The Coordination Committee formed by GR No. Abhyas - 2116/(Pra.Kra.

43/16) SD - 4
Dated 25.4.2016 has given approval to prescribe this textbook in its meeting held on
20.06.2019 and it has been decided to implement it from academic year 2019-20.

BIOLOGY

Standard XI

2019
Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and
Curriculum Research, Pune.

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First Edition : © Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research, Pune - 411 004.
2019 The Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum
Research reserves all rights relating to the book. No part of this book
should be reproduced without the written permission of the Director,
Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum
Research, ‘Balbharati’, Senapati Bapat Marg, Pune 411004.

Subject Committee:
Dr. Chandrashekhar V. Murumkar, Illustrations and cover :
(Chairman) Shri Vivekanand S. Patil
Dr. Avinash Ade Coordinator :
Dr. Naikare Shriram Maruti Shri. Rajiv Arun Patole
Dr. Prakash Lohar Special Officer (Biology)
Dr. Madhav Pralhad Bhilve Typesetting : DTP Section, Textbook
Dr. Vishnu K. Vaze Bureau, Pune
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Print Order :
(Member Secretary)
Printer :
Study Group:
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 The Constitution of India

Preamble

WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having

solemnly resolved to constitute India into a
SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to
all its citizens:
JUSTICE, social, economic and political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith
and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity;
and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of
the individual and the unity and integrity of the
Nation;
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this
twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do HEREBY
ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES
THIS CONSTITUTION.
NATIONAL ANTHEM
 Preface
Dear Students,
We welcome you all to Std. XI. For the first time, you are being introduced to the subject of
Biology as a separate discipline. You have already been acquainted with some of the concepts of
Biological Sciences from Standard five onwards, especially in the subject of General Science up to
standard Eight and Science and Technology for standard Nine and Ten.
This textbook aims to create awareness about the biological sciences specially Botany,
Zoology and allied aspects of biological sciences. The National Curriculum Framework (NCF)
was formulated in 2005, followed by the State Curriculum Framework (SCF) in 2010. Based on
the given these two frameworks, reconstruction of the curriculum and preparation of a revised
syllabus has been undertaken which will be introduced from the academic year 2019-20. The
textbook incorporating the revised syllabus has been prepared and designed by the Maharashtra
State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research, (Balbharati), Pune.
The subject biology intends to give students understanding, and appreciation of the vast diversity
of living beings, their special adaptations to their environments and evolutionary relationships. No
compromise is made in any manner over the use of language in the Biology context, but at the same
time, the textbook is presented in a simple language. In addition, relevant diagrams, graphs, tables
used in the textbook will bring about more clarity in the understanding of various terminologies and
biological concepts. All the illustrations are in colour form. This will enable students to understand
various concepts of botany and zoology thoroughly and correlate this with their day-to-day
practical life. The new syllabus focuses on the conceptual principles of overall life processes, its
understanding, and application in day-to-day life and ability to solve different upcoming problems
and issues like conservation; different diseases and remedies, the application of technology, etc.
The general teaching-learning objectives of the revised syllabus are further determined based on the
‘principle of constructivism’ i.e. self-learning.
The curriculum and syllabus confirms to the maxims of teaching such as moving from
concrete to abstract, known to unknown and from part to whole. For the first time, in the syllabus
of biology various independent activities have been introduced. These activities will not only help
to understand the content knowledge but also provide scope for gaining relevant and additional
application based knowledge on your own efforts. The detailed information of all concepts is also
provided for the better understanding of the subject. Q. R. Code have been introduced for gaining
the additional information, abstracts of chapters and practice questions/ activities.
The efforts taken to prepare the textbook will not only enrich the meaningful learning experience
of the students, but also benefit other stakeholders such as teachers, parents as well as those aspiring
candidates preparing for the competitive examinations.
We look forward to a positive response from the teachers and students.
Our best wishes to all!

