest mangrove forest. Other major mangroves occur on the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands and the Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat

Savvanas

A savanna is a rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees, which can be found
between a tropical rainforest and desert biome. Not enough rain falls on a savanna to support
forests. Savannas are also known as tropical grasslands. They are mostly located near the
equator. The largest savanna is located in Africa. Nearly half of the continent of Africa is
covered with savanna grasslands. Other major savannas are located in South America, India, and
northern Australia. The African savannah, the savannah with which most people are familiar, is
home to a wide variety of animals. A short list of some of those animals includes wildebeest,
warthogs, elephants, zebras, rhinos, gazelles, hyenas, cheetahs, lions, leopards, ostrich,
moosebirds, starlings, and weavers.

Keystone species
A keystone species is a plant or animal that influences the survival of many other species in an
ecosystem and play a unique and crucial role in the way an ecosystem functions. Without
keystone species, the ecosystem would be dramatically different or cease to exist altogether.
Some keystone species, such as the wolf, are also apex predators.

Invasive species
Plants and animals that have migrated to places where they are not native. An invasive species
is an organism that causes ecological or economic harm in a new environment where it is not
native. Invasive species are capable of causing extinctions of native plants and animals, reducing
biodiversity, competing with native organisms for limited resources, and altering habitats.for e.g
African apple snail, Papaya Mealy Bug, Cotton Mealy Bug, Amazon sailfin catfish are alien
invasive species.

Endangered species

A species whose numbers are so small that the species is at risk of extinction. According to the
Red Data List of International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), there are 48 critically
endangered plant species in India (as of 5 September 2011). The Red List of 2012 was released
at the Rio+20 Earth Summit. For e.g One-Horned Rhinoceros, Nilgiri Tahr, Bengal Tigers,
Asiatic Lion, Black Buck., Lion Tailed Macaque, Snow Leopard are endangered species found in
India.

Threatened species
Threatened species are any species (including animals, plants, fungi, etc.) which are vulnerable
to endangerment in the near future. WWF-India's Threatened Species Conservation Programme
includes the following species, for e.g Sarus crane, Common leopard, Great Indian bustard,
Himalayan quail, House sparrow, Nilgiri tahr, Gharial, Asiatic lion.

Endemic species
Endemic species are plants and animals that exist only in one geographic region. Species can be
endemic to large or small areas of the earth: some are endemic to a particular continent, some to
part of a continent, and others to a single island. For e.g Asiatic Lion( Gir Forest), Sangai
Deer( Loktak Lake), Lion Tailed Macaque(Western Ghats),Kashmir Stag(Kashmir
Valley),Nilgiri Tahr(Nilgiri Hills),Pygmy Hog(Assam), Malabar Civet(Western Ghats).
 Convention on Biological Diversity

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), known informally as the Biodiversity

Convention, is a multilateral treaty. The Convention has three main goals including: the
conservation of biological diversity; the sustainable use of its components; and the fair and
equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.

In other words, its objective is to develop national strategies for the conservation and sustainable
use of biological diversity. It is often seen as the key document regarding sustainable
development. The Convention was opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro on
5 June 1992 and entered into force on 29 December 1993. CBD has two supplementary
agreements – Cartagena Protocol and Nagoya Protocol.

The Cartagena Protocol of Bio safety is an international treaty governing the movements of
living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology from one country to
another. It was adopted on 29 January 2000 as a supplementary agreement to the Convention on
Biological Diversity and entered into force on 11 September 2003.

The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of
Benefits Arising from their Utilization (ABS) to the Convention on Biological Diversity are a
supplementary agreement to the Convention on Biological Diversity. It provides a transparent
legal framework for the effective implementation of one of the three objectives of the CBD: the
fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources. The
Nagoya Protocol on ABS was adopted on 29 October 2010 in Nagoya, Japan and entered into
force on 12 October 2014, 90 days after the deposit of the fiftieth instrument of ratification. Its
objective is the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic
resources, thereby contributing to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.

Origin and scope

The notion of an international convention on bio-diversity was conceived at a United Nations

Environment Programme (UNEP) Ad Hoc Working Group of Experts on Biological Diversity in
November 1988. The subsequent year, the Ad Hoc Working Group of Technical and Legal
Experts was established for the drafting of a legal text which addressed the conservation and
sustainable use of biological diversity, as well as the sharing of benefits arising from their
utilization with sovereign states and local communities. In 1991, an intergovernmental
negotiating committee was established, tasked with finalizing the convention's text.

A Conference for the Adoption of the Agreed Text of the Convention on Biological Diversity
was held in Nairobi, Kenya, in 1992, and its conclusions were distilled in the Nairobi Final Act.
The Convention's text was opened for signature on 5 June 1992 at the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development (the Rio "Earth Summit"). By its closing date, 4
June 1993, the convention had received 168 signatures. It entered into force on 29 December
1993.
The convention recognized for the first time in international law that the conservation of
biodiversity is "a common concern of humankind" and is an integral part of the development
process. The agreement covers all ecosystems, species, and genetic resources. It links traditional
conservation efforts to the economic goal of using biological resources sustainably. It sets
principles for the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of genetic
resources, notably those destined for commercial use. It also covers the rapidly expanding field
of biotechnology through its Cartagena Protocol on Bio safety, addressing technology
development and transfer, benefit-sharing and bio safety issues. Importantly, the Convention is
legally binding; countries that join it ('Parties') are obliged to implement its provisions.

