ASSIGNMENT 3

OF
ENVIRONMENTAL
STUDIES

NAME : PRIYANKA BHARTI

CLASS : BBA 6
ROLL NO . 1715938
 SHORT QUESTIONS
Q1. What do you mean by Deforestation?
So the term "deforestation" is used to describe the decline or disappearance of forest areas. It
is most often due to urbanization, the extension of agricultural land and the often illegal
exploitation of forest species.
Impacts of deforestation
 More CO2 released into the atmosphere. Forests are carbon sinks: one hectare of
trees can absorb up to 6 tons of CO2 per year.
 Soils that are eroding. Forest soil filters pollutants, facilitates water infiltration
into the soil and regulates river flows.
 Less precipitation. Trees maintain the humidity level in the atmosphere and
therefore the frequency of rainfall.
 Biodiversity that is becoming extinct. The disappearance of the forest threatens
the survival of a large number of animal species for which it is the natural
habitat.
Example
Amazonia is the first victim of deforestation. The large tropical forests of Indonesia and the
Congo Basin are among the most affected by deforestation. But the first victim of this
phenomenon remains the Amazon, which has lost 18% of its surface (twice France) since
1970. According to WWF projections, more than half of the "lung of the planet" will have
disappeared by 2030 if its exploitation continues at the current rate.

Q2. What do you mean by Rain harvesting?

Rainwater harvesting is simple process used to conserve Rainwater by collecting, storing,
conveying and purifying of Rainwater that runs off from rooftops, parks, roads, open
grounds, etc. for later use.
Advantages of Rainwater Harvesting
 Less of cost.
 Helps in reducing the water bill.
 Decreases the demand for water.
 Reduces the need for imported water.
 Promotes both water and energy conservation.
 Improves the quality and quantity of groundwater.
 Does not require a filtration system for landscape irrigation.
 This technology is relatively simple, easy to install and operate.
 It reduces soil erosion, storm water runoff, flooding, and pollution of surface water
with fertilizers, pesticides, metals and other sediments.
 It is an excellent source of water for landscape irrigation with no chemicals and
dissolved salts and fee from all minerals.

Q3. Mention different Types of Biodiversity.

Biodiversity describes the richness and variety of life on earth. It is the most complex and
important feature of our planet. Without biodiversity, life would not sustain.  It deals with
nature’s variety is biosphere. It refers to variability’s among plants, animals and
microorganism species. It includes the number of different organisms and their relative
frequencies in an ecosystem.
 Types of Biodiversity
Species diversity
Species diversity refers to the variety of different types of species found in a particular area.
It is the biodiversity at the most basic level. It includes all the species ranging from plants to
different microorganism. No two individuals of the same species are exactly similar. For
example, humans show a lot of diversity among themselves.
Genetic diversity
It refers to the variations among the genetic resources of the organisms. Every individual of a
particular species differs from each other in their genetic constitution. That is why every
human looks different from each other. Similarly, there are different varieties in the same
species of rice, wheat, maize, barley, etc.
Ecological diversity
An ecosystem is a collection of living and non-living organisms and their interaction with
each other. Ecological biodiversity refers to the variations in the plant and animal species
living together and connected by food chains and food webs. It is the diversity observed
among the different ecosystems in a region. Diversity in different ecosystems like
deserts, rainforests, mangroves, etc., includes ecological diversity

Q4. Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a community of living and non-living things that work together – it consists
of abiotic (soil, water, air) and biotic parts (flora, fauna). An ecosystem can be as large as a
desert or as small as a tree. The major parts of an ecosystem are: water, water temperature,
plants, animals, air, light and soil. They all work together. If there isn't enough light or water
or if the soil doesn't have the right nutrients, the plants will die. If the plants die, animals that
depend on them will die. If the animals that depend on the plants die, any animals that depend
on those animals will die. A healthy ecosystem has lots of species and is less likely to be
damaged by human interaction, natural disasters and climate changes. Every species has a
niche in its ecosystem that helps keep the system healthy.
Examples of ecosystems
Examples of ecosystems are: agro ecosystem, aquatic ecosystem, coral reef, desert, forest,
human ecosystem, littoral zone, marine ecosystem, prairie, rainforest, savanna, steppe, taiga,
tundra, urban ecosystem and others.

Q5. Natural Resources

These are the resources that are found in the environment and are developed without the
intervention of humans. Common examples of natural resources include air, sunlight, water,
soil, stone, plants, animals, and fossil fuels. The natural resources are naturally occurring
materials that are useful to man or could be useful under conceivable technological, economic
or social circumstances or supplies drawn from the earth supplies such as food, building and
clothing materials, fertilizers, metals, water, and geothermal power. For a long time, natural
resources were the domain of the natural sciences.
 Types of natural resources:
 Renewable: resources that are available in infinite quantity and can be used
repeatedly are called renewable resources. Example: Forest, wind, water, etc.
 Non-Renewable: resources that are limited in abundance due to their non-renewable
nature and whose availability may run out in the future are called non-renewable
resources. Examples include fossil fuels, minerals, etc.
Q6. World food Problems
The global food problem consists of the lack of food provision for the Earth’s population.
The total number of people suffering from a lack of food is over one billion people
worldwide. Lack of food and its poor quality cause a negative impact on people’s health,
labour force quality, and productivity, i.e. it prevents economic growth. This also causes
social and political tension and conflicts both in the regions suffering from food problems and
the global world.
The global food problem has the following contradictions:
 Food production in terms of output, quality and efficiency is unevenly spread over
different world regions; On the whole, in terms of scale, food production worldwide
formally meets the current world’s requirements;
 Food production is lacking in places where food shortages are felt the most;
 There is no shortage of land worldwide theoretically suitable for food production to
feed even between 14 and 33 billion people; at same time, fertile soil is being
destroyed in cultivated land and industrial areas;
 Over 1 billion people suffer from starvation and undernourishment worldwide and
approximately 1,6 billion people from overeating and obesity.
Q7. Man wild life conflicts
Human-wildlife conflict refers to the interaction between wild animals and humans, and the
resultant negative impact on people, animals, resources, and habitats. It occurs when growing
human populations overlap with established wildlife territory, creating competition for space
and resources. Conflict takes many forms including but not limited to: loss of life or injury to
humans and wild animals, depredation of livestock, and degradation of habitat. Human-
wildlife conflict is a global issue present in urban and rural landscapes alike.
Q8. India as a Mega diversity nation
India has been described as one of 12 mega-diversity countries possessing a rich means of all
living organisms when biodiversity is viewed as a whole. The greater the multidiversity of
species, greater is the contribution to biodiversity. There are 25 clearly defined areas in the
world called ‘hot spots’ which support about 50,000 endemic plant species, comprising 20
per cent of the world’s total flora. India’s defined location of ‘hot spots’ is the Western Ghats
and the Northeastern regions.
Forests, which embrace a sizeable portion of biodiversity, now comprise about 64 m. hectares
or about 19 per cent of the land area of the country, according to satellite imaging. Roughly
33 cent of this forest cover represents primary forest. Indian flora comprises about 15,000
flowering plants and bulk of our rich flora is to be found in the Northeast, Western Ghats, the
Northwest and Eastern Himalayas, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Likewise, Assam
and the Western Ghats are home to several species of mammal fauna, birds, and reptilian and
amphibian fauna.
Q9. Nuclear Hazards
Risk or danger to human health or the environment posed by radiation emanating from the
atomic nuclei of a given substance, or the possibility of an uncontrolled explosion originating
from a fusion or fission reaction of atomic nuclei. It effects due to radiation are dependent on
the level of dose, kind of radiation, duration of exposure and types of cells irradiated. Somatic
affects the function of cells and organs. It causes damages to cell membranes, mitochondria
and cell nuclei resulting in abnormal cell functions, cell division, growth and death.  Genetic
affects the future generations. Radiations can cause mutations, which are changes in genetic
makeup of cells. These effects are mainly due to the damages to DNA molecules. People
suffer from blood cancer and bone cancer if exposed to doses around 100 to 1000 roentgens.
Q10. Ozone layer Depletion
The stratosphere of the atmosphere has ozone (O3). Ozone is known to absorb the Ultraviolet
(UV) rays present in the sun’s radiation. The UV rays are believed to cause skin cancer and
mutations. Thus, the ozone protects us from the harmful effects of the UV rays. However,
hydrocarbons such as the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) destroy the ozone molecules which
deplete the ozone layer. Ozone holes have been detected in the atmosphere which permits the
UV rays to reach the earth’s surface. The harmful effects of the UV rays are visible in the
countries such as Australia and New Zealand where the rate of skin cancer is higher than the
other regions of the world.

Q11.Human Rights
Human rights are the basic rights and freedoms that belong to every person in the world, from
birth until death. They apply regardless of where you are from, what you believe or how you
choose to live your life.
They can never be taken away, although they can sometimes be restricted – for example if a
person breaks the law, or in the interests of national security. These basic rights are based on
shared values like dignity, fairness, equality, respect and independence. These values are
defined and protected by law.
In Britain our human rights are protected by the Human Rights Act 1998
Human rights are relevant to all of us, not just those who face repression or mistreatment.
They protect you in many areas of your day-to-day life, including:
 your right to have and express your own opinions
 your right to an education
 your right to a private and family life
 your right not to be mistreated or wrongly punished by the state

Q12. Forest conservation Act

An Act to provide for the conservation of forests and for matters connected therewith or
ancillary or incidental thereto. Be it enacted by Parliament in the Thirty-first Year of the
Republic of India as follows: - 1. Short title, extent and commencement- (1) This Act may be
called the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980. (2) It extends to the whole of India except the
State of Jammu and Kashmir. (3) It shall be deemed to have come into force on the 25th day
of October 1980.
Q13. Solar Energy
Solar energy, radiation from the Sun capable of producing heat, causing chemical reactions,
or generating electricity. The total amount of solar energy incident on Earth is vastly in
excess of the world’s current and anticipated energy requirements. If suitably harnessed, this
highly diffused source has the potential to satisfy all future energy needs. In the 21st century
solar energy is expected to become increasingly attractive as a renewable energy source
because of its inexhaustible supply and its nonpolluting character, in stark contrast to the
finite fossil fuels coal, petroleum, and natural gas.
Q14. Shifting cultivation
Shifting cultivation is an agricultural system in which a person uses a piece of land, only to
abandon or alter the initial use a short time later. This system often involves clearing of a
piece of land followed by several years of wood harvesting or farming until the soil loses
fertility. Once the land becomes inadequate for crop production, it is left to be reclaimed by
natural vegetation, or sometimes converted to a different long term cyclical farming practice.
This system of agriculture is often practiced at the level of an individual or family, but
sometimes may involve an entire village. An estimated population exceeds 250 million
people derive subsistence from the practice of shifting cultivation, and ecological
consequences are often deleterious.

Q15. Differentiate between Loudness and pitch of noise.

Parameter Sound Noise

It is defined as the continuous vibrations It is defined as the unpleasant sound

Definition
that travel from one medium to another that causes disturbance

Effects on Noise has a negative effect on health

Sound has a positive effect on the health
health like hearing loss, hypertension

Sound carries a positive connotation as it

Noise carries a negative connotation
Connotation is audible, distinctive, relevant and
as it is irrelevant, incompressible
definitive

 Noise is a sunset of sound.

 Noise is unwanted sound. It has a clearly negative connotation unlike sound.
 Noise is harmful to humans in many ways.
 Sound in its most natural and ordinary state is pleasant and good to hear.
 Noise has a bigger decibel mark than most ordinary sounds.

Q16. Global warming

Global Warming: Most of the solar radiation entering the earth’s atmosphere is reflected back
into the space. However some of the heat is absorbed by the gases like the carbon dioxide.
This serves to keep the earth warm much like the greenhouses. Greenhouses are glasshouses
which maintain a temperature higher than the surroundings for the plants to grow and yield
better. The other gases that contribute to this are water vapor, methane, chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) and nitrous oxide. These gases are called the greenhouse gases. While greenhouse
effect is a necessary and natural phenomenon every year the temperature is going up due to
pollution and the levels of these greenhouse gases is also going up. This is called global
warming. According to estimates, at the current rate of increase, the average global
temperature will go up by 3oC to 8oC in the next 100 years.

This will have the following effects:

 Climate of different regions
 Distribution of plants and animals
 Disturbance in agriculture and food production
Q17. Renewable energy sources
Renewable energy sources are literally found in sunlight, air, deep underground and
oceans. They are part of the planet’s physical structure, which means they are constantly
being renewed by natural means. They simply cannot run out. For instance, dams harness the
power of moving water, but they can also harm fish and wildlife. Wind turbines use the sun’s
energy to generate clean electricity, but there are environmental impacts from the
manufacturing process.
 Green and Clean: Sustainable Energy Sources
 Solar Energy
 Capturing the Wind
 Geothermal: Power from the Earth
 From Waterwheels to Hydroelectricity
 Power from the Ocean
 Other Alternative Energy Sources
 Hydrogen: High Energy/Low Pollution

Q18. Biodiversity conservation

The term biodiversity (from “biological diversity”) refers to the variety of life on Earth at all
its levels, from genes to ecosystems, and can encompass the evolutionary, ecological, and
cultural processes that sustain life. It includes not only species we consider rare, threatened,
or endangered but also every living thing from humans to organisms we know little about,
such as microbes, fungi, and invertebrates.
Conservation of biodiversity
At the Center for Biodiversity and Conservation, we include humans and human cultural
diversity as a part of biodiversity. We use the term “biocultural” to describe the dynamic,
continually evolving and interconnected nature of people and place, and the notion that social
and biological dimensions are interrelated.
Objectives and advantages of biodiversity conservation
 Conservation of biological diversity leads to conservation of essential ecological
diversity to preserve the continuity of food chains.
 The genetic diversity of plants and animals is preserved.
 It ensures the sustainable utilization of life support systems on earth.
 It provides a vast knowledge of potential use to the scientific community.
 A reservoir of wild animals and plants is preserved, thus enabling them to be
introduced, if need be, in the surrounding areas.
 Biological diversity provides immediate benefits to the society such as recreation and
tourism.
 Biodiversity conservation serves as an insurance policy for the future.

Q19. Disaster
A disaster is a sudden, calamitous event that seriously disrupts the functioning of a
community or society and causes human, material, and economic or environmental losses that
exceed the community’s or society’s ability to cope using its own resources. Though often
caused by nature, disasters can have human origins.
Natural and human-caused disasters affect thousands of people each year. Major adverse
events such as these have the potential to cause catastrophic loss of life and physical
destruction. They are often unexpected and can leave whole communities in shock.
 People who live through a disaster can experience emotional distress. Feelings of anxiety,
constant worrying, trouble sleeping, and other depression-like symptoms are common
responses to disasters before, during, and after the event. Many people are able to “bounce
back” from disasters with help from family and the community, but others may need
additional support to cope and move forward on the path of recovery. Anyone can be at risk,
including survivors living in the impacted areas and first responders and recovery workers.

Q20. Sustainable development

Sustainable development is a concept that appeared for the first time in 1987 with the
publication of the Brundtland Report, warning of the negative environmental consequences of
economic growth and globalization, which tried to find possible solutions to the problems
caused by industrialization and population. growth.
Goals of sustainable development
The Sustainable Development Goals, also known as the Global Goals, are a call from the
United Nations to all countries around the world to address the great challenges that humanity
faces and to ensure that all people have the same opportunities to live a better life without
compromising our planet.
 Eradicate poverty and hunger, guaranteeing a healthy life
 Universalize access to basic services such as water, sanitation and sustainable energy
 Support the generation of development opportunities through inclusive education
and decent work
 Foster innovation and resilient infrastructure, creating communities and cities able
to produce and consume sustainably
 Reduce inequality in the world, especially that concerning gender
 Care for the environment combating climate change and protecting the oceans and
land ecosystems
 Promote collaboration between different social agents to create an environment of
peace and sustainable development.

Q21. HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)

HIV is a virus that attacks cells that help the body fight infection, making a person more
vulnerable to other infections and diseases. It is spread by contact with certain bodily fluids
of a person with HIV, most commonly during unprotected sex (sex without a condom or HIV
medicine to prevent or treat HIV), or through sharing injection drug equipment.
If left untreated, HIV lead to the disease AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome). The human body can’t get rid of HIV and no effective HIV cure exists. So, once
you have HIV, you have it for life. However, by taking HIV medicine (called antiretroviral
therapy or ART); people with HIV can live long and healthy lives and prevent transmitting
HIV to their sexual partners. First identified in 1981, HIV is the cause of one of humanity’s
deadliest and most persistent epidemics.
Q22. Pollution
There are various types of pollution which affect our lives on daily basis. Environmental
pollution is one the most significant challenges that the world is facing in our day. Pollution
generally takes place when pollutants pollute the natural surroundings, and it can bring about
changes that affect our everyday lifestyles unfavorably. Pollution also results
in environmental degradation. Evidence suggests that since the industrial revolution,
contaminants in atmosphere have been growing day by day and resulting in severe damage to
the earth. Hazardous waste, toxic chemicals, suspended particles are affecting both humans
and animals on daily basis. Many of the toxins, chemical and plastic have found their way in
ecological food chain. Traces of such harmful substances are found in living organisms which
is a serious problem.
The effects of pollution are undoubtedly many and extensive. Extreme levels of pollution are
causing scores of harm to human health, animal health, tropical rain-forests etc. All kinds of
pollution including air, water, soil pollution, etc. have an impact on the environment.
 Air Pollution
 Water Pollution
 Land Pollution (soil pollution)
 Noise Pollution
 Radioactive/ Nuclear Pollution
 Thermal Pollution, etc
 Light pollution
 Marine Pollution/ Ocean Pollution

Q23. Afforestation
Afforestation means massive program of social forestry to meet demands to local people for
fuel, fodder, timber etc. It restores ecological balance of all ecosystems, maintain biological
diversity, and act as catchments for all soil and water, conservation, prevent floods and future
of tribal people. It shall assist in achieving 33% of land to be covered by forest in
future. Large scale afforestation is the need of the hour. It means preservation and plantation
of trees. The massive afforestation programmers help fast in growing indigenous and exotic
species for production and protection of forestry on suitable land including waste land. All
should come forward to make the plantation projects a real success. It is to be remembered
that one tree means one life and it is to be saved for our own safety. The rehabilitation of
forests and maintenance of proper forest cover and ecosystem are therefore the only left to us
for our survival.

Q24. Importance of Environmental Studies

Environmental studies are the scientific study of the environmental system and the status of
its inherent or induced changes on organisms. It includes not only the study of physical and
biological characters of the environment but also the social and cultural factors and the
impact of man on environment.
The importance’s of environmental studies are as follows:
 To clarify modern environmental concept like how to conserve biodiversity.
 To know the more sustainable way of living.
 To use natural resources more efficiently.
 To know the behavior of organism under natural conditions.
 To know the interrelationship between organisms in populations and
communities.
 To aware and educate people regarding environmental issues and problems at
local, national and international levels.
Q25. Hotspot of Biodiversity
A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeography region that is both a significant reservoir of
biodiversity and is threatened with destruction. The term biodiversity hotspot specifically
refers to 25 biologically rich areas around the world that have lost at least 70 percent of their
original habitat.
The remaining natural habitat in these biodiversity hotspots amounts to just 1.4 percent of the
land surface of the planet, yet supports nearly 60 percent of the world's plant, bird, mammal,
reptile, and amphibian species.

Q26. Soil Erosion/Pollution

Soil Pollution takes place when the existence of toxic chemicals, pollutants or impurities in
the soil is in high. Soil contamination presents a high risk to plants, wildlife, humans and
indeed, the soil itself. The surplus, escalating the use of chemicals such as pesticides,
herbicides, insecticides, and fertilizers is one of the main contributory factors.

Cause of soil pollution

 The primary cause why the soil becomes impure is on account of the presence of
human-made waste.
 Industrial activity, agricultural activities, waste disposal, accidental oil spills, acid
rain, etc. are the main reasons for soil pollution.
 Massive cutting of trees, referred to as deforestation is a major contributor of land
pollution. Soil pollution is a major problem with agricultural areas because of
extensive use of human-made waste products which are full of chemicals.
 Some of the causes are same as that of water pollution like acid rain, discharge of
untreated sewage and industrial waste.
 Additionally, throwing of garbage, especially plastic material contributes substantially
to this kind of pollution since they are non biodegradable.

Q27. Endangered species of India? Name any 2.

Endangered species, any species that is at risk of extinction because of a sudden rapid
decrease in its population or a loss of its critical habitat. Previously, any species
of plant or animal that was threatened with extinction could be called an endangered species
Example: Although the overall population of this species is increasing, it is still a vulnerable
animal highly threatened by poaching for its horns. Also known as the greater one horned
rhinoceros the animal is confined to less than ten sites with over 70% of the population in
Kaziranga National Park in Assam. Also found in Orang, Pobitara, Jaldapara and Dudhwa.
 Tigers were once found all over Asia, and from Turkey to Russia but over the last 100 years
93 percent of their range has been lost and half of the world population of tigers now resides
in India. According to the last estimate there are 1706 tigers in India and if you wish to
come face to face with the regal animal, here are the best places to find them – Madhya
Pradesh, in the heart of Central India, has well known Tiger parks of Pench, Kanha and
Bandavgarh and have high densities of Tigers. Corbett National Park, in Northern India, in
the foothills of the Himalayas, is another beautiful lush park that harbours both tigers and
wild elephants, which you have a good chance of seeing, besides a host of other species and
some of the best birdlife in India. You want to try and get into the Dhikala range to ensure
you get away from most ‘corporate tourism’ that is now booming here. Ranthambhore
National Park, the closest park to Delhi in the desert state of Rajasthan, is probably India’s
most famous park.

Q28. Solid waste management

Q29. What is solid waste management?
Solid-waste management, is the collecting, treating, and disposing of solid material that is
discarded because it has served its purpose or is no longer useful. Improper disposal of
municipal solid waste can create unsanitary conditions, and these conditions in turn can lead
to pollution of the environment and to outbreaks of vector-borne disease—that is, diseases
spread by rodents and insects. The tasks of solid-waste management present complex
technical challenges. They also pose a wide variety of administrative, economic, and social
problems that must be managed and solved.
Q30. What is acid rain?
Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning that it
has elevated levels of hydrogen ions. It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals
and infrastructure. Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide,
which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids. Some governments
have made efforts since the 1970 to reduce the release of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide
into the atmosphere with positive results. Nitrogen oxides can also be produced naturally
by lightning strikes, and sulfur dioxide is produced by volcanic eruptions. Acid rain has been
shown to have adverse impacts on forests, freshwaters and soils, killing insect and aquatic
life-forms, causing paint to peel, corrosion of steel structures such as bridges,
and weathering of stone buildings and statues as well as having impacts on human health.

It has the following adverse effects:

 Causes respiratory and skin disorders.
 Affects productivity of plants by damaging the leaves.
 Enters the soil and affects pH and other conditions.
 Enter the ground and river which causes harm to the aquatic life.
 Causes damage to marble and thus damages buildings and monuments like the Taj
Mahal

Q31. What is meant by Food Web?

Many interconnected food chains make up a food web. When you look at the larger picture, a
food web shows a realistic representation of the energy flow through different organisms in an
ecosystem.
Sometimes, a single organism gets eaten by many predators or it eats many other organisms.
This is when a food chain doesn’t represent the energy flow in a proper manner because there
are many trophic levels that interconnect. This is where a food web comes into place. It shows
the interactions between different organisms in an ecosystem.
The following diagram shows the energy flow between various organisms through a food web.
Q32. Give two causes of Marine pollution.
The marine environment becomes polluted and contaminated through various sources and
forms. Major sources of marine pollution are the inflow of chemicals, solid waste, discharge
of radioactive elements, industrial and agricultural effluents, man-made sedimentation, oil
spills, and many such factors. The majority portion of the marine pollution comes from the
land that contributes to 80 percent of the marine pollution, air pollution also carries pesticides
from farms and dust into the marine waters. Air and land pollution is a major contributor to
the growing marine pollution that is not only hampering the aquatic ecology but also
affecting the life on land. The non-point sources like wind-blown debris, agricultural runoff,
and dust become the major source of pollution. Apart from these, factors like land runoff,
direct discharge, atmospheric pollution, pollution caused by ships, and deep sea mining of
natural resources contribute heavily.
Q33. Give advantages of a dam.
 Once a dam is constructed, electricity can be produced at a constant rate.
 If electricity is not needed, the sluice gates can be shut, stopping electricity
generation. The water can be saved for use another time when electricity demand is
high.
 Dams are designed to last many decades and so can contribute to the generation of
electricity for many years / decades.
 The lake that forms behind the dam can be used for water sports and leisure / pleasure
activities. Often large dams become tourist attractions in their own right.
 The lake's water can be used for irrigation purposes.
 The buildup of water in the lake means that energy can be stored until needed, when
the water is released to produce electricity.
 When in use, electricity produced by dam systems do not produce green house gases.
They do not pollute the atmosphere.
Q34. What is population explosion?
Population explosion refers to the rapid and dramatic rise in world population that has
occurred over the last few hundred years. Between 1959 and 2000, the world’s population
increased from 2.5 billion to 6.1 billion people. According to United Nations projections, the
world population will be between 7.9 billion and 10.9 billion by 2050.
The Causes of Rapid Population Growth:
Until recently, birth rates and death rates were about the same, keeping the population stable.
People had many children, but a large number of them died before age of five.
During the Industrial Revolution, a period of history in Europe and North America where
there were great advances in science and technology, the success in reducing death rates was
attributable to several factors:
 increases in food production and distribution,
 Improvement in public health (water and sanitation), and
 Medical technology (vaccines and antibiotics), along with gains in education and
standards of living within many developing nations.

Q35. What is consumerism?

In common use, consumerism refers to a tendency of people living in a capitalist economy to
engage in a lifestyle of excessive materialism that revolves around reflexive, wasteful, or
conspicuous overconsumption. In this sense, consumerism is widely understood to contribute
to the destruction of traditional values and ways of life, exploitation of consumers by big
business, environmental degradation, and negative psychological effects. Early uses of the
 term in the mid-20th century were intended to have a positive connotation, which would
emphasize the benefits that capitalism had to offer consumers in improving standards of
living and an economic policy that would prioritize the interests of consumers, but these
meanings have fallen out of general use.
 Consumerism is the theory that states people consuming goods and services in large
quantities will be better off.
 Some economists believe that consumer spending leads to an increase in production
and economic growth.
 However, consumerism has been widely criticized for its economic, social,
environmental, and psychological consequences.

Q36. Give two reasons of ozone depletion.

Ozone depletion is primarily caused by human activities. The main effect of ozone depletion
is an increase in UV-B rays reaching the earth's surface.
Causes:
Chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs), halons, and other compounds deplete the ozone layer. These
chemicals are found in cleaning agents, aerosols, insulating foam, and refrigerants. CFCs and
halons break down into chlorine and bromine which in turn destroy the ozone layer.

Q37. Define Environment.

Environment is the sum total of conditions that surrounds us at a given point of time and
space. It is comprised of the interacting systems of physical, biological and cultural elements
which are interlinked both individually and collectively. Environment is the sum total of
conditions in which an organism has to survive or maintain its life process. It influences the
growth and development of living forms.
In other words environment refers to those surroundings that surrounds living beings from all
sides and affect their lives in toto. It consists of atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and
biosphere. It’s chief components are soil, water, air, organisms and solar energy. It has
provided us all the resources for leading a comfortable life.
 According to P. Gisbert “Environment is anything immediately surrounding an object
and exerting a direct influence on it.”
 According to E. J. Ross “Environment is an external force which influences us.”
Q38. Water logging.
The water logging may be defined as rendering the soil unproductive and infertile due to
excessive moisture and creation of anaerobic conditions. The phenomenon of water logging
can be best understood with the help of a hydrologic equation, which states that
Inflow = Outflow -I- Storage
Here inflow represents that amount of water which enters the subsoil in various processes. It
includes seepage from the canals, infiltration of rainwater, percolation from irrigated fields
and subsoil flow. Thus although it is loss or us, it represents the amount of water flowing into
the soil.
The term outflow represents mainly evaporation from soil, transpiration from plants and
underground drainage of the tract. The term storage represents the change in the groundwater
reservoir.

Q39. List the causes of displacement of people.

In 2011, more than a million people were displaced across borders from southern Somalia,
forced to flee the combined effects of severe drought and prolonged conflict in the country. 
This year, many thousands of Nigerian refugees, having already fled violent attacks in the
northeast of the country, are at risk of further displacement due to flooding in neighbouring
Niger.  Across Africa, increased competition for diminishing resources has led to conflict
between pastoralist communities, forced to travel beyond traditional grazing lands in search
of food and water.
In legal and policy circles it is sometimes seen as desirable to distinguish between those
displaced by ‘human’ causes, such as conflict and violence, and those displaced by ‘natural’
causes, such as environmental hazards and disasters.  As the above examples illustrate,
however, the reality of displacement is often far more complex.  This is particularly true in
Africa, where displacement, both internal and cross-border, is frequently the combined result
of pressures such drought, flooding, conflict, weak governance and poverty.  This ‘multi-
causality’ of displacement has been emphasised throughout the Nansen Initiative’s
consultative process on disaster-related displacement and is reflected in the very definition of
a ‘disaster’, which depends on the combined result of natural hazards, existing vulnerabilities
and the response capacities of governments.

Q40. What is the full form of AIDS? Give its main cause.
AIDS is the most advanced stage of HIV infection. Once HIV infection develops into AIDS,
infections and cancer pose a greater risk. Without treatment, HIV infection is likely to
develop into AIDS as the immune system gradually wears down. In the United States,
the main causes of this transfer of fluids are:
 Anal or vaginal intercourse with a person who has HIV while not using a condom or
PrEP, a preventive HIV medication for people at high risk of infection
 Sharing equipment for injectable
 Illicit drugs, hormones, and steroids with a person who has HIV
A woman living with HIV who is pregnant or has recently given birth might transfer the
disease to her child during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding.
The risk of HIV transmitting through blood transfusions is extremely low in countries that
have effective screening procedures in place for blood donations.
People transmit HIV in bodily fluids, including:
 blood
  semen
 vaginal secretions
 anal fluids
 breast milk

Q41. What do you mean by value education?

This means that values education can take place at home, as well as in schools, colleges,
universities, offender institutions and voluntary youth organizations. There are two main
approaches to values education. Some see it as inculcating or transmitting a set of values
which often come from societal or religious rules or cultural ethics.
Others see it as a type of Socratic dialogue where people are gradually brought to their own
realization of what is good behavior for themselves and their community. Value education
also leads to success. It has values of hard work, how nobody is useless and loving studies.
 Explicit values education is associated with those different pedagogies, methods or
programmes that teachers or educators use in order to create learning experiences for
students when it comes to value questions.
 Implicit values education on the other hand covers those aspects of the educational
experience resulting in value influence learning, which can be related to the concept
of hidden curriculum. This discussion on implicit and explicit raises the philosophical
problem of whether or not an unintentional action can be called education.
Objectives of Value Education:
 To improve the integral growth of human begins.
 To create attitudes and improvement towards sustainable lifestyle.
 To increase awareness about our national history our cultural heritage, constitutional
rights, national integration, community development and environment.
 To create and develop awareness about the values and their significance and role.
 To know about various living and non-living organisms and their interaction with
environment.

Q42. Thermo cline

As the depth of water increases, temperatures decrease, but there is a distinct layer in which
temperatures drop much more quickly with increasing depth than they do in the layers of
water above or below it, which is known as a thermo cline. Thermo clines may vary
depending on seasons, tides, currents, latitude and water movement as a result of wind, tides
and currents.

Q43. Red Data Book

The Red Data Book contains the complete list of threatened species. The main aim behind
this documentation is to provide complete information for research and analysis of different
species. The Red Data Book contains color-coded information sheets, which are arranged
according to the extinction risk of many species and subspecies.
 Black represents species which are confirmed to be extinct.
 Red represents species that are endangered
 Amber for those species whose status is considered to be vulnerable
 White is assigned for species that are rare
 Green for species that were formerly endangered, but their numbers have started
to recover
 Grey colored for the species that are classified as vulnerable, endangered, or rare
but sufficient information is not available to be properly classified.
 Furthermore, The Red Data Book also has information as to why a species has become
extinct along with the population trends and the extent of its range (distribution).
Advantages of the Red Data Book
 It helps in identifying all animals, birds and other species about their conservation
status.
 It is used to evaluate the population of a particular species.
 The data available in this book can be used to evaluate the taxa at the global level.
 With the help of this book, we can estimate the risk of taxa becoming globally extinct.
 Provides a framework or guidelines for implementing protective measures for
endangered species.
Disadvantages of the Red Data Book
 The information available in the Red Data Book is incomplete. Many species, both
extinct and extant are not updated in this book.
 The source of the book’s data has been speculated and has been mired in controversy.
 This book maintains the complete record of all animals, plants, other species but it has
no information about the microbes.

Q44. Differentiate between Sound & Noise.

Parameter Sound Noise

It is defined as the continuous vibrations It is defined as the unpleasant sound

Definition
that travel from one medium to another that causes disturbance

Effects on Noise has a negative effect on health

Sound has a positive effect on the health
health like hearing loss, hypertension

Sound carries a positive connotation as it

Noise carries a negative connotation
Connotation is audible, distinctive, relevant and
as it is irrelevant, incompressible
definitive

 Noise is a sunset of sound.

 Noise is unwanted sound. It has a clearly negative connotation unlike sound.
 Noise is harmful to humans in many ways.
 Sound in its most natural and ordinary state is pleasant and good to hear.
 Noise has a bigger decibel mark than most ordinary sounds.


Q45. What is In-situ conservation?

In-situ (‘on site’, ‘in place’) conservation is a set of conservation techniques involving the
designation, management and monitoring of biodiversity in the same area where it is
encountered. The in-situ concept is best understood in contrast to ex-situ conservation. Ex-
situ (‘off site’) conservation techniques are implemented away from the conservation target's
natural habitat. While the identification of ex-situ initiatives leaves little room for ambiguity
(e.g. zoos, seed banks, captive breeding), the notion of in-situ conservation covers a broad
spectrum of situations ranging from the establishment of a protected area to the design of a
sustainable management strategy for a particular habitat.
Q46. What are stationary and mobile sources of air pollution? Give examples.
 Mobile source air pollution
It includes any air pollution emitted by motor vehicles, airplanes, locomotives, and
other engines and equipment that can be moved from one location to another. Many of these
pollutants contribute to environmental degradation and have negative effects on human
health.
Stationary sources of air pollution
It including factories, refineries, boilers, and power plants, emit a variety of air
pollutants. The Clean Air Act directs EPA to control these emissions by developing and
implementing standards and guidelines.

Q47. Name four man-made ecosystems.

These are the artificial ecosystems which rely on the human efforts to sustain. The inputs are
provided by the human efforts. The man made ecosystems include the villages, towns, cities,
rivers, orchids, dams, gardens, lakes and agriculture. There is a difficulty in procuring food.
As the human beings discovered fire they also used to domesticate animals and invented an
artificial ecosystem for them. The areas where they raised crops are known as the agro
ecosystem. This system was temporary in nature and was formed by cutting down the forests.
The land was cultivated for some years and was then left out. In the recent times they have
become permanent in nature and it is impossible for them to survive alone. The feeding of
domestic animals occurs on the pasture land. The pasture land is also known as the pastoral
land. The crop lands and pastoral lands are the essential grasslands. 

Q48. Give two ecological symptoms of unsustainable development.

Unsustainable development occurs when present progress is at the expense of future
generations. For example, irresponsible planning and environmental degradation through
exploitation of resources generates waste and pollution that damages ecosystems. Such
practices are not sustainable in the long term.
Many cities and commuter towns around the world face pressures such as waste
management, transportation, urban sprawl, fresh air supply, clean water supply and access to
green areas. This may mean that the long term sustainability of the town or city is at risk.
Commuting is an example. While Dublin is a small city, it still faces some of the symptoms
of an unsustainable city. Since the economy began to grow in the 1990s, much of the
infrastructure around Dublin came under pressure. This created an unsustainable level of
commuting from satellite towns in Louth, Meath, Kildare, Wicklow and even further afield.
Long distance commuting by car is regarded as unsustainable because of energy
consumption, traffic congestion and deterioration in the quality of life for those concerned.