(Dr. Sunil Magar)

Director
Place : Pune Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook
Date : 20 June 2019 Production and Curriculum Research,
Bharatiya Saur : 30 Jyestha 1941 Pune, 411004
 - For Teachers -
Dear Teachers, • Exercises provided after each unit are
We are happy to introduce the revised prepared using different parameters like
textbook of Biology for Std XI. This book is a observation, co-relation, critical thinking,
sincere attempt to follow the maxims of teaching analytical reasoning etc.
as well as develop a ‘constructive’ approach to • Evaluation pattern should be based on
enhance the quality of learning. The demand the above mentioned parameters. Equal
for more activity based, experiential and weight age should be assigned to all the
innovative learning opportunities is the need topics. Use different combinations of
of the hour. The present curriculum has been questions. Stereotype questions should be
restructured so as to bridge the credibility gap avoided.
that exists between what is taught and what • Use demonstration, discussion method for
students learn from direct experience in the teaching.
outside world. Guidelines provided below will • ‘Can You Recall’ is the first main starting
help to enrich the teaching-learning process point of lesson which helps for the
and achieve the desired learning outcomes. introduction of topic. This will also helpful
• To begin with, get familiar with the for students regarding understanding the
textbook yourself. content of lesson.
• The present book has been prepared for • Use QR Code given in the textbook.
constructive and activity-based teaching. Keep checking the QR Code for updated
• Teachers must skillfully plan and organize information.
the activities provided in each chapter to • ‘Internet My Friend’ is used for collecting
develop interest as well as to stimulate the extra important information related to topic.
thought process among the students. • ‘Use Your Brain Power’ is used for the
• Always teach with proper planning. application level questions in different
• Use teaching aids as required for the proper lessons.
understanding of the subject. • ‘Do Your Self’, ‘Find Out’, ‘Observe
• Do not finish the chapter in short. and Discuss’ and ‘Try This’ are used for
• Follow the order of the chapters strictly as activity based learning.
listed in the contents because the units are • ‘Know the Scientist’ is used for the
introduced in a graded manner to facilitate information of different scientist related to
knowledge building. concepts in lesson.
• Facilitate peer learning as much as • ‘Activity’ is used in lesson and exercise for
possible by reorganizing the class structure better understanding and application of the
frequently. content which studied.
• Teaching-learning interactions, processes • Exercise is given at the end of lesson.
and participations of all students are very In exercise different type of questions/
essential and so is your active guidance. activities are given.
• Ask questions based on previous • Teacher should use their freedom to
knowledge of different concepts of lesson. acquaint the students with flora and fauna
• Do not use the boxes titled ‘Do you of given region.
know?’ for evaluation. However, teachers • Remember that mathematical and
must ensure that students read this extra statistical tools are also important to
information. understand biology
• Information provided in boxes with the • List of abbreviations are provided
title ‘Can You Tell’, ‘Always Remember’ towards the end of the textbook for further
should be considered for evaluation. clarification.
Best wishes for a wonderful teaching
experience and fruitful welcome!
 Competency Statements
Standard XI

Unit Competency Statements

After studying the content in Textbook students will …
Diversity in • Analyse basic characteristics of living and non-living.
living world • Collect and analyse useful data by observing diversity of living organisms using
different tools.
• Describe plants and animals in the surrounding on scientific basic and classify
them using taxonomic hierarchy.
• Develop hobbies by watching and collecting the things (livings) and their
conservation using databases.
• Classify different organisms based on cell structure, body organisation, mode of
nutrition etc.
• Compare and analyse similarities and differences along with phylogeny amongst
different groups of organisms.
• Recognize, analyse and compare structural similarities and differences and
progressive evolutionary changes in different plants and animals.
Cell structure • Explain and draw the structure and functions of different cell organelles.
and functions • Elaborate the role of nucleus in heredity and controlling characters with structure
of chromosome.
• Compare cell division process and know their role in life cycle of organisms.
• Analyse and specify different biomolecules of cell with their role in structural and
functional aspect of cell.
Structural • Explain basic morphology of dominant plant group of this era i.e. Angiosperms.
organization • Compare morphological features of different plant parts in different plant families.
in organisms • Draw floral parts and floral diagram.
• Identify economic importance of Angiosperms with respect to fruit and seeds.
• Compare morphological feature of two major classes of Angiosperms.
• Explain different types of tissues in plants and reasons for growth viz. primary
and secondary.
• Analyse basic differences in anatomy of different plants like dicot and monocots
with respect to root, stem and leaf.
• Elaborate different animal tissues and their role.
• Explain and draw mechanisms of different physiological process like digestion
and excretion.
• Review the contribution of different scientists in systematics and taxonomy.
Plant • Explain the scientific reasons behind the various physiological activities based
physiology on relationship.
• Understand the relationship between chemical reactions of molecules in daily
life and analyse them to solve various problems.
• Review the contribution made by different workers.
• Plan and implement programs about conservation of environment.
• Explain the importance of green energy and save energy in daily life.
Animal • Explain the need and importance of various physiological processes.
Physiology • Explain the structural modifications, observed in various living organisms to carry
out various physiological processes.
• Observe and correlate the histological structure of various organs with their
function.
• Comprehend mechanisms by which these physiological processes help maintain
homeostasis.
• Create memory maps, flow charts to depict major events in these processes.
• Develop insight about connection between life style/habits and physiological
disorders.
• Collect information about latest diagnostic tools and treatments for various
physiological disorders.
• Critically analyse given situational data and come up with rationale of possible
physiological disorders/suggest proper remedial measures.
• Perform various analytical tests to detect presence of certain components in food
materials/waste products.