The convention reminds decision-makers that natural resources are not infinite and sets out a
philosophy of sustainable use. While past conservation efforts were aimed at protecting
particular species and habitats, the Convention recognizes that ecosystems, species and genes
must be used for the benefit of humans. However, this should be done in a way and at a rate that
does not lead to the long-term decline of biological diversity.

The convention also offers decision-makers guidance based on the precautionary principle which
demands that where there is a threat of significant reduction or loss of biological diversity, lack
of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to avoid or
minimize such a threat. The Convention acknowledges that substantial investments are required
to conserve biological diversity. It argues, however, that conservation will bring us significant
environmental, economic and social benefits in return.

The Convention on Biological Diversity of 2010 banned some forms of geo engineering.

Issues

Some of the many issues dealt with under the convention include:

 Measures the incentives for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity.
 Regulated access to genetic resources and traditional knowledge, including Prior
Informed Consent of the party providing resources.
 Sharing, in a fair and equitable way, the results of research and development and the
benefits arising from the commercial and other utilization of genetic resources with the
Contracting Party providing such resources (governments and/or local communities that
provided the traditional knowledge or biodiversity resources utilized).
 Access to and transfer of technology, including biotechnology, to the governments and/or
local communities that provided traditional knowledge and/or biodiversity resources.
 Technical and scientific cooperation.
 Coordination of a global directory of taxonomic expertise (Global Taxonomy Initiative).
 Impact assessment.
 Education and public awareness.
 Provision of financial resources.
 National reporting on efforts to implement treaty commitments
Cartagena Protocol

The Cartagena Protocol on Bio safety of the Convention, also known as the Bio safety
Protocol, was adopted in January 2000. The Bio safety Protocol seeks to protect biological
diversity from the potential risks posed by living modified organisms resulting from modern
biotechnology.

The Bio safety Protocol makes clear that products from new technologies must be based on the
precautionary principle and allow developing nations to balance public health against economic
benefits. It will for example let countries ban imports of a genetically modified organism if they
feel there is not enough scientific evidence the product is safe and requires exporters to label
shipments containing genetically modified commodities such as corn or cotton.

The required number of 50 instruments of ratification/accession/approval/acceptance by

countries was reached in May 2003. In accordance with the provisions of its Article 37, the
Protocol entered into force on 11 September 2003.

Global Strategy for Plant Conservation

In April 2002, the parties of the UN CBD adopted the recommendations of the Gran Can aria
Declaration Calling for a Global Plant Conservation Strategy, and adopted a 16-point plan
aiming to slow the rate of plant extinctions around the world by 2010.

Parties

As of 2016, the Convention has 196 parties, which includes 195 states and the European Union.
All UN member states—with the exception of the United States—have ratified the treaty. Non-
UN member states that have ratified are the Cook Islands, Niue, and the State of Palestine. The
Holy See and the states with limited recognition are non-parties. The US has signed but not
ratified the treaty, and has not announced plans to ratify it.

International bodies established

Conference of the Parties: The convention's governing body is the Conference of the Parties
(COP), consisting of all governments (and regional economic integration organizations) that
have ratified the treaty. This ultimate authority reviews progress under the Convention, identifies
new priorities, and sets work plans for members. The COP can also make amendments to the
Convention, create expert advisory bodies, review progress reports by member nations, and
collaborate with other international organizations and agreements.

The Conference of the Parties (COP) uses expertise and support from several other bodies that
are established by the Convention. In addition to committees or mechanisms established on an ad
hoc basis, the main organs are:

Secretariat: The CBD Secretariat, based in Montreal, Canada, operates under UNEP, the United
Nations Environment Programme. Its main functions are to organize meetings, draft documents,
assist member governments in the implementation of the programme of work, coordinate with
other international organizations, and collect and disseminate information.

Subsidiary Body for Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice (SBSTTA): The
SBSTTA is a committee composed of experts from member governments competent in relevant
fields. It plays a key role in making recommendations to the COP on scientific and technical
issues. The next two meetings of the SBSTTA will be 25-29 November 2019 in Montreal,
Canada (SBSTTA-23), and 18-23 May 2020 in Montreal, Canada (SBSTTA-24). The current
chair of the SBSTTA Bureau is Mr. Hesiquio Benitez Diaz of Mexico.

Subsidiary Body on Implementation (SBI): In 2014, the Conference of the Parties to the
Convention on Biological Diversity established the Subsidiary Body on Implementation (SBI) to
replace the Ad Hoc Open-ended Working Group on Review of Implementation of the
Convention. The four functions and core areas of work of SBI are: (a) review of progress in
implementation; (b) strategic actions to enhance implementation; (c) strengthening means of
implementation; and (d) operations of the convention and the Protocols. The first meeting of the
SBI was held on 2-6 May 2016 and the second meeting was held on 9-13 July 2018, both in
Montreal, Canada. The third meeting of the SBI will be held on 25-29 May 2020 in Montreal,
Canada. The Bureau of the Conference of the Parties serves as the Bureau of the SBI. The
current chair of the SBI is Ms. Charlotta Sörqvist of Sweden.