Q49. Name a few devices to harness solar energy

Solar panels and solar-powered devices were simply too expensive for the amount of power
they generated. But over the past decade, solar technology has improved very rapidly,
becoming more efficient and less expensive.
For a few hundred dollars, you can use solar power to light your home, cook your food,
charge your devices, heat up your water, and more.
Solar power is completely renewable, it’s everywhere (at least during the day), and most
importantly, it works. In this article, we will cover nine different products that harness solar
energy and don’t require any electricity whatsoever. While these products can certainly be
used in a survival situation or for general outdoor use such as camping and hiking, they can
also be used in your everyday life as well.
Few devices to harness solar energy
  Mini Portable Solar Oven
 Solar Lantern
 Solar Powered LED Sensor Light
 Hybrid Solar Powered Flashlight
 Solar Backpack

Q50. Give two adverse environmental impacts of modern agriculture.

Meaning of Modern agriculture
Modern agriculture is an evolving approach to agricultural innovations and farming practices
that help farmers increase efficiency and reduce the number of natural resources like water,
land, and energy necessary to meet the world’s food, fuel, and fiber needs. The agribusiness,
intensive farming, organic farming, and sustainable agriculture are other names of modern
agriculture.

Impact of Modern Agriculture on the Environment

The impacts of modern agriculture on Environment are discussed below:
1. Soil Erosion
The top fertile soil of the farmland is removed due to the excessive water supply. This leads
to the loss of nutrient rich soil that hampered the productivity. It also causes the global
warming because the silt of water bodies induces the release of soil carbon from the
particulate organic material.
2. Contamination of ground water
The ground water is one of the important sources of water for irrigation. From agricultural
fields nitrogenous fertilizers leach into the soil and finally contaminate groundwater. When
the nitrate level of groundwater exceeds 25 mg/l, they can cause a serious health hazard
known as “Blue Baby Syndrome”, which affects mostly infants even leading to their death.

Q51. What is vermicomposting? Give its two advantages.

Vermicomposting is the process by which worms are used to convert organic materials
(usually wastes) into a humus-like material known as vermin-compost. The goal is to process
the material as quickly and efficiently as possible.
Advantages of Vermicomposting
 Organic wastes can be broken down and fragmented rapidly by earthworms, resulting in a
stable nontoxic material with good structure, which has a potentially high economic value
and also act as soil conditioner for plant growth.
 Vermicompost supplies a suitable mineral balance, improves nutrient availability and could
act as complex-fertilizer granules.
 Vermicomposting involves great reduction in populations of pathogenic microorganisms,
thus not differing from composting from this point of view.
 Vermicomposting also leads to decrease the environmental problems arising from their
disposal, without needing in many cases to complete the process.
 It should be realized that vermicomposting can be a useful cottage industry for the
underprivileged and the economically weak as it can provide them with a supplementary
income.
  If every village can formulate a cooperative society of unemployed youth/women group, it
could be a wise venture for them to produce vermicompost and sell it back to the village at a
recommended price. The youth will not only earn money, but also aid society by providing
excellent quality organic manure for sustainable agro-practices.

Q52. Name two major national environment related movements.

Meaning of Environmental Movement
An environmental movement can be defined as a social or political movement, for the
conservation of environment or for the improvement of the state of the environment. The
terms ‘green movement’ or ‘conservation movement’ are alternatively used to denote the
same.
Bishnoi Movement

Year: 1700s
Place: Khejarli, Marwar region, Rajasthan state.
Leaders: Amrita Devi along with Bishnoi villagers in Khejarli and surrounding villages.
Aim: Save sacred trees from being cut down by the king’s soldiers for a new palace.
What was it all about: Amrita Devi, a female villager could not bear to witness the
destruction of both her faith and the village’s sacred trees. She hugged the trees and
encouraged others to do the same. 363 Bishnoi villagers were killed in this movement. The
Bishnoi tree martyrs were influenced by the teachings of Guru Maharaj Jambaji, who
founded the Bishnoi faith in 1485 and set forth principles forbidding harm to trees and
animals. The king who came to know about these events rushed to the village and apologized,
ordering the soldiers to cease logging operations. Soon afterwards, the maharajah designated
the Bishnoi state as a protected area, forbidding harm to trees and animals. This legislation
still exists today in the region.

Chipko Movement
 Year: 1973
Place: In Chamoli district and later at Tehri-Garhwal district of Uttarakhand.
Leaders: Sundarlal Bahuguna, Gaura Devi, Sudesha Devi, Bachni Devi, Chandi Prasad
Bhatt, Govind Singh Rawat, Dhoom Singh Negi, Shamsher Singh Bisht and Ghanasyam
Raturi.
Aim: The main objective was to protect the trees on the Himalayan slopes from the axes of
contractors of the forest.
What was it all about: Mr. Bahuguna enlightened the villagers by conveying the importance
of trees in the environment which checks the erosion of soil, cause rains and provides pure
air. The women of Advani village of Tehri-Garhwal tied the sacred thread around trunks of
trees and they hugged the trees, hence it was called ‘Chipko Movement’ or ‘hug the tree
movement’. The main demand of the people in these protests was that the benefits of the
forests (especially the right to fodder) should go to local people. The Chipko movement
gathered momentum in 1978 when the women faced police firings and other tortures. The
then state Chief Minister, Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna set up a committee to look into the
matter, which eventually ruled in favor of the villagers. This became a turning point in the
history of eco-development struggles in the region and around the world.

Q53. Name three common diseases of children that affect child welfare
program.
Childhood disease and disorder, any illness, impairment, or abnormal condition that affects
primarily infants and children—i.e., those in the age span that begins with the fetus and
extends through adolescence. Childhood is a period typified by change, both in the child and
in the immediate environment. Changes in the child related to growth and development are so
striking that it is almost as if the child were a series of distinct yet related individuals passing
through infancy, childhood, and adolescence. Changes in the environment occur as the
surroundings and contacts of a totally dependent infant become those of a progressively more
independent child and adolescent. Health and disease during the period from conception to
adolescence must be understood against this backdrop of changes.
Although, for the most part, the diseases of childhood are similar to those of the adult, there
are several important differences. For example, certain specific disorders, such as precocious
puberty, are unique to children; others, such as acute nephritis—inflammation of the kidney
 —are common in children and infrequent in adults. At the same time, some diseases that are
common in adults are infrequent in children. These include
essential hypertension (high blood pressure of unknown cause) and gout. Finally, a major
segment of pediatric care concerns the treatment and prevention of congenital anomalies,
both functional and structural.
Apart from variations in disease due to differences between children and adults, certain other
The major environmental hazards that endanger the health of young children are either
unavoidable, as in air pollution, or accidental, as in poisoning and in traffic injuries. Older
children, especially adolescents, are exposed, as are adults, to environmental hazards that
they deliberately seek, such as cigarette smoking and the use of alcohol and other drugs.

Long Questions
Q1. Name various greenhouse gases and how they lead to enhanced global
 warming? Discuss the possible/projected ill effects of global warming.
Greenhouse gases are a hot topic when it comes to global warming. These gases absorb heat
energy emitted from Earth’s surface and reradiate it back to the ground. In this way, they
contribute to the greenhouse effect, which keeps the planet from losing all of its heat from the
surface at night. Human activities especially fossil-fuel combustion since the Industrial
Revolution are responsible for steady increases in the concentration of greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere. The five most significant gases are presented here.

1) Water vapor
Water vapor is the most potent of the greenhouse gases in Earth’s atmosphere, and it’s sort of
a unique player among the greenhouse gases. The amount of water vapor in the atmosphere
cannot, in general, be directly modified by human behavior it’s set by air temperatures. The
warmer the surface, the greater the evaporation rate of water from the surface. As a result,
increased evaporation leads to a greater concentration of water vapor in the lower atmosphere
capable of absorbing infrared radiation and emitting it downward.
2) Carbon dioxide
Of the greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most prominent. Sources of
atmospheric CO2 include volcanoes, the combustion and decay of organic matter, respiration
by aerobic (oxygen-using) organisms, and the burning of fossil fuels, clearing of land, and
production of cement by humans. These sources are balanced, on average, by a set of
physical, chemical, or biological processes, called "sinks," that tend to remove CO2 from the
atmosphere. Plant life, which takes up CO2 during the process of photosynthesis, is an
important natural sink. In the oceans, marine life can absorb dissolved CO 2, and some marine
organisms even use CO2 to build skeletons and other structures made of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3).
3) Methane
Methane (CH4) is the second most important greenhouse gas. It is more potent than CO 2, but
exists in far lower concentrations in the atmosphere. CH 4 also hangs around in the
atmosphere for a shorter time than CO2—the residence time for CH4 is roughly 10 years,
compared with hundreds of years for CO2. Natural sources of methane include many
wetlands, methane-oxidizing bacteria that feed on organic material consumed by termites,
volcanoes, seepage vents of the seafloor in regions rich with organic sediment, and methane
 hydrates trapped along the continental shelves of the oceans and in polar permafrost. The
primary natural sink for methane is the atmosphere itself; another natural sink is soil, where
Methane is oxidized by bacteria.

Greenhouse Gases Effect on Global Warming

The 'greenhouse effect' is the warming of climate those results when the atmosphere traps
heat radiating from Earth toward space. Certain gases in the atmosphere resemble glass in a
greenhouse, allowing sunlight to pass into the 'greenhouse,' but blocking Earth's heat from
escaping into space. The gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect include water vapor,
carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, nitrous oxides, and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
On Earth, human activities are changing the natural greenhouse. Over the last century the
burning of fossil fuels like coal and oil has increased the concentration of atmospheric CO 2.
This happens because the coal or oil burning process combines carbon (C) with oxygen (O2)
in the air to make CO2. To a lesser extent, the clearing of land for agriculture, industry, and
other human activities have increased the concentrations of other greenhouse gases like
methane (CH4), and further increased (CO2).
The consequences of changing the natural atmospheric greenhouse are
difficult to predict, but certain effects seem likely:
 On average, Earth will become warmer. Some regions may welcome warmer temperatures,
but others may not.
 Warmer conditions will probably lead to more evaporation and precipitation overall, but
individual regions will vary, some becoming wetter and others dryer.
 A stronger greenhouse effect will probably warm the oceans and partially melt glaciers and
other ice, increasing sea level. Ocean water also will expand if it warms, contributing to
further sea level rise.
 Meanwhile, some crops and other plants may respond favorably to increased atmospheric
CO2, growing more vigorously and using water more efficiently. At the same time, higher
temperatures and shifting climate patterns may change the areas where crops grow best and
affect the makeup of natural plant communities.

Q2. How do primary air pollutants differ from secondary air pollutants? Give
examples. Discuss the important strategies commonly used to control
 air pollution from an industry.
Air pollution is defined as the contamination of the atmosphere by substances present at
concentrations above their natural levels and capable of producing adverse effects to humans,
other living organisms, and the ecosystem in general. These substances or air pollutants
include gases, liquid droplets, and solid particles. They are classified according to the source
of emission into two main groups: primary and secondary pollutants.
 

Primary Pollutant
A primary pollutant is an air pollutant emitted from a source directly into the atmosphere.
The source can be either a natural process such as sandstorms and volcanic eruptions or
anthropogenic (influenced by humans) such as industrial and vehicle emissions.
Examples of primary pollutants are sulfure dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen
oxides (NOX), and particulate matter (PM).

1) Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

Sulfur dioxide is an invisible gas with a strong odor. Its main sources are anthropogenic,
resulting from the combustion of fuels and the processing of mineral ores containing sulfur.
Humans and animals exposed to sulfur dioxide display severe respiratory problems. Sulfur
dioxide can interact with water in the atmosphere to form harmful acid rain.
2) Carbon monoxide (CO)
Carbon monoxide is an odorless gas emitted by the incomplete combustion of fuel. The main
sources for atmospheric carbon monoxide are gasoline or diesel-powered engines and
biomass burning (forest fires and biomass fuels). Carbon monoxide is very toxic and is linked
to an increased risk of heart disease. Exposure to high levels of CO may lead to
unconsciousness or even death.
3) Nitrogen oxides (NOX)
Fossil fuel combustion (gasoline and diesel engines) is the main source for nitrogen oxides in
urban areas, while microbial activity in the soil and agricultural practices such as the use of
synthetic fertilizers are its main sources in rural areas. Exposure to nitric oxides may cause an
inflammation of the respiratory tracts.
4) Particulate matter (PM)
Particulate matter is a term referring to solid particles and liquid droplets found in the
atmospheric air. Primary particles may be natural, originating from soil dust and sea spray.
They can be industrial and transportation-related as well when their sources are metallurgical
processes or exhausts and tire breaks. 
 Secondary Pollutant
A secondary pollutant is an air pollutant formed in the atmosphere as a result of the chemical
or the physical interactions between the primary pollutants themselves or between the
primary pollutants and other atmospheric components. Major examples of secondary
pollutants are photochemical oxidants and secondary particulate matter.

1) Photochemical oxidants
Photochemical oxidants result from the photochemical reactions involving sunlight with
nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, or volatile organic compounds. They include acids, nitrogen
dioxide, sulfur trioxide, and ozone. Ozone is considered a highly dangerous air pollutant.
Exposure to ozone can cause many lung diseases such as asthma, emphysema, and bronchitis.
Repeated and long exposures to ozone may even permanently scar the lung tissue.
2) Secondary particulate matter
Secondary particles are the result of the condensation of gases, the chemical reactions
involving primary particles with gases, and the coagulation of various primary particles. The
main primary pollutants involved in the formation of secondary particulate matter are sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
 
Difference between Primary Pollutants and Secondary Pollutants
A primary pollutant is an air pollutant emitted from a source directly into the atmosphere.
A secondary pollutant is an air pollutant formed in the atmosphere as a result of the chemical
or the physical interactions between the primary pollutants themselves or between the
primary pollutants and other atmospheric components
Examples of primary vs. secondary pollutants
Examples of primary pollutants include sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO),
nitrogen oxides (NOX), and particulate matter (PM).
Examples of secondary pollutants include photochemical oxidants (ozone, nitrogen dioxide,
sulfur trioxide) and secondary particulate matter.
Pollution effect
Primary pollutants are considered chemical reactants, being involved in the chemical
reactions that result in the formation of secondary pollutants. Therefore, their pollution effect
can either be direct like the impact of sulfur dioxide on the human respiratory system or
indirect when sulfur dioxide interacts with water in the atmosphere to form acid rain, with
serious consequences on the ecosystem. On the other hand, secondary pollutants are chemical
products inferring that they might be more stable and inert with a limited polluting effect.
While this might be true to some extent, it is not the case of ozone where photoactivation is
involved, making the chemical process highly reactive.
 Pollution control
The atmospheric concentration of primary pollutants can be controlled in a direct way
through the reduction of anthropogenic emissions.
On the contrary, controlling the secondary pollutants is a much more complicated process:
the chemical reactions involved in their formation must be understood and interrupted.

Primary pollutants versus secondary pollutants

Q3. What is “Sustainable Water Management”? Discuss the advantages

&disadvantages of exploiting ground water resources?
 Ground water is a mineral that occurs in the subsurface within sediments, rocks, desertic
sand, ice & snow. It gets replenished It gets from meteoric precipitation. Ground water is
most widely distributed precious resource of the Earth. Among the natural water resources,
ground water forms an invisible component of the system.

OBJECTIVE OF GROUND WATER EXPLORATION

Usually the ground water exploration projects pass through the phase of regional surveys,
leading to detailed surveys and ultimately resulting in the exploitation of ground water by
means of bore holes, wells.
The main objective of these surveys is to study and understand the hydrological cycle of the
region, to have an overall concept about the type, nature & number of aquifers, the quality of
ground water.

STAGES OF GROUND WATER EXPLORATION

 1st stage - integrated hydrogeological & geophysical investigation.
 2nd stage - Drilling.
 3rd stage - well design, construction & development.

GROUND WATER EXPLOITATION

The proper exploitation of ground water resources involves apart from the location of suitable
source, the construction of properly designed wells. The design and the execution of water supply
systems and their maintenance is an integral part of the scheme of exploration and management.
Numerous problems of ground water exploration & exploitation require systematic use of scientific
techniques.

Q4. Name different types of forests present on the earth? Discuss the salient
Features of tropical rain forests. What are the ecological services rendered
by forests?
A natural woodland area making it a suitable place for the survival of biotic and abiotic
components, is usually termed as a forest ecosystem. A forest ecosystem consists of various
plants, animals, and other micro-organisms, making it a natural habitat for them. 
The forest ecosystem plays an essential role in the environment. It helps to balance the
climate of the planet. One of the major roles that forests play is that it provides us oxygen to
breathe. Trees help to maintain the balance of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Besides this,
forests also help to prevent soil erosion, rainfall, purifying the air, etc.
Types of forests are classified differently from one and another depending upon the species
developed with the age of forests, soil found in those forests, the density of trees and history
of the geological region. So forests are divided into following main types:
 Tropical forest and Sub tropical forest
 Plantations
 Boreal Forest
 Temperate forest
 Seasonal or monsoon forest
Tropical Forest and Subtropical Forests
Tropical and subtropical forests, also known as rain forests or tropical rain forests, are lavish
and ample forests with broad leafed trees. They are mostly found at lowlands near the
equator. These forests are evergreen forests and remain the same throughout the year. These
forests form a dense and thick upper layer of foliage (canopy). Tropical forests are of
vegetation type, and are home to more than half of the species of animals and plants dwelling
on the earth.
Plantations
Plantations can also be classified as a type of forest. Plantations are actually a large farm,
piece of land or estate that is used for cultivation. Plantations are usually adopted in tropical
and subtropical regions. In these farms and lands cultivation of different crops is done on a
large scale for international or distant markets rather than for local or domestic consumption.
These crops include rubber seeds, oil seeds, sugar cane, cotton, tobacco, coffee and sisal.
Plantations done for industrial purpose is called forestry. It is it done to get larger amount of
wood in a shorter span of time.
Boreal Forest
Boreal forests are also known by name Taiga. The word ‘Boreal’ means northern, these
forests are occupying about 17% of the land. This type of forest can be easily found on
latitude 50 to 60. Temperature in these forests is usually low, as the canopy allows very low
sunlight to penetrate.
Low penetration of light along with low temperature is responsible for limited under story.
Soil of these forests is poor- nutrient and thin. Trees like pine, spruce and fir are most likely
to be found in these forests which are cold-tolerant and evergreen in nature.
A number of animal species also found in these forests which includes bears, bats,
woodpecker, hawks deer, fox and many other that could tolerate low temperature.
Temperate Forests
Temperate forests can be found on both hemispheres on latitude approximately 25 to 50 in
regions of northeastern Asia, North America, western and central Europe and can be
categorized as deciduous as well as evergreen.
The interesting thing about these forests is that they have all four seasons; summers, spring,
winter and fall. Soil of these forests is fertile and enriched.
 Trees of these forests can be categorized as broad leafed trees including those which change
their foliage every year like oak, maple, beech, hemlock, cotton wood, elm and many more of
same kind. Animal species found in these forests are birds, rabbits, squirrels, wolf, black
bear, mountain lion and bob cat.

Monsoon or Seasonal Forest

These forests are also known as dry forests. These forests go through two extreme seasons;
the season of heavy rainfall and a long season of complete dryness. Forests of this type can be
found in Southeast Asia, West and East Africa, eastern Brazil and northern Australia.
Trees of these forests include woody vines, orchid and many others like; lianas and
herbaceous epiphyte, thick bamboos and tall teak trees. These forests are highly threatened in
West Africa (over 90% of forests have been cleaned) and all round the world by cultivation.
Characteristics of the tropical forest
Because of the lack of seasonal differences, due to the geographical location of the forests,
and the high humidity level the vegetation is luxuriant here. The recurring features of
rainforests are basically the following:
 high animal and vegetal biodiversity
 evergreen trees
 dark and sparse undergrowth interspersed with clearings
 scanty litter (organic matter settling on the ground)
 presence of “strangler” creepers (e.g. Ficus spp.)
 presence of “buttresses” (i.e. large winged ribs at the base of trunks) and spindly roots
in trees living in often-flooded areas.

ECOLOGICAL SERVICES RENDERED BY FORESTS

The notion of ecosystem services implies the benefits that humans derive from the
functioning of ecosystems. It was popularized in the Milennium Ecosystem Assessment
reports and is increasingly used in management programmes/planning,
Ecosystem services are generally divided into four main categories. These are:
Provisioning services
These are products obtained from ecosystems. As far as forests are concerned, they provide
both timber and non timber products including fruits, game, water, etc.
Regulating services
These are benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes. They include erosion
control, maintenance of water quality, air purification, carbon sequestration, pollination, etc.,
as far as forests are concerned.
Supporting services
These are services that are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services. In
this regard, forests provide the best conditions for nutrient and water cycling, primary
production and facilitate soil formation.
Cultural services
These are the non-material benefits obtained from ecosystems. Forests provide spiritual or
religious enrichment as witnessed by the presence of sacred forests in some regions, sites for
recreation and tourism, platform for science and research, etc
Q5. Define ecological succession. How does primary succession differ from
 secondary succession? Discuss the process of primary succession on a bare
rock.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Ecosystems are not static things. Wetlands and grasslands, patches of forests, and even whole
landscapes (which may contain several ecosystems) constantly evolve in response to
changing temperatures, moisture levels, light availability, rates of nutrient inflow and
outflow, and activities of plants, animals, and other forms of life.
Ecological succession is the process by which the structure of a biological
community changes over time. In most ecosystems, if succession is allowed to continue
without a major disturbance (such as a flood or a wildfire), the ecosystem structure will be
composed of a mix of plants and animals that maximizes the “goods” (such as moisture and
nutrients) the environment can provide. When the biological community in a given
environment becomes relatively stable, ecologists call that assemblage of living things a
climax community.

Difference between primary succession and secondary succession

PRIMARY SUCCESSION
 Primary succession is the process in which plants and animals first colonize a barren habitat.
On a newly created volcanic island, for example, after the rock cools, seeds blown by
the wind may lodge in crevices. There they can germinate and take root. Often these first
colonizing plants are weedy species, such as fast-growing grasses, that do not grow tall but
do reproduce quickly. After these plants germinate and grow, they die and decompose, and
their remains create pockets of soil from which other plants as well as fungi can grow. Over
time, as vegetation covers more and more of the island, seeds from other plants arrive
(possibly transported by birds that begin to use the island as a stopover during migration). As
the plant community develops, hardier, taller-growing species begin to shade out the first
colonizers and eventually dominate. More plants and animals arrive (the latter rafting over on
flotsam or flying from nearby islands or the mainland), and the ecosystem changes with each
new arrival.
SECONDARY SUCCESSION
 Secondary succession differs from primary succession in that it begins after a major
disturbance—such as a devastating flood, wildfire, landslide, lava flow, or human activity
(farming, road or building construction, or the like)—wipes away part of a landscape. The
stages of secondary succession are similar to those of primary succession: insects and weedy
plants (frequently from surrounding ecosystems) are often the first to recolonize the disturbed
area, and these species are replaced by hardier plants and animals as time goes on. If this
landscape remains undisturbed for a long enough time, the evolving biological community
can once again attain a stable ecological structure.
Although wildfires and other disturbances can certainly bring ruin to a landscape, the soil
often retains a bank of seeds that can sprout shortly after the effects of the disturbance pass,
so ecosystems within the landscape can recover through secondary succession. Sometimes,
however, catastrophic disturbances, such as massive volcanic eruptions or advancing glaciers,
effectively eliminate all of the biological activity in a landscape. In these cases, any seeds that
survive the disturbance are covered with large amounts of ash, rock, or ice, which isolates
them from the landscape’s future development. Consequently, the landscape can return to life
only though primary succession.
 THE PROCESS OF PRIMARY SUCCESSION ON A BARE ROCK.

Step One
Bare rock, no organisms - Glacier leaves behind bare rock; Volcano produces bare rock with
no organisms.

Step Two
Pioneer species begins breaking down rock. Pioneer species: 1st organism to live in an area.
Pioneer species, usually lichens, grows on rock. Lichens secrete acids that begin breaking
rock into small particles, which mix with lichen remains to begin making soil.

Step Three
More complex plants, usually mosses, begin growing when soil is deep enough, after many
years; eventually replace (succeed) lichens. Tiny organisms such as insects move in, add their
remains to soil.

Step Four
Larger, more complex plants: As soil gets thicker ferns succeed mosses. Grasses and
wildflowers may succeed ferns. When enough soil has developed, shrubs and small trees
move into the area.

Step Five
Forests: Soil may be deep enough after hundreds or thousands of years for
 pine or hardwood forests.

Q6. What do ecological (Eltonian) pyramids represent in a community? Along

 with suitable diagrams, discuss the pyramid of number, pyramid of biomass
& pyramid of energy in any ecosystem.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
The pyramidal representation of trophic levels of different organisms based on
their ecological position (producer to final consumer) is called as an ecological pyramid. The
pyramid consists of a number of horizontal bars depicting specific trophic levels. The length
of each bar represents the total number of individuals or biomass or energy at each trophic
level in an ecosystem. The food producer forms the base of the pyramid and the top
carnivore forms the tip. Other consumer trophic levels are in between.
The ecological pyramids are of three categories:
1) PYRAMID OF NUMBERS
Pyramid of numbers represents the total number of individuals of different
species (population) at each trophic level. Depending upon the size, the pyramid of
numbers may not always be upright, and may even be completely inverted.

It is very difficult to count all the organisms, in a pyramid of numbers and so the pyramid of
number does not completely define the trophic structure for an ecosystem.

In this pyramid, the number of individuals is decreased from lower level to higher trophic
level. This type of pyramid can be seen in the grassland ecosystem and pond ecosystem.
The grasses occupy the lowest trophic level (base) because of their abundance. The next
higher trophic level is primary consumer – herbivores like a grasshopper. The individual
number of grasshoppers is less than that of grass. The next energy level is a primary
carnivore like rats. The number of rats is less than grasshoppers, because, they feed on
grasshoppers. The next higher trophic level is secondary carnivore like snakes. They feed on
rats. The next higher trophic level is the top carnivore like Hawk. With each higher trophic
level, the number of individual decreases.
 In this pyramid, the number of individuals is increased from lower level to higher trophic
level. E.g. Tree ecosystem.

2) Pyramid of Biomass
Pyramid of biomass is usually determined by collecting all organisms occupying each trophic
level separately and measuring their dry weight. This overcomes the size difference problem
because all kinds of organisms at a trophic level are weighed. Each trophic level has a certain
mass of living material at a particular time called the standing crop. The standing crop is
measured as the mass of living organisms (biomass) or the number in a unit area.
 PYRAMID OF BIOMASS – UPRIGHT
 For most ecosystems on land, the pyramid of biomass has a large base of primary producers
with a smaller trophic level perched on top.
 The biomass of producers (autotrophs) is at the maximum. The biomass of next trophic level
i.e. primary consumers is less than the producers. The biomass of next higher trophic level
i.e. secondary consumers is less than the primary consumers. The top, high trophic level has
very less amount of biomass.

PYRAMID OF BIOMASS – INVERTED

 In contrast, in many aquatic ecosystems, the pyramid of biomass may assume an inverted

form. (In contrast, a pyramid of numbers for the aquatic ecosystem is upright)
 This is because the producers are tiny phytoplankton that grows and reproduces rapidly.
 Here, the pyramid of biomass has a small base, with the consumer biomass at any instant
exceeding the producer biomass and the pyramid assumes an inverted shape.

3) Pyramid of Energy
 To compare the functional roles of the trophic levels in an ecosystem, an energy pyramid
is most suitable.
 An energy pyramid represents the amount of energy at each trophic level and loss of energy
at each transfer to another trophic level. Hence the pyramid is always upward, with a large
energy base at the bottom.
 Suppose an ecosystem receives 1000 calories of light energy in a given day. Most of the
energy is not absorbed; some is reflected to space; of the energy absorbed only a small
portion is utilized by green plants, out of which the plant uses up some for respiration and of
the 1000 calories; therefore only 100 calories are stored as energy-rich materials.
 Now suppose an animal, say a deer, eats the plant containing 100 calories of food energy.
The deer use some of it for its metabolism and stores only 10 calories as food energy. A lion
that eats the deer gets an even smaller amount of energy. Thus, usable energy decreases from
sunlight to producer to herbivore to carnivore. Therefore, the energy pyramid will always be
upright.
 Energy pyramid concept helps to explain the phenomenon of biological magnification – the
tendency for toxic substances to increase in concentration progressively with higher trophic
levels.
ECOLOGICAL EFFICIENCY

 Ecological efficiency describes the efficiency with which energy is transferred from one

trophic level to the next.
 The number of trophic levels in the grazing food chain is restricted as the transfer of energy
follows 10 per cent law – only 10 per cent of the energy is transferred to each trophic level
from the lower trophic level.
 The decreases at each subsequent trophic level is due to two reasons:
 At each trophic, a part of the available energy is lost in respiration or used up in metabolism.
 A part of the energy is lost at each transformation.

Limitations of Ecological Pyramids

 It does not consider the same species belonging to two or more trophic levels.
 It assumes a simple food chain, something that seldom exists in nature; it does not
accommodate a food web.
 Moreover, saprophytes (plant, fungus, or microorganism that lives on decaying matter) are
not given any place in ecological pyramids even though they play a vital role in the
ecosystem.
-12billion before the
year 2050,
indicating that the
effect of human
stressors upon
biodiversity will
likely continue to
increase and that in
the coming half
century we are
likely to witness
accelerated
ecological changes
and the erosion of
important biodiversity
goods and services.
The sharp contrast
between the
declining supply of
the Earth’s
services and the
rising demand from
a growing human
population indicates
that such
services will
increasingly fall short,
thus exacerbating
hunger and poverty;
unfortunately,
reversing ongoing
deleterious trends in
human welfare and
biodiversity remains
challenging despite
international
initiatives such as
the Millennium
Development. The
goal of this paper
then is to further
describe the
complex
relationships among
human
Population growth,
environmental
degradation, and
poverty, and its
potential feedback's
with climate change.
The review begins
with a discussion of
several theories on
the
relation between
population growth,
environmental
degradation, the
impact on human
well-being, and its
impact on climate
change. Poverty is
then discussed in
more detail as
both a contributing
factor to and
consequence of
population growth
and environmental
change.
-12billion before the
year 2050,
indicating that the
effect of human
stressors upon
biodiversity will
likely continue to
increase and that in
the coming half
century we are
likely to witness
accelerated
ecological changes
and the erosion of
important biodiversity
goods and services.
The sharp contrast
between the
declining supply of
the Earth’s
services and the
rising demand from
a growing human
population indicates
that such
services will
increasingly fall short,
thus exacerbating
hunger and poverty;
unfortunately,
reversing ongoing
deleterious trends in
human welfare and
biodiversity remains
challenging despite
international
initiatives such as
the Millennium
Development. The
goal of this paper
then is to further
describe the
complex
relationships among
human
Population growth,
environmental
degradation, and
poverty, and its
potential feedback's
with climate change.
The review begins
with a discussion of
several theories on
the
relation between
population growth,
environmental
degradation, the
impact on human
well-being, and its
impact on climate
change. Poverty is
then discussed in
more detail as
both a contributing
factor to and
consequence of
population growth
and environmental
change.
Introduction:
The world’s
population of nearly
one billion in 1800
has grown to
approximately 6.9
billion today, and
population
projections suggest
that the world
population will fall
somewhere between
7.5 and 10.5 billion
by 2050, depending
on changes in
national level
fertility and mortality
rates. All of the
world’s net
population growth
over the coming 40
years will occur in
cities in less
developed countries
[2].
At the same time
the ecosystems that
support people’s
livelihoods and well-
being are
being rapidly
degraded. The
recently completed
Millennium
Ecosystem
Assessment
examined 24 critical
ecosystem services
upon which humans
depend for their well-
being
and found that 60%
were being degraded
or used
unsustainably. The
impacts of degraded
ecosystem services
are being
disproportionately
borne by the poor,
are a principal factor
contributing to
poverty, and are a
barrier to achieving
the Millennium
Development
Goals set by the
United Nations [2].
Population growth is
identified as one of
the key indirect
drivers of the
degradation of
these ecosystem
services. Population
growth itself,
however, remains
an insufficient
explanation of the
relationship between
population,
ecosystems, and
poverty. Increases in
human population
size have dynamic,
non-linear impacts
on the environment,
with
feedbacks,
thresholds, and
synergies amplifying
risk and speeding
environmental
degradation beyond
the rate of population
growth.
Two of the greatest
concerns of our
generation are to
improve human
welfare and to
prevent the ongoing
loss of biodiversity.
More than one
billion people live in
extreme
poverty and hunger,
and ecosystems are
losing species at
rates only seen in
previous mass
extinction events.
Unfortunately,
overcoming these
problems remains
difficult, and if
anything, Progress
appears to be leaning
in undesirable
directions. Because of
a plethora
of human related
stressors which
affect 83% of the
world’s land surface
biodiversity
remains in a
downward trend, with
an increasing
number of species
being threatened by
extinction. In turn,
the world’s human
population has
reached 7 billion and
could grow to
Abstract
Online International
Interdisciplinary Research
Journal, {Bi-Monthly}, ISSN
2249-9598, Volume-VI, Jan 2016
Special Issue

www.oiirj.org
ISSN 2249-959
8
Page
55
9-12billion before
the year 2050,
indicating that the
effect of human
stressors upon
biodiversity will
likely continue to
increase and that in
the coming half
century we are
likely to witness
accelerated
ecological changes
and the erosion of
important biodiversity
goods and services.
The sharp contrast
between the
declining supply of
the Earth’s
services and the
rising demand from
a growing human
population indicates
that such
services will
increasingly fall short,
thus exacerbating
hunger and poverty;
unfortunately,
reversing ongoing
deleterious trends in
human welfare and
biodiversity remains
challenging despite
international
initiatives such as
the Millennium
Development. The
goal of this paper
then is to further
describe the
complex
relationships among
human
Population growth,
environmental
degradation, and
poverty, and its
potential feedback's
with climate change.
The review begins
with a discussion of
several theories on
the
relation between
population growth,
environmental
degradation, the
impact on human
well-being, and its
impact on climate
change. Poverty is
then discussed in
more detail as
both a contributing
factor to and
consequence of
population growth
and environmental
change.
2. Effects of various
factors of human
populations on
Environment.
It has been seen
that different factors
plays a vital role of
human populations
on
Environment. It is
mandatory to study
the each factor and
related effects for in
depth
understanding the
effects and which
may help to
overcome the
hazardous effects.
2.1. Population
Growth and Its
Variation:
The issue of
overpopulation is
fading in importance
throughout most
endeavors and
sectors of society.
For example,
overpopulation,
despite being
directly or indirectly
linked to the
Deterioration of
ecological system
and a key factor for
the success of
conserving species
and ecosystems has
been rarely
considered and in
fact “Trivialized or
ignored” by much
of the conservation
biology community
(For example, it is
often
argued that
increasing
greenhouse gas
emissions are caused
by combination of
excessive
consumption and
increasing population.
In fact, projections on
human population
suggest
that the net
production of
greenhouse gases
could be equivalent
between developed
and
developing countries
due to the large
consumption of the
former and the large
population
growth of the later.
Yet the most
authoritative report
on climate change
makes little to no
Reference to the
issue of population
growth or family
planning, or any
related matter.
Similarly, one could
argue that food
security will depend
not only on our
capability to
produce more food
button how much
food our population
will continue to
demand; yet
some of the most
seminal recent
reports on food
security lacked any
reference to the role
of or need to
address population
growth in ensuring
current and future
food security .
Finally,
overpopulation is
known to affect key
aspects of human
welfare (reviewed in
Window of
opportunity for
tackling
overpopulation:
Welfare, However,
the topics of
overpopulation and
family planning are
rarely considered by
leaders in different
endeavors as
mitigation solutions
to improve the
health of
impoverished people,
and
population growth is
“marginalized” in
key recent reports
about improving
human
welfare. It is very
likely that population
growth as a missing
scientific agenda
accounts in
part for the reduced
public knowledge
and interest in this
issue. Meffe
introduced the
concept of “missing
awareness” to
explain a current
lack of
understanding of
the
magnitude of our
population even
among portions of
our society with
higher education.
In the United States,
public opinion on
population growth as
a pressing problem
declined
from 68% in 1992 to
8% in 2000 and does
not appear in recent
opinion polls Despite
the
Online International
Interdisciplinary Research
Journal, {Bi-Monthly}, ISSN
2249-9598, Volume-VI, Jan 2016
Special Issue

www.oiirj.org
ISSN 2249-959
8
Page
56
significance of the
recent milestone
that our global
population reached
seven billion
people, the press
coverage faded
quickly, particularly
when compared to
more trivial
news at the time
(e.g., the possible
love affairs of Herman
Cain, which lasted for
weeks).
Unfortunately, the
limited public
consideration of the
issue translates into
limited policy
action. As an
example, the share of
international funding
on family planning
has dropped
to 5% in 2007 from
55% in 1995. This
collision between lack
of interest in the
topic of
population growth
(by scientists and
the public) and the
declining support for
family
planning programs
and addressing
population growth
among developed
countries
generates a
worrisome situation
for the spontaneous
stabilization of the
world’s human
population.
Although the
relevance of
population growth
can vary by
country, especially
among
developed and
developing countries,
interest in the topic
should be a global
concern as
even developed
countries appear to
be reversing their
negative population
birth rates and
because interest in
the topic among
developed countries
greatly determines
the success of
education and family
planning programs in
developing nations.
However, this is not
to say that
overpopulation is
solely restricted to
developing
countries. As an
example, former
presidential
candidate Mitt
Romney, age 66,
recently
released a family
photograph of him
with 20 of his 22
grandchildren If
every child
choose to have the
same number of
children their
parents and
grandparents did, by
the
time that Mitt
Romney is in his
90s, he could
potentially be taking
a photograph with
~97great-
grandchildren, which
added to the 22
grandchildren and the
5 children adds to
~124 people from
two parents. Several
other candidates in
the last U.S. election
have 5 to
7 children.
Population and
Explosion:-
• It can lead to
depletion of
resources
• Severe
competition for food
and space
• Increase in
psychological stress
and strain
• Rapid pollution of
environment
• Large scale
unemployment
• forests are cut,
oceans are exploited
and the entire natural
equilibrium gets
disturbed
• A growth human
population first
faces the problem
of food, shelter and
socioeconomic
problems
• It is the very great
and continuing
increase in human
population in modern
times
2.2.Impact of climate
changes:
The recent
temperature record
shows that our
climate has warmed
and that weather
extremes are
becoming more
frequent and
catastrophic, leading
to costly damage of
infrastructure and
loss of human life. If
one accepts the
overwhelming body
of evidence
linking ongoing
climate change to
burning fossil fuels
and agricultural
practices, then one
can safely argue that
climate change is a
by-product of
supplying human
demands; thus,
overpopulation is a
key component of
projections in carbon
emissions. It is often
argued
that climate change
could be alleviated
by reducing our
carbon footprint
through less
consumption and
better technology.
However, the
unsustainability of
ongoing growth in
human population
can overwhelm those
efforts; thus,
definitive solutions
will require not
only smaller
footprints, but fewer
feet. For instance, if
a given individual
were to
implement an
extensive list of
actions known to
reduce greenhouse
gas emissions that
www.oiirj.org
ISSN 2249
reduction would still
be about 40times
smaller than the
emissions generated
if this person
were
carbon
lifetime emissions
.Achieving
difficult even
human welfare and
expected increases in
energy consumption.
of climate change on
environment such as
temperature which
ultimately leads to
warming. The various
impact
flooding etc. have
their strong impacts.

Fig. (a
environment.
2.3
The understanding
of population,
poverty,
demonstrated that
of population
feedbacks a
degradation
multiple feedbacks
growth impacts on
the
poverty affects
environmental
degradation
affects poverty. The
importance of this
feedback cycle and
its contribution to
climate
change will
Human
contribution to C02
emissions [2].
Online International
Interdisciplinary

www.oiirj.org
ISSN 2249
reduction would still
be about 40times
smaller than the
emissions generated
if this person
were
to have
carbon
dioxide to
lifetime emissions
.Achieving
difficult even
human welfare and
expected increases in
energy consumption.
of climate change on
environment such as
temperature which
ultimately leads to
warming. The various
impact
flooding etc. have
their strong impacts.
Fig. (a
) Effects of climate
change on due to
exponential growth of
human populations
on
environment.
2.3
.
Effects of
The understanding
of population,
poverty,
demonstrated that
of population
feedbacks a
t
degradation
lead to
multiple feedbacks
growth impacts on
the
poverty affects
environmental
degradation
affects poverty. The
importance of this
feedback cycle and
its contribution to
climate
change will
Human
modification of
contribution to C02
emissions [2].
Online International
Interdisciplinary
www.oiirj.org
ISSN 2249
reduction would still
be about 40times
smaller than the
emissions generated
if this person
two children. In the
dioxide to
the carbon legacy
of an average
parent, which is 5.7
times his/ her
lifetime emissions
.Achieving
difficult even
under modest
human welfare and
expected increases in
energy consumption.
of climate change on
environment such as
temperature which
ultimately leads to
warming. The various
impact
flooding etc. have
their strong impacts.
) Effects of climate
change on due to
exponential growth of
human populations
on
environment.
Effects of
POPULATION
POVERTY
RELATIONSHIP:
The understanding
of population,
poverty,
demonstrated that
the framework
of population
, poverty, and
environment
t
the household
lead to
a downward spiral
for poor households.
The VCM concept of
multiple feedbacks
is useful
growth impacts on
the
environment, but
also how population
growth affects
poverty,
poverty affects
population growth
environmental
degradation
affects poverty. The
importance of this
feedback cycle and
its contribution to
climate
be examined
modification of
land cover accounts
for
contribution to C02
emissions [2].
Online International
Interdisciplinary
Research Journal, {Bi
www.oiirj.org
ISSN 2249
reduction would still
be about 40times
smaller than the
emissions generated
if this person
two children. In the
U
nited States
the carbon legacy
of an average
parent, which is 5.7
times his/ her
lifetime emissions
.Achieving
a reduction
under modest
population growth
rates given
expected
improvements in
human welfare and
expected increases in
energy consumption.
of climate change on
environment such as
temperature which
ultimately leads to
warming. The various
impact
s of global warming
such as air pollutants,
heat, storms and
flooding etc. have
their strong impacts.
) Effects of climate
change on due to
exponential growth of
human populations
on
POPULATION
POVERTY
RELATIONSHIP:
The understanding
of population,
poverty,
the framework
can be applied to
assess a vicious
circle model (VCM)
, poverty, and
environment
the household
level among
population growth,
poverty, and
environmental
a downward spiral
for poor households.
The VCM concept of
is useful
and encourages
examination of not
just how population
environment, but
also how population
growth affects
poverty,
population growth
environmental
degradation
affects population
affects poverty. The
importance of this
feedback cycle and
its contribution to
climate
be examined
here relative to
direct impact on the
natural resource
base.
land cover accounts
for
contribution to C02
emissions [2].
Research Journal, {Bi
-
Monthly}, ISSN 2249
www.oiirj.org
ISSN 2249
reduction would still
be about 40times
smaller than the
emissions generated
if this person
nited States
, each child adds
about 9441 metric
tons of
the carbon legacy
of an average
parent, which is 5.7
times his/ her
a reduction
of greenhouse gases
will become
increasingly
population growth
rates given
expected
improvements in
human welfare and
expected increases in
energy consumption.
of climate change on
environment such as
temperature which
ultimately leads to
s of global warming
such as air pollutants,
heat, storms and
flooding etc. have
their strong impacts.
) Effects of climate
change on due to
exponential growth of
human populations
on
POPULATION
POVERTY
RELATIONSHIP:
The understanding
of population,
poverty,
can be applied to
assess a vicious
circle model (VCM)
, poverty, and
environment
[Fig.2.]
level among
population growth,
poverty, and
environmental
a downward spiral
for poor households.
The VCM concept of
and encourages
examination of not
just how population
environment, but
also how population
growth affects
poverty,
population growth
, poverty affects
environmental
degradation,
affects population
growth, and
environmental
degradation
affects poverty. The
importance of this
feedback cycle and
its contribution to
climate
here relative to
direct impact on the
natural resource
base.
land cover accounts
for
approximately 35% of
the anthropogenic
Monthly}, ISSN 2249
-
9598, Volume
www.oiirj.org
ISSN 2249
-
9598
reduction would still
be about 40times
smaller than the
emissions generated
if this person
, each child adds
about 9441 metric
tons of
the carbon legacy
of an average
parent, which is 5.7
times his/ her
of greenhouse gases
will become
increasingly
population growth
rates given
expected
improvements in
human welfare and
expected increases in
energy consumption.
of climate change on
environment such as
temperature which
ultimately leads to
s of global warming
such as air pollutants,
heat, storms and
) Effects of climate
change on due to
exponential growth of
human populations
on
POPULATION
POVERTY
RELATIONSHIP:
The understanding
of population,
poverty,
and environment
can be applied to
assess a vicious
circle model (VCM)
[Fig.2.]
. According to the
VCM, positive
level among
population growth,
poverty, and
environmental
a downward spiral
for poor households.
The VCM concept of
and encourages
examination of not
just how population
environment, but
also how population
growth affects
poverty,
, poverty affects
environmental
degradation,
growth, and
environmental
degradation
affects poverty. The
importance of this
feedback cycle and
its contribution to
climate
here relative to
direct impact on the
natural resource
base.
approximately 35% of
the anthropogenic
9598, Volume
-
VI, Jan 2016 Special Issue
9598
reduction would still
be about 40times
smaller than the
emissions generated
if this person
, each child adds
about 9441 metric
tons of
the carbon legacy
of an average
parent, which is 5.7
times his/ her
of greenhouse gases
will become
increasingly
population growth
rates given
expected
improvements in
human welfare and
expected increases in
energy consumption.
[6]
. Fig. shows the
effects
of climate change on
environment such as
temperature which
ultimately leads to
s of global warming
such as air pollutants,
heat, storms and
) Effects of climate
change on due to
exponential growth of
human populations
on
POPULATION
POVERTY
RELATIONSHIP:
and environment
relationships have
can be applied to
assess a vicious
circle model (VCM)
. According to the
VCM, positive
level among
population growth,
poverty, and
environmental
a downward spiral
for poor households.
The VCM concept of
and encourages
examination of not
just how population
environment, but
also how population
growth affects
poverty,
, poverty affects
environmental
degradation,
growth, and
environmental
degradation
affects poverty. The
importance of this
feedback cycle and
its contribution to
climate
here relative to
direct impact on the
natural resource
base.
approximately 35% of
the anthropogenic
VI, Jan 2016 Special Issue
Page
reduction would still
be about 40times
smaller than the
emissions generated
if this person
, each child adds
about 9441 metric
tons of
the carbon legacy
of an average
parent, which is 5.7
times his/ her
of greenhouse gases
will become
increasingly
population growth
rates given
expected
improvements in
. Fig. shows the
effects
of climate change on
environment such as
temperature which
ultimately leads to
global
s of global warming
such as air pollutants,
heat, storms and
) Effects of climate
change on due to
exponential growth of
human populations
on
relationships have
can be applied to
assess a vicious
circle model (VCM)
. According to the
VCM, positive
level among
population growth,
poverty, and
environmental
a downward spiral
for poor households.
The VCM concept of
and encourages
examination of not
just how population
environment, but
also how population
growth affects
poverty,
, poverty affects
environmental
degradation,
growth, and
environmental
degradation
affects poverty. The
importance of this
feedback cycle and
its contribution to
climate
here relative to
direct impact on the
natural resource
base.
approximately 35% of
the anthropogenic
VI, Jan 2016 Special Issue
Page
57
reduction would still
be about 40times
smaller than the
emissions generated
if this person
, each child adds
about 9441 metric
tons of
the carbon legacy
of an average
parent, which is 5.7
times his/ her
of greenhouse gases
will become
increasingly
population growth
rates given
expected
improvements in
. Fig. shows the
effects
global
s of global warming
such as air pollutants,
heat, storms and
) Effects of climate
change on due to
exponential growth of
human populations
on
relationships have
can be applied to
assess a vicious
circle model (VCM)
. According to the
VCM, positive
level among
population growth,
poverty, and
environmental
a downward spiral
for poor households.
The VCM concept of
and encourages
examination of not
just how population
environment, but
also how population
growth affects
poverty,
, poverty affects
environmental
degradation,
growth, and
environmental
degradation
affects poverty. The
importance of this
feedback cycle and
its contribution to
climate
here relative to
direct impact on the
natural resource
base.
approximately 35% of
the anthropogenic
Online International
Interdisciplinary Research
Journal, {Bi-Monthly}, ISSN
2249-9598, Volume-VI, Jan 2016
Special Issue

www.oiirj.org
ISSN 2249-959
8
Page
58
Fig.2Vicious Circle
Model
3. Solutions:
Theoretical and
Practical
In terms of the
problem of feeding
the world, for
example,
technological fixes
suffer from
limitations in scale,
lead time, and cost.
Thus potentially
attractive theoretical
approaches-such as
desalting seawater
for agriculture, new
irrigation systems,
and high
protein diet
supplements-prove
inadequate in
practice. They are
too little, too late,
and
too expensive, or
they have
sociological costs
which hobble their
effectiveness. More-
over, many aspects
of our technological
fixes, such as
synthetic organic
pesticides and
inorganic nitrogen
fertilizers, have
created vast
environmental
problems which
seem
certain to erode
global productivity
and ecosystem
stability. This is not
to say that
important gains have
not been made
through the
application of
technology to
agriculture
in the poor
countries, or that
further technological
advances are not
worth seeking.
Enhances tetra
genic effects of
heavy metals. And
our distaste for lung
diseases
apparently induced
by sulfur dioxide
inclines us to
accept the hazards
of radioactive
waste disposal, fuel
reprocessing, routine
low-level emissions
of radiation, and an
apparently small but
finite risk of
catastrophic
accidents associated
with nuclear fission
power plants.
Similarly, electric
automobiles would
simply shift part of
the
environmental
burden of personal
transportation from
the vicinity of
highways to the
vicinity of power
plants. We are not
suggesting here that
electric cars, or
nuclear power
plants, or
substitutes for
phosphates are
inherently bad. We
argue rather that
they, too,
pose environmental
costs which must be
weighed against
those they eliminate.
In many
cases the choice is
not obvious, and in all
cases there will be
some environmental
impact.
The residual per
capita impact, after
all the best choices
have been made,
must then be
Online International
Interdisciplinary Research
Journal, {Bi-Monthly}, ISSN
2249-9598, Volume-VI, Jan 2016
Special Issue

www.oiirj.org
ISSN 2249-959
8
Page
59
multiplied by the
population engaging
in the activity. If there
are too many people,
even
the most wisely
managed technology
will not keep the
environment from
being over
stressed. In
contending that a
change in the way we
use technology will
invalidate these
arguments,
Commoner claims
that our important
environmental
problems began in
the
1940's with the
introduction and
rapid spread of
certain "synthetic"
technologies:
pesticides and
herbicides, inorganic
fertilizers, plastics,
nuclear energy, and
high-
compression
gasoline engines. In
so arguing, he
appears to make
two unfounded
assumptions. The
first is that man's
pre 1940
environmental impact
was innocuous and,
without changes for
the worse in
technology, would
have remained
innocuous even at a
much larger
population size. The
second assumption
is that the advent
of the new
technologies was
independent of the
attempt to meet
human needs and
desires in a
growing population.
Actually, man's
record as a simplifies
of ecosystems and
plunderer
of resources can be
traced from his
1216 probable role
in the extinction of
many
Pleistocene
mammals, through
the destruction of
the soils of
Mesopotamia by
salivation
and erosion, to the
deforestation of
Europe in the
Middle Ages and the
American dust
bowls of the 1930's,
to cite only some
highlights. Man's
contemporary
arsenal of
synthetic
technological
bludgeons
indisputably
magnifies the
potential for
disaster, but
these were evolved
in some measure to
cope with population
pressures, not
independently of
them. Moreover, it
is worth noting that,
of the four
environmental
threats viewed by
the prestigious
Williamstown study
as globally
significant, three are
associated with pre
1940 technologies
which have simply
increased in scale
[heavy
metals, oil in the
seas, and carbon
dioxide and
particulates in the
atmosphere, the
latter
probably due in
considerable part to
agriculture. [5].
4. CONCLUSION
In this paper we have
tried to explain the
how increasing
population growth,
poverty, and
environment
relationships to
climate. Our
understanding of
these relationships
has
progressed greatly
from the original
Malthusian roots, yet
still today few
generalizations
can be made
unambiguously.
Research has
demonstrated across
multiple scales that
population
environment poverty
synergies tend to be
non-linear, ecosystem
specific, and
involve multiple
pathways among
population and
environmental
change, population
and
poverty, and
poverty and
environmental
change.
Furthermore, in most
cases population
growth’s relation to
poverty and the
environment is
mediated by various
types of capital
available to
households and
institutions, culture,
and social relations.
Human tropical
forest system to
illustrate some
aspects of the vicious
cycle model.. Human
population is
finite and it needs
to deep study and
research on its
 control and to
control impacts of
human population on
earth.
Q8. Describe the Water (Prevention & control of pollution) Act. Give functions
and powers of Central & State Pollution Control Boards.
The Water Act (1974)
This is an Act to provide for the prevention and control of water pollution and the
maintaining or restoring of wholesomeness of water through various management guidelines
and restrictions. The act was introduced and incorporated into the Constitution of India in
1974. One of the prime objectives of this act is carrying out the purposes mentioned above by
assigning a set of responsibilities, powers, and functions to the Boards for the prevention and
control of water pollution. The Water Act applies in the first instance to the whole of the
States of Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir,
Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tripura and West Bengal and the Union
territories. The act was passed in pursuance of clause (1) of article 252 of the Constitution.
Resolutions have been passed by all the Houses of the Legislatures of the States.
Constitution Of Central Board
According to Section-3, the Central Board shall consist of the following members:
 A full time Chairman (to be nominated by the Central Government) having knowledge or
practical experience in matters related to environmental protection or having knowledge and
experience in administration of institutions dealing with aforesaid matters.
 Not more than five officials nominated by the Central Government.
 Not more than five persons nominated by the Central Government from amongst the
members of State Boards.
 Not more than three non-officials nominated by the government to represent interests of
agriculture, fishery, agriculture-trade etc.
 Two persons nominated by the government to represent the companies or corporations
owned by the Central Government.
 One full time Member-Secretary (to be appointed by the Central Govt.) having
knowledge and experience of scientific engineering or management aspects of pollution
control.

Constitution Of State Boards

Under Section-4, of the State Pollution Control Board may be constituted having the same
constitution as the Central Board.
Constitution Of Committees
 According to Section-9, a board may constitute as many committees as necessary. The
members of a committee shall be paid such fees and allowances for attending to any other
work of the Board.
Constitution Of Joint Boards
According to Section-13 of the Act, under agreement between two or more contiguous States,
Joint Boards may be constituted for those states, by the Central or State Governments.
Terms And Service Conditions Of The Members Of The Board
 Terms and service conditions of the Member Secretary and Chairman shall be as
prescribed by the Government.
 Rest of the members shall hold office for a term of three years.
 A member shall be eligible for renomination.
 Central or State Government may remove a member of the Central or State Board at any
time by giving him reasonable notice and opportunity.
 The Chairman may resign by addressing his resignation to the government and a member
may resign by addressing his resignation to the Chairman.
 In the case of insolvency, unsound mind, conviction for the offence under this Act,
conviction for the offence involving moral turpitude, inability to attend three consecutive
meetings, abusing position as member of the Board, Partnership with anybody dealing with
sewage or trade effluent etc., are some conditions for disqualification of the member. Seat of
the disqualified member shall fall vacant and a person nominated to fill such a vacancy shall
hold office for the remaining term.
Meeting Of The Boards
According to Section-8, at least one meeting must be held in every three months.
Functions Of The Central Board
According to Section-16, the following are the functions of the Central Board:
 To promote cleanliness of streams and wells in different areas of the state.
 To advise the Central Govt, on matters concerning the prevention and control of water
pollution.
 To co-ordinate the actions of the State Board and resolve disputes among them.
 To provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards to carry out research in
prevention and control of water pollution problems.
 To organize training of persons engaged in pollution control.
 To organise comprehensive programme for pollution control through mass media.
 To lay down standards for streams or wells.
 To prepare manuals, codes or guides for treatment and disposal of sewage and trade
effluents.
 To establish or recognise laboratories for analysis of water samples from any stream, well
or trade effluents.
Functions Of The State Board
According to Section-17, the following are the functions of the State Board:
 Planning a comprehensive programme for prevention, control and abatement of pollution
of streams and wells.
 Advising the State Government regarding water pollution control or location of
industries.
 Conducting and encouraging investigations and research relating to different aspects of
water pollution.
 To collaborate with the Central Board for training personnel for handling water pollution
programmes and organising related mass education programmes.
 Inspecting trade effluents and waste water treatment plants.
 Prescribing effluent standards for the sewage and trade effluents.
 Evolving economical and reliable methods of disposal, treatment and reuse of waste
water (in agriculture).
 Laying down the standards of treatment of sewage and trade effluents to be discharged
into any stream.
 Making, varying or revoking any order for preservation or control of discharge of waste
into streams and wells or construction of systems for disposal of effluents.
 Establishing or recognising laboratories for analysis of samples.
 Performing such functions as may be entrusted by Central Board or State governments.

Directions
According to Section-18, the Central Board shall be bound by directions given by the Central
Govt, whereas the State Board shall be bound by directions given by the Central Board or the
State Government.
In case a grave emergency arises as a result of non-compliance of the State Govt, as regards
directions given by the Central Board, then the Central Govt, may recover the expenses
incurred by it from the persons concerned, as arrears of land revenue.
Powers Of The State Government
According to Section-19, the following are the powers of state government:
 Power to obtain information
According to Section-20, the State Board may make surveys, take measurements or obtain
information for purpose of performing functions under this Act. Failure to comply with any
directions under the Section is a punishable offence under subsection (1) of Section-41.
 Power to take samples
Under Section-21(1) A, the State Government has the power to take samples of water of any
stream or well or any effluent being discharged into such a stream or well, for analysis. Under
Section-22(4), the State Board further has the power to obtain a report of the result of the
analysis by a recognised laboratory.
 Power of entry and inspection
According to Section-23, the State Board is empowered by the State Govt., with the right to
enter any place for the purpose of performing any of the functions entrusted to it.
 Power of Prohibition on Disposal of Polluting Matter into a Stream or Well

Under Section-24:
 No person shall knowingly allow entry of any poisonous, noxious or polluting matter
directly or indirectly into any stream, well or sewer or on land.
 No person shall knowingly allow entry of any matter into any stream, which may impede
the proper flow of water resulting in substantial aggravation of pollution.
 No person shall establish any industry, operation or process or any treatment disposal
system, which is likely to discharge any sewage or effluent into stream or well or on land.
 No person shall use any new outlet for discharge of sewage.
 No person shall begin to make any new discharge of sewage.

Consent of The State Board

 Board must decide an application for consent within four months failing which consent
will be deemed to have been given.
  Persons already discharging any sewage or effluent into any stream or well or on land
will have to seek the consent of the State Board.
 A person may appeal against the order of the State Board within 30 days, to an appellate
authority established by the State Government. The State Govt, can alter the decision of the
State Board, if necessary.
 While giving consent, if any work is required to be executed and the applicant fails to do
so, the Board may itself execute it and recover the expenses along with interest.
 The State Board must be informed in case due to an accident in any industry or treatment
or disposal system, any polluting matter is likely to be discharged into any stream, well or on
land which in turn may pollute water. The Board may take remedial measures wherever
necessary.
 The Board may approach a court for restraining a person who is likely to cause pollution
by disposal discharge of polluting matter into a stream, well or on land.

The person concerned may be directed by the court to remove the polluting matter and in case of
non-compliance, the court may authorise the board to do the needful and the expenses incurred by
the Board may be recovered from the person concerned.
Q9. What are “Hot Spots of Biodiversity”? What are the main causes for the
extinction of species? Explain in situ and ex situ conservation of
biodiversity. Along with a diagram, discuss the flow of energy and nutrients
through different components of an ecosystem.
Hot Spots of Biodiversity
Hotspots of biodiversity refer to bio-geographic regions where significant levels of
biodiversity with richness and unusual concentration of endemic species are found, however,
they are threatened with mindless exploitation and destruction.
A biodiversity is termed as a hotspot if −
 It has at least 1,500 vascular plants as endemic.
 It must be threatened or under threat of destruction to a considerable extent.
Across the world, about 35 areas are marked as hotspots of biodiversity and they represent
2.3 percent of the Earth’s land surface but they support more than half of the world’s
endemic plant species and almost half of birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians as
endemic.
Over Hunting – The ivory of elephants, the fur and organs of tigers, the deliciousness of
tuna and the supposedly medicinal effect of shark’s fin are some examples of why we have
over hunted these animals to the point of extinction. 
Destruction of Habitat – It is currently the biggest cause of current extinctions.
Deforestation has killed off more species than we can count. Whole ecosystems live in our
forests. It is predicted that all our rainforest can disappear in the next 100 years if we cannot
stop deforestation. To date, 13 million hectares of forest have been converted or destroyed –
how many species have perished? Our coral reefs are also threatened. Reefs are home to
25% of marine animals. To date, 27% of coral reefs have been destroyed. 
More: How Can We Stop Deforestation? , Deforestation Facts and Statistics , Threats on
Coral Reefs
Pollution – When we introduce unnatural chemicals that contaminate our air, soil and seas, it
interferes with the metabolism of animals and they are unable to cope. Air pollutants include
carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Water and soil pollutants are heavy
metals such as mercury, cadmium and lead – and pesticide and herbicide compounds.
All of these factors work in synergy with each other, causing the fastest rate of extinction
ever seen. Large bodied animal and rare species are more prone to the changes caused by
humans to the planet. Extinctions can disrupt our ecological processes like pollination and
seed distribution and a collapse of the food chain which can cause more extinctions.
Conservation of Biodiversity
Ex situ conservation
Conserving biodiversity outside the areas where they naturally occur is known as ex situ
conservation. Here, animals and plants are reared or cultivated in areas like zoological or
botanical parks.
Reintroduction of an animal or plant into the habitat from where it has become extinct is
another form of ex situ conservation. For example, the Genetic gharial has been reintroduced
in the rivers of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan where it had become extinct.
Seed banks, botanical, horticultural and recreational gardens are important centers for ex situ
conservation.

In situ conservation
Conserving the animals and plants in their natural habitats is known as in situ conservation.
This includes the establishment of
 National parks and sanctuaries
 Biosphere reserves
 Nature reserves
 Reserved and protected forests
 Preservation plots
 Reserved forests
Flow Of Energy
Energy moves life. The cycle of energy is based on the flow of energy through different
trophic levels in an ecosystem. Our ecosystem is maintained by the cycling energy and
nutrients obtained from different external sources. At the first trophic level, primary
producers use solar energy to produce organic material through photosynthesis.

The herbivores at the second trophic level, use the plants as food which gives them energy. A
large part of this energy is used up for the metabolic functions of these animals such as
breathing, digesting food, supporting growth of tissues, maintaining blood circulation and
body temperature.
The carnivores at the next trophic level, feed on the herbivores and derive energy for their
sustenance and growth. If large predators are present, they represent still higher trophic level
and they feed on carnivores to get energy. Thus, the different plants and animal species are
linked to one another through food chains.
Decomposers which include bacteria, fungi, molds, worms, and insects break down wastes
and dead organisms, and return the nutrients to the soil, which is then taken up by the
producers. Energy is not recycled during decomposition, but it is released.
Biogeochemical Cycles
All elements in the earth are recycled time and again. The major elements such as oxygen,
carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, and sulphur are essential ingredients that make up organisms.
Biogeochemical cycles refer to the flow of such chemical elements and compounds between
organisms and the physical environment. Chemicals taken in by organisms are passed
through the food chain and come back to the soil, air, and water through mechanisms such as
respiration, excretion, and decomposition.
As an element moves through this cycle, it often forms compounds with other elements as a
result of metabolic processes in living tissues and of natural reactions in the atmosphere,
hydrosphere, or lithosphere.
Such cyclic exchange of material between the living organisms and their non-living
environment is called Biogeochemical Cycle.
Following are some important biogeochemical cycles −
 Carbon Cycle
 Nitrogen Cycle
 Water Cycle
 Oxygen Cycle
 Phosphorus Cycle
 Sulphur Cycle
Carbon Cycle
Carbon enters into the living world in the form of carbon dioxide through the process of
photosynthesis as carbohydrates. These organic compounds (food) are then passed from the
producers to the consumers (herbivores & carnivores). This carbon is finally returned to the
surrounding medium by the process of respiration or decomposition of plants and animals by
the decomposers. Carbon is also recycled during the burning of fossil fuels.

Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen is present in the atmosphere in an elemental form and as such it cannot be utilized
by living organisms. This elemental form of nitrogen is converted into combined state with
elements such as H, C, O by certain bacteria, so that it can be readily used by the plants.
Nitrogen is being continuously expelled into the air by the action of microorganisms such as
denitrifying bacteria and finally returned to the cycle through the action of lightening and
electrification.

Water Cycle
The evaporation of water from ocean, rivers, lakes, and transpiring plants takes water in the
form of vapors to the atmosphere. This vaporized water subsequently cools and condenses to
form cloud and water. This cooled water vapor ultimately returns to the earth as rain and
snow, completing the cycle
Q10. Write notes on
a.Advantage and disadvantage of dam
Advantages of dam
 Once a dam is constructed, electricity can be produced at a constant rate.
 If electricity is not needed, the sluice gates can be shut, stopping electricity
generation. The water can be saved for use another time when electricity demand is
high.
 Dams are designed to last many decades and so can contribute to the generation of
electricity for many years / decades.
 The lake that forms behind the dam can be used for water sports and leisure / pleasure
activities. Often large dams become tourist attractions in their own right.
 The lake's water can be used for irrigation purposes.
 The buildup of water in the lake means that energy can be stored until needed, when
the water is released to produce electricity.
 When in use, electricity produced by dam systems do not produce green house gases.
They do not pollute the atmosphere.

Disadvantages of dam
 Dams are extremely expensive to build and must be built to a very high standard.
 The high cost of dam construction means that they must operate for many decades to
become profitable.
 The flooding of large areas of land means that the natural environment is destroyed.
 People living in villages and towns that are in the valley to be flooded, must move
out. This means that they lose their farms and businesses. In some countries, people
are forcibly removed so that hydro-power schemes can go ahead.
 The building of large dams can cause serious geological damage. For example, the
building of the Hoover Dam in the USA triggered a number of earth quakes and has
depressed the earths surface at its location.
 Although modern planning and design of dams is good, in the past old dams have
been known to be breached (the dam gives under the weight of water in the lake).
This has led to deaths and flooding.
  Dams built blocking the progress of a river in one country usually means that the
water supply from the same river in the following country is out of their control. This
can lead to serious problems between neighboring countries.
 Building a large dam alters the natural water table level. For example, the building of
the Aswan Dam in Egypt has altered the level of the water table. This is slowly
leading to damage of many of its ancient monuments as salts and destructive minerals
are deposited in the stone work from rising damp caused by the changing water table
level.
b. Bhopal Gas Tragedy
Environmental Impacts and Victims
On the night of December 1, 1984 the most tragic industrial disaster occurred in the city of
Bhopal. On that night of the tragedy, MIC leaked from the plant in substantial quantity. A
cloud of gas engulfed Bhopal city. The tragedy took a toll of over 2000 human lives and a
similar number of cattle’s. Five thousand people were seriously affected and over one lakh
were taken ill. The following effects of MIC on people were noticed by doctors after two
days of tragedy:
(a) Irritation of the eyes, nausea and vomiting, chest pain and difficulties in breathing.
(b) Accumulation of fluid in the lungs and destruction of lung tissues and subsequent
complications include anoxia or insufficient oxygen in the blood and cardiac arrest.

c.Eutrophication : Causes and Consequences

Harmful changes in water cause by too much fertilizer or nutrients getting into the water.
When lakes, streams and estuaries are over fertilized excessive production of aquatic organic
matter can become a water quality problem and as a result the eutrophication process can be
enhanced.
d. Sanitary landfills

Sanitary landfills are sites where waste is isolated from the environment until it is safe.
It is considered when it has completely degraded biologically, chemically and physically. In
high-income countries, the level of isolation achieved may be high. However, such an
expensive high level of isolation may not be technically necessary to protect public health.
Four basic conditions should be met before a site can be regarded as a sanitary landfill (see
following.) The ways of doing this should be adapted to local conditions. The immediate
goal is to meet, to the best extent possible, the four stated basic sanitary landfill conditions,
with a longer term goal to meet them eventually in full.
Small incremental improvements in landfill design and operation over several years are
more likely to succeed than attempts to make a single, large leap in engineering
expectations.
Large landfills will require more investment to improve standards than smaller sites.
However, the unit cost of these improvements (measured per tonne of waste landfilled or per
head of population served) will decrease with increasing site size. There are financial and
other benefits to sites with long operating lifetimes (ten years or more). Large regional sites
serving two or more cities could be economically beneficial, providing waste transport costs
are not too high.
 e.Point and non-point sources of water pollution (with examples)
Point-source pollution is easy to identify. As the name suggests, it comes from a single
place. Nonpoint-source pollution is harder to identify and harder to address. It is pollution
that comes from many places, all at once.
Examples include smokestacks, discharge pipes, and drainage ditches. Factories and power
plants can be a source of point-source pollution, affecting both air and water. Smokestacks
may spew carbon monoxide, heavy metal, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, or “particulate
matter” (small particles) into the air. Oil refineries, paper mills, and auto plants that use water
as part of their manufacturing processes can discharge effluent—wastewater containing
harmful chemical pollutants—into rivers, lakes, or the ocean. 

Nonpoint-source pollution is the opposite of point-source pollution, with pollutants released

in a wide area. As an example, picture a city street during a thunderstorm. As rainwater flows
over asphalt, it washes away drops of oil that leaked from car engines, particles of tire rubber,
dog waste, and trash. The runoff goes into a storm sewer and ends up in a nearby river.
Runoff is a major cause of nonpoint-source pollution. It is a big problem in cities because of
all the hard surfaces, including streets and roofs. The amount of pollutants washed from a
single city block might be small, but when you add up the miles and miles of pavement in a
big city you get a big problem. In rural areas, runoff can wash sediment from the roads in a
logged-over forest tract. It can also carry acid from abandoned mines and flush pesticides
and fertilizer from farm fields. All of this pollution is likely to wind up in streams, rivers, and
lakes. Airborne pollutants are major contributors to acid rain. It forms in the atmosphere
when sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides combine with water. Because acid rain results from
the long-range movement of those pollutants from many factories and power plants, it is
considered nonpoint-source pollution. 
Q12. What are the steps taken by our government for environmental
protection?
Important eco-friendly steps taken by narendra modi government
On May 26 2015, Narendra Modi will complete one year as the 15th Prime Minister of
independent India. Out of all the steps taken by Narendra Modi, a few stood out as being
highly eco-friendly and compelling. Six crucial eco-friendly steps taken by the Narendra
Modi government in India.
1. SWACHH BHARAT ABHIYAN
The Swachh Bharat Abhiyan is India’s biggest cleanliness drive ever. The campaign covers
as many as 4041 towns and aims at cleaning streets, roads, and infrastructure. It was officially
launched on October 2, 2014 at Rajghat, New Delhi. Prime Minister Narendra Modi even
nominated nine prominent public figures from the country to support and encourage the
initiative.

2. CLEAN GANGA MISSION

A clean Ganga is deemed as Narendra Modi’s pet project. Three days after swearing in as
the 15th Prime Minister of India, Modi resigned from Vadodra constituency and decided to
represent Varanasi in order to serve ‘Ganga Maa’. Prime Minister Modi also placed The
Ganga Action Plan under the direct supervision of Water Resources Minister Uma Bharti.
 Modi’s Clean Ganga Plan involves five ministries working in close co-operation to see the
dream project through.

3. NATIONAL AIR QUALITY INDEX (NAQI)

Focusing on bringing down soaring pollution levels in the country, Prime Minister Narendra
Modi launched India’s first national air quality index (NAQI) in April, 2015. The Indian
Institute of Technology in Kanpur, will house the main server of the NAQI which will
monitor air quality levels in 10 cities throughout the country. The NAQI will simplify air
quality rendition and will help raise awareness about alarming levels of air quality across the
country.