Country implementation

National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAP)

National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs) are the principal instruments for
implementing the Convention at the national level (Article 6). The Convention requires countries
to prepare a national biodiversity strategy (or equivalent instrument) and to ensure that this
strategy is mainstreamed into the planning and activities of all those sectors whose activities can
have an impact (positive and negative) on biodiversity. To date [2012-02-01], 173 Parties have
developed NBSAPs in line with Article 6."

For example, the United Kingdom, New Zealand and Tanzania have carried out elaborate
responses to conserve individual species and specific habitats. The United States of America, a
signatory who has not yet ratified the treaty, has produced one of the most thorough
implementation programs through species Recovery Programs and other mechanisms long in
place in the USA for species conservation.

Singapore has also established a detailed National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. The
National Biodiversity Centre of Singapore represents Singapore in the Convention for Biological
Diversity.

National Reports
In accordance with Article 26 of the Convention, Parties prepare national reports on the status of
implementation of the Convention.
Executive secretary

The current executive secretary is Cristiana Pașca Palmer, who took up this post on 17 March
2017. Braulio Ferreira de Souza Dias was the previous executive secretary.

Nagoya Protocol

The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of
Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity is a
supplementary agreement to the Convention on Biological Diversity. It provides a transparent
legal framework for the effective implementation of one of the three objectives of the CBD: the
fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources. The
Protocol was adopted on 29 October 2010 in Nagoya, Aichi Province, Japan, and entered into
force on 12 October 2014. Its objective is the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from
the utilization of genetic resources, thereby contributing to the conservation and sustainable use
of biodiversity.

Meetings of the parties

1994 COP 1

The first ordinary meeting of the parties to the convention took place in November and
December 1994, in Nassau, Bahamas.

1995 COP 2

The second ordinary meeting of the parties to the convention took place in November 1995, in
Jakarta, Indonesia.

1996 COP 3

The third ordinary meeting of the parties to the convention took place in November 1996, in
Buenos Aires, Argentina.

1998 COP 4

The fourth ordinary meeting of the parties to the convention took place in May 1998, in
Bratislava, Slovakia.

1999 EXCOP 1

The First Extraordinary Meeting of the Conference of the Parties took place in February 1999, in
Cartagena, Colombia.
2000 COP 5

The fifth ordinary meeting of the parties to the convention took place in May 2000, in Nairobi,
Kenya.

2002 COP 6

The sixth ordinary meeting of the parties to the convention took place in April 2002, in The
Hague, Netherlands.

2004 COP 7

The seventh ordinary meeting of the parties to the convention took place in February 2004, in
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

2006 COP 8

The eighth ordinary meeting of the parties to the convention took place in March 2006, in
Curitiba, Brazil.

2008 COP 9

The ninth ordinary meeting of the parties to the convention took place in May 2008, in Bonn,
Germany.

2010 COP 10

The tenth ordinary meeting of the parties to the convention took place in October 2010, in
Nagoya, Japan.

2012 COP 11

The Conference of the Parties (COP 11) meeting on biodiversity was held in Hyderabad, India
2012, involving old and new partners and World Wide Views on Global Warming was
discussed.

2014 COP 12

Under the theme, "Biodiversity for Sustainable Development," thousands of representatives of

governments, NGOs, indigenous peoples, scientists and the private sector gathered in
Pyeongchang, Republic of Korea in October 2014 for the 12th meeting of the Conference of the
Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (COP 12). The Parties discussed the
implementation of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 and its Biodiversity Targets,
which are to be achieved by the end of this decade. The conference gave a mid-term evaluation
to the UN Decade on Biodiversity (2011-2020) initiative, which aims to promote the
conservation and sustainable use of nature. At the end of the meeting, the meeting adopted the
"Pyeongchang Road Map," which addresses ways to achieve biodiversity conservation targets
through technology cooperation, funding and strengthening the capacity of developing countries.

2016 COP 13

The thirteenth ordinary meeting of the parties to the convention took place between 2 and 17
December 2016 in Cancun, Mexico.

2018 COP 14

The tenth ordinary meeting of the parties to the convention took place on 17 - 29 November
2018, in Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt. The 2018 UN Biodiversity Conference closed on 29
November 2018 with broad international agreement on reversing the global destruction of nature
and biodiversity loss threatening all forms of life on Earth. Governments agreed to accelerate
action to achieve the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, agreed in 2010, from now until 2020. Work to
achieve these targets will take place at the global, regional, and national and sub national levels.

Commemorative periods

The year 2010 was declared as the International Year of Biodiversity. The United Nations after
following recommendations of CBD signatories during COP 10 at Nagoya in October 2010,
declared 2011 to 2020 as the United Nations Decade on Biodiversity.