4. TOILETS BEFORE TEMPLES

Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s image of being a Hindutva leader was smashed to
smithereens when he gave the mantra: ‘Pehle shauchalaya, phir devalaya’ (first toilets, then
temples). Modi also said that while lakhs were spent on building temples, no real effort was
put into building toilets. Over 600 million people in India still defecate in the open. The
Narendra Modi government is working tirelessly to ensure that affordable sanitation reaches
 the people who need it. In addition to this, Modi government has also focused on the spread
of e-toilets in rural as well as urban India.

5. MOUNT EVEREST ASCENT

Although the Mount Everest cleaning drive is essentially an Indian Army undertaking,
authorities have made it clear that they draw inspiration from Narendra Modi’s Swacch
Bharat Abhiyan. A team of Indian Army climbers have set off on a mission to bring back at
least 4000 kg of non-biodegradable waste from the world’s highest peak. This includes waste
materials left behind by climbers over decades.

6. WATER CONSERVATION
In a bid to raise awareness about water conservation, the Narendra Modi government directed
the states of India to ensure that 50% of the work taken up by MNREGA, should be for the
improvement of water conservation. This includes construction of check dams and de-silting
 of water bodies. Narendra Modi himself asked farmers across the country to adopt modern
ways of conserving water.

Q13. How can you as an individual conserve different natural resources?

Q25. Explain the role of individual in conserving natural resources.

CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL

Different natural resources like forests, water, soil, food, mineral and energy resources play a
vital role in the development of a nation. While conservation efforts are underway at National
as well as International level, the individual efforts for conservation of natural resources can
go a long way.
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
 Switch off light, fan and other appliances when not in use.
 Use solar cooker for cooking your food on sunny days which will be more nutritious
and will cut down on your LPG expenses
 Obtain as much heat as possible from natural sources. Dry the clothes in sun instead
of drier if it is a sunny day.
 Use always pressure cookers
 Ride bicycle or just walk instead of using scooter for assorts distance.
 Grow deciduous trees and climbers at proper places outside your home to cut off
intense heat of summers and get a cool breeze and shade. This will cut off your
electricity charges on coolers and air-conditioners.
 Try riding bicycle or just walk down small distances instead of using your car or
scooter.

CONSERVATION OF WATER
 Use minimum water for all domestic purposes.
 Reuse the soapy water, after washing clothes for washing courtyard, carpets etc.
 Rain water harvesting system should be installed in all the houses.
  Sewage treatment plant may be installed in all industries and institution.
 Continuous running of water taps should be avoided.
 Watering of plants should be done in the evening.
 Don't keep water taps running while brushing, shaving, washing or bathing.
 Check for water leaks in pipes and toilets and repair them promptly. A small pin-hole
sized leak will lead to the wastage of 640 liters of water in a month.
 Use drip irrigation and sprinkling irrigation to improve irrigation efficiency and
reduce evaporation. Install a small system to capture rain water and collect normally
wasted used water from sinks, cloth-washers, bathtubs etc. which can be used for
watering the plants
 Build rain water harvesting system in your house.  Even the President of India is
doing this.

CONSERVATION OF SOIL
 Grow different type plants i.e. trees, herbs and shrubs.
 In the irrigation process, using strong flow of water should be avoided.
 Soil erosion can be prevented by sprinkling irrigation.
 While constructing your house, don't uproot the trees as far as possible. Plant the
disturbed areas with a fast growing native ground cover.
 Make compost from your kitchen waste and use it for your kitchen-garden or flower-
pots. Do not irrigate the plants using a strong flow of water, as it would wash off the
soil.
 If you own agricultural fields, do not over-irrigate your fields without proper drainage
to prevent water logging and Stalinization.
 Use mixed cropping so that some specific soil nutrients do not get depleted.
CONSERVATION OF FOOD RESOURCES
 Cook required amount of food.
 Don’t waste the food, give it to someone before spoiling.
 Don’t store large amount of food grains and protect them from damaging insects.

CONSERVATION OF FOREST
 Use non timber product.
 Plant more trees.
 Grassing must be controlled
 Minimize the use of paper and fuel.
 Avoid the construction of dam, road in the forest areas.

EQUITABLE USE OF RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE LIFE STYLE:

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
 Development of healthy environment without damaging natural resources.
UNSUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
 Degradation of the environment due to over utilization of natural resources.
 LIFE STYLE IN MORE DEVELOPED COUNTRIES
 22% of world population, 88% of its natural resources and 85% of total global
income.
 Consumption is more and pollution is more.
LIFE STYLE IN LESS DEVELOPED COUNTRIES
 78% of world population, 12% of its natural resources and 15% of total global
income.
 Consumption is less and pollution is less.
SUSTAINABLE LIFE STYLE:
 MDCs should have to reduce the utilization of natural resources, that should have to
be diverted to LDCs. This will reduce the gap between MDCs and LDCs, leads to
sustainable development of the entire world.
PROMOTE SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
 Do not waste food. Take as much as you can eat Reduce the use of pesticides.
 Fertilize your crop primarily with organic fertilizers.
 Eat local and seasonal vegetables. This saves lot of energy on transport, storage and
preservation. Control pests by a combination of cultivation and biological control
methods.

Q14. What are the major causes of man wild life conflicts? Discuss remedial
steps that can curb the conflicts. Man-Animal conflict
Man-animal conflict simply refers to the interaction between man and animal and resultant
negative impact on man and his resources or animal and its habitat. Conflicts between the
man and animal have occurred since the dawn of humanity. However, it has come to light
ever more frequently in recent times. With changing times and an ever-increasing population,
the lines between human settlements and forests have started to blur, resulting in more
number of conflicts. The result of this conflict is severe which result into the loss of crops to
farmers, human beings getting injured or killed and concerns for wildlife conservation as
well. Often many strategies have been employed by people to minimize their losses.
Administrative agencies have also been using different tactics to minimize these conflicts.
However, the most of these methods and strategies have been proven to be ineffective in
minimizing the conflict. This has necessitated a need to understand why and how such
conflicts ensue and what can be done for minimizing these conflicts and protection of both
man and animal.
 Kinds of Man-Animal conflicts
According to TERI University, the incidents of Man-Animal Conflicts can be categorized
into following major types:
 Human beings get killed or injured by wild animals in Man-animal Conflicts.
 Livestock/Cattle reared by man get killed or injured in Man-animal conflicts.
 Crop cultivated by man get damaged in Man-animal conflicts.
 Wild animals get killed or injured in Man-animal conflicts.
Causes of conflict
Fragmentation and shrinking of habitat in modern era, rapid urbanization and
industrialization have led to diversion of forest land to non forest purposes; as a result the
wildlife habitat is shrinking. This makes that landscape unviable for wild animals as their
needs are not fulfilled. This results in animals straying out of habitat in search of food, water
or shelter bringing them in conflict with humans.
1. Road Kills 
In recent times, expansion of road and rail network through forest ranges has resulted in
animals getting killed or injured in accidents on roads or railway tracks.
2. Land use transformations
In recent times due growing demand for food there is rapid conversion of forest lands into
farm fields for cultivation. Also forest is being cleared for mining and developmental
activities resulting in destruction of habitat of wildlife. This results into herbivores straying
out of the forest and causing depredation of crops.
3. Infestation of wildlife habitat
Infestation of wildlife habitat by the invasive exotic weeds like Lantana, Eupatorium etc.
have resulted in decreased availability of edible grasses for the wild herbivores. As a result,
herbivores come out of forest area and cause depredation of agricultural crops on the fringes
4. Impact of human activities 
The increasing population has also led to many human settlements coming up near the
peripheries of protected areas and encroachment in the forest lands by local people for
cultivation and collection of food and fodder etc. thus increasing pressure on limited natural
resources in the forests.
5. Livestock grazing 
Livestock grazing in the forest areas has increased man-animal conflicts as carnivorous are
attracted to easy prey thus becoming the direct enemy of man. Livestock grazing has also led
to the shortage of food for wild herbivores as they have to compete with livestock for food.
6. Decreased prey base caused by poaching of herbivores 
Due to illegal poaching in forest areas the prey base is on the decline as a result carnivores
are forced to roam into nearby villages in search of food. This leads to the killing of cattle by
these carnivores, thus bringing them into conflict with humans.
Consequences for humans
The aftermaths of the human-wildlife conflict are more serious in the tropics and in
developing countries where livestock holdings and agriculture are an important part of
livelihoods and incomes of people in rural areas.
1. Injury or loss of human lives
 People living near forest areas and buffer zones are mostly at risk of attack by carnivores,
straying out of forest areas in search of food.
2. Crop depredation 
 The destruction of crops by wild animals like wild boar etc. can result in loss of income of
rural households and it can also threaten the household s food security.
3. The killing of livestock
The killing of livestock by carnivores can destroy income source of agro-pastoralists who
depend exclusively on cultivation and production of livestock. The loss of a family s small
herd of cattle to predators can effectively destroy that family s wealth and way of life.
4. Damage to human property

Consequences for wildlife and environment

1. The killing of wild animals 
The killing of wild animals in retaliation for incidents of human-wildlife conflict is a
common reaction, even though the identification of the real culprit is seldom possible. This
has also resulted in wiping out of the whole population of some species from certain areas
and also endangering their existence.
2. Destruction of habitat 
Due to increase in demand for land for housing and cultivation, forest lands are increasingly
being transformed into farm fields and housing projects etc. resulting in the destruction of
habitat for wildlife.
3. Destruction of an ecosystem 
Due to the killing of wild animals and diversion of forestland for non-forest purposes many
ecosystems across the world are on the verge of being destroyed.
Preventive measures
Man-animal conflicts have bad consequences not only for the mankind and the society but
also for the wildlife. Though we cannot completely avoid the man-animal conflict, it can be
minimized and controlled to a large extent if some of the following measures are adopted
sincerely.
1. To control poaching
Poaching of wild animals should be stopped so that the number of wild animals can be
stabilized and equilibrium between the numbers of prey animals and predators in the forest
ecosystem can be maintained.
2. Wildlife corridors
 wildlife corridors will provide a safe pathway to animals in the human-inhabited and
developed areas. This will not only protect the animals from road kills but it can also steer
them away from the human population thus prevent the man-animal conflict.
3. Awareness Programmers
It is important to create awareness among people and sensitize them about the Do s and Don
ts in the forest areas to minimize the conflicts between man and animal.
4. Solar Fencing around agriculture fields
 Agriculture fields situated near wildlife habitat/forest areas can be protected by stone fencing
or solar fencing.
5. Paying Compensation to the people
 Compensation should be paid promptly to the victims of wildlife attack so that the people
will not become enemy of the wild animals.
6. Eco-development activities
  - eco-development activities in villages around Protected Areas to elicit the cooperation of
the local community in the management of the Protected Areas can also help in minimising
the conflict.
7. Eco-Tourism
 Eco-Tourism in the wildlife areas can help create an alternate source of income for local
people and boost the local economy thus it can help in minimizing man-animal conflict on
account of crop depredation or livestock killing.
8. Use of ICT 
Some Information technology tools like GPS, high-frequency radio collars etc. can help track
the movement of animals and warn the local population. It can also monitor hotspots of man-
animal conflict. Identifying conflict hot spots helps to pinpoint ranger manpower and funding
to proactively address the issue of man-animal conflict.
The WWF report Common Ground identifies themes that can be used to compose a common
ground or a basic list of available and tested solutions. This is about finding solutions that
lead to mutually beneficial co-existence. These include:
 A united effort- In order to be truly effective, prevention of human-wildlife conflict has to
involve the full scope of society: international organizations, governments, NGOs,
communities, consumers and individuals. Solutions are possible, but often they also need to
have financial backing for their support and development.
 Land-use planning - Ensuring that both humans and animals have the space they need is
possible. Protecting key areas for wildlife, creating buffer zones and investing in alternative
land uses are some of the solutions.
 Community-based natural resource management - The local community is key since they
are the ones who may wake up in the morning with a tiger or bear in their back yard. But they
are also the people who can benefit the most from this. If people are empowered to manage
their relationship with wild animals, these "unwanted" neighbours can become allies in
bringing income and promoting a better quality of life for all.
 Compensation / insurance - Compensation or insurance for animal-induced damage is
another widely accepted solution. There are different ways this can be done. In Namibia, for
example, community-based insurance systems exist for damage done to livestock. The
Nepalese government pays compensation in areas around national parks.
 Payment for Environmental Services - Payment for Environmental Services (PES) is a
concept that has recently gained popularity in the international development and conservation
community. The most popular of these is the financial reward for the sequestering of carbon,
but it is also seen as a potential solution for the human-wildlife conflict.
 Wildlife-friendly products - Consumers is distant countries also have a role to play. Always
look for products that are environmentally friendly and recognized by serious organizations.
 Field-based solutions - there are a number of practical field-based solutions that can limit the
damage done both to humans and human property, and to wildlife, by preventing wildlife
from entering fields or villages. However, such solutions can only be applied on a case-by-
case basis. What people see as solution in one place, they may resist in another. And what
works in one place, may have the opposite effect somewhere else.

Conclusion
Increasing man-animal conflict is an outcome of shrinkage, fragmentation and deterioration
of habitats, it has caused the destruction of wildlife and generated animosity against wild
animals and protected areas.
 While adopting the above-mentioned strategies to minimize the conflict, it is also important
to develop a culture of tolerance among humans as viewing elephants, tigers, and leopards as
pests or threats will only escalate the human-wildlife conflict.

Q16. Briefly discuss HIV mode of its spread. How it effects on environment?
HIV lives in an infected person's blood , tissues, organs, and certain body  fluids (semen or
vaginal fluid and anal mucus).1,2 Nursing mothers who are infected also have HIV in their
breast milk. HIV spreads between people through blood and body fluids.
There are several common ways that HIV can be passed from person to person, including:
 Having unprotected sex with someone who is infected
Worldwide, most new HIV infections occur through sex. Women are particularly at risk of
infection through sex. It's much easier to get HIV (or to give it to someone else) if a person
has a sexually transmitted disease (STD). For more information, see the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention's The Role of STD Detection and Treatment in HIV Prevention.
 Transmission from mother to child
Without anti-HIV treatment, an infected mother may pass the virus to her child during
pregnancy, birth, or breastfeeding. Although mother-to-child transmission is preventable, and
transmission is rare in the United States , more than 300,000 infants are infected each year
through their mothers globally; most of these infections occur in sub-Saharan Africa.
 Using needles or syringes that have been used by people who are infected.
 Pre-chewing food for infants.
In a few cases, HIV has been spread when HIV-infected caregivers chewed food (or warmed
it in their mouths) and then fed the food to an infant. This practice can expose the child to
HIV if the caregiver has a sore or cut in the mouth. The CDC recommends that HIV-infected
caregivers do not pre-chew food for infants.
 Receiving infected blood products or transplanted organs
  Since 1985, the United States tests all donated blood and organs for HIV; therefore, the risk
of getting HIV in this way in the United States is now extremely low, and the risk is also
decreasing in other countries as they improve their testing methods.

Q17. What is the importance of Environmental studies? Discuss ways to

Increase public awareness towards environmental protection.
The Environment is about the surrounding external conditions influencing development or
growth of people, animal or plants; living or working conditions etc. Hence, environment
refers to sum total of conditions surround in space and time. The scope of term
‘Environment’ has been changing and widening by the passage of time. In the primitive age,
environment consisted of only physical aspects of the planet earth ie., land, water and air as
biological communities. As of now, it includes social, economic and political conditions also.
DEFINITIONS OF ENVIRONMENT
Some important definitions of environment are as under
1. According to Boring, ‘A person’s environment consists of the sum total of the stimulation
which he receives from his conception until his death.’ Indicating that environment comprises
various types of forces such as physical, intellectual, mental, economical, political, cultural,
social, moral and emotional.
2. Douglas and Holland defined that ‘The term environment is used to describe, in aggregate,
all the external forces, influences and conditions, which affect the life, nature, behaviour and
the growth, development and maturity of living organisms’.
IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENT STUDIES
The environment studies make us aware about the importance of protection and conservation
of our mother earth and about the destruction due to the release of pollution into the
environment. The increase in human and animal population, industries and other issues make
the survival cumbersome. A great number of environment issues have grown in size and
 make the system more complex day by day, threatening the survival of mankind on earth. 
Environment studies have become significant for the following reasons:
 Environment Issues are being of Global
It has been well recognised that environment issues like global warming and ozone depletion,
acid rain, marine pollution and biodiversity are not merely national issues but are global
issues and hence require international efforts and cooperation to solve them.
 Development and Environment
Development leads to Urbanization, Industrial Growth, Telecommunication and
Transportation Systems, Hi-tech Agriculture and Housing etc. However, it has become
phased out in the developed world. The North intentionally moves their dirty factories to
South to cleanse their own environment. When the West developed, it did so perhaps in
ignorance of the environmental impact of its activities. Development of the rich countries of
the world has undesirable effects on the environment of the entire world.
 Explosive Increase in Pollution
World census reflects that one in every seven persons in this planet lives in India. Evidently
with 16 per cent of the world's population and only 2.4 per cent of its land area, there is a
heavy pressure on the natural resources including land. Agricultural experts have recognized
soil health problems like deficiency of micronutrients and organic matter, soil salinity and
damage of soil structure.
 Need for an Alternative Solution
It is essential, especially for developing countries to find alternative paths to an alternative
goal. We need a goal as under:
 A true goal of development with an environmentally sound and sustainable
development.
 A goal common to all citizens of our planet earth.
 A goal distant from the developing world in the manner it is from the over-consuming
wasteful societies of the “developed” world.
 It is utmost important for us to save the humanity from extinction because of  our
activities constricting the environment and depleting the biosphere, in the name of
development.
 Need for Wise Planning of Development
Our survival and sustenance depend on resources availability. Hence Resources withdraw,
processing and use of the products have all to be synchronised with the ecological cycle. In
any plan of development our actions should be planned ecologically for the sustenance of the
environment and development.
Ways to increase public awareness towards environmental protection
Public awareness about environment is meant to help social groups and individuals to acquire
a basic understanding of environment and its associated problems. Educationists and
environmental specialists have repeatedly pointed out that any solution to the environmental
crisis will require environmental awareness and understanding to be deeply rooted in the
education system at all levels.
 Environmental awareness at primary school level to impart elementary knowledge
about environmental issues and problems
 Relevance of real-life situations of environment at secondary school level for
understanding of environmental problems
 Management of natural resources at senior secondary school level to develop skills to
tackle the management problems of natural resources.
  Environmental issues and sustainable development at college and university levels for
experimentation and solution to environmental problems and methods for
conservation of natural resources.
Environmental Awareness through Adult Education
The aim of adult education should be to create a collective action in solving the
environmental problems. The new types of complex environmental problems require
understanding and hence a new approach to adult education. A new approach should be
relevant with regard to being able to fulfill established environmental objectives. For
effective adult education, functionaries have to build rapport with the support organizations.
They require doing the following:
 Build capacities in technical, social & institutional aspects of environmental
management in village.
 Reorient teachers and instructors with regard to natural resources management.
 Find ways to sustain people’s interest on environmental issues and identify systems
for conveying knowledge and skill.
Educating people for environment presupposes a policy for environmental
training.
This policy should be comprehensively covering a number of elements.
These may include:
(a) Identifying training objectives;
(b) Determining environmental training practices;
(c) Matching training programmers to local demand for environmental knowledge and skills;
(d) Identifying the best modes and methods of training; and
(e) Ensuring the financing of training activities.

For general information, following may form the subject contents for educating adults to
become environmentally literate:
(1) Every house in the village should have a soak pit and water should not be allowed to
spread in front of the houses.
(2) The water of wells, ponds and rivers should not be polluted by bathing animals or
dumping garbage in them.
(3) Environmental issues may be linked with health, explaining things like stagnant water
breeds mosquitoes for malaria etc.
(4) Water conservation techniques should be taught.
(5) Tree plantation should be encouraged in and around villages.
(6) Pesticides and fertilizers should be used in appropriate quantities to avoid their bad effects
on the soil.
(7) Bio-gas plant should be encouraged to minimize the use of wood fuel.
(8) Solar energy should be encouraged for light and cooking purposes.
(9) The flourmills, brick kilns or other small-scale industries should be established away from
residential areas to avoid noise and air pollution.
(10) Training in handling of waste materials and methods of recycling should be taught.
(11) Lessons on environmental hazards and disaster should be taught.

Environment Awareness through Mass-Media

Mass-media can play a vital role in creating peoples’ awareness about environment and
conservation of natural resources. It can serve this purpose by means of its multi-channel
regional and network service comprising programmes such as talks, interviews, plays and
 documentaries etc. The electronic media can identify and bring to a halt forces affecting the
natural and even the man-made environment. It matters much how the public mind can be
mobilized to reduce pollution and promote environmental quality.
For instance, the prevention of wastage of oil, gas, coal and other sources of energy is not
the solitary goal. The goal should be to focus certain relative aspects leading to
environmental protection through conservation emphasizing the protection of good earth.
What we need is canvassing different methodologies of oil conservation since the electronic
media are a potential mobilize of public opinion. It is genuinely expected that the twin media
play quite a significant role in influencing mass-awareness against the excessive use of
energy
Establishment of Eco-Clubs:
National Green Corps, a movement of eco-friendly children, has been spreading awareness
about environmental protection among children. Under this programme, more than 70,000
eco-clubs are setup all over India covering about 150 schools district wise. Young students
not only learn about environment but participate in field activities in and around their
schools.
Establishment of Greenbelts:
Under this programme, tree plantation is done along public utilities such as roads, railways,
canals and private housing complexes, especially in July under the Van Mahotsava
programme (mass tree plantation festival) in India.
Campaign through State Transport:
Under this programme, state transport department propagates the environment awareness
message through slogans and pictures displayed in their buses.

Q18. Differentiate between renewable and nonrenewable resources. Enlist

Various renewable and nonrenewable resources.
The earth in which we all are living today is a gift of several resources which are everlasting.
These resources are termed as the natural resources and are available from the time when the
earth was inhabited. We all are depended on these resources some or the other way. These
resources include water bodies including oceans, seas, river, ponds, and freshwater.
The land, soils, rocks, forests, animals, fossil fuels, and minerals these resources are termed
as natural resources and are the source of life present on earth. Natural Resources are
classified into Renewable resources and Non-renewable resources
RENEWABLE RESOURCES
These are those resources which are used by mankind from the starting of human life. Our
ancestors used these resources for lighting purposes, transportation, shelter, cooking, heating,
protection from wild animals, etc. Renewable resources are also called as ‘Non-
Conventional’ sources of energy. Few examples of renewable resources are sun, wind, tidal
energy, forests, mountains, soil, water bodies, animals and wildlife resources, atmospheric
resources and lot more.
NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES
The resources which cannot be easily replaced once they are destroyed are called as the Non-
renewable resources. Few examples of Non-renewable resources include few species
of plants and animals, minerals, fossil fuels, water, wind, land, soil, and rocks.
 Now let’s have the major difference between Renewable Resources and Non-Renewable
Resources.

ENLIST VARIOUS RENEWABLE AND NONRENEWABLE RESOURCES

Natural resources are valuable to us. The broadest classification of resources is done on the
basis of their replenishing ability. Let us take a look, at these two classifications.
 Renewable resources
 Non Renewable resources
RENEWABLE RESOURCES
When talking about classification of resources, we will first see the renewable resources.
Renewable resources are those resources that can be replenished or renewed naturally over
time. Air, water, wind, solar energy etc are all renewable resources. Renewable resources can
be easily renewed by nature.
 Solar energy
Sun is a big source of energy. The energy that we get from the Sun is called solar energy. All
the natural  phenomenon like the flowing of wind, water cycle, photosynthesis etc are
possible only due to solar energy. Now a day, solar energy is being used to cook food with
the help of solar cookers, heat water, light streets, pump water for irrigating fields etc.
 Hydro-Energy
Water is important natural resources. All living organisms need water to live. Humans need
water for many purposes such as drinking, cleaning, cooking and for growing crops. Water
flowing into the river or water stored in a dam is sources of hydro energy. The Simple method
to use hydro energy is to convert it into electrical energy.

 Wind energy
Winds are constantly being created in nature. The windmill is a source of electrical energy.
These windmills are generally established only at places where most of the days in a year
experience strong winds. The energy from this wind is used for grinding grain,  pumping
water and to produce electricity. In India, many windmills have been set up in different places
such as Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Kerala, West Bengal and Gujarat.
 Biogas
Biogas is a type of fuel which is a mixture of gases such as methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen
etc which is obtained by decomposition of animal and plant wastes like animal dung, with the
help of micro-organisms in the presence of water. It is used as fuel in gas stove especially in
rural areas.
 Wood
Wood is an ancient and traditional source of energy. It is mainly a mixture of many
carbohydrate compounds. Wood is used to cook food. It leads to deforestation and pollutes air
also. In India, still in many villages, they use wood chullas to cook food every day. While
having ill effects on the environment, it is also harmful to human health
 Hydrogen
It is a good source of energy because it does not create pollution and produce maximum
energy on burning. Hydrogen has the potential to be the answer to all our energy and fuel
troubles. Technology is currently being developed to fully utilize hydrogen efficiency.
 Alcohol
Alcohol has many commercial and medical purposes. It can use for producing energy. It can
be obtained while making sugar from sugarcane. Thus it is a very cheap source of energy. A
mixture of petrol and alcohol is being used as a fuel in automobiles. This mixture is called
‘Gasohol’.
 Air
All living things need air to breathe. Therefore, air is an important natural resource.
 Water
All living things water in order to survive. And the water cycle means we will essentially
never run out of the water. But we must be careful not to pollute water and make it unusable.
Drinking and clean water are already scarce in the world.
 Soil
It is an important resource as this is the layer where plants grow. We all need food in order to
survive. We get most of our food from crops grown in the soil.

NON RENEWABLE RESOURCES

The other classification of resources is non-renewable resources. Non-renewable resources
are those natural resources that are available in limited quantity. These resources cannot be
renewed or replenished in short duration. Therefore they are also known as exhaustible
resources. Examples- coal, natural gas, petroleum etc.
 Fossil fuel
Fossil fuels like coal and petroleum are non-renewable resources. They are found deep inside
the earth and are made by natural processes over many centuries. Their quantity is limited
and they take thousands of years to get renewed. Example of fossil fuels is coal, petroleum,
natural gas etc.
 Coal: It is also known as black diamond. Coal is used as a fuel, to generate electricity,
and in factories and steam engines.
 Natural gas: Natural gas is used as a fuel called Compressed Natural Gas or CNG.
Some wells dug into the earth produce only natural gas. Natural gases are a good
alternative to petrol and diesel and it is used as Compressed Natural Gas. It burns
easily and produces a lot of heat. It is a good source of hydrogen.
 Petroleum:  Petroleum is also known as mineral oil or crude oil. This liquid mineral
is refined to make fuels such as petrol, diesel, cooking gas and kerosene. Plastic,
cosmetics, and lubricants are also products of petroleum. It is found deep inside the
Earth or under the sea floor. It is taken out by drilling wells deep into the Earth or
under the seabed.
 Nuclear energy
In the classification of resources, nuclear energy is classified as non-renewable. The fuel used
for nuclear energy is generally uranium, which is in a limited supply. So we classify it as
non-renewable. Production of electricity from nuclear energy does not release carbon
dioxide. Thus, use of nuclear energy is safe for the environment.
Q19. Write a note on Ecological succession.
Ecological succession is the term used to describe what happens to an ecological community
over time. It refers to more or less predictable and orderly set of changes that happen in the
composition or structure of ecological community. When you are born, your learn to crawl,
then walk and then run. When you grow old, your body goes through certain predictable
changes over a period of time as in your body grows taller, your hair grows longer, your mind
and body develops. Similarly, when you plant a tree, it grows slowly and then grows bigger
and bigger and bigger. Basically, its a predictable set of changes that are visible over a period
of time. The time scale can be decades or even millions of years.
It is different from Ecological Evolution because the changes that occur aren’t evolutionary
in nature, but they may be adaptive. It is based on the principle and knowledge that nothing in
life ever remains the same, but that all habitats are in a process of constant change as a result
of the inter-dependencies and reactions within the ecological system itself.
 3 TYPES OF ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Succession may be initiated either by formation of new habitat (landslide or lava flow) or
disturbance of already existing habitat (fires, land clearance). There are three recognized
stages to ecological succession. Each covers a gradual process of change and development.
They do not have hard and defined boundaries, and it is possibly for an ecological system to
be in both stages at once during the transition period from one to another. The 3 stages of
ecological succession are:
PRIMARY
This is when an ecological community first enters into a new form of habitat that it has not
been present in before. A good example of this would be the habitat created when granite is
removed in a quarry. The rock face that is left behind is altered and becomes a new habitat.
The environment that then grows within that habitat is considered to be in its primary stage.
SECONDARY
The secondary succession stage occurs after a habitat has been established, but it is then
disturbed or changed in some fashion and a new community moves in. To use the example
from before – let us say that a primary stage develops on the face of a newly quarried granite
cliff. That habitat grows undisturbed, until there is a forest fire that then burns and changes a
portion of the habitat that has been growing on the rock face. That ecological habitat has now
entered its secondary stage.
CLIMAX
The climax stage is the last stage of an ecosystem. It is when the ecosystem has become
balanced and there is little risk of an interfering event or change to mutate the environment.
Several rainforests and deserts qualify as being in the climax stage. What is tricky about a
climax stage is that given human development, any ecosystem that is in the climax stage now
holds the risk of being destroyed and going backward in the stages.
4 STAGES OF ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
When talking about the types of ecological succession it is important to remember that the
“types” occur within the stages, but they may not necessarily be unique to that stage. What
determines the stage that an ecosystem is in is dependent on its energy balance which is
discussed in the next section.
There are four main types of ecological succession:
Pioneer 
Pioneer types are the new life forms that enter into a primary succession and begin to take
hold. This can be anything from a seed to a bacteria to an insect or to an animal wandering
into a new area and bedding down to make it their home. The pioneer has no connection to
the environment, but it does find enough present in the new ecosystem to begin to establish
its life.
Establishing 
The establishing type can be hard to pinpoint because it crosses into the pioneer and
sustaining. Establishing is the process in which life forms identify elements in an ecosystem
that can sustain their basic needs – such as food, water and safe habitat.
Sustaining 
Sustaining type means that life in the ecosystem has begun to enter into a pattern that allows
for a cycle of life to continue. This means that birth and death are occurring, and there is little
migration outside of the ecosystem – this is most common in the climax succession.
Producing
The producing type occurs during the secondary succession. This is when lifeforms are
breeding and growing, but there is migration because what is produced is also not capable of
being supported within the ecosystem. There are also more areas of overgrowth or
overpopulation due to seed levels.

Pioneer species are the ones that thrive the new habitat at the beginning of ecological
succession. Pioneer species are ‘r-selected’ species that are fast growing and well-dispersed.
Early succession is therefore dominated by so called ‘r-selected’ species. As succession
continues, more species enter the community and begin to alter the environment. These are
called ‘k-selected’ species. They are more competitive and fight for resource and space. The
species that are better suited for the modified habitat then begin to succeed the other species.
These are superseded by newer set of species. This goes on till the stage of climax or
equilibrium is achieved.
When succession reaches a climax, where community is dominated by stable and small
number of prominent species and no other species can be admitted, that is called the  state of
equilibrium or the climax community.

Ecological Succession and Energy Balance

The climax stage of ecological succession is defined by the energy balance that is achieved.
This means that within this very stable ecological system, there is a balance between the life
that is produced, and the life that is consumed. For example, there are enough animals to eat
the extra seeds to prevent overgrowth that could choke out plants, but not enough to prevent
some of the seeds from growing and continuing their cycle of life. The climax stage is stable,
but not static. During the other stages, the balance of energy is not in place and there may be
crises that develop as a result which will prolong the secondary stage.
How Long Does Each Stage of Ecological Succession Take?
Each stage of ecological succession can take 100s to 1,000s of years – if not more. That is
true, but only in a forensic sense. The assumption of ecological succession is that it is a
forward moving, and linear path. As more of humankind encroaches on the natural world, the
 linear progression of this methodology is changing itself. That someone seems fitting for a
theory that talks about the inevitability of change.
How is Mankind Changing Ecological Succession?
To best illustrate this, let us return to our first example – the rock face. Let us suppose that
the granite wall was quarried by man, and then abandoned once they had what they needed.
This allows for a primary stage to begin. Left alone by man, it could quickly pass into a
secondary stage within a hundred years or so. Another few centuries after that, the old quarry
is slowly entering its stable climax stage – except – now man has returned to build a road.
One thing that ecological succession recognizes is the death of an ecosystem. That is what
occurs when a climax stage ecosystem like the rain forest is destroyed by logging. Yet when
a climax stage ecosystem is only interrupted, it is not yet understood whether it returns to the
secondary stage, or would still be considered at its climax of ecological succession.

Q20. What are the various threats to biodiversity? Explain.

The fewer animals we have, the fewer humans we will have.
That's why biodiversity is important. The wide variety of species on Earth, whether they're
plants, animals or microscopic organisms, are vital to keep the world's many ecosystems
healthy, balanced and thriving growing plants we can eat, trees we can shade under, and
landscapes to use for everything from vacations to computer screensavers.
In other words, biodiversity ensures natural sustainability for all life on the planet think more
abundant crops and fresher air, for example. More than 3 billion people depend on marine
and coastal biodiversity, while more than 1.6 billion people rely on forests for their
livelihoods. The loss of biodiversity affects the lives of more than 1 billion people living in
dry lands.
 But there are a number of issues threatening our planet's biodiversity, from climate
change to invasive species.
1) Climate change
Changes in climate throughout our planet's history have, of course, altered life on Earth in the
long run ecosystems have come and gone and species routinely go extinct.
But rapid, manmade climate change speeds up the process, without affording ecosystems and
species the time to adapt. For example, rising ocean temperatures and diminishing Arctic sea
ice affects marine biodiversity and can shift vegetation zones, having global implications.
Overall, climate is a major factor in the distribution of species across the globe; climate
change forces them to adjust. But many are not able to cope, causing them to die out.
What can we do? Individuals can take various steps to fight climate change, such as
reducing their carbon footprints, promoting education and contacting elected officials.
International governments and cities can lead the charge, however, and the 2015 United
Nations Climate Change Conference in Paris will hopefully be a turning point.
2) Deforestation and habitat loss
Deforestation is a direct cause of extinction and loss of biodiversity. An estimated 18 million
acres of forest are lost each year, due in part to logging and other human practices, destroying
the ecosystems on which many species depend. Tropical rainforests in particular, such as
the Amazon, hold a high percentage of the world's known species, yet the regions themselves
are in decline due to humans.
What can we do? The solutions to deforestation mostly lie in policy companies and
corporations can adopt best practices and refuse to use timber and paper suppliers that
contribute to deforestation. In the same vein, conscious consumers can refuse to patronize
companies that do, and put pressure on retailers that employ unsustainable manufacturing
methods. Individuals can also participate in land preservation through charities and private
corporations. Ultimately, however, international governments need to enact stronger,
scientific forest protection laws.
3) Overexploitation
Overhunting, overfishing and over-harvesting contribute greatly to the loss of biodiversity,
killing off numerous species over the past several hundred years. Poaching and other forms of
hunting for profit increase the risk of extinction; the extinction of an apex predator — or, a
predator at the top of a food chain — can result in catastrophic consequences for ecosystems.
What can we do? Conservation and continued awareness surrounding overexploitation,
especially poaching and overfishing, are key. Governments need to actively enforce rules
against such practices, and individuals can be more conscious of what they eat and purchase.
Other solutions, such as removing subsidies granted to large-scale fisheries, can help, too.
4) Invasive species
The introduction of non-native species into an ecosystem can threaten endemic wildlife
(either as predators or competing for resources), affect human health and upset economies.
What can we do? According to the National Wildlife Federation, solutions include creating
systems to prevent introduction of invasive species in the first place, effectively monitoring
for new infestations and swiftly eradication newly detected invaders.
5) Pollution
From the burning of fossil fuels (releasing dangerous chemicals into the atmosphere and, in
some cases, depleting ozone levels) to dumping 19 billion pounds of plastic into the ocean
every year, pollution completely disrupts the Earth's ecosystems. While it may not
necessarily cause extinction, pollutants do have the potential to influents species' habits.
For example, acid rain, which is typically caused by the burning of fossil fuels, can acidify
smaller bodies of water and soil, negatively affecting the species that live there
by changing breeding and feeding habits.
What can we do? The average person can do a number of things to fight atmospheric and
hydrologic pollution, such as recycling, conserving energy at home and using public
transportation.

Q21. What are the causes of Water pollution? Give various measures of
controlling water pollution?
WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution occurs when harmful substances often chemicals or microorganisms
contaminate a stream, river, lake, ocean, aquifer, or other body of water, degrading water
quality and rendering it toxic to humans or the environment.
 Causes of Water Pollution
Water is uniquely vulnerable to pollution. Known as a “universal solvent,” water is able to
dissolve more substances than any other liquid on earth. It’s the reason we have Kool-Aid
and brilliant blue waterfalls. It’s also why water is so easily polluted. Toxic substances from
farms, towns, and factories readily dissolve into and mix with it, causing water pollution.
Groundwater
When rain falls and seeps deep into the earth, filling the cracks, crevices, and porous spaces
of an aquifer (basically an underground storehouse of water), it becomes groundwater—one
of our least visible but most important natural resources. Nearly 40 percent of Americans rely
on groundwater, pumped to the earth’s surface, for drinking water. For some folks in rural
areas, it’s their only freshwater source. Groundwater gets polluted when contaminants—from
pesticides and fertilizers to waste leached from landfills and septic systems—make their way
into an aquifer, rendering it unsafe for human use. Ridding groundwater of contaminants can
be difficult to impossible, as well as costly. Once polluted, an aquifer may be unusable for
decades, or even thousands of years. Groundwater can also spread contamination far from the
original polluting source as it seeps into streams, lakes, and oceans.
Surface water
Covering about 70 percent of the earth, surface water is what fills our oceans, lakes, rivers,
and all those other blue bits on the world map. Surface water from freshwater sources (that is,
from sources other than the ocean) accounts for more than 60 percent of the water delivered
to American homes. But a significant pool of that water is in peril. According to the most
recent surveys on national water quality from the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, nearly half of our rivers and streams and more than one-third of our lakes are
polluted and unfit for swimming, fishing, and drinking. Nutrient pollution, which includes
nitrates and phosphates, is the leading type of contamination in these freshwater sources.
While plants and animals need these nutrients to grow, they have become a major
pollutant due to farm waste and fertilizer runoff. Municipal and industrial waste discharges
contribute their fair share of toxins as well. There’s also all the random junk that industry and
individuals dump directly into waterways.
Ocean water
Eighty percent of ocean pollution (also called marine pollution) originates on land—whether
along the coast or far inland. Contaminants such as chemicals, nutrients, and heavy metals are
carried from farms, factories, and cities by streams and rivers into our bays and estuaries;
from there they travel out to sea. Meanwhile, marine debris—particularly plastic—is blown
in by the wind or washed in via storm drains and sewers. Our seas are also sometimes spoiled
by oil spills and leaks—big and small—and are consistently soaking up carbon pollution
from the air. The ocean absorbs as much as a quarter of man-made carbon emissions.
Point source
When contamination originates from a single source, it’s called point source pollution.
Examples include wastewater (also called effluent) discharged legally or illegally by a
manufacturer, oil refinery, or wastewater treatment facility, as well as contamination from
leaking septic systems, chemical and oil spills, and illegal dumping. The EPA regulates point
source pollution by establishing limits on what can be discharged by a facility directly into a
body of water. While point source pollution originates from a specific place, it can affect
miles of waterways and ocean.
Nonpoint source
Nonpoint source pollution is contamination derived from diffuse sources. These may include
agricultural or storm water runoff or debris blown into waterways from land. Nonpoint source
pollution is the leading cause of water pollution in U.S. waters, but it’s difficult to regulate,
since there’s no single, identifiable culprit.
Tran boundary
It goes without saying that water pollution can’t be contained by a line on a map. Tran
boundary pollution is the result of contaminated water from one country spilling into the
waters of another. Contamination can result from a disaster—like an oil spill—or the slow,
downriver creep of industrial, agricultural, or municipal discharge.
There are several measures by which the water quality in a system can be controlled
some of these are:
1. Reducing the effluent concentration of the waste input by:
(a) Wastewater treatment
(b) Industrial in-plant process control
(c) Eliminating effluent constituents by pretreatment prior to discharge to sewer systems or
by different product manufacturing for an industry.

2. Reducing the upstream concentration by upstream point and non – point

source controls
3. Reducing the effluent volume by
(a) Reduction of direct industrial discharge volumes into the municipal sewer system.
(b) Reduction in infiltration into municipal sewer systems.
(c) Reduction of waste volumes through process modifications in industries.
4. Increasing the upstream flow by low flow augmentation, i.e., releases
from upstream reservoir storage or from diversion from nearby water
bodies
5. Increase the Environmental, In-Stream Degradation Rate of the
Substance:
This can be accomplished by a redesign of the chemical to result in a more rapid breakdown
of the chemical by the natural heterotrophic bacteria in the stream. For example, redesign of
synthetic detergents to reduce foaming and downstream transport through increased
biodegradation rate. In manufacturing of potentially toxic chemicals also an attempt may be
made to increase biodegradation rates so that a chemical build-up does not occur.
6. Environmental Controls:
The three broad categories, for control of pathogenic bacteria, viruses and parasites are
control at the input source of the micro-organism, control at the area of water use, and control
of the product that is affected by contamination. Municipal wastes causing point pollution are
the usual principal inputs of communicable disease organisms. Such inputs can be reduced by
treatment of wastes without disinfection and disinfection by chlorination, ozonation, chlorine
dioxide and ultraviolet radiation.
Controls of the area of water use would include bathing restrictions on a transient basis,
construction of dikes and diversion structures to protect a given area. Controls of the product
would include chlorination or other methods of disinfection of water used for drinking water
supply, treatment plants for contaminated shellfish to allow depuration of bacteria prior to
marketing, and distribution of high-quality bottled water during emergency.
 7. Harversting of Biomass
Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and other aquatic weeds are used to upgrade
wastewater treatment lagoons and treat chemical wastewaters. The water hyacinth has been
used for purifying not only domestic wastewater but also industrial wastewater. It can readily
absorb, accumulate and concentrate heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, mercury and nickel.
Other studies have evaluated the potential of water hyacinth to absorb various organic
chemicals like phenols and toxaphene. Water hyacinth can remove even radioactive metals
from effluents, which is very difficult otherwise.
.

8. Wastewater reclamation
The sewage treatment yields irrigation water that contains a number of essential nutrients like
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium to make it a fertilizer. In west Bengal, the practice of
irrigating fish ponds with sewage for raising fish is common. Another interesting aspect is the
reuse or reclamation of sewage effluents for industrial purposes. This holds good for coping
with ever increasing demand for water by industrial establishments in big cities. A few
industries in Mumbai have already taken steps in this direction and the treated sewage is used
for air-conditioning and other purposes.

Q22. What is acid rain? What are the factors which cause acid rain?
What is Acid Rain
Acid rain refers to a mixture of deposited material, both wet and dry, coming from the
atmosphere containing more than normal amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. Simply put, it
means rain that is acidic in nature due to the presence of certain pollutants in the air due to
cars and industrial processes. It is easily defined as rain, fog, sleet or snow that has been
 made acidic by pollutants in the air as a result of fossil fuel and industrial combustions that
mostly emits Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) and Sulfur Dioxide (SO2). Acidity is determined on the
basis of the pH level of the water droplets. Normal rain water is slightly acidic with a pH
range of 5.3-6.0, because carbon dioxide and water present in the air react together to form
carbonic acid, which is a weak acid. When the pH level of rain water falls below this range, it
becomes acid rain.
When these gases react with water molecules and oxygen among other
chemicals found in the atmosphere, mild acidic chemical compounds such as sulfuric and
nitric acid are formed resulting to acid rain. Acid rain generally leads to weathering of
buildings, corrosion of metals, and peeling of paints on surfaces. Erupting volcanoes contains
some chemicals that can cause acid rain. Apart from this, burning of fossil fuels, running
of factories and automobiles due to human activities are few other reasons behind this
activity.

Presently, large amounts of acid deposition is witnessed in the southeastern Canada,

northeastern United States and most of Europe, including portions of Sweden, Norway, and
Germany. In addition, some amount of acid deposition is found in parts of South Asia, South
Africa, Sri Lanka, and Southern India.
Forms of Acid Rain
There are two forms in which acid deposition occurs – wet and dry. Both are discussed
below:
1) Wet Deposition: When the wind blows the acidic chemicals in the air to the areas where
the weather is wet, the acids fall to the ground in the form of rain, sleet, fog, snow or mist. It
removes acid from the atmosphere and deposit them on the earth’s surface. When this acid
flows through the ground, it affects large number of plants, animals and aquatic life. The
water from drain flows into rivers and canals which is them mixed up with sea water, thereby
affecting marine habitats.
2) Dry Deposition: If the wind blows the acidic chemicals in the air to the areas where the
weather is dry, the acidic pollutants slip into dust or smoke and fall to the ground as dry
particles. These stick to the ground and other surfaces such as cars, houses, trees and
buildings. Almost 50% of the acidic pollutants in the atmosphere fall back through dry
deposition. These acidic pollutants can be washed away from earth surface by rainstorms.
 It was discovered way back in 1800s during the Industrial Revolution. A Scottish chemist,
Robert Angus Smith, was first to discover this phenomenon in 1852 as a relationship between
acid rain and atmospheric pollution in Manchester, England. But it gained public attention
mainly in 1960s. The term was coined in 1972 when the NY Times published reports about
the climate change effects which started arising due to the occurrence of acid rain in the
Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire.

Causes of Acid Rain

Both natural and man-made sources are known to play a role in the formation of acid rain.
But, it is mainly caused by combustion of fossil fuels which results in emissions of sulfur
dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx).
1) Natural Sources
The major natural causal agent for acid rain is volcanic emissions. Volcanoes emit acid
producing gases to create higher than normal amounts of acid rain or any other form of
precipitation such as fog and snow to an extent of affecting vegetation cover and health of
residents within the surrounding. Decaying vegetation, wildfires and biological processes
within the environment also generate the acid rain forming gases. Dimethly sulfide is a
typical example of a major biological contributor to sulfur containing elements into the
atmosphere. Lighting strikes also naturally produces nitric oxides that react with water
molecules via electrical activity to produce nitric acid, thereby forming acid rain.
2) Man-made sources
Human activities leading to chemical gas emissions such as sulfur and nitrogen are the
primary contributors to acid rain. The activities include air pollution sources emitting sulfur
and nitrogen gases like factories, power generations facilities, and automobiles. In particular,
use of coal for electrical power generation is the biggest contributor to gaseous emissions
leading to acid rain. Automobiles and factories also release high scores of gaseous emissions
on daily basis into the air, especially in highly industrialized areas and urban regions with
large numbers of car traffic. These gases react in the atmosphere with water, oxygen, and
other chemicals to form various acidic compounds such as sulfuric acid, ammonium nitrate,
and nitric acid. As a result, these areas experience exceedingly high amounts of acid rain.
The existing winds blow these acidic compounds over large areas across borders and they fall
back to the ground in the form of acid rain or other forms of precipitation. Upon reaching
the earth, it flows across the surface, absorbs into the soil and enters into lakes and rivers and
finally gets mixed up with sea water.
The gases i.e. i.e. sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) are primarily gases
occurring from electric power generation by burn

Q23. Write a note on ‘Role of Information technology in Environment and

Human Health’.

Role of Information Technology in Environment and Human Health

When you talk about information technology, it has a significant hand in improving the status
in the fields of environmental education and human health as compared to that of the other
 respective areas such as business, economics, and culture or politics. The emerging growth of
the internet services and facilities, geographic information system or GIS, and the data that
gets transmitted through satellites, etc. have generated a higher affluence of the updated
information on several aspects of the environment as well as health. When you look for the
variety of software in the market, you will come across a number of them that created for the
health and environment studies in a better way. They are quite user-friendly and certainly
help a learner to understand the respective subject with ease.

Database on the Environment System

Understanding the meaning of database is super easy and straightforward; it is a collection of
connected data on some subjects. It comes in a computerized form, and you can retrieve the
data at any hour of the day whenever needed. The information of database can easily extract
in a computer. When it comes to comprehensive databases, things that include in it are
wildlife database, forest cover database, and conservation database, etc. the databases are also
available for some diseases which include malaria, fluorosis, HIV/AIDS, etc.
 National management information system (NMIS).
 Environmental information system (ENVIS).
 Remote sensing and geographical information system (GIS).
 Geographical information system (GIS).
 The World Wide Web (WWW).

1) National Management Information System (Nmis)

According to NMIS of the department of science and technology, it can understand that it has
a database compilation that base on research and development projects, as well as
information that is related to research scientists and personnel, are included.
2) Environmental Information System (Envis)
According to the ministry of environment and forests, the government of India has developed
an information system known as ecological information system or ENVIS. It has its
headquarters based in Delhi and has its branches all over India. ENVIS established back in
1982, and since then, its main aim is to provide environmental information to all the decision
makers, engineers, scientists, and policy planners that reside in all over the country. The
centers of ENVIS implement the work hours in generating a new network for databases in
areas such as clean technologies, pollution control, biodiversity, wildlife, environmental
management, remote sensing, and renewable energy.
3) Remote Sensing And Geographical Information System (Gis)
The process of remote sensing that access through satellites can be used to get through the
ongoing alterations in the environment as well as to predict the natural hazards before time
such as floods, droughts, volcanic eruptions, starvation, etc. It is one of the most useful
techniques in exploring the availability of mineral deposits, crude oil, and locating other
geothermal powerhouses.
4) Geographical Information System (GIS)
GIS or geographic information system considered as one of the most effective tools in the
entire environmental management topic. It is a process of superimposing different thematic
maps with the help of digital data on a large scale of interconnected aspects. The different
thematic maps that contain digital information and database on various elements such as
 forest land, water resources, soil type, cropland, industrial growth, human settlement, and
industrial growth, etc. are placed in a layered prospectus in the computer with the help of
software. GIS also helps in identifying some deadly and chronic diseases that come from the
infested areas which are very much prone to vector-borne diseases such as schistosomiasis,
malaria, etc. based on the geographical map of that area. There are some distribution
information centers (DICs) in India that are interrelated with each other and with the central
information network getting its access to the international database.
They are also capable of availing information and facts about the atmospheric phenomena
such as the upcoming monsoon, inversion phenomena, the depletion of the ozone layer,
smog, etc. It is the reason why remote sensing and GIS play a significant role in resource
mapping, management, planning, environmental conservation, and environmental impact
assessment as well.
5) The World Wide Web (WWW)
With the availability of resources on every aspect, things like classroom activities, digital
files of photos, web-exercises, animations, PowerPoint lecture presentations, and quiz
competitions have proved to be more helpful for both the students as well as the teachers who
pursue environmental studies.

Q24. Discuss the scope of Environmental studies. How is it multidisciplinary in

nature?
Meaning
Environmental studies deals with every issue that affects an organism. It is essentially a
multidisciplinary approach that brings about an appreciation of our natural world and human
impacts on its integrity. It is an applied science as its seeks practical answers to making
human civilization sustainable on the earth’s finite resources. Its components include biology,
 geology, chemistry, physics, engineering, sociology, health, anthropology, economics,
statistics, computers and philosophy.
Scope
Scope As we look around at the area in which we live, we see that our surroundings were
originally a natural landscape such as a forest, a river, a mountain, a desert, or a combination
of these elements. Most of us live in landscapes that have been heavily modified by human
beings, in villages, towns or cities. But even those of us who live in cities get our food supply
from surrounding villages and these in turn are dependent on natural landscapes such as
forests, grasslands, rivers, seashores, for resources such as water for agriculture, fuel wood,
fodder, and fish. Thus our daily lives are linked with our surroundings and inevitably affects
them. We use water to drink and for other day-to-day activities. We breathe air, we use
resources from which food is made and we depend on the community of living plants and
animals which form a web of life, of which we are also a part. Everything around us forms
our environment and our lives depend on keeping its vital systems as intact as possible. Our
dependence on nature is so great that we cannot continue to live without protecting the
earth’s environmental resources. Thus most traditions refer to our environment as ‘Mother
Nature’ and most traditional societies have learned that respecting nature is vital for their
livelihoods. This has led to many cultural practices that helped traditional societies protect
and preserve their natural resources. Respect for nature and all living creatures is not new to
India. All our traditions are based on these values. Emperor Ashoka’s edict proclaimed that
all forms of life are important for our well being in Fourth Century BC. Over the past 200
years however, modern societies began to believe that easy answers to the question of
producing more resources could be provided by means of technological innovations. For
example, though growing more food by using fertilizers and pesticides, developing better
strains of domestic animals and crops, irrigating farmland through mega dams and
developing industry, led to rapid economic growth, the ill effects of this type of development,
led to environmental degradation.
Scope and Importance of Environmental Studies
The disciplines included in environmental education are environmental sciences,
environmental engineering and environmental management.
(a) Environmental Science:
It deals with the scientific study of environmental system (air, water, soil and land), the
inherent or induced changes on organisms and the environmental damages incurred as a
result of human interaction with the environment.
(b) Environmental Engineering:
It deals with the study of technical processes involved in the protection of environment from
the potentially deleterious effects of human activity and improving the environmental quality
for the health and well beings of humans.

(c) Environmental Management:
It promotes due regard for physical, social and economic environment of the enterprise or
projects. It encourages planned investment at the start of the production chain rather than
forced investment in cleaning up at the end.
It generally covers the areas as environment and enterprise objectives, scope, and structure of
the environment, interaction of nature, society and the enterprise, environment impact
assessment, economics of pollution, prevention, environmental management standards etc.
The importances of environmental studies are as follows:
 1. To clarify modern environmental concept like how to conserve biodiversity.
2. To know the more sustainable way of living.
3. To use natural resources more efficiently.
4. To know the behavior of organism under natural conditions.
5. To know the interrelationship between organisms in populations and communities.
6. To aware and educate people regarding environmental issues and problems at local,
national and international levels.

Q26. What are the functions of ecosystem? Explain Grass land ecosystem.
FUNCTION OF ECOSYSTEM
The functional attributes of the ecosystem keep the components running together. Ecosystem
functions are natural processes or exchange of energy that take place in various plant and
animal communities of different biomes of the world.
For instance, green leaves prepare food and roots absorb nutrients from the soil, herbivores
feed on the leaves and the roots and in turn serve as food for the carnivores.
 Decomposers execute the functions of breaking down complex organic materials into simple
inorganic products, which are used by the producers.
Fundamentally, ecosystem functions are exchange of energy and nutrients in the food chain.
These exchanges sustain plant and animal life on the planet as well as the decomposition of
organic matter and the production of biomass.
All these functions of the ecosystem take place through delicately balanced and
controlled processes.
 Food Chain
The order of living organisms in a community in which one organism consumes other and is
itself consumed by another organism to transfer energy is called a food chain. Food chain is
also defined as “a chain of organisms, existing in any natural community, through which
energy is transferred”. Every living being irrespective of their size and habit from the tiniest
algae to giant blue whales, need food to survive. Food chain is structured differently for
different species in different ecosystems. Each food chain is the vital pathway for energy and
nutrients to follow through the ecosystem.

Food chains were first introduced by the African-Arab scientist and philosopher Al-Jahiz in
the 9th century and later popularized in a book published in 1927 by Charles Elton.

A food chain starts with a producer such as plants. Producers form the basis of the food
chains. Then there are consumers of many orders. Consumers are organisms that eat other
organisms. All organisms in a food chain, except the first organism, are consumers.
Plants are called producers because they produce their own food through photosynthesis.
Animals are called consumers because they depend on plants or other animals for food to get
energy they need. In a certain food chain, each organism gets energy from the one at the level
below. In a food chain, there is reliable energy transfer through each stage. All the energy at
one stage of the chain is not absorbed by the organism at the next stage.
 Trophic Levels in a Food Chain
Trophic levels are different stages of feeding position in a food chain such as primary
producers and consumers of different types.
1) Producers (First Trophic Level) − Producers otherwise called autotrophs prepare their food
by themselves. They form the first level of every food chain. Plants and one-celled
organisms, some types of bacteria, algae, etc. come under the category of Autotrophs.
Virtually, almost all autotrophs use a process called photosynthesis to prepare food.
Consumers At the second trophic level, there are consumers who depend upon others for
food.
2) Primary Consumers (Second Trophic Level) − Primary consumers eat the producers. They
are called herbivores. Deer, turtle, and many types of birds are herbivores.
Secondary Consumers (Third Trophic Level) − Secondary consumers based at the third
trophic level eat plants and herbivores. They are both carnivores (meateaters) and omnivores
(animals that eat both animals and plants). In a desert ecosystem, a secondary consumer may
be a snake that eats a mouse. Secondary consumers may eat animals bigger than they are.
Some lions, for example, kill and eat buffalo. The buffalo weighs twice as much as the lions
do.
3) Tertiary Consumers (Third Trophic Level) − Tertiary consumers are animals eating other
carnivores. The secretary bird in Africa and the King Cobra specialize in killing and eating
snakes but all snakes are carnivores. The leopard seal eats mostly other carnivores - mainly
other seals, squids, and penguins, all of which are carnivores.

4) Decomposers − Decomposers which don’t always appear in the pictorial presentation of the
food chain, play an important part in completing the food chain. These organisms break down
dead organic material and wastes. Fungi and bacteria are the key decomposers in many
ecosystems; they use the chemical energy in dead matter and wastes to fuel their metabolic
processes. Other decomposers are detritivores detritus eaters or debris eaters.
Understanding the food chain helps us know the feeding interrelationship and
interaction between an organism and the ecosystem. It also enables us to know the
mechanism of energy flow in an ecosystem.

 Food Web
The word ‘web’ means network. Food web can be defined as ‘a network of interconnected
food chains so as to form a number of feeding relationships amongst different organism of a
biotic community. A food chain cannot stand isolated in an ecosystem. The same food
resource may be a part of more than one chain. This is possible when the resource is at the
lower tropic level. A food web comprises all the food chains in a single ecosystem. It is
essential to know that each living thing in an ecosystem is a part of multiple food chains.
 A single food chain is the single possible path that energy and nutrients may make while
passing through the ecosystem. All the interconnected and overlapping food chains in an
ecosystem make up a food web. Food webs are significant tools in understanding that plants
are the foundation of all ecosystem and food chains, sustaining life by providing nourishment
and oxygen needed for survival and reproduction. The food web provides stability to the
ecosystem. The tertiary consumers are eaten by quaternary consumers. For example: a hawk
that eats owls. Each food chain ends with a top predator and animal with no natural enemies
(such as an alligator, hawk, or polar bear).

GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
The Grassland Ecosystem is also called transitional landscape because grassland ecosystems
are dominated by the grass with few or no trees in the area where there is not enough for a
forest and too much of a forest. These are known by different names in different region of the
world like steppes in Europe and Asia, pampas in South America, Veldt in South Africa and
Downs in Australia. In this article, we are giving the components, functions and economic
importance of the Grassland Ecosystem.
Or
The Grassland Ecosystem covers about 10 percent of the Earth's surface. It is found where
rainfall is about 15-75 cm per year not enough to support a forest, but more than that of true
desert. Typical grasslands are vegetation formations that are generally found in temperate
climates. These are known by different names in different region of the world like steppes in
Europe and Asia, pampas in South America, Veldt in South Africa and Downs in Australia.
In India, they are found mainly high Himalayas. The rest of India’s grasslands are mainly
composed of the Steppes and Savana. Steppe formations occupy large areas of sandy and
saline soils.
COMPONENTS OF GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
1) Abiotic Components
These are non-living thing components consist of carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, nitrogen and
phosphorous etc.
2) Biotic Components
These are living components and its sub-components are discussed below-
i. Producers
The primary producers of food are the grasses such as Aristida, Cynodon,Digitaria,
Desmodium, Setaria etc. If herbs and shrubs are present, they also contribute to the primary
production of food.
ii. Consumers
The consumers in a grassland ecosystem are of three levels.
a. Primary consumers
These feed directly from the grasses (grazing) and include herbivores such as Cows,
Buffaloes, Goats, Rabbits, Mouse etc. and also insects, termites, centipede, millipedes etc.
b. Secondary consumers
These consumers are the carnivorous animals such as snakes, lizard, jackal, foxes, frogs etc.
which feed on the primary consumers.
c. Tertiary consumers
Hawk, Eagles and vultures constitute the tertiary consumer in the grassland ecosystem which
preys upon the secondary and primary consumer.
3) Decomposers
The organic matter of the grassland is decomposed by the microbes like actinomycetes, fungi
(Mucor, Aspergillus, Rhizopus, Penincillium, and Cladosporium), aerobic and anaerobic soil
bacteria etc. They release the minerals back into the soil thus making the soil fertile.

FUNCTIONS OF THE GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM

The primary function of an ecosystem is productivity. The producers fix the solar energy and
produce the complex organic matter with the help of minerals. It provides forage for
livestock, protection and conservation of soil and water resources, furnishing a habitat for
wildlife, both flora and fauna and (contribution to the attractiveness of the landscape. The
functional aspects of the Grassland can be studied by two means:

1. Food Chain in an ecosystem

There is an important feature of the ecosystem that one level of an organism serves as food
for another level of the organism. A series is formed which is known as Food Chain. In an
ecosystem, the food chain does not follow the linear pattern, but an organism may feed upon
more than one organism in the same food chain or upon organisms of different food chains.
Thus interconnected food chain system is formed known as a food web.

2. Nutrient cycle in an ecosystem

For any ecosystem to be successful, it is important that the constituent materials move in a
cyclic manner. The producers (green plant) takes up the mineral elements from the soil and
air, convert them into organic form and after passing through the different trophic levels, are
again returned to the soil and air.

Economic importance of Grassland Ecosystem

Grass lands biomes are important to maintain the crop of many domesticated and wild
herbivores such as horse, mule, ass, cow, pig, sheep, goat, buffalo, camel, deer, zebra etc.
which provides food, milk, wool and transportation to man.
Hence, we can say that the Grassland Ecosystem is a mixture of grass, clover and other
leguminous species, dicotyledonous, herbs and shrubs which contribute to a high degree of
the preservation.
Q27. Discuss various strategies for conserving biodiversity.
Biodiversity Conservation
Biodiversity conservation is the protection and management of biodiversity to obtain
resources for sustainable development.
Biodiversity conservation has three main objectives:
 To preserve the diversity of species.
 Sustainable utilization of species and ecosystem.
 To maintain life-supporting systems and essential ecological processes.

Biodiversity and its Conservation Methods

Biodiversity refers to the variability of life on earth. It can be conserved in the following
ways:
 In-situ Conservation
 Ex-situ Conservation
In-situ Conservation
In-situ conservation of biodiversity is the conservation of species within their natural habitat.
In this method, the natural ecosystem is maintained and protected.
The in-situ conservation has several advantages. Following are the important advantages of
in-situ conservation:
 It is a cost-effective and convenient method of conserving biodiversity.
 A large number of living organisms can be conserved simultaneously.
 Since the organisms are in a natural ecosystem, they can evolve better and can easily
adjust to different environmental conditions.

Certain protected areas where in-situ conservation takes place include national parks, wildlife
sanctuaries and biosphere reserves.

National Parks
These are small reserves maintained by the government. Its boundaries are well demarcated
and human activities such as grazing, forestry, habitat and cultivation are prohibited. For eg.,
Kanha National Park, Bandipur National Park.
Wildlife Sanctuaries
These are the regions where only wild animals are found. Human activities such as timber
harvesting, cultivation, collection of woods and other forest products are allowed here as long
as they do not interfere with the conservation project. Also, tourists visit these places for
recreation.
Biosphere Reserves
Biosphere reserves are multi-purpose protected areas where the wildlife, traditional lifestyle
of the inhabitants, and domesticated plants and animals are protected. Tourist and research
activities are permitted here.
Ex-situ Conservation
Ex-situ conservation of biodiversity involves the breeding and maintenance of endangered
species in artificial ecosystems such as zoos, nurseries, botanical gardens, gene banks, etc.
There is less competition for food, water and space among the organisms.
Ex-situ conservation has the following advantages:
  The animals are provided with a longer time and breeding activity.
 The species bred in captivity can be reintroduced in the wild.
 Genetic techniques can be used for the preservation of endangered species.

Strategies for Biodiversity Conservation

Following are the important strategies for biodiversity conservation:
 All the varieties of food, timber plants, livestock, microbes and agricultural animals
should be conserved.
 All the economically important organisms should be identified and conserved.
 Unique ecosystems should be preserved first.
 The resources should be utilized efficiently.
 Poaching and hunting of wild animals should be prevented.
 The reserves and protected areas should be developed carefully.
 The levels of pollutants should be reduced in the environment.
 Deforestation should be strictly prohibited.
 Environmental laws should be followed strictly.
 The useful and endangered species of plants and animals should be conserved in their
nature as well as artificial habitats.
 Public awareness should be created regarding biodiversity conservation and its
importance.
Why should you conserve Biodiversity?
It is believed that an area with higher species abundance has a more stable environment
compared to an area with lower species abundance. We can further claim the necessity of
biodiversity by considering our degree of dependency on the environment. We depend
directly on various species of plant for our various needs. Similarly, we depend on various
species of animals and microbes for different reasons.
Biodiversity is being lost due to the loss of habitat, over-exploitation of resources, climatic
changes, pollution, invasive exotic species, diseases, hunting, etc. Since it provides us with
several economic and ethical benefits and adds aesthetic value, it is very important to
conserve biodiversity.
Q28. What are the causes of Air pollution? Give various measures of controlling
air pollution.
Every day, every moment, we breathe polluted air and may become a victim of air pollution.
It is estimated that an average adult exchanges 15 kg of air a day, in comparison to about 1.5
kg of the food consumed and 2.5 kg of water intake. It is obvious that the quantum of
pollutants that enter our body through respiration would be manifold in comparison to those
taken in through polluted water or contaminated food.

Air pollution is one of the most widespread forms of pollution all over the world. Wind is
the main agent of air pollution. It gathers and moves pollutants from one area to another,
sometimes reducing the concentration of pollutants in one location, while increasing it in
another.
CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION
Apart from the natural causes of pollutants, as stated above, human interaction and resource
utilization is perhaps adding more pollutants to the atmosphere.
 Industrialization − Industries big or small require steam to run. The steam is
produced by burning fossil fuels such as coal, coke, and furnace oil. These fuels while
burning release toxic gases in large amount into the atmosphere.
 Automobiles − To meet the demands of exploding human population, the number of
automobiles is increasing at a great space. The automobile exhausts are responsible for about
sixty percent of air pollution. Released carbon monoxide from the automobiles pollutes the
air and harms trees and other natural vegetation. It also has ill-effects on human health.
 Chlorofluorocarbons − Scientists are now alarmed regarding the increased
concentration of chemical substances together called chlorofluorocarbon in the atmosphere.
These substances are responsible for creating holes in the ozone layer causing unwanted
imbalance in the heat budget. These are produced by modern gadgets such as air conditioners,
refrigerators, dyers, etc.
 The adverse effects of air pollution appear in the form of poor quality of air, acidic
precipitation (rain, snow and hail) and deposition, and other health hazards.
 The main pollutants of air are carbon dioxide (CO2 ), carbonic acid (H 2SO2), water
(H2O), nitric acid (HNO3O ), and sulphuric acid (H2SO4 ).
 Air pollution has harmful effects on natural vegetation and human health such as
respiratory illnesses. Acidic precipitation is highly fatal for aquatic flora and fauna,
monuments, and also for natural vegetation.
 Air Pollution Control
Air pollution control is an onerous task as there are large number of pollutants involved in air
pollution. Some of these are even difficult to detect. However, there can be some basic
approaches to control air pollution. They are as follows.
Preventive Approach
It is well said that prevention is better than cure. We can prevent pollutants of air from being
produced by various ways. For instance, by changing raw materials used in industry or the
ingredient of fuel from conventional to non-conventional sources of energy; by maintenance
of vehicles and roads and efficient transport system; by reduction in garbage burning and
shifting cultivation areas; afforestation, etc.
Dispersal Approach
We can prevent air pollution by raising the heights of smokestacks in industries so as to
release the pollutants high into the atmosphere.
Collection Approach
Air pollution can be controlled by designing the equipment and machinery to trap pollutants
before they escape into the atmosphere. To meet the standards, automobile engines have been
re-designed and new cars have been equipped with devices such as the catalytic converter,
which changes the pollutants into harmless substances. Because of these new devices, air
pollution from car exhaust has also been reduced.
Legislation Approach
There have been many initiatives in different countries for making laws, setting standards and
norms to check air pollution and ensure quality air. All the highly industrialized countries of
the world have certain legislations to prevent and control air pollution. As pollutants of air are
carried by the wind from one country to another for thousands of miles, there should be
global initiatives agreed upon by all countries to save the earth from the menace of air
pollution.
Q29. What is Global Warming? What are the causes of Global Warming?
Discuss in detail about the effects of Global warming.
GLOBAL WARMING
Global warming occurs when carbon dioxide (CO2) and other air pollutants and greenhouse
gases collect in the atmosphere and absorb sunlight and solar radiation that have bounced off
the earth’s surface. Normally, this radiation would escape into space but these pollutants,
which can last for years to centuries in the atmosphere, trap the heat and cause the planet to
get hotter. That's what's known as the greenhouse effect. In the United States, the burning of
fossil fuels to make electricity is the largest source of heat-trapping pollution, producing
about two billion tons of CO2 every year. Coal-burning power plants are by far the biggest
polluters. The country’s second-largest source of carbon pollution is the transportation sector,
which generates about 1.7 billion tons of CO2 emissions a year.
Curbing dangerous climate change requires very deep cuts in emissions, as well as the use of
alternatives to fossil fuels worldwide. The good news is that we’ve started a turnaround: CO2
emissions in the United States actually decreased from 2005 to 2014, thanks in part to new,
energy-efficient technology and the use of cleaner fuels. And scientists continue to develop
new ways to modernize power plants, generate cleaner electricity, and burn less gasoline
while we drive. The challenge is to be sure these solutions are put to use and widely adopted.

EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING

Each year, scientists learn more about the consequences of global warming, and many agree
that environmental, economic, and health consequences are likely to occur if current trends
continue.
 Melting glaciers, early snowmelt, and severe droughts will cause more dramatic water
shortages and increase the risk of wildfires in the American West.
 Rising sea levels will lead to coastal flooding on the Eastern Seaboard, especially in
Florida, and in other areas such as the Gulf of Mexico.
 Forests, farms, and cities will face troublesome new pests, heat waves, heavy
downpours, and increased flooding. All those factors will damage or destroy agriculture and
fisheries.
 Disruption of habitats such as coral reefs and Alpine meadows could drive many plant
and animal species to extinction.
 Allergies, asthma, and infectious disease outbreaks will become more common due to
increased growth of pollen-producing ragweed, higher levels of air pollution, and the spread
of conditions favorable to pathogens and mosquitoes.
Q30. Give salient features of Environmental Protection Act.
Environment Protection Act,1986

Introduction to Environment (Protection) Act, 1986

The Environment (Protection) Act was enacted in the year 1986. It was enacted with the main
objective to provide the protection and improvement of environment and for matters
connected therewith. The Act is one of the most comprehensive legislations with a pretext to
protection and improvement of the environment.
The Constitution of India also provides for the protection of the environment. Article 48A of
the Constitution specifies that the State shall endeavour to protect and improve the
environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country. Article 51 A further
provides that every citizen shall protect the environment.

Objectives
As mentioned earlier, the main objective of the Act was to provide the protection and
improvement of environment and for matters connected therewith. Other objectives of the
implementation of the EPA are:
 To implement the decisions made at the UN Conference on Human Environment held
at Stockholm in June 1972.
 To enact a general law on the areas of environmental protection which were left
uncovered by existing laws. The existing laws were more specific in nature and
concentrated on a more specific type of pollution and specific categories of hazardous
substances rather than on general problems that chiefly caused major environmental
hazards.
 To co-ordinate activities of the various regulatory agencies under the existing laws
 To provide for the creation of an authority or authorities for environmental protection
 To provide deterrent punishment to those who endanger the human environment,
safety and health.
Q31. What measures government is taking for controlling population explosion?

Population Explosion in Indian

Meaning of Population Explosion

It refers to the rapid increase in the population of an area among human beings. Furthermore,
it is a situation where the economy is not capable of coping with the increasing demand of its
population.
Causes of Population Explosion
Increase in the birth rate
Due to lack of control on delivery and unawareness of people the birth rate is increasing
rapidly. In addition, the gap between death and birth has gone way wider than what we can
think of. Furthermore, the birth rate has increased many folds in comparison to the death rate.
A decrease in infant mortality rate
Mortality rate refers to the number of death of infants below the age of 6 months. Due
to science and technology, we are able to minimize this rate and now only a few cases of
death are known per thousand deaths.
The life expectancy growth
Earlier the life expectancy of people was around 55-60 years. But due to better and improved
medical facilities, we are now able to increase the life expectancy of people. Now the average
age of a person increased to 70-75 years.
Besides, these better living conditions, good quality food, better nutrition, and better
sanitation facilities also helped in increasing life expectancy.
High level of illiteracy
The literacy level of women is one of the biggest problems of family planning. In India,
people pay very little importance to women’s education and marry them at an early age.
That’s why they do not have knowledge about birth control methods and the use of
contraceptives.
Population of India is quite large and rapidly increasing. One percent growth rate means an
addition of 1 crore people every year but actually speaking 2 crore persons are being adding
every year.

MEASURES TO CONTROLLING POPULATION EXPLOSION

So effective population control measures is the need of the hours we know that birth rate is
mainly responsible for rapid population growth. Hence measures which can reduce the birth
rate should be adopted. These measures can be classified into 3 heads.

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 Social Measure
Population explosion is a social problem and it is deeply rooted in the society. So efforts must
be done to remove the social evils in the country.
Minimum age of Marriage:
As fertility depend on the age of marriage. So the minimum age of marriage should be raised.
In India minimum age for marriage is 21 years for men and 18 years for women have been
fixed by law. This law should be firmly implemented and people should also be made aware
of this through publicity.
Raising the Status of Women
There is still discrimination to the women. They are confined to four walls of house. They are
still confined to rearing and bearing of children. So women should be given opportunities to
develop socially and economically. Free education should be given to them.
Spread of education
The spread of education changes the outlook of people. The educated men prefer to delay
marriage and adopt small family norms. Educated women are health conscious and avoid
frequent pregnancies and thus help in lowering birth rate.
Adoption
Some parents do not have any child, despite costly medical treatment. It is advisable that they
should parents do not have any child, despite costly medical treatment. It is advisable that
they should adopt orphan children. It will beneficial to orphan children and children and
children couple.
Change in social outlook
Social outlook of the people should undergo a change. Marriage should no longer be
considering a social binding. Issueless women should not be looked soon upon.
Social security
Social Security
More and people should be covered under social security schemes. So that they do not
depend upon others in the event of old age, sickness, unemployment etc. with these facilities
they will have no desire for more children.

Economic Measures

More employment opportunities

The first and foremost measure is to raise, the employment avenues in rural as well as urban
areas. Generally in rural areas there is disguised unemployment. So efforts should be made to
migrate unemployed persons from rural side to urban side. This step can check the population
growth.

Development of Agriculture and Industry

If agriculture and industry are properly developed, large number of people will get
employment. When their income is increased they would improve their standard of living and
adopt small family norms.
Standard of living
Improved standard of living acts as a deterrent to large family norms. In order to maintain
their higher standard of living people prefer to have a small family. According to A.K.Das
Gupta those who earn less than Rs. 100 per month have on the average a reproduction rate of
3.4 children and those who earn more than Rs. 300 per month have a reproduction rate of 2.8
children.
Urbanization
It is on record that people in urban areas have low birth rate than those living in rural areas.
Urbanization should therefore be encouraged.

Other Measures
Late Marriage
As far as possible, marriage should be solemnized at the age of 30 years. This will reduce the
period of reproduction among the females bringing down the birth rate. The government has
fixed the minimum marriage age 21 age yrs. for males and 18 yrs. for females.
Self control
According to some experts, self control is one of the powerful methods to control the
population. It is an ideal and healthy approach and people should be provided to follow. It
helps in reducing birth rate.
Family planning
This method implies family by choice and not by chance. By applying preventive measures,
people can regulate birth rate. This method is being used extensively success of this method
depends on the availability of cheap contraceptive devices for birth control. According to
Chander Shekher, “Hurry for the first child, Delay the second child and avoid the third.”
Recreational Facilities
Birth rate will likely to fall if there are different recreational facilities like cinema1; theatre,
sports and dance etc. are available to the people.
Publicity
The communication media like T.V., radio and newspaper are the good means to propagate
the planned family to the uneducated and illiterate persons especially in the rural and
backward areas of country.
Incentives
The govt. can give various types of incentives to the people to adopt birth control measures.
Monetary incentives and other facilities like leave and promotion can be extended to the
working class which adopts small family norms.
Employment to Woman
Another method to check the population is to provide employment to women. Women should
be given incentive to give services in different fields. Women are taking active part in
competitive examinations. As a result their number in teaching, medical and banking etc. is
increasing rapidly. In brief by taking, all there measures we can control and banking etc. is
increasing rapidly. In brief by taking, all there measures we can control the growth of
population.
 Q32. What are Fertilizer-pesticide problems as related to food resources?
FOOD RESOURCES
‘A house is not a home unless it contains food and fire for the mind as well as the body’
Benjamin Franklin
Food is essential for growth and development of living organisms. These essential materials
are called nutrients and these nutrients are available from variety of animals and plants. There
are thousands of edible plants and animals over the world, out of which only about three
dozen types constitute major food of humans.
FOOD SOURCES
The majority of people obtain food from cultivated plants and domesticated animals.
Although some food is obtained from oceans and fresh waters, but the great majority of food
for human population is obtained from traditional land-based agriculture of crops and
livestock.
1. Food crops
It is estimated that out of about 2, 50,000 species of plants, only about 3,000 have been tried
as agricultural crops. Under different agro-climatic condition, 300 are grown for food and
only 100 are used on a large scale.
Some species of crops provide food, whereas others provide commercial products like oils,
fibres, etc. Raw crops are sometimes converted into valuable edible products by using
different techniques for value addition .At global level, only 20 species of crops are used for
food. These, in approximate order of importance are wheat, rice, corn, potatoes; barley, sweet
potatoes, cassavas, soybeans, oats, sorghum, millet, sugarcane, sugar beets, rye, peanuts, field
beans, chick-peas, pigeon- peas, bananas and coconuts. Many of them are used directly,
whereas other can be used by changing them by using different techniques for enhancing
calorific value.
2. Livestock
Domesticated animals are an important food source. The major domesticated animals used as
food source by human beings are ‘ruminants’ (e.g. cattle, sheep, goats, camel, reindeer,
llama, etc.). Ruminants convert indigestible woody tissue of plants (cellulose) which are
earth’s most abundant organic compound into digestible food products for human
consumption. Milk, which is provided by milking animals, is considered to be the complete
food. Other domestic animals like sheep, goat, poultry and ducker can be used as meat.
3. Aquaculture
Fish and seafood contributes 17 million metric tonnes of high quality protein to provide
balance diet to the world. Presently aquaculture provides only small amounts for world food
but its significance is increasing day by day.

WORLD FOOD PROBLEMS

As per estimates of Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), about 840 million people
remain chronically hungry and out of this 800 million are living in the developing world. In
last decade, it is decreasing at the rate of 2.5 million per year, but at the same time world’s
population is increasing. Target of cutting half the number of world’s chronically hungry and
undernourished people by 2015 will difficult to meet, if the present trend continues. Due to
inadequate purchasing power to buy food, it is difficult to fulfil minimum calorific
 requirement of human body per day. Large number of people are in India are poor which can
be attribute to equitable distribution of income. Food insufficiency can be divided into two
categories into under-nourishment and malnourishment. Both of these insufficiencies are
global problems.
1. Under-nourishment
The FAO estimates that the average minimum daily caloric intake over the whole world is
about 2,500 calories per day. People who receive less than 90% of their minimum dietary
intake on a long-term basis are considered undernourished. Those who receive less than 80%
of their minimum daily caloric intake requirements are considered ‘seriously’
undernourished. Children in this category are likely to suffer from stunted growth, mental
retardation, and other social and developmental disorders. Therefore, Under-nourishment
means lack of sufficient calories in available food, resulting in little or no ability to move or
work.
2. Malnourishment
Person may have excess food but still diet suffers from due to nutritional imbalance or
inability to absorb or may have problem to utilize essential nutrients. If we compare diet of
the developed countries with developing countries people in developed countries
have processed food which may be deficient in fibre, vitamins and other components where
as in the diet of developing countries, may be lack of specific nutrients because they consume
less meat ,fruits and vegetables due to poor purchasing power. Malnourishment can be
defined as lack of specific components of food such as proteins, vitamins, or essential
chemical elements.
The major problems of malnutrition are:
 Marasmus: a progressive emaciation caused by lack of protein and calories.
 Kwashiarkor: a lack of sufficient protein in the diet which leads to a failure of neural
development and therefore learning disabilities.
 Anemia: it is caused by lack of iron in the diet or due to an inability to absorb iron
from food.
 Pellagra: it occurs due to the deficiency of tryptophan and lysine, vitamins in the diet.
 
Every year, food problem kill as many people as were killed by the atomic bomb dropped on
Hiroshima during World War II. This shows that there is drastic need to increase food
production, equitably distribute it and also to control population growth. Although India is
the third largest producer of staple crops, it is estimated that about 300 million Indians are
still undernourished. India has only half as much land as USA, but it has nearly three times
population to feed. Our food problems are directly related to population.
3. Balanced diet
Supply of adequate amount of different nutrient can help to improve malnutrition and its ill
effects. Cereals like wheat and rice can supply only carbohydrate which are rich in energy
supply, are only fraction of nutrition requirement. Cereal diet has to be supplemented with
other food that can supply fat, protein and minor quantity of minerals and vitamins. Balanced
diet will help to improve growth and health.

CHANGES CAUSED BY AGRICULTURE AND OVERGRAZING

From centuries, agriculture is providing inputs to large number of industries involved in
production, processing and distribution of food. Accordingly, agriculture has significant
effect on environment. The effects of agriculture on environment can be classified as local,
 regional, and global level. The agriculture also makes impact on the usage of land generally
as follows:
 Deforestation
 Soil Erosion
 Depletion of nutrients
 Impact related to high yielding varieties (HYV)
 Fertilizers related problems include micronutrient imbalance, nitrite pollution and
eutrophication.
 Pesticide related problems include creating resistance in pests and producing new
pests, death of non-target organisms, biological magnification.
 Some other problems include water logging, salinity problems and such others.
The carrying capacity of land for cattle depends upon micro climate and soil fertility. If
carrying capacity is exceeded than land is overgrazed. Because of overgrazing the
agricultural land gets affected as follows,
 Reduction in growth and diversity of plant species
 Reduce plant cover leads to increased soil erosion
 Cattle trampling leads to land degradation

EFFECTS OF MODERN AGRICULTURE

For sustainable production modern techniques are used to enhance productivity of different
cropping systems under different agro-eco-zones. Adoption of modern agricultural practises
has both positive and negative effects on environment. Effects of modern agriculture are
briefly discussed under different heads as under:
1. Soil erosion
Raindrops bombarding bare soil result in the oldest and still most serious problem of
agriculture. The long history of soil erosion and its impact on civilization is one of
devastation. Eroded fields record our failure as land stewards.
2. Irrigation
Adequate rainfall is never guaranteed for the dry land farmer in arid and semiarid regions,
and thus irrigation is essential for reliable production. Irrigation ensures sufficient water
when needed and also allows farmers to expand their acreage of suitable cropland. In fact, we
rely heavily on crops from irrigated lands, with fully one-third of the world's harvest coming
from that 17% of cropland that is under irrigation. Unfortunately, current irrigation practices
severely damage the cropland and the aquatic systems from which the water is withdrawn.
3. Agriculture and the loss of genetic diversity
As modern agriculture converts an ever-increasing portion of the earth's land surface to
monoculture, the genetic and ecological diversity of the planet erodes. Both the conversion of
diverse natural ecosystems to new agricultural lands and the narrowing of the genetic
diversity of crops contribute to this erosion.
4. Fertilizer-pesticide problems
For photosynthesis apart from water, sunshine and CO2, plants need micro and macro
nutrients for growth. These nutrients are supplied in the shape of fertilizers. There is lot of
potential to increase food productivity by increasing fertilizer use. On one hand application of
artificial chemical fertilizers increases the productivity at faster rate as compare to organic
fertilizers, on the other hand application of fertilizers can be a serious problem of pollution
and can create number of problems. Excessive level of nitrates in ground water has created
problems in developed countries. These are:
  Accumulated phosphorous as a consequence of use of phosphoric fertilizer are posing
serious threat as residues in domestic water supply and for ecology of river and other
water bodies. Increased level of phosphates in different water results in eutropication.
 Effect of chemical fertilizer is long term, therefore leads to net loss of soil organic
matter.
To control insects, pests, diseases and weeds which are responsible for reduction in
productivity different chemicals are used as insecticides, pesticides and herbicides.
Successful control of insects, pests and weeds increases productivity and reduces losses and
provide security for harvest and storage. Applications of these synthetic chemicals have great
economic values and at the same time cause number of serious problems such as:
 Affects human health which includes acute poisoning and illness caused by higher
doses and accidental exposes
 As long term effect, cause cancer, birth defects, Parkinson’s disease and other
regenerative diseases.
 Long term application of pesticides can affect soil fertility.
 Danger of killing beneficial predators.
 Pesticides resistance and pest resurgence

5. Water Logging
High water table or surface flooding can cause water logging problems .Water logging may
lead to poor crop productivity due to anaerobic condition created in the soil. In India, deltas
of Ganga, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and some areas of Kerala are prone to frequent
water logging.
6. Salinity
Due to adoption of intensive agriculture practices and increased concentration of soluble salts
leads to salinity. Due to poor drainage, dissolved salts accumulate on soil surface and affects
soil fertility. Excess concentration of these salts may form a crust on the surface which may
injurious to the plants. The water absorption process is affected and uptake of nutrient is
disturbed. According to an estimate, in India, 7 million hectare of land is saline and area is
showing in increasing trends due to adoption of intensive agriculture practises.
Q33. What do you understand by Over Utilization of ground water?
Water is a vital elixir for all living beings. Although it is a renewable resource, scarcity of
quality water is felt in many parts of the world. We need water to grow food, keep clean,
generate electricity, control fire, and last but not the least; we need it to stay alive.
World Ocean water covers about 75 percent of the surface of the earth. Therefore, the earth is
called the water planet. Ocean water is saline and not fit for human consumption. Fresh water
is just about 2.7 percent of the total water. Global warming and perpetuating water pollution
have made a considerable part of available freshwater unfit for human consumption. As a
result, water is very scarce.
Steps need to be taken to conserve water. Water is renewable, but its overuse and pollution
make it unfit for use. Sewage, industrial use, chemicals, etc. pollute water with nitrates,
metals, and pesticides.
Use of Water Resources
Water resources are used for agricultural, industrial, domestic, recreational, and
environmental activities. Majority of the uses require fresh water.
However, about 97 percent of water found on the earth is salt water and only three percent is
fresh water. A little over two-thirds of the available fresh water is frozen in glaciers and polar
ice caps. The remaining freshwater is found mainly as groundwater and a negligible portion
of it is present on the ground or in the air.
Following is a brief account of how water is used in different sectors.
Agricultural Use
Agriculture accounts for 69 percent of all water consumption basically in agricultural
economies like India. Agriculture, therefore, is the largest consumer of the Earth’s available
freshwater.
By 2050, the global water demand of agriculture is estimated to increase by a further 19%
due to irrigational needs. Expanding irrigation needs are likely to put undue pressure on water
storage. It is still inconclusive whether further expansion of irrigation, as well as additional
water withdrawals from rivers and groundwater, will be possible in future.
Industrial Use
Water is the lifeblood of the industry. It is used as a raw material coolant, a solvent, a
transport agent, and as a source of energy. Manufacturing industries account for a
considerable share in the total industrial water consumption. Besides, paper and allied
products, chemicals and primary metals are major industrial users of water.
Worldwide, the industry accounts for 19 percent of total consumption. In industrialized
countries, however, industries use more than half of the water available for human use.
Domestic Use
It includes drinking, cleaning, personal hygiene, garden care, cooking, washing of clothes,
dishes, vehicles, etc. Since the end of World War II there has been a trend of people moving
out of the countryside to the ever-expanding cities. This trend has important implications on
our water resources. Government and communities have had to start building large water-
supply systems to deliver water to new populations and industries. Of all water consumption
in the world, domestic use accounts for about 12 percent.
 Use for Hydropower Generation
Electricity produced from water is hydropower. Hydropower is the leading renewable source
of electricity in the world. It accounts for about 16 percent of total electricity generation
globally. There are many opportunities for hydropower development throughout the world.
Today, the leading hydropower generating countries are China, the US, Brazil, Canada, India,
and Russia.
Use for Navigation and Recreation
Navigable waterways are defined as watercourses that have been or may be used for transport
of interstate or foreign commerce. Agricultural and commercial goods are moved on water on
a large scale in a number of regions in the world. Water is also used for recreational purposes
such as boating, swimming, and sporting activities. These uses affect the quality of water and
pollute it. Highest priority should be given to public health and drinking water quality while
permitting such activities in reservoirs, lakes, and rivers.
Overutilization of Surface and Ground Water
Water scarcity has become a burning global issue. The UN has held several conventions on
water in recent decades. Continuous overutilization of surface and ground water has led to
virtual water scarcity in the world today.
The depleting sources for high growth in human population over the centuries and increased
man-induced water pollution across the world have created unforeseen water scarcity around
the globe. As a result, there has been continuous overutilization of the existing water sources
due to mammoth growth in world population.
Groundwater is the major source of water in many parts of the world. However, there has
been continuous depletion of this source due to its overexploitation by rising human
population and the rapid rise in industrialization and urbanization in modern times.
Consequences of Overutilization
Water scarcity now becomes an important topic in international diplomacy. From village to
the United Nations, water scarcity is a widely-discussed topic in decision making.
Nearly three billion people in the world suffer from water scarcity. International, intrastate
and regional rivalries on water are not new to world. The ongoing Jordan River conflict, Nile
River conflict, and Aral Sea conflict are cases in point. The intra-state issues such as Cauvery
Water dispute in South India, 2000 Cochabamba protests in Bolivia is still a simmering
cauldron causing periodic tension at the national and regional levels.
According to World Health Organization (WHO) sources, a combination of rising global
population, economic growth and climate change means that by 2050 five billion (52%) of
the world’s projected 9.7 billion people will live in areas where fresh water supply is under
pressure. Researchers expect about 1 billion more people to be living in areas where water
demand exceeds surface-water supply.
 Climate Change
Scientists, environmentalists, and biologists worldwide are now alarmed that climate change
can have an impact on the drainage pattern and hydrological cycle on the earth thereby
severely affecting the surface and groundwater availability.
Climate change is believed to rise the global temperature at an increasing pace. Temperature
increase affects the hydrological cycle by directly increasing evaporation of available surface
water and vegetation transpiration.
 As a result, precipitation amount, timing and intensity rates are largely affected. It impacts
the flux and storage of water in surface and subsurface reservoirs.
 Floods & Draughts
Floods and droughts are two well-known natural hazards in the world. The former is due to
excess in water flow and the latter is due to scarcity of water.
The amount of rainfall received by an area varies from one place to another depending on the
location of the place. In some places it rains almost throughout the year whereas in other
places it might rain for only few days. India records most of its rainfall in the monsoon
season.
Heavy rains lead to rise in the water level of rivers, seas, and oceans. Water gets accumulated
in the coastal areas, which results in floods. Floods bring in extensive damage to crops,
domestic animals, property and human life. During floods, many animals get carried away by
the force of water and eventually die.
On the other hand, droughts set in when a particular region goes without rain for a long
period of time. In the meantime, the soil will continuously lose groundwater by the process of
evaporation and transpiration. Since this water is not brought back to earth in the form of
rains, the soil becomes very dry.
The level of water in the ponds and rivers goes down and in some cases water bodies get
dried up completely. Ground water becomes scarce and this leads to droughts. In drought
conditions, it is very difficult to get food and fodder for the survival. Life gets difficult and
many animals perish in such conditions.
Frequent floods and droughts are mostly due to climate change and global warming. Various
environmental organizations world over are of the view that climate change is a long-term
change in weather patterns, either in average weather conditions or in the distribution of
extreme weather events.
Q34. Explain energy flow in the eco-system.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
The pyramidal representation of trophic levels of different organisms based on
their ecological position (producer to final consumer) is called as an ecological pyramid. The
pyramid consists of a number of horizontal bars depicting specific trophic levels. The length
of each bar represents the total number of individuals or biomass or energy at each trophic
level in an ecosystem. The food producer forms the base of the pyramid and the top
carnivore forms the tip. Other consumer trophic levels are in between.

ECOLOGICAL EFFICIENCY
 Ecological efficiency describes the efficiency with which energy is transferred from one
trophic level to the next.
 The number of trophic levels in the grazing food chain is restricted as the transfer of energy
follows 10 per cent law – only 10 per cent of the energy is transferred to each trophic level
from the lower trophic level.
 The decreases at each subsequent trophic level is due to two reasons:
 At each trophic, a part of the available energy is lost in respiration or used up in metabolism.
 A part of the energy is lost at each transformation.
Limitations of Ecological Pyramids
 It does not consider the same species belonging to two or more trophic levels.
 It assumes a simple food chain, something that seldom exists in nature; it does not
accommodate a food web.
 Moreover, saprophytes (plant, fungus, or microorganism that lives on decaying matter) are
not given any place in ecological pyramids even though they play a vital role in the
ecosystem.

Pyramid of Energy
 To compare the functional roles of the trophic levels in an ecosystem, an energy pyramid
is most suitable.
 An energy pyramid represents the amount of energy at each trophic level and loss of energy
at each transfer to another trophic level. Hence the pyramid is always upward, with a large
energy base at the bottom.
 Suppose an ecosystem receives 1000 calories of light energy in a given day. Most of the
energy is not absorbed; some is reflected to space; of the energy absorbed only a small
portion is utilized by green plants, out of which the plant uses up some for respiration and of
the 1000 calories; therefore only 100 calories are stored as energy-rich materials.
 Now suppose an animal, say a deer, eats the plant containing 100 calories of food energy.
The deer use some of it for its metabolism and stores only 10 calories as food energy. A lion
that eats the deer gets an even smaller amount of energy. Thus, usable energy decreases from
sunlight to producer to herbivore to carnivore. Therefore, the energy pyramid will always be
upright.
 Energy pyramid concept helps to explain the phenomenon of biological magnification – the
tendency for toxic substances to increase in concentration progressively with higher trophic
levels.
Q35. What are Aquatic Ecosystems and how can we protect these?

Meaning
Aquatic biodiversity can be defined as the variety of life and the ecosystems that make up the
freshwater, tidal, and marine regions of the world and their interactions. Aquatic biodiversity
encompasses freshwater ecosystems, including lakes, ponds, reservoirs, rivers, streams,
groundwater, and wetlands. It also consists of marine ecosystems, including oceans, estuaries,
salt marshes, seagrass beds, coral reefs, kelp beds, and mangrove forests. Aquatic
biodiversity includes all unique species, their habitats and interaction between them. It
consists of phytoplankton, zooplankton, aquatic plants, insects, fish, birds, mammals, and
others.

How to protect
Aquatic conservation strategies support sustainable development by protecting biological
resources in ways that will preserve habitats and ecosystems. In order for biodiversity
conservation to be effective, management measures must be broad based.
 Aquatic areas that have been damaged or suffered habitat loss or degradation can be
restored. Even species populations that have suffered a decline can be targeted for
restoration (e.g., Pacific Northwest salmon populations).
 An aquatic bio- reserve is a defined space within a water body in which fishing is
banned or other restrictions are placed in an effort to protect plants, animals, and habitats,
ultimately conserving biodiversity. These bio-reserves can also be used for educational
purposes, recreation, and tourism as well as potentially increasing fisheries yields by
enhancing the declining fish populations. These bio-reserves are also very similar to
marine protected areas, fishery reserves, sanctuaries, and parks.
 Bioregional management is a total ecosystem strategy, which regulates factors
affecting aquatic biodiversity by balancing conservation, economic, and social needs
within an area. This consists of both small-scale biosphere reserves and larger reserves.
 Watershed management is an important approach towards aquatic diversity
conservation. Rivers and streams, regardless of their condition, often go unprotected since
they often pass through more than one political jurisdiction, making it difficult to enforce
conservation and management of resources. However, in recent years, the protection of
lakes and small portions of watersheds organized by local watershed groups has helped
this situation.
 Plantation of trees in the catchment area of water body prevent soil erosion and
subsequently reduce the problem of slitation in water body resulting in better survival of
aquatic organisms.
 Avoid the establishment of industeries, chemical plants and thermal power plants near
the water resources as their discharge affect the ecology of water body resulted in loss of
biodiversity.
 The World Resources Institute documents that the designation of a particular species
as threatened or endangered has historically been the primary method of protecting the
biodiversity.
 Many specialized programs should be instituted to protect biodiversity. For example,
the USDA Forest Service started a cooperative state-federal program with a goal to restore
the health of riverine systems and associated species.
 Regulatory measures must be taken on wastewater discharge in the water body to
conserve biological diversity.
 Increasing public awareness is one of the most important ways to conserve aquatic
biodiversity. This can be accomplished through educational programs, incentive programs,
and volunteer monitoring programs.
 Various organizations and conferences that research biodiversity and associated
conservation strategies help to identify areas of future research, analyze current trends in
aquatic biodiversity.
Q36. What are the Biographical classifications of India?

Biogeographical classification of India

India has different climate and topography in different parts and hence is termed as a mega
diversity country. India occupies 10th place among plant rich countries of the world. It is
essential to acquire knowledge about the distribution and environmental interaction of flora
and fauna of India.

Biogeographers have classified India into ten biogeographic zones with each zone having
characteristic climate, soil and biodiversity. These zones are described below:

Trans-Himaylayas 
The trans-himalayas is an extension to the Tibetean plateau. This region harbors the high-
altitude cold desert in ladakh (Jammu and Kashmir) and Lahaul Spiti (Himachal Pradesh). It
accounts for 5.7% of the country's landmass.

Himayalas 
The Himalayas are the northern boundaries of India. The entire mountain chain is running
from Kashmir in the North-west to Assam in the north-east. The Himalayas comprise of a
diverse range of biotic provinces and biomes. The himalayas cover 7.2% of the country's
landmass

Desert 
The extremely dry area west of the Aravalli hill range, is comprising both  the salty desert of
Gujarat and the sandy desert of Rajasthan. Deserts occupy around 6.9% of the country's land
mass. The kinds of deserts found in India are:
 The desert of western Rajasthan
 The desert ofGujarat
 The high-altitude cold desert of Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.
The Indian deserts have more diversified fauna.

Semi-arid 
This zone lies between the desert and the Deccan plateau. It includes the Aravalli hill range.
It overs approximately 15.6% of the country's landmass.

Western Ghats 
The western ghats are a mountain range that runs along the western cost of India. They are a
range extending north-south from southern tip of Gujarat in the north to Kanyakumari in the
south.The mountains cover an area of about 160,000 sq. km. This ghat section covers an
extremely diverse range of biotic provinces and biomes. It covers about 5.8% of the country's
landmass.

Deccan plateau
 It is a large triangular plateau south of the Narmada valley. Three sides of the plateau are
covered by mountains slopes towards east. Satpura mountains cover the north while western
ghats cover the west side and eastern ghats cover the eastern side of the plateau. It is the one
of largest zones covering the southern and south-central plateau with mostly deciduous trees.
It covers 4.3% of the country's land mass.
Gangetic  plain 
This plain covers the area between the south himalayas to the tropic of cancer. These plains
were formed by the Ganges river system and are relatively homogeneous. This region
experience 600  mm rainfall annually. Sunderbans forests are located in this region and it
covers 11% of the country's land mass.

North-east India 
These are pains and non-himalayan ranges of northeastern India and have a wide variety of
vegetation. It covers around 5.2% of the country's land mass.

Islands
 The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal has almost 300 big and small
islands. Among these, only five islands are inhabited. Only tribes are found in the island of
Nicobar. These islands have a highly diverse set of biomes and occupy 0.03% of the country's
biomass.

Coasts 
India has a large coastline distributed both to the east and west with distinct differences
between the two. The Lakshwadeep islands are included in this but the area of these islands is
negligible.
Q37. What are the threats to Bio-Diversity?
Biodiversity is a paramount factor for the survival of the living world in general and mankind
in particular. The fewer species (animals and plants) we have, the fewer people we will have
on the earth. During the last few decades, loss of biodiversity is on the rise.
Following are the major causes of threat to biodiversity.
Habitat Loss
Today, major loss to biodiversity in the world has been done by man. Man has begun to
overuse or misuse most of these natural ecosystems.
Due to mindless and unsustainable resource use, once productive forest and grasslands have
been turned into deserts, and wastelands have increased all over the world. Rapid
industrialization, urbanization, and growth in population have resulted in massive
deforestation and consequential habitat loss around the world.
For instance, mangroves have been cleared for fuel-wood and prawn farming, which has led
to a decrease in the habitat essential for breeding of marine fish.
Forests all over the world, in particular tropical rainforests such as the Amazon, are under
unforeseen threat largely from conversion to other land-uses.
Scientists have estimated that human activities are likely to eliminate approximately10
million species by the year 2050. It is also estimated that at the present rate of extinction
about 25 percent of the world’s species will undergo extinction fairly rapidly. Rich
biodiversities such as tropical forests, wetlands, and coral reefs world over will constitute the
major part of this extinction.
Poaching of Wildlife
Poaching of wildlife for trade and commercial activities has been on the rise for the last many
decades. It has been a significant cause of the extinction of hundreds of species and the
endangerment of many more, such as whales and many African large mammal, Asian tigers,
etc. Most extinction over the past several hundred years is mainly due to overharvesting for
food, fashion, and profit.
Illicit trade in wildlife in current times is driving many species of wild animals and plants to
extinction. Elephants are poached for ivory; tigers and leopards for their skin; pangolins for
meat and scales; and rare timber are targeted for hardwood furniture.
The global illegal wildlife trade is estimated to be between $7 billion and $23 billion in illicit
revenue annually. It is now considered the most lucrative global crime after drugs, humans,
and arms.
In 2015, the United Nations General Assembly unanimously adopted a resolution for tackling
illicit trafficking in wildlife. The Sustainable Development Goals has laid down specific
targets to combat poaching and trafficking of protected species.

Man-Wildlife Conflict
Man-wildlife conflict refers to the interaction between wild animals and people and the
consequential negative impact on both of them. Human population growth and the resultant
destruction of wildlife habitat for human habitation and economic prosperity create reduction
of resources or life to some people and wild animals.
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) defines this conflict as “any interaction between
humans and wildlife that results in a negative impact on human social, economic, or cultural
life, on the conservation of wildlife population, or on the environment.”
Although man-wildlife conflict is as old as human civilization, in modern times the degree of
conflict has been on the rise due to high rise in human population in the past several
centuries.
Since human populations expand into wild animal habitats, natural wildlife territory is
displaced. Reduction in the availability of natural prey/food sources leads to wild animals
seeking alternate sources. Alternately, new resources created by humans draw wildlife
resulting in conflict. Competition for food resources also occurs when humans attempt to
harvest natural resources such as fish and grassland pasture.
There are many consequences of man versus wildlife conflicts. The major consequences are −
 Destruction of wildlife habitat
 Injury and loss of life of both humans and wildlife
 Crop damage and livestock depredation
 Damage to human property
 Decrease in wildlife population and reduction in geographic ranges
 Trophic cascades

Apart from the above, there are other causes of threat to biodiversity. Factors such as climate
change, invasion of non-native species also add to biodiversity losses in some or the other.
Q38. What do you understand by Noise Pollution?
Noise pollution refers to any unwanted and unpleasant sound that brings discomfort and
restlessness to human beings. Like air and water pollution, noise pollution is harmful to
human and animal life. Noise pollution is also an important environmental hazard, which is
becoming growingly injurious in many parts of the world. Noise beyond a particular level or
decibel (unit of noise) tends to become a health and environmental hazard.

Sources of Noise Pollution

 Household appliances such as grinders, electric motor, washing machines
 Social gatherings such as marriages and other social parties
 Places of worship
 Commercial activities
 Construction activities
 Industrial activities
 Automobiles and transport system
 Power generators
 Agricultural equipment
Noise Pollution Control
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), of all the environmental pollution,
noise is the easiest to control.
Noise pollution can be checked at home by −
 Turning off sound-making appliances when they are not in use.
 Shutting the door when noisy machines are being used.
 Lowering the volume of appliances such as television to a desirable level.
 Using earplugs while listening to music.
 At mass level it can be checked by −
 By planting trees in large number to create vegetation buffer zones, which absorb
noise.
 Public awareness about the need of control of noise pollution.
 Application of engineering control techniques such as alteration and modification of
design to reduce noise from equipment and machinery, and by construction of sound
barriers or the use of sound absorbers in industrial and factory sites can reduce
exposure to noise to a great extent.
 Construction of institutions and hospitals away from airports, railways, and highways.
 Improved building design may also reduce the impact of noise pollution.
 Stringent legislations at central and state levels to check air pollution at workplaces,
urban centers, etc.
Q40. Discuss in detail about. various technologies used for Water conservation

Technology for Residential Water Conservation

For residential landlords of multi-tenant units, installing water conservation technology can
offer a host of benefits. By using faucet regulators, flush converters, and other types of
conservation technology, it is possible to significantly reduce consumption without having a
negative impact on tenant experience.
If your business goals include reducing utility bills, attracting new tenants, or creating a
positive impact on your community, water conservation technology could be the right
answer. Join us as we review nine cutting-edge technologies to reduce water usage that
landlords will love.
1. Shower Regulators
The cost of your residents daily showers are among the biggest drains on your utility budget.
Not only does a 10-minute shower use approximately 30-50 gallons of water, it can also spike
electricity bills due to the power necessary to heat water. Adopting shower regulator
technologies can go a long way in curbing costs.
There are several forms of shower regulators available to residential landlords. While both
low-flow shower fixtures and tamper-proof fixtures can reduce water usage during showers,
it's important to ensure that low-flow regulators do not sacrifice tenant comfort.
In order to ensure that shower regulators protect conservation efforts, landlords have several
options:
 Tamper-proof fixtures: These options can only be removed by maintenance or other
authorized personnel, due to a need for a special key to remove or modify the
regulator.
 Install a spa shower head: Low-flow spa shower heads are designed to maintain tenant
comfort despite decreased water pressure. The resulting effect is luxurious, without
the sky-high utility bills.
2. Faucet Aerators
Bathroom and kitchen sinks can be equipped with aerator technology. Aerators create a no-
splash stream, due to the combining of water and air. This offers high water pressure without
high water usage.
Investing in tamper-proof faucet aerators could be crucial to ensuring adoption in a multi-unit
property. Some residents may find the mixed delivery of water and air annoying during hand
washing, dishes, and other routine activities.
By purchasing faucet aerators that can be removed only with a special key, landlords can
prevent tenants from removing the aerators as soon as maintenance is finished with
installation. Additionally, the quality of faucet aerators can go a long way in ensuring
adoption and satisfaction. The Water Scrooge's tamper-proof faucet products can have a
lower impact on tenant comfort than cheap aerators which cause splashing or uncomfortably
low pressure.

3. Toilet Tank Fill Cycle Diverters

Fill cycle diverters reduce water utilization by diverting some water that would typically fill
the toilet bowl to the tank. This technology uses less water for the toilet bowl and tank, which
can reduce water utilization by up to 1/2 gallon per flush. Some toilet tank diverters offer
multiple configurations, which can include water level reduction.
 Customizing fill cycle diverters allows landlords to make adjustments according to tenant
needs or property management's preferences. In contrast, while toilet tank bags are among the
lowest costs toilet technologies, they are relatively easy for tenants to remove.
Landlords should consider the importance of regular leak inspection on toilet tanks to
facilitate ongoing cost savings. The Water Scrooge's white glove installation service includes
toilet tank inspection for the presence of leaks, increased water use per flush, as well as
follow-up leak detection.
4. Outdoor Irrigation Controls and Rain Sensors
If your property requires outdoor watering to maintain landscaping, outdoor irrigation
controls are a "smart" tool similar to the Nest thermostat. By using streams of weather
satellite data on weather conditions specific to your outdoor area, smart sprinkler controllers
can adjust watering to ensure rainwater is utilized while maintaining landscape health.
Automated sprinkler systems that go off during rainstorms are a poor use of precious water.
In fact, most landscaping features don’t need to be watered for another two days after it rains,
or until the top two inches of soil have dried. Luckily, outdoor irrigation controls have solved
the problem of scheduled sprinklers doing nature’s job. 
The first generation of these sensor-driven timers can be controlled from smartphone apps
and include tools to monitor your water usage history. In cold climates like NYC, outdoor
irrigation controllers can also adjust to below-freezing temperatures that can protect against
irrigation system damage.
Rain sensors shut off scheduled outdoor irrigation or sprinkler systems when rainfall is
detected, to prevent water usage. These connected devices rely on moisture sensors to prevent
scheduled irrigation, such as lawn sprinklers that run on timers, from occurring. While these
sensors will prevent watering during rainfall, they're not designed to increase watering during
dry periods or respond to freezing temperatures.
The purpose and outcome of rain sensors and outdoor irrigation controls are pretty similar.
However, landlords who need irrigation control should note that rain sensors don't require a
wireless connection since their function isn't based on data streams from weather satellites.
Another potential bonus is that rain sensors come at a much lower price point than smart
irrigation controllers.
5. Soil Moisture Sensors
Soil moisture sensors are designed for garden beds, lawns, and other forms of outdoor
landscaping. These sensors provide feedback to irrigation or sprinkler systems on how much
watering is needed, based on detected soil moisture level.
6. Sprinkler Heads
Low-technology sprinkler heads can waste a great deal of water, due to uneven or ineffective
water distribution. By using sprinkler heads with better coverage due to the size of water
droplets, landlords can shorten run time by up to 35%, compared to traditional nozzles.If you
are able to use rainwater or other forms of non-potable water for irrigation, you can further
reduce water utilization.
7. Toilet Tank Leak Detection Tablets
Leaking toilet bowl tanks can be difficult to detect but can significantly raise water
utilization. A moderate toilet leak wastes about 6,000 gallons per month. A more severe leak
tacks on a few hundred dollars to your water bill while squandering thousands more gallons
of H2O. 
Leak detection tablets contain dye and can be dropped into a tank to detect whether water is
being "wasted" over a short period of time. Due to the extreme simplicity of this conservation
tool, the test can be performed by any resident or member of a building maintenance team.

It Pays to Conserve
Balancing tenant comfort and preferences with available technologies for water conservation
should be a priority for residential landlords in 2020. By taking advantage of the best
offerings to control residential water use, including tamper-proof technologies and offerings
designed with comfort in mind, landlords can reduce their water bills without sacrificing
resident happiness.
The Water Scrooge offers patented, tamper-proof fixtures for showers and sinks that are
designed to create a minimal impact on resident experience. Our multi-tenant kits include
shower flow controllers, sink aerators, toilet fill cycle converters, leak detection tablets, and
more. As a matter of fact, our clients save an average of $500 per unit per year thanks to The
Water Scrooge.
Q41. Differentiate between genetic, species and ecosystem diversity.
The living world is a complex combination of different levels of organisms. The key
components of life are at one extreme and communities of species at the other extreme. The
manifestations of all types of diversities are found at all these levels of organisms.
Biodiversity is the shorter form of word biological diversity which means diversity in the
biological world. Thus one can define biodiversity as the degree of variety in nature with
regards to biological species.

Types of Biodiversity:
(a) Genetic diversity:
It is the variation of genes within the species. This results distinct population of one, even
same species. It gives genetic variation within a population or varieties within one species.
There are two reasons for differences between individual organisms. One is variation in the
gene which all organisms possess which is passed from one to its offspring’s.
The other is the influence of environment on each individual organism. The variation in the
sequence of four base pairs in DNA chain forms the genetic variation in the organism. The
recombination) of genetic material during cell division makes it an imperative for genetic
diversity within a species. Loss of genetic diversity within a species is called genetic erosion.
The whole area of agricultural productivity and development depend on genetic diversity.
The plant as well as animal genetic resources play important role in the economy of a
country. Genetic diversity is the whole basis for a sustainable life system in the earth.
Scientists in many parts of the world are trying to introduce genetically modified seeds in the
agriculture sector for better yield as well as for the resistance of drought and flood situations.
The local people or farmers are not showing any interest to preserve the natural way of
genetic diversity.

(b) Species diversity:

This refers to the variety of species within a particular region. The number of species in a
region is a measure for such diversity. The richness of species in a given region provides a
yard stick for species diversity. Species diversity depends as much on the genetic diversity as
on the environmental condition.
Colder regions support less than the warmer regions for species diversity. The good climate
with good physical geography supports better species diversity. Species richness is a term
which is used to measure the biodiversity of a given site.
In addition to species richness, species endemism is a term used to measure biodiversity by
way of assessing the magnitude of differences between species. In the taxonomic system
similar species are grouped together in general, similar genera in families, families in orders
and so on till in the level of kingdom. This process is a genuine attempt to find relationships
between organisms. The higher taxa have thousands of species. Species that are very different
from one another contributes more to overall biodiversity.

(c) Ecological diversity:

This is the number of species in a community of organisms. Maintaining both types of
diversity is fundamental to the functioning of ecosystems and hence to human welfare. India
is one of the 12 centres of diversity and origin of several cultivated plants in the world. It is
estimated that 15,000 species of plants occur in India. The flowering plants comprise 15,000
species of which several hundred (5000-7500) species are endemic to India. The region is
also rich in fauna, containing about 65,000 species of animals.
Among these, more than 50,000 species of insects, 4,000 of molluscs. 6,500 of other
invertebrates, 2,000 offish, 140 of amphibians, 420 of reptiles, 1,200 of birds and 340 of
mammals are recorded from India. This richness in biological diversity is due to immense
variety of climatic and altitudinal conditions coupled with varied ecological habitats.
These vary from the humid tropical Western Ghats to the hot desert of Rajasthan, from the
cold desert of Ladakh and the icy mountains of Himalayas to the warm coasts of peninsular
India including coastal region of Orissa. Gandhamardan Hills of Sambalpur is rich in
biodiversity. The Indian tradition teaches us that all forms of life, human, animal and plants
are so closely linked that disturbance in one gives rise to imbalance in the other. Our old
scriptures tell lot about these things.

Bio-geographical Classification of India:

Biogeography or biological geography is related to ecology and ecosystem of a region. Its
studies include variation of flora and fauna over the earth surface. It also encompasses study
of biosphere and its interaction with human population. Biogeography studies consider
phytogeography (forest), zoogeography (animals, insects), pedology (soil) hydrology (water),
oceanography (ocean).

The following is the Bio geographic zones of India and the types of vegetation found:
Many of the endangered and endemic species need human intervention for survival. Indian
Government through various projects is trying to check this process of endangering of
species.
Q42. Discuss in detail about the causes, effects and control measures of marine
pollution.
Marine Pollution – A Big Threat to the Environment
The Earth is covered with almost 2/3rd of its portion with ocean water. Ocean water plays a
very important role to maintain our ecology. Not only maintaining ecology but oceans have
many other reasons that make it one of the important parts of mankind such as trade, industry,
adventure, commerce, food etc.

Effects of Marine Pollution

Human beings have started using the oceans in varied ways and also get success.
Unfortunately, one of the very harmful use what humans have started using the ocean for
disposing the wastes into large scales. This has led to a very critical situation for marine life.
Marine life is an important part of the ecology and human have disturbed the ecology by
polluting marine life. We are continuously contaminating sea water by releasing a huge
variety of waste from various sources such as industrial waste, agricultural waste, oil spilling,
ocean mining etc.
There are various species of plants & animals that are living in the sea water and gets affected
by marine pollution. Imbalance in the ecology is causing various diseases to water animals
which are dangerous situations for the environment.
Types of Marine Pollution
Marine pollution i.e. also be termed as ocean pollution has become one of the biggest threats
due to industrialization and agricultural activities. it is hazardous not only for the water
kingdom but for human beings directly or indirectly. There are different types of marine
pollution such as –
 Toxin marine Pollution
Toxins are one of the very dangerous marine pollution’s that occurs due to various toxins
accumulated the oceans. Toxins such as DDT, Furan, Radioactive waste, pesticides, PCB,
TBT, Phenol etc. neither gets dissolve nor gets fragmented and hence cause dangerous effects
to marine life.
 Eutrophication Marine Pollution
It affects the breeding process of animals. Eutrophication actually means nutrient pollution
which occurs when excessive chemical nutrients (especially nitrates & phosphates) are
 present in water. It diminishes the quality of water and also reduces the oxygen level in the
water which leads to inhabitable condition to marine life.
 Plastic Marine Pollution
The continuous growth in the usage of plastic has covered the oceans badly across the world.
The rate of plastic dumped in the oceans is increasing simultaneously with the increase of
human population. The plastic dumps are affecting the marine life so badly that the situation
has become alarming for the marine ecosystem.
 Acidification Marine Pollution
Oceans also help the environment by absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Unfortunately, the water of the oceans is becoming acidic due to the excessive carbon dioxide
present in the atmosphere. Acidification of oceans is also affecting marine life.

Sources of Marine Pollution

In simple terms “seawater contamination is known as marine pollution”. There are numerous
sources that contaminate marine ecology such pollution occurs due to soil erosion & mining.
 Plastic is one of the major sources of marine pollution. Polythene, plastic bag, bottles,
etc. are thrown in the sea.
 Marine pollution causes due to sewage disposed of in sea water. All the industrial
wastes are thrown in the rivers and oceans. It creates a huge negative impact on the
ocean.
 Toxins from various sources such as pesticides, fertilizers, phenol etc.
 Oil spills also pollute sea water.
 Thermal pollution is also a source of marine pollution. All various causes and effects
are discussed below in detail.

Causes of Marine Pollution

Marine pollution is caused due to various reasons out of which most of the reasons are man-
made. Sometimes, it causes due to wastage dumped and sometimes due to ocean mining.
Whatever is the cause but the fact is that marine pollution is causing hazardous effects on
marine animals and vegetation. There are various causes of marine pollution which are
discussed below –
 Marine pollution through sewage
Pollution directly enters the ocean in the form of sewage. Sewage enters into the ocean water
through rivers and pollutes the marine life. It causes the reduction of oxygen level in the
water which hampers the life of animals and plants of oceans.
 Marine pollution through the oil spill
Oil spills from ships also cause marine pollution. It is one of the major toxins
that contaminate ocean water which does not clean up so easily. Oil spills lead to the death of
thousands of innocent marine animals due to suffocation and toxic effects of it.
 Marine pollution through industrial chemicals
Ocean pollution is also caused due to the toxins and chemicals entered into seawater through
industrial & agricultural wastes. These chemical acts as heavy pollutants that cause thermal
pollution. The temperature of the ocean increases due to thermal pollution. There are some
animals in oceans who cannot survive in high temperature, hence they die.
 Marine pollution through mining
Ocean mining not only comes under the causes of marine pollution but also causes noise
pollution. Deep-sea mining affects the base level of the ocean. The pollutants that release
through mining of metals such as silver, gold, copper etc. into the seawater affect the life of
the marine ecosystem.
 Marine Pollution through Land Runoff
Marine water also gets polluted through land runoff. It occurs when excessive water from
rain; flood etc. after penetration enters into the sea water. This water enters the oceans along
with contaminants such as pesticides, oil, fertilizers, waste from land animals etc.
and pollutes the ocean water. These pollutants cause harmful effects to oceanic life and lead
to the death of water animal & plants.
 Other causes of marine pollution –
 Greenhouse gases emitted from fossil fuel are majorly responsible for marine
pollution, causing acidification of water.
 Atmospheric pollution also contributes to marine pollution. For example- atmospheric
carbon dioxide increases the acidity of oceanic water.
 The nuclear wastes from various industries pollute the marine ecology affecting the
food chain of the marine ecosystem. 
 Thermal pollutants from power plants, manufacturing industries, etc. enter into
oceans, increasing the temperature of the water. 
 Acid rain is also responsible for marine pollution. 
 During acid rains, the sulphuric acid and nitric acid mix with marine water, increasing
the acidity of the water. 
harmful effects of marine pollution
Ocean life is highly affected by marine pollution. The toxins, chemicals, contaminated wastes
etc. are some of the dangerous causes of marine pollution. These pollutants affect the oceanic
Eco-system in various ways such as –
 Reduction of oxygen level in the water
Most of the waste dumped in oceans across the world does not able to decompose for many
years that decreasing the oxygen level in the water quite rapidly. Excessive debris in sea
water is reducing the oxygen level at an alarming rate. The low level of oxygen is directly
 affecting the health of the plants and animals of the sea such as sharks, penguins, whales,
dolphin, turtles, seal etc.
 Affects the oceanic food chain
The river that eventually enters into the sea takes agricultural & industrial waste with it into
the sea water. The agricultural & industrial debris such as pesticides, chemicals, radioactive
dumped waste etc. sediments into the bottom level of the ocean and remains as usual for
many years. This deposited waste affects from the bottom to the top surface of the ocean. The
small animals of ocean swallow these chemicals and then these small animals are eaten by
large animals. In this way, the entire food chain gets affected.
 Upset the coral reef cycle
Oil spills that cover the surface of seawater do not allow sunlight to reach oceanic plants.
Hence it affects photosynthesis process. As a result, the cycle of coral reef gets disturbed.
 Affects the reproductive system of water animals
The waste from industries and agriculture are composed of harmful chemicals that affect
marine life badly. These chemicals are so dangerous that it can damage the organs of water
animals such as the reproductive system. The failure of the reproductive system affects the
breeding process of the species of water animals.
 Harmful effects of toxins on marine life
The toxins that is accumulating day by day in oceans showing dangerous results on water
animals such as cancer, damage of tissues & cells, failure of organs, behavioral changes,
failure of reproductive system etc. The harmful chemicals, pesticides, oil spills get into the
body of these animals directly or indirectly & causes various health issues and sometimes
lead to death.
 Other effects of marine pollution –
1. An increase in oceanic temperature through pollution leads to an interruption in the
natural water equations causing the unconditional death of innocent water animals.  
2. Marine pollution also affects human health indirectly. 
3. When humans consume affected animals, the pollutants transferred into their bodies
from the impacted ocean animal.  
4. The toxins dissolved in the water increase the acidity of the ocean, causing high risk
to the marine animals.
5. Pollutants like oil spills act as a barrier between the sun and the seafloor. These
pollutants restrict the sunlight to reach the seafloor affecting the photosynthesis process
of plants.
 Prevention of Marine Pollution
As we all know that prevention is better than cure, so we all need to work together to prevent
marine pollution. Marine life is an important part of our Eco-system and it is everyone’s
responsibility to save marine animals and natural resources. We can make a difference
working together to prevent marine pollution. Some of the important preventive measures of
marine pollution have been listed below –
 According to the studies, almost 80% marine pollution caused due to waste from
lands. We can reduce this by limiting the waste material.
 Plastic bags, bottles etc. have become one of the big reasons for marine pollution. We
need to stop using plastic made material to save marine life and our environment.
 We all need to put efforts to clean the sea beaches. If beaches will be cleaned, marine
pollution can be reduced to some extent.
 The farmers should use organic farming techniques instead of using chemical
pesticides and fertilizers. When these fertilizers and pesticides entered
into ocean water causes various health issues to the plants & animals of the sea.
 We all need to make sure that only rainwater goes into the drainage because most of
the drain water goes into oceans. If we allow sewage and waste material to get into
the drainage, it will eventually affect the marine life.
 Most of the rivers flow into the oceans and also the wastes get entered in the sea
water. Hence we also need to take care of the cleanliness of the rivers so that it cannot
contaminate the marine life.
 We should stop using single-use plastic to protect the marine ecosystem.
 Say “NO” to disposables such as straws, tumblers, plastic carry bags, etc. These items
only increase the amount of waste that ultimately goes into oceans.
 Recycling helps a lot to protect ocean ecology.
 We should try to minimize energy use to reduce the oceanic temperature.
 Give preference to buy Eco-friendly products and materials.
 Spread awareness among people about the conservation and importance of the marine
environment.
 You can join any organization that works for the conservation of marine culture from
pollution.

Causes and effects of marine pollution are on the rise. As we read above many types of
marine pollution, We must act together to protect ocean life and keep the water animals safe
and maintaining a pleasant environment on the earth for every species.
Q43. Discuss in detail about various natural resources.
Resources obtained from nature, i.e. from the earth are called natural resources. These
resources occur naturally, and humans cannot make them. The raw materials used in
artificial or man-made resources are natural resources.
Classification of Natural Resources
Classification of natural resources can be done in several ways based on their origin, level of
development and uses, stock or deposits, and their distribution.
On the basis of their origin, natural resources can be classified into living or biotic and non-
living or abiotic resources.
Living or Biotic Resources
If natural resources come from living things or organic materials, they are termed as living
or biotic resources. Biotic resources include plants, animals and fossil fuels. Fossil fuels
such as coal, oil and natural gas are classified as biotic resources as they are formed from the
decay of organic matter over millions of years.
Non-living or Abiotic Resources
On the other hand, if the resources are derived from nonliving or inorganic materials, they
are termed as abiotic resources. For instance, air, sunlight, and water are abiotic natural
resources. Minerals are also considered abiotic.
On the basis of deposit or stock, natural resources can be classified as renewable and non-
renewable.
Renewable Natural Resources
Resources that can be used without any risk of its ending up are called renewable resources.
They exist in unlimited quantity. Sun, water, wind, biomass, tides, geothermal energy, etc.
are renewable resources. These are infinite sources of energy.
Non-renewable Natural Resources
Those natural resources, on the other hand, that cannot be replenished after their depletion is
called non-renewable resources. Most fossil fuels, such as coal, petroleum and natural gas
are considered nonrenewable resources. Nonrenewable resources take billions of years for
their formation, hence, their cautious and economic use is the only option left for mankind.
On the basis of development of resources, natural resources can be classified
as actual and potential resources.
Actual Resources
An actual resource is one which is used in current times. We know their approximate
quantity, for example: coal deposit.
Potential Resources
A potential resource is one whose utility is not known at present or is not used despite
having the same. Instead, it may be useful at some time in future. In other words, such
resources have the potential to have utility, although it does not have any today. For
example, uranium deposit in Ladakh in India.

The 5 Most Important Natural Resources are:

 Air: Clean air is important for all the plants, animals, humans to survive on this
planet. So it is necessary to take measures to reduce air pollution.
 Water: 70% of the Earth is covered in water and only 2 % of that is freshwater.
Initiative to educate and regulate the use of water should be taken.
 Soil: Soil is composed of various particles and nutrients. It helps plants grow
 Iron: It is made from silica and is used to build strong weapons, transportation, and
buildings
 Forests: As the population increases, the demand for housing and construction
projects also increases. Forests provide clean air and preserve the ecology of the
world
Q44. What are Dams? What are their advantages? Explain the effects of Dams
on Forests and tribal people?
Dam, structure built across a stream, a river, or an estuary to retain water. Dams are built to
provide water for human consumption, for irrigating arid and semiarid lands, or for use in
industrial processes. They are used to increase the amount of water available for
generating hydroelectric power, to reduce peak discharge of floodwater created by large
storms or heavy snowmelt, or to increase the depth of water in a river in order to improve
navigation and allow barges and ships to travel more easily. Dams can also provide a lake for
recreational activities such as swimming, boating, and fishing. Many dams are built for more
than one purpose; for example, water in a single reservoir can be used for fishing, to generate
hydroelectric power, and to support an irrigation system. Water-control structures of this type
are often designated multipurpose dams.

Advantages of a dam
 Once a dam is constructed, electricity can be produced at a constant rate.
 If electricity is not needed, the sluice gates can be shut, stopping electricity
generation. The water can be saved for use another time when electricity demand is
high.
 Dams are designed to last many decades and so can contribute to the generation of
electricity for many years / decades.
 The lake that forms behind the dam can be used for water sports and leisure / pleasure
activities. Often large dams become tourist attractions in their own right.
 The lake's water can be used for irrigation purposes.
 The buildup of water in the lake means that energy can be stored until needed, when
the water is released to produce electricity.
  When in use, electricity produced by dam systems do not produce green house gases.
They do not pollute the atmosphere.

Dams and their Effects on Forests and Tribal People!

When asked to name different causes of deforestation, few people will mention hydroelectric
dams as being one of them. Even fewer will include them as a cause of human rights
violations. However, dams constitute a major direct and indirect cause of forest loss and most
of them have resulted in widespread human rights abuses.

This lack of awareness can be explained by the fact that for many years large hydroelectric
dams have been portrayed as synonymous with development. Another reason can be that
most users of hydro-electricity live far away from the impacted areas and that the sites
selected for dam building have been often those inhabited by indigenous peoples, tribal
people, ethnic minorities and poor communities having little capacity of being heard by the
wider national community.

The fact is that more than 40,000 large dams — those that measure more than 15 metres in
height — are currently obstructing the world’s rivers, whose reservoirs cover more than
400,000 square kilometers of land. These reservoirs have inundated millions of hectares of
forests — particularly in the tropics — many of which were not even logged and trees were
left to slowly rot.

They have also resulted in deforestation elsewhere, as farmers displaced by the dams have
had to clear forests in other areas in order to grow their crops and build their homes.
Additionally, dams imply road building, thus allowing access to previously remote areas by
loggers and “developers”, resulting in further deforestation processes.

However, the dams’ effects have included much more than forest loss and the major
environmental changes have impacted on local people, at both the dam site and in the entire
river basin. Not only are the best agricultural soils flooded by the reservoir, but major
changes occur in the environment, where the river’s flora and fauna begins to disappear, with
strong impacts on people dependent on those resources.

At the same time, dams imply a number of health hazards, starting with diseases introduced
by the thousands of workers that are brought in to build the dam (including AIDS, syphilis,
tuberculosis, measles and others) and ending with diseases related to the reservoir itself
(malaria, schistosomiasis, river blindness, etc.).

In far too many cases, dam-building has resulted in widespread human rights violations. As
most of us would, local peoples have persistently resisted the destruction of their homelands
and their forced “resettlement.” As a result, they have had to face different types of
repression, ranging from physical and legal threats to mass murders.
 But resistance, consciousness and solidarity have grown. Local people have increasingly been
able to organize themselves and to establish local, national and international alliances with
other concerned organizations.

Major examples are the Narmada Bachao Andolan movement in India, the Bio Bio Action
Group in Chile, the Coalition of Concerned NGOs on Bakun in Malaysia, the People Af-
fected by Dams movement in Brazil among many others. It has now become possible to stop
large hydro dams. They are definitely not a symbol of development but one of economic and
political power resulting in social and environmental degradation.

Q45. Explain in detail the water resourcmmes.

Water is a vital elixir for all living beings. Although it is a renewable resource, scarcity of
quality water is felt in many parts of the world. We need water to grow food, keep clean,
generate electricity, control fire, and last but not the least, we need it to stay alive.
World Ocean water covers about 75 percent of the surface of the earth. Therefore, the earth is
called the water planet. Ocean water is saline and not fit for human consumption. Fresh water
is just about 2.7 percent of the total water. Global warming and perpetuating water pollution
have made a considerable part of available freshwater unfit for human consumption. As a
result, water is very scarce.
Steps need to be taken to conserve water. Water is renewable, but its overuse and pollution
make it unfit for use. Sewage, industrial use, chemicals, etc. pollute water with nitrates,
metals, and pesticides.
Use of Water Resources
Water resources are used for agricultural, industrial, domestic, recreational, and
environmental activities. Majority of the uses require fresh water.
However, about 97 percent of water found on the earth is salt water and only three percent is
fresh water. A little over two-thirds of the available fresh water is frozen in glaciers and polar
ice caps. The remaining freshwater is found mainly as groundwater and a negligible portion
of it is present on the ground or in the air.
Following is a brief account of how water is used in different sectors.
Agricultural Use
Agriculture accounts for 69 percent of all water consumption basically in agricultural
economies like India. Agriculture, therefore, is the largest consumer of the Earth’s available
freshwater.
By 2050, the global water demand of agriculture is estimated to increase by a further 19%
due to irrigational needs. Expanding irrigation needs are likely to put undue pressure on water
storage. It is still inconclusive whether further expansion of irrigation, as well as additional
water withdrawals from rivers and groundwater, will be possible in future.
Industrial Use
Water is the lifeblood of the industry. It is used as a raw material coolant, a solvent, a
transport agent, and as a source of energy. Manufacturing industries account for a
considerable share in the total industrial water consumption. Besides, paper and allied
products, chemicals and primary metals are major industrial users of water.
Worldwide, the industry accounts for 19 percent of total consumption. In industrialized
countries, however, industries use more than half of the water available for human use.
Domestic Use
It includes drinking, cleaning, personal hygiene, garden care, cooking, washing of clothes,
dishes, vehicles, etc. Since the end of World War II there has been a trend of people moving
out of the countryside to the ever-expanding cities. This trend has important implications on
our water resources.
Government and communities have had to start building large water-supply systems to
deliver water to new populations and industries. Of all water consumption in the world,
domestic use accounts for about 12 percent.
Use for Hydropower Generation
Electricity produced from water is hydropower. Hydropower is the leading renewable source
of electricity in the world. It accounts for about 16 percent of total electricity generation
globally. There are many opportunities for hydropower development throughout the world.
Today, the leading hydropower generating countries are China, the US, Brazil, Canada, India,
and Russia.
Use for Navigation and Recreation
Navigable waterways are defined as watercourses that have been or may be used for transport
of interstate or foreign commerce. Agricultural and commercial goods are moved on water on
a large scale in a number of regions in the world.
Water is also used for recreational purposes such as boating, swimming, and sporting
activities. These uses affect the quality of water and pollute it. Highest priority should be
given to public health and drinking water quality while permitting such activities in
reservoirs, lakes, and rivers.
Overutilization of Surface and Ground Water
Water scarcity has become a burning global issue. The UN has held several conventions on
water in recent decades. Continuous overutilization of surface and ground water has led to
virtual water scarcity in the world today.
The depleting sources for high growth in human population over the centuries and increased
man-induced water pollution across the world have created unforeseen water scarcity around
the globe. As a result, there has been continuous overutilization of the existing water sources
due to mammoth growth in world population.
Groundwater is the major source of water in many parts of the world. However, there has
been continuous depletion of this source due to its overexploitation by rising human
population and the rapid rise in industrialization and urbanization in modern times.
Consequences of Overutilization
Water scarcity now becomes an important topic in international diplomacy. From village to
the United Nations, water scarcity is a widely-discussed topic in decision making.
Nearly three billion people in the world suffer from water scarcity. International, intrastate
and regional rivalries on water are not new to world. The ongoing Jordan River conflict, Nile
River conflict, and Aral Sea conflict are cases in point. The intra-state issues such as Cauvery
Water dispute in South India, 2000 Cochabamba protests in Bolivia is still a simmering
cauldron causing periodic tension at the national and regional levels.
According to World Health Organization (WHO) sources, a combination of rising global
population, economic growth and climate change means that by 2050 five billion (52%) of
the world’s projected 9.7 billion people will live in areas where fresh water supply is under
pressure. Researchers expect about 1 billion more people to be living in areas where water
demand exceeds surface-water supply.
Climate Change
Scientists, environmentalists, and biologists worldwide are now alarmed that climate change
can have an impact on the drainage pattern and hydrological cycle on the earth thereby
severely affecting the surface and groundwater availability.
Climate change is believed to rise the global temperature at an increasing pace. Temperature
increase affects the hydrological cycle by directly increasing evaporation of available surface
water and vegetation transpiration.
As a result, precipitation amount, timing and intensity rates are largely affected. It impacts
the flux and storage of water in surface and subsurface reservoirs.
Floods & Draughts
Floods and droughts are two well-known natural hazards in the world. The former is due to
excess in water flow and the latter is due to scarcity of water.
The amount of rainfall received by an area varies from one place to another depending on the
location of the place. In some places it rains almost throughout the year whereas in other
places it might rain for only few days. India records most of its rainfall in the monsoon
season.
Heavy rains lead to rise in the water level of rivers, seas, and oceans. Water gets accumulated
in the coastal areas, which results in floods. Floods bring in extensive damage to crops,
domestic animals, property and human life. During floods, many animals get carried away by
the force of water and eventually die.
On the other hand, droughts set in when a particular region goes without rain for a long
period of time. In the meantime, the soil will continuously lose groundwater by the process of
evaporation and transpiration. Since this water is not brought back to earth in the form of
rains, the soil becomes very dry.
The level of water in the ponds and rivers goes down and in some cases water bodies get
dried up completely. Ground water becomes scarce and this leads to droughts. In drought
conditions, it is very difficult to get food and fodder for the survival. Life gets difficult and
many animals perish in such conditions.
Frequent floods and droughts are mostly due to climate change and global warming. Various
environmental organizations world over are of the view that climate change is a long-term
change in weather patterns, either in average weather conditions or in the distribution of
extreme weather events.
Q46. Describe features, structure and functions of Ecosystem.
The interaction and interrelationship between the living community (plants, animals, and
organisms) in relation to each other and the non-living community (soil, air, and water) is
referred to as an ecosystem. Thus, an ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of
biosphere. It is made up of living and non-living beings and their physical environment.
In other words, a natural ecosystem is defined as a network of interactions among the
organisms and between organisms and their environment. Nutrient cycles and energy flows
keep these living and non-living components connected in an ecosystem.
Ecosystem - Scope and Importance
Ecosystem is a part of natural environment consisting of a community of living beings and
the physical environment both constantly interchanging materials and energy between them.
It is the sum total of the environment or a part of nature.

The environment consists of four segments as follows −

 Atmosphere − the atmosphere refers to the protective blanket of gases, surrounding the
earth. It sustains life on the earth. It saves the Earth from the hostile environment of the outer
space. The atmosphere composed of nitrogen and oxygen in large quantity along with small
percentage of other gases such as argon, carbon dioxide, and trace gases (the gases which
makes up less than 1 percent by volume of the atmosphere.
 Hydrosphere − Hydrosphere comprises all water resources such as ocean, seas, lakes, rivers,
reservoirs, icecaps, glaciers, and ground water.
 Lithosphere − It is the outer mantle of the solid earth. It contains minerals occurring in the
earth’s crust and the soil.
 Biosphere − It constitutes the realm of living organisms and their interactions with the
environment (atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere).
The study of ecosystem or environmental studies has been seen to be multidisciplinary in
nature, hence, it is considered to be a subject with great scope. It is no more confined only to
the issues of sanitation and health; rather, it is now concerned with pollution control,
biodiversity conservation, waste management and conservation of natural resources.
The ecosystems are classified into many types and are classified based on a number of
factors. We will discuss major types of ecosystems and will try and understand on what basis
these classifications are done. It is also essential to know the different factors which
differentiate the ecosystems from one another.
Ecosystems can generally be classified into two classes such as natural and
artificial. Artificial ecosystems are natural regions affected by man’s interferences. They are
artificial lakes, reservoirs, townships, and cities. Natural ecosystems are basically classified
into two major types. They are aquatic ecosystem and terrestrial ecosystem.
Types of Natural Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a self-contained unit of living things and their non-living environment. The
following chart shows the types of Natural Ecosystem −

Biotic (Living Components)

Biotic components in ecosystems include organisms such as plants, animals, and
microorganisms. The biotic components of ecosystem comprise −
 Producers or Autotrophs
 Consumers or Heterotrophs
 Decomposers or Detritus
Abiotic (Non-living Components)
Abiotic components consist of climate or factors of climate such as temperature, light,
humidity, precipitation, gases, wind, water, soil, salinity, substratum, mineral, topography,
and habitat. The flow of energy and the cycling of water and nutrients are critical to each
ecosystem on the earth. Non-living components set the stage for ecosystem operation.
Aquatic Ecosystem
An ecosystem which is located in a body of water is known as an aquatic ecosystem. The
nature and characteristics of the communities of living or biotic organisms and non-living or
abiotic factors which interact with and interrelate to one another are determined by the
aquatic surroundings of their environment they are dependent upon.
Aquatic ecosystem can be broadly classified into Marine Ecosystem and Freshwater
Ecosystem.
Marine Ecosystem
These ecosystems are the biggest of all ecosystems as all oceans and their parts are included
in them. They contain salt marshes, intertidal zones, estuaries, lagoons, mangroves, coral
reefs, the deep sea, and the sea floor. Marine ecosystem has a unique flora and fauna, and
supports a vast kingdom of species. These ecosystems are essential for the overall health of
both marine and terrestrial environments.
Salt marshes, seagrass meadows, and mangrove forests are among the most productive
ecosystem. Coral reef provides food and shelter to the highest number of marine inhabitants
in the world. Marine ecosystem has a large biodiversity.
Freshwater Ecosystem
Freshwater ecosystem includes lakes, rivers, streams, and ponds. Lakes are large bodies of
freshwater surrounded by land.
Plants and algae are important to freshwater ecosystem because they provide oxygen through
photosynthesis and food for animals in this ecosystem. Estuaries house plant life with the
unique adaptation of being able to survive in fresh and salty environments. Mangroves and
pickle weed are examples of estuarine plants.
Many animals live in freshwater ecosystem. Freshwater ecosystem is very important for
people as they provide them water for drinking, energy and transportation, recreation, etc.
Terrestrial Ecosystem
Terrestrial ecosystems are those ecosystems that exist on land. Water may be present in a
terrestrial ecosystem but these ecosystems are primarily situated on land. These ecosystems
are of different types such as forest ecosystem, desert ecosystem, grassland and mountain
ecosystems. Terrestrial ecosystems are distinguished from aquatic ecosystems by the lower
availability of water and the consequent importance of water as a limiting factor. These are
characterized by greater temperature fluctuations on both diurnal and seasonal basis, than in
aquatic ecosystems in similar climates.
Availability of light is greater in terrestrial ecosystems than in aquatic ecosystems because
the atmosphere is more transparent on land than in water. Differences in temperature and
light in terrestrial ecosystems reflect a completely different flora and fauna.
The functional attributes of the ecosystem keep the components running together. Ecosystem
functions are natural processes or exchange of energy that take place in various plant and
animal communities of different biomes of the world.
For instance, green leaves prepare food and roots absorb nutrients from the soil, herbivores
feed on the leaves and the roots and in turn serve as food for the carnivores.
Decomposers execute the functions of breaking down complex organic materials into simple
inorganic products, which are used by the producers.
Fundamentally, ecosystem functions are exchange of energy and nutrients in the food chain.
These exchanges sustain plant and animal life on the planet as well as the decomposition of
organic matter and the production of biomass.
All these functions of the ecosystem take place through delicately balanced and controlled
processes.
Food Chain
The order of living organisms in a community in which one organism consumes other and is
itself consumed by another organism to transfer energy is called a food chain. Food chain is
also defined as “a chain of organisms, existing in any natural community, through which
energy is transferred”.
Every living being irrespective of their size, habit, from the tiniest algae to giant blue whales,
need food to survive. Food chain is structured differently for different species in different
ecosystems. Each food chain is the vital pathway for energy and nutrients to follow through
the ecosystem.

Food chains were first introduced by the African-Arab scientist and philosopher Al-Jahiz in
the 9th century and later popularized in a book published in 1927 by Charles Elton.

A food chain starts with a producer such as plants. Producers form the basis of the food
chains. Then there are consumers of many orders. Consumers are organisms that eat other
organisms. All organisms in a food chain, except the first organism, are consumers.
Plants are called producers because they produce their own food through photosynthesis.
Animals are called consumers because they depend on plants or other animals for food to get
energy they need.
In a certain food chain, each organism gets energy from the one at the level below. In a food
chain, there is reliable energy transfer through each stage. All the energy at one stage of the
chain is not absorbed by the organism at the next stage.

Trophic Levels in a Food Chain

Trophic levels are different stages of feeding position in a food chain such as primary
producers and consumers of different types.
Organisms in a food chain are categorized under different groups called trophic levels. They
are as follows.
Producers (First Trophic Level) − Producers otherwise called autotrophs prepare their food
by themselves. They form the first level of every food chain. Plants and one-celled
organisms, some types of bacteria, algae, etc. come under the category of Autotrophs.
Virtually, almost all autotrophs use a process called photosynthesis to prepare food.
Consumers − At the second trophic level, there are consumers who depend upon others for
food.
 Primary Consumers (Second Trophic Level) − Primary consumers eat the
producers. They are called herbivores. Deer, turtle, and many types of birds are
herbivores.
 Secondary Consumers (Third Trophic Level) − Secondary consumers based at the
third trophic level eat plants and herbivores. They are both carnivores (meateaters)
and omnivores (animals that eat both animals and plants). In a desert ecosystem, a
secondary consumer may be a snake that eats a mouse. Secondary consumers may eat
animals bigger than they are. Some lions, for example, kill and eat buffalo. The
buffalo weighs twice as much as the lions do.
 Tertiary Consumers (Fourth Trophic Level) − Tertiary consumers are animals
eating other carnivores. The secretary bird in Africa and the King Cobra specialize in
 killing and eating snakes but all snakes are carnivores. The leopard seal eats mostly
other carnivores - mainly other seals, squids, and penguins, all of which are
carnivores.
Decomposers − Decomposers which don’t always appear in the pictorial presentation of the
food chain, play an important part in completing the food chain. These organisms break down
dead organic material and wastes. Fungi and bacteria are the key decomposers in many
ecosystems; they use the chemical energy in dead matter and wastes to fuel their metabolic
processes. Other decomposers are detritivores—detritus eaters or debris eaters.
Understanding the food chain helps us know the feeding interrelationship and interaction
between an organism and the ecosystem. It also enables us to know the mechanism of energy
flow in an ecosystem.

Food Web
The word ‘web’ means network. Food web can be defined as ‘a network of interconnected
food chains so as to form a number of feeding relationships amongst different organism of a
biotic community.
A food chain cannot stand isolated in an ecosystem. The same food resource may be a part of
more than one chain. This is possible when the resource is at the lower tropic level.
A food web comprises all the food chains in a single ecosystem. It is essential to know that
each living thing in an ecosystem is a part of multiple food chains.

A single food chain is the single possible path that energy and nutrients may make while
passing through the ecosystem. All the interconnected and overlapping food chains in an
ecosystem make up a food web.
Food webs are significant tools in understanding that plants are the foundation of all
ecosystem and food chains, sustaining life by providing nourishment and oxygen needed for
survival and reproduction. The food web provides stability to the ecosystem.
The tertiary consumers are eaten by quaternary consumers. For example, a hawk that eats
owls. Each food chain ends with a top predator and animal with no natural enemies (such as
an alligator, hawk, or polar bear).
Q47. Explain in detail Forest Conservation Act.
The Forest Conservation Act, 1980 is a Central Act of Parliament with a view to provide for
the conservation of forest and for matters connected therewith or ancillary or incidental
thereto. The act extends to the whole of India except the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
Section 2 of the act makes a provision of a prior approval of the Central Government
necessary before a State Government or any other authority issues direction for dereservation
of reserved forests (which have been reserved under the Indian Forest Act 1927), use of forest
land for non – forest purpose, assigning forest land by way of lease or otherwise to any
private person or to any authority, corporation, agency or any other organization not owned,
managed or controlled by the government and clear felling of naturally grown trees. The term
“forest land” mentioned in Section 2 of the Act refers to reserved forest, protected forest or
any area recorded as forest in the government records. Lands which are notified under
section4 of the Indian
Forest Act would also come within the purview of the Forest Conservation Act 1980. The
Supreme Court has also held that “forest” as understood in the dictionary sense would also be
included under “forest land”. The term “forest” shall not be applicable to the plantation raised
on private land except notified private forest. Tree falling in such plantation would however
be governed by state acts and rules. The term “tree” will have the same meaning as defined in
section 2 of the Indian Forest Act 1927.
Appeals against orders made under section 2 of the forest conservation act on or after the
commencement of the National Green Tribunal Act 2010 lie with the National Green
Tribunal. The procedures along with formats for obtaining clearances under the act have been
prescribed under the Forest Conservation Rules 2003 and 2004 which also has constituted a
forest advisory committee and regional empowered committee. The regional empowered
committee shall decide the proposal involving diversion of forest land upto 40 ha. Proposals
involving forest land of more than 40 ha. and all proposals relating to mining and
encroachments irrespective of the area of forest land involved, shall be forwarded by the
concerned State Government / Union Territory along its recommendations to the MoEF
Government of India. Non – compliance of provisions of section 2 of the act shall be
punishable with simple imprisonment for a period which may extend upto 15 days.
Q48. Explain in detail the scope and importance of Environment studies.
The word ‘environment’ is derived from the old French word ‘environer’ – which means to
‘surround, enclose, and encircle’. Environment refers to an aggregate of conditions or
surroundings in which living beings such as humans, animals, and plants live or survive and
non-living things exist.
All living beings including man and their environment are mutually reactive, affecting each
other in a number of ways. It is generally equated with nature wherein physical components
of the planet earth such as earth, air, water, etc. support and affect life in the biosphere.

Environment represents the physical components of the earth, wherein man is an important
factor affecting the environment.
Environment comprises interacting systems of physical, biological, and cultural elements,
which are interlinked individually as well as collectively in various ways.
Constituents of Environment
Physical elements constitute space, landforms, water-bodies, climate, soils, rocks, and
minerals. These elements determine the variable character of human habitat, and also its
opportunities and limitations.
Biological elements include plants, animals, micro-organisms, and man.
Cultural elements include economic, social and political conditions which are largely man-
made features.

Types of Environment
Since environment is a combination of physical and biological factors, it contains both
living or biotic and non-living or abiotic components. On the basis of this basic structure,
environment can be divided into physical or abiotic and living or biotic environment.
Physical or Abiotic Environment
Physical environment is made up of the following states - solid, liquid, and gas. These three
elements signify lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere respectively. On the basis of
spatial distribution, smaller units are termed as coastal environment, plateau environment,
mountain environment, lake environment, river environment, maritime environment, etc.
Living or Biotic Environment
Biotic environment consists of plants (flora) and animals (fauna) including human beings as a
significant factor. Thus, biotic environment can be of two types such as floral environment
and faunal environment.
Apart from the above, there are social, cultural, and psychological environment.
Social and Cultural Environment
This type of environment includes the varied aspects of socio-cultural interactions along with
its outcomes such as beliefs, attitudes, stereotypes etc. The tangible and intangible aspects of
environment are included in it.
Psychological Environment
Psychological environment deals with the perception and experiences related to any
environmental setting. Some environment may be stimulating and exciting for us, while
others may be dull and boring. Psychological environment is more often used in the
organizational context.
Man-Environment Relationship
Man and environment relationship is as old as the evolution of mankind. Since the evolution
of man, the physical elements of the planet earth, such as terrain, soil, water, climate, flora
and fauna formed man’s environment. During that time man was a typically a ‘physical man’
because of his limited wants, requirements, and total dependence on nature.
With the growth in social and economic activities, advancement in technologies, man
expanded his own environment through design and skill to have provisions for improved and
better food, shelter, access, and comfort or luxuries. Man’s ability to survive in a variety of
ecosystem and his unique ability to adapt to a great variety of external conditions make man-
environment relationship quite a fascinating area of study.
The environment in which man survives and to which he adapts himself and which he
influences include physical, socio-cultural, and biological aspects. Man and environment has
never been static and a great many factors are responsible for the shifts in man environment
relationship.
Approaches to Man-Environment Relationship
The man and environment relationship can be studied under the following approaches.
Determinism − Friedrich Ratzel, the German geographer, was responsible for the
development of the concepts of determinism, which was further expanded by Ellsworth
Huntington.
This approach is based on the concept of ‘nature controls man’ or ‘earth made man’.
According to this approach, man is largely influenced by nature. In fact, the determinism
states that man is subordinate to natural environment because all aspects of human life such
as physical (health and well-being), social, economic, political, ethical, aesthetic, etc. not
only depend on but are dominantly controlled by the physical environment.
World famous biologist, Charles Darwin, in 1859 laid the foundation stone of the concept of
environment influences on man and other organism.
Possibilism − Lucien Febvre, the French historian, founded the concept of Possibilism.
Possibilism approach in the study of man-environment relationship is an offshoot of the
criticism of environmental determinism and the impact of science and technology on such a
relationship.
Possibilism indicates that the physical environment is passive and man is the active agent at
liberty to choose between wide ranges of environmental possibilities. According to it, the
pattern of human activity is the result of the initiative and mobility of man operating within
the natural framework. Nowadays, the role of natural elements in conditioning, though not
controlling human activities, is often lost sight of.
Possibilists were largely aware of the limitations of freedom of man to dictate terms to
environment. It was agreed upon by the possibilists that man lacks the abilities to fully tame
the nature and is not always victorious over it. As result of the above, some geographers
vouched for ‘cooperation with nature’ or ‘mutual interaction’ between man and environment.
Ecological Approach − This approach is based upon the basic principle of ecology, which is
the study of mutual interaction between organisms and physical environment on the one
hand, and the interaction among the organism on the other in a given ecosystem. This
approach describes man as an integral part of nature or environment. Man, being most skilled
and intelligent, has a unique role to play in maintaining a natural environment as healthy and
productive as it should be.
This approach emphasizes on wise and restrained use of natural resources, application
of appropriate environmental management programs, policies and strategies keeping in view
certain basic principles of ecology so that already depleted natural resources are replenished,
and health and productivity of the nature is restored.

Environmental Studies
Environmental studies refer to an extensive and systematic study of nature/environment and
of its physical, biological, social, and cultural factors, and the nature and characteristics of
relationship between man and environment. How far man influences nature and to what
extent nature delivers its bounties constitute another objective of environmental studies.
It is an interdisciplinary study as subjects like ecology, biochemistry, toxicology, geography,
geology, meteorology, sociology, etc. are dealt with under environmental studies.
The Need for Environmental Studies
Nature or environment sustains life. As a conscious and rational being, man needs to know
the importance of environment and help keep the environment as healthy and productive as
it can be. It is the environment that has made this beautiful world possible for him. Hence,
there is an ever demanding need for environmental studies.
The natural environment that mankind had before the onset of industrialization,
urbanization, and exponential growth in population was expectedly healthy and resilient.
Nature was able to replenish the loss of its resources, which was very limited.
After the onset of modern civilization, the overall health and efficiency of natural
environment started deteriorating gradually and went on to such an extent that nature has
virtually lost its natural ability to replenish the loss of resources caused by man.
Environmentalists, geographers, and biologists the world over are constantly endeavoring
for a sustainable solution to restore a sustainable environment.
There is a need for focus on environmental management, laws governing environment
protection, pollution and recycling of non-bio-degradable material, etc. There is also a need
for careful and cautious use of natural resources in the present time to establish sustainability
in every aspect of nature.
There is a need to clarify modern environmental concepts such as how to conserve
biodiversity and maintain an ecological balance.
Environmental studies help us understand the importance of our environment and teaches us
to use natural resources more efficiently and embrace a sustainable way of living. It enables
us to know the behavior of organisms under natural conditions and the interrelationship
between organisms in population and communities.
Q49. What are the different types of Pollution?
Meaning
There are various types of pollution which affect our lives on daily basis. Environmental
pollution is one the most significant challenges that the world is facing in our day. Without a
doubt, Environmental pollution has existed for centuries. But, it began to be a severe issue
following the industrial revolution in the 19th century. Pollution generally takes place when
pollutants pollute the natural surroundings, and it can bring about changes that affect our
everyday lifestyles unfavorably. Pollution also results in environmental degradation.
Evidence suggests that since the industrial revolution, contaminants in atmosphere have been
growing day by day and resulting in severe damage to the earth. Hazardous waste, toxic
chemicals, suspended particles are affecting both humans and animals on daily basis. Many
of the toxins, chemical and plastic have found their way in ecological food chain. Traces of
such harmful substances are found in living organisms which is a serious problem.

Types of Pollution
The effects of pollution are undoubtedly many and extensive. Extreme levels of pollution are
causing scores of harm to human health, animal health, tropical rain-forests etc. All kinds of
pollution including air, water, soil pollution, etc. have an impact on the environment.
 Air Pollution
 Water Pollution
 Land Pollution (soil pollution)
 Noise Pollution
 Radioactive/ Nuclear Pollution
 Thermal Pollution, etc
 Light pollution
 Marine Pollution/ Ocean Pollution

Water Pollution
One of the most common forms of pollution is water pollution. Generally it includes lakes,
groundwater, sea, oceans etc. A few examples include raw sewage and waste water running
into the lake or streams; Industrial waste drips polluting groundwater, the illicit putting of
stuff or items within bodies of water, etc.
The most explicit kind of water pollution affects surface waters including oceans, lakes, and
rivers which are used as drinking water. Sewage, Nutrients, Chemical waste, radioactive
waste, etc. can make water polluted. Water pollution also results in death of water bodies, kill
organisms and fish, crabs, birds; seagull’s, dolphins, etc.
Increased use of non degradable material and especially the use of plastic is a large
contributor in water pollution. Plastic material such as carry bags, plastic straw, bottles etc
are choking our drains and harming marine and aquatic life. Serious problems have emerged
because of increased plastic content in aquatic organisms.
Cause of Water Pollution
 Human activities are the main source of water pollution. The most polluting type includes
discharging of industrial waste into water bodies such as lakes and rivers. The harmful
 chemicals and toxic waste without being treated is directly discharged to water bodies.
Another reason is the mixing of untreated sewage to rivers. Polluted and contaminated
water from houses is not treated and rather made to enter the water bodies.
 Plastic materials such as bottles, carry bags, packaging material also find their way to water
bodies which adds to the water pollution and adversely affects its quality and also aquatic
life.
 Another example of water pollution includes mixing up of high temperature (hot water/
discharge) into water bodies at normal temperature. The sudden change and rise in
temperature of water also has negative impact on aquatic life.
 Acid rain is also regarded as one of the polluting factor. Acid Rain: Sulphur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides react with water in the atmosphere producing sulphuric acid and nitric acid.
These acids come down along with the rain. This phenomenon is called acid rain. The pH of
acid rain varies from 3-6. The composition of acid rain is sulphuric acid, nitric acid and weak
carbonic acid.
Effects of water pollution
 Causes respiratory and skin disorders.
 Affects productivity of plants by damaging the leaves.
 Enters the soil and affects pH and other conditions.
 Enters the ground and river which causes harm to the aquatic life.
 Causes damage to marble and thus damages buildings and monuments like the Taj Mahal
Air Pollution
Air Pollution is another main environmental pollution faced by our world today. It takes
place when damaging stuff including particulate matter and biological molecules are dumped
into Earth’s atmosphere. In general, it is the pollution of air by smoke and dangerous gases,
chiefly oxides of carbon, sulfur, and nitrogen. Exhausting fumes from vehicles, natural gas,
the burning of fossil fuels, Radiation spills or nuclear accidents, destructive off-gassing from
things such as paint, plastic production, and so on can cause pollution.
It results in diseases, allergies or premature death in humans. Air pollution can bring harm to
other living organisms such as animals and food crops that we eat. Pollutants outside the
home are as dangerous as inside the home and offices. Such pollution which is present in a
closed space of home or office space is called indoor air pollution.

Cause of air pollution

 The most widely known source of air pollution is the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and
petroleum. Fossil fuels are being used in large quantities for over centuries in one or other
form. Automobiles are driven by fossil fuels which causes pollution.
 Another example is the burning of coal in coal based electric power stations to generate
electricity.
 Burning of crops, waste and garbage are another equally damaging to the environment.
 Construction activity though does not result in release of harmful gases directly but it adds
large amount of particulate matter and other harmful suspended particles which causes
pollution

Effects of air pollution

 Greenhouse effect, global warming are well known issues cause because of burning of fossil
fuels such as coal, petroleum, natural gas resulting in increased emission of carbon dioxide,
nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, heavy metals in atmosphere.
Formation of Photochemical Smog
 When pollutants like hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides combine in the presence of sunlight,
smog is formed. This is a mixture of gases and since it is formed by photochemical reactions,
it is called the photochemical smog. The word ‘smog’ is derived from the two words-smoke
and fog. It forms a yellowish brown haze especially during winter and hampers visibility. It
also causes many respiratory disorders and allergies as it contains polluting gases.
Depletion of Ozone layer
 The stratosphere of the atmosphere has ozone (O3). Ozone is known to absorb the Ultraviolet
(UV) rays present in the sun’s radiation. The UV rays are believed to cause skin cancer and
mutations. Thus, the ozone protects us from the harmful effects of the UV rays. However,
hydrocarbons such as the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) destroy the ozone molecules which
deplete the ozone layer. Ozone holes have been detected in the atmosphere which permits the
UV rays to reach the earth’s surface. The harmful effects of the UV rays are visible in the
countries such as Australia and New Zealand where the rate of skin cancer is higher than the
other regions of the world.
Aerosol Formation
 Aerosol is formed by the dispersion of solid or liquid matter in the atmosphere. There are
natural aerosols also in the atmosphere. However, polluting aerosols are formed by the
pollutant particulate matter like carbon particles. If the aerosols form a thick layer in the
troposphere, they affect the weather conditions by blocking the solar radiation. Aerosols are
also deposited on the leaves and affect the photosynthesis. Aerosols disperse the organic
metallic pollutants far and wide.

Indoor Air Pollution

It refers to the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of air inside home, office, an
institution or centre. Indoor air pollution is a concern from the developed countries, where
energy efficiency improvements, sometimes make homes sterile, reducing ventilation and
increases pollutants level. Indoor air problem can be subtle and don’t always produce early
impact on health.
In the developing countries, it is the rural areas that face the greatest threat from indoor
pollution, where some 3.5 billion people continue to rely on traditional fuels such as
firewood, charcoal, and cow dung for heating and cooking. Fuels that are such that are
burning produces large quantity of smoke and other air pollutants at the home’s space,
leading to elevated exposure. Women and children are the groups most exposed as they spend
more time indoors and are exposed to smoke. The World Bank designated air pollution from
the developing countries as one of the four most critical global environmental issues. Daily
 averages of amount totaled indoors often exceed current guidelines and amounts. Although a
lot of hundreds of chemical agents are recognized in the smoke from biofuels, the four most
pollutants are formaldehyde, carbon dioxide, polycyclic organic matter, and particulates. Alas
monitoring was done in poor and rural indoor surroundings.

Soil Pollution
Soil Pollution takes place when the existence of toxic chemicals, pollutants or impurities in
the soil is in high. Soil contamination presents a high risk to plants, wildlife, humans and
indeed, the soil itself. The surplus, escalating the use of chemicals such as pesticides,
herbicides, insecticides, and fertilizers is one of the main contributory factors.

Cause of soil pollution

 The primary cause why the soil becomes impure is on account of the presence of human-
made waste.
 Industrial activity, agricultural activities, waste disposal, accidental oil spills, acid rain, etc.
are the main reasons for soil pollution.
 Massive cutting of trees, referred to as deforestation is a major contributor of land pollution.
Soil pollution is a major problem with agricultural areas because of extensive use of human-
made waste products which are full of chemicals.
 Some of the causes are same as that of water pollution like acid rain, discharge of untreated
sewage and industrial waste.
 Additionally, throwing of garbage, especially plastic material contributes substantially to this
kind of pollution since they are non biodegradable.
Effects of soil pollution
 It include the effect on the health of humans, effect on the growth of plants, decreased soil
fertility, toxic dust, changes in soil structure, etc.
 The roots of trees which binds the soil gets lost with time because of running water & also
because of strong winds.
 In hilly and mountain areas, trees play even a much more important role and keeps big rocks
in place.
 Because of activities such as blasting, cutting of trees and construction in hilly areas,
occurrences of landslides have increased.
 It directly affects the quality and quantity of crops
 Burning of crops after harvesting also has negative effect on the soil and it lowers its fertility.
Noise Pollution
Noise pollution has become more of an environmental issue since the industrial age. It is
disturbing or extreme noise that can harm the activity or balance of human as well as animal
 life. The cause of most outdoor noise globally is primarily originated from machines and
transportation systems, motor vehicles engines, factory machine sounds, aircraft, and trains.
Noise pollution can result from machines, construction activities, and music performances.
Noise pollution can cause tinnitus, hearing loss, sleep disturbances, hypertension, high-stress
levels, and other destructive effects on humans. It causes uneasiness and damage to living
being’s mental and physical health.
Radioactive/ Nuclear Pollution
Radioactive pollution is a different type of pollution; it is caused because of radioactive
contamination (radiological contamination). Such pollution is not very common in everyday
life but of particular concern where radioactive material and radioactive substances are used.
The risk of radioactive contamination increases in vicinity of nuclear thermal power plants,
factories, in major hospitals etc and can cause serious problems if the radiation and exposure
is not controlled. Generally, the use of such harmful substance is very careful manner in
controlled environment. This is because of the widespread and long lasting damage in case of
any leak or contact with such substance. Dealing with radioactive waste becomes particularly
important because of the lack of safe disposal of such waste, thus mishandling of radioactive
waste can cause huge damage.
Some other Main types of pollution that we must be careful include:
 Light pollution: It is a broad term that denotes many problems that are caused by the
useless, ugly, and pointless use of artificial light. Specific class of light pollution consists of
light trespass, over-illumination, glare, light clutter, and sky glow.
 Thermal pollution: It denotes the sudden increase or drops off in the hotness of a natural
body of water which may be ocean, lake, river, sea or pond by human influence. A general
reason of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and business
firms.
 Radioactive pollution: It can happen because of the release of radioactive stuff or high-
energy elements into the air, water, or soil on account of excessive human activity, either by
mistake or intentionally.
 Global Warming: Most of the solar radiation entering the earth’s atmosphere is reflected
back into the space. However some of the heat is absorbed by the gases like the carbon
dioxide. This serves to keep the earth warm much like the greenhouses. Greenhouses are
glasshouses which maintain a temperature higher than the surroundings for the plants to grow
and yield better. The other gases that contribute to this are water vapor, methane,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrous oxide. These gases are called the greenhouse gases.
While greenhouse effect is a necessary and natural phenomenon. Every year the temperature
is going up due to pollution and the levels of these greenhouse gases is also going up. This is
called global warming. According to estimates, at the current rate of increase, the average
global temperature will go up by 3oC to 8oC in the next 100 years.
This will have the following effects:
 Climate of different regions
 Distribution of plants and animals
 Disturbance in agriculture and food production
Q50. Explain various Global climate changes.
Climate refers to the usual weather of a place. Climate differs from season to season, from
region to region. A combination of all the climates of the world is termed as the Earth’s
climate.
Climate Change
Climate change refers to a change or changes in the usual weather condition found in a place
or region. Changes could be experienced in the rainfall or snowfall pattern, temperature, etc.
Climate change is also a change in Earth’s climate.
Climate change is now a much-discussed concept around the globe. It is because it is now
experienced that the world temperature is increasing during these years. The global average
surface temperature is believed to have increased by 0.6° + 0.2° C over the last century.
Globally, 1998 was the warmest year and the 1990s was the warmest decade on record.
Many countries have experienced increases in rainfall, particularly in the countries situated in
the mid to high latitudes. In some regions, such as parts of Asia and Africa, the frequency and
intensity of droughts have been observed to increase in recent decades.
Episodes of El Nino, which creates great storms, have been more frequent, persistent, and
intense since mid-1970s compared with the previous 100 years. All these signs show that the
earth’s climate is changing, making it more difficult for mankind to survive.
Causes of Climate Change
Climate changes on its own in nature. Earth’s distance from the sun, volcanic eruption at
large scale, heavy rainfall for longer period, are the instances of natural phenomena that
influence the Earth’s climate. These are natural and have nothing to do with our present
concern about climate change.
What concerns us today is the rise in global temperature, especially. Most scientists say that
human activities have caused certain changes in the natural climate of the earth.
Most scientists agree that the main cause of current global warming is human expansion of
the ‘greenhouse effect’. Greenhouse effect is the increase in the number of certain gases that
include, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, nitrous oxide (N2O), water vapor,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), etc.
Greenhouse gases are produced naturally and trap heat in the Earth’s atmosphere like a
blanket. When there is increased concentration of such gases in the atmosphere mostly by
burning fossil fuels, there is a proportionate increase in the temperature of the Earth’s
atmosphere. It is called global warming.
Significant human-led factors responsible for climate change are −
 Exponential growth in human population.
 Massive and unplanned urbanization and industrialization over the last century.
 Burning of fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas at huge scale to
meet the growing energy needs of the bulging world population.
 Change in lifestyle and massive increase in the number of machinery, gadgets,
etc.
 Impact of Climate Change on Human Environment
It is now clear that climate change causes unwanted alterations in the natural systems. The
environmental consequences of climate change are extreme heat waves, rising sea levels,
changes in precipitation resulting in flooding and droughts, intense hurricanes, and degraded
air quality.
The above phenomenal changes directly and indirectly affect the physical, social, and
psychological health of human beings.
Frequency in Weather-Related Disasters
Changes in precipitation create changes in the availability and quantity of water and also
results in extreme weather events, such as intense storms, flooding and droughts. Frequency
in all these weather phenomena sometimes lead to human causality in great proportion apart
from huge loss of property, mostly in developing and underdeveloped countries.
Human Health
Climate change affects the prerequisites of human health such as clean air and water,
sufficient and healthy food, natural constraints to infectious disease agents and the adequacy
and security of shelter.
The report of the WHO Commission on Social Determinants of Health points out that
disadvantaged communities are likely to shoulder a disproportionate share of the burden of
climate change because of their increased exposure and vulnerability to health threats.
Large Scale Displacement of People
Climate change effects such as desertification, rising sea levels and severity of weatherrelated
disasters along with the spread of epidemics can destroy or affect human habitation causing
people to seek shelter elsewhere.
Deteriorating environment and depleting resources can result in human conflicts at all levels.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has estimated that there will be over
150 million environmental migrants by 2050 and the number will be perplexing due to
complexity of the issue and lack of data.
Apart from the above, following are some other consequences of climate change −
 Change in hydrological cycle and water supply
 The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) may move northward in the northern
hemisphere causing rapid changes in rainfall pattern
 Increase in tropical and temperate cyclones, cloud cover, tornadoes and storms
 Changes in pressure belts and atmospheric circulation
 Warming of ocean water may endanger the corals worldwide
 Expansion of deserts and more desertification within deserts
 Effect on food supply and international trade of grains
 National parks, sanctuaries and biosphere reserves may be altered
 Countries such as Maldives and greater parts of Netherlands etc. may submerge under
water
 Climate change is making food crops less nutritious. Rising carbon dioxide emissions
lead to iron and zinc deficiencies in food crops
Q51. Population Explosion & its Pressure on Environment
Finite Resources
Most resources being finite since the very beginning and natural limit to resource generation
being slow, constant rise in the number of people on the earth exerts undue pressure on world
resources.
Population growth and the resultant increase in human habitations in the last couple of
centuries has taken away a considerable portion of natural vegetation, cultivable lands, and
above all the natural habitats of wild animals. There has been loss of biodiversity and
resultant ecological imbalance in severity in the current times.
More People, More Demand, More Waste
With the advent of science and technology man’s need for comfort and luxury has multiplied
many times. This has necessitated the production of a great number of goods and services in
the world.
Not only the huge population (7.4 billion in 2016), but also the lifestyle, consumption
patterns in modern time directly affect the environment. More people demand more resources
and generate more waste. Clearly one of the challenges of a growing population is that the
mere presence of so many people sharing a limited number of resources can strain the
environment.
Rapid Urbanization and Industrialization
Rapid urbanization and industrialization during the last century in most part of the world has
not only destroyed a substantial part of natural vegetation but also forced many wild animals
on the verge of extinction.
Apart from the pressure on the resources due to high growth in population, technological and
scientific innovations, rapid rise in automobile population, electronic gadgets, machinery and
equipment have added a great number of pollutants to the environment. As a result,
environmental degradation has risen to an irrecoverable level.
Developed countries where the levels of consumption are high add more to pollution than
other countries. A child born in a country, where the levels of material and energy use are
high, places a greater burden on the earth's resources than a child born in a poorer country.
Nonetheless, sustainable development can be pursued more easily when population size is
stabilized at a level consistent with the productive capacity of the ecosystem.
Crazy Consumerism
Consumption, although necessary for the economy, can be hazardous to the environment.
Consumerism is a social and economic order that supports and encourages the acquisition of
goods and services in ever increasing amounts.
Man has developed an unprecedented craze for a mushrooming number of products and
services available in the world market. This has been aggravated by improved marketing
strategies, alluring advertisements, and consumer-friendly services offered by companies and
outlets. Approximately 2 billion people belonging to the “consumer class” are characterized
by desire for processed food, desire for bigger houses, cars, durables, etc. to maintain their
desired lifestyles. Consumerism has become more acute in developing countries such as India
and China than that in developed countries due to the rise in population in the former.

Reasons for Crazy Consumerism

 Growing materialistic tendencies among the modern man
 Easy access to markets due to faster development in transport and communication
 Effective marketing and advertising strategies
 Rising income levels in most part of the world
 Globalization and liberalization
 Rapid rise in income generation ways
 Greed to possess more and more
Impact of Crazy Consumerism
Increasing consumerism has led to excessive production of goods and services, which in turn
has led to enormous pressure on natural environment and natural resources. Resource
depletion, environmental degradation, and pollution have become the order of the day.
Mankind has reached the height of environmental pollution from where it seems very
difficult to return. Race for comfort and luxury has vitiated the environment
disproportionately.
Excessive demand for consumer products has created most of the current environmental
imbalances and these imbalances have already caused ecological disaster in different places
all over the world.
Consumerism has resulted in heaps of waste in urban and also in rural areas which lead to a
pollution of environment. Mounting e-waste in the world, especially in developed countries,
is causing more harm to the environment. Popularity of plastic for various purposes is adding
severely to air, water, and land pollution.
Q52. What are Point Source and Non-Point Source of Water Pollution? Give the
list of various pollutants/contaminants which affects the utility of water?
All activities on Earth, both natural processes and human-made processes, produce some type
of byproduct from that activity. Under normal conditions these byproducts, some known
as pollutants , are returned back into the environment. In fact, natural environmental
processes have the ability to assimilate some pollutants and correct most imbalances if given
enough time. However, if a persistent overload of a pollutant is allowed to continue or the
pollutant is not a substance that the environment can handle, then the environment has little
chance to "self-clean."
Point and Nonpoint Pollution Sources
In the simplest of terms, a pollutant is a substance that enters the environment and elevates
the "natural" background level of that substance. In many

This drainage outlet delivering polluted runoff into the Ohio River is a point source of
pollution because the pollution originates from a single, identifiable source.
cases, the natural system may not have any of the substance present until human activities
add it to the environment.
Pollution originating from a single, identifiable source, such as a discharge pipe from a
factory or sewage plant, is called point-source pollution. Pollution that does not originate
from a single source, or point, is called nonpoint-source pollution. Liquid, solid, and airborne
discharges from point sources as well as pollutants from nonpoint sources may go either into
surface water or into the ground. (Airborne pollutants can be assimilated into rainwater and
can affect water quality: acid rain is an example.) The ability for these pollutants to reach
surface water or groundwater is enhanced by the amount of water available from precipitation
(rain) or irrigation.
Point Sources
Point-source pollutants in surface water and groundwater are usually found in a plume that
has the highest concentrations of the pollutant nearest the source (such as the end of a pipe or
an underground injection system) and diminishing concentrations farther away from the
source. The various types of point-source pollutants found in waters are as varied as the types
of business, industry, agricultural, and urban sources that produce them.
Commercial and industrial businesses use hazardous materials in manufacturing or
maintenance, and then discharge various wastes from their operations. The raw materials and
wastes may include pollutants such as solvents, petroleum products (such as oil and
gasoline), or heavy metals . Point sources of pollution from agriculture may include animal
feeding operations, animal waste treatment lagoons, or storage, handling, mixing, and
cleaning areas for pesticides, fertilizers, and petroleum. Municipal point sources might
include wastewater treatment plants, landfills, utility stations, motor pools, and fleet
maintenance facilities.
For all of these activities, hazardous materials may be included in the raw materials used in
the process as well as in the waste stream for the facility. If the facility or operator does not
handle, store, and dispose of the raw materials and wastes properly, these pollutants could
end up in the water supply. This may occur through discharges at the end of a pipe to surface
water, discharges on the ground that move through the ground with infiltrating rainwater, or
direct discharges beneath the ground surface.
Groundwater
Some of the most persistent point-source pollutants in groundwater are volatile organic
compounds , which include manufactured and refined toxic substances such as solvents, oils,
paint, and fuel products. In general, it takes only a small amount of these chemicals to raise
health concerns. For example, approximately 4 liters (about one gallon) of pure
trichloroethylene, a common solvent, will contaminate over 1 billion liters (300 million
gallons) of water. Once groundwater is contaminated, it is difficult, costly, and sometimes
even impossible to clean up.
Surface Water
The most common point-source pollutants in surface water are:
 High-temperature discharges;
 Microorganisms (such as bacteria, viruses, and Giardia ); and
 Nutrients (such as nitrogen and phosphorus).
Temperature increases and nutrients can result in excessive plant growth and subsequent
decaying organic matter in water that depletes dissolved oxygen levels and consequently
stressing or killing vulnerable aquatic life. Microorganisms can be hazardous to both human
health and aquatic life. Pesticides and other toxic substances can also be hazardous to both
human health and aquatic life, but are less commonly found in surface water because of high
dilution rates.
Nonpoint Sources
Nonpoint-source pollution occurs as water moves across the land or through the ground and
picks up natural and human-made pollutants, which can then be deposited in lakes, rivers,
wetlands, coastal waters, and even groundwater. The water that carries nonpoint-source
pollution may originate from natural processes such as rainfall or snowmelt, or from human
activities such as crop irrigation or lawn maintenance.
Nonpoint-source pollution is usually found spread out throughout a large area. It is often
difficult to trace the exact origin of these pollutants because they result from a wide variety of
human activities on the land as well as natural characteristics of the soil, climate,
and topography .The most common nonpoint-source pollutants are sediment , nutrients,
microorganisms and toxics. Sediment can degrade water quality by contaminating drinking
water supplies or silting in spawning grounds for fish and this silt-laden runoff from a
residential area contains not only soil and clay particles from nearby construction, but also is
likely to contain small amounts of lawn chemicals, oil, grease, gasoline, and even residues
from recent highway de-icing. These are all examples of pollutants released from nonpoint
sources other aquatic species.
Nutrients, microorganisms, and other toxic substances can be hazardous to human health and
aquatic life.

People can contribute to nonpoint-source pollution without even realizing it. Nonpoint
sources of pollution in urban areas may include parking lots, streets, and roads where storm
water picks up oils, grease, metals, dirt, salts, and other toxic materials. In areas where crops
are grown or in areas with landscaping (including grassy areas of residential lawns and city
parks), irrigation, and rainfall can carry soil, pesticides, fertilizers, herbicides, and
insecticides to surface water and groundwater. Bacteria, microorganisms, and nutrients
(nitrogen and phosphorus) are common nonpoint-source pollutants from agricultural
livestock areas and residential pet wastes. These pollutants are also found in areas where
there is a high density of septic systems or where the septic systems are faulty or not
maintained properly. Other pollutants from nonpoint sources include salt from irrigation
practices or road de-icing, and acid drainage from abandoned mines.
Preventing and Controlling Pollution
Over the years, federal laws and regulations have established a process for the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the states to regulate point sources of pollution
through issuing of permits that limit the types and amounts of pollutants a facility can
discharge. In addition, there are many laws and regulations that mandate the ways that
hazardous materials are handled, stored, and used. Those same laws and regulations often
encourage voluntary pollution-prevention efforts to reduce and minimize the use of potential
pollutants.
These laws, regulations, and voluntary efforts have helped clean up major water quality
problems and reduced the amount of pollutants directly discharged to surface water and
groundwater. However, EPA reports that more than one-third of the nation's waters are still
not meeting water quality standards. Nonpoint sources of pollution have been identified as
the primary reason for these continued problems.
Addressing Nonpoint Sources
Preventing and controlling nonpointsource pollution is primarily accomplished through
regulation under the Clean Water Act and voluntary watershed protection efforts. Best
management practices and pollution prevention can be applied at the local, state, and federal
level to reduce and prevent nonpoint-source pollution. Some activities are federal and state
responsibilities, such as ensuring that public lands are properly managed to reduce soil
erosion, or developing legislation to govern chemical use. Many other regulatory approaches
are best handled locally, such as by zoning or erosion-control ordinances. Each citizen can
play an important role by being active in the community, learning more about the local
watershed, practicing conservation, and by preventing pollution in homes, yards, and
neighborhoods.