Contents
Sr. No. Name of the lesson Page No.
1. Living World 1-5
2. Systematics of Living Organisms 6 - 18
3. Kingdom Plantae 19 - 28
4. Kingdom Animalia 29 - 43
5. Cell Structure and Organization 44 - 58
6. Biomolecules 59 - 75
7. Cell Division 76 - 84
8. Plant Tissues and Anatomy 85 - 96
9. Morphology of Flowering Plants 97 - 115
10. Animal Tissue 116 - 126
11. Study of Animal Type : Cockroach 127 - 137
12. Photosynthesis 138 - 150
13. Respiration and Energy Transfer 151 - 160
14. Human Nutrition 161 - 173
15. Excretion and Osmoregulation 174 - 192
16. Skeleton and Movement 193 - 214

DISCLAIMER Note : All attempts have been made to contact copy right/s (©) but we have not heard from them. We
will be pleased to acknowledge the copy right holder (s) in our next edition if we learn from them.
 1. Living World

Can you recall?

There is immense diversity in living
1. What is the difference between living and organisms. Since time immemorial, variety of
non-living things? organisms are living together on earth. In order
2. Enlist the characters of living organisms. to understand the interrelations between living
3. Whether all organism are similar? Justify and non-living as well as between two living
your answer. beings or groups, systematic study of these is
Planet earth is made up of abiotic and essential. This data is also important for various
biotic components. The biotic components are industries and agriculture. Intensive laboratory
obviously the living beings present around us. and field studies in order to identify and classify
The question is why do we call them living and the organisms form strong basis for meaningful
how do they differ from non-living? use of the collected data. If we need to study this
1.1 Basic principles of life : diversity, certain aids called taxonomical aids
A. The living being once produced / born has can be used. These includes herbaria, botanical
to survive. For survival, it needs energy and gardens, museums, biodiversity parks, etc.
many chemical molecules. For energy, it has to
perform metabolism. Metabolism is breaking Can you tell?
1.
of molecules (catabolism) and making of new
molecules (anabolism). 1. How can we study large number of
B. From birth onwards, organisms show organisms at a glance?
tendency of growth and development. This 2. Weather all organisms prepare their own
growth is a well-orchestrated process. You food?
might have observed sand mounds, boulders 3. Which feature can be considered as all
grow, etc.This growth is not from within and inclusive characteristic of life? Why?
hence these are not living beings.
C. Growth and development are not the Think about it
processes which have unlimited time span. At
certain point of time, the molecules, organs, 1. Can metabolic reactions demonstrated in
systems begin to loose their effective working a test tube (called ‘in vitro’ tests) be called
and become old. This is ageing process of the living?
body. 2. Now a days patients are declared ‘brain
D. Life has to continue hence the organism dead’ and are on life support. They do not
tries to produce a young one like itself. It show any sign of self-consciousness. Are
is possible due to reproduction (asexual or they living or non - living?
sexual). This ensures continuity of race. Mules, 1.2 Herbarium :
sterile worker bees do not reproduce; yet are The word herbarium (plural-herbaria)
living. Can we call reproduction as inclusive was coined by Pitton de Tournefort in the
characteristic of life? book ‘Elemens’. The art of herbarium was
E. As the body looses it's capacity to perform initiated by an Italian taxonomist Luca Ghini
metabolism, the organism dies. (1490-1556). Herbaria are effective tools in
F. Any living being responds to thermal, taxonomic studies. A herbarium is essentially
chemical or biological changes in the a dried plant specimen that is pressed, treated
surrounding. This is unique property of living and mounted on standard size sheet in order to
beings. preserve it.

1
 Date, place of collection along with
detailed classification and highlighting with its Know the scientists
ecological peculiarities, characters of the plant
are recorded on the same sheet. Local names In 1543, first
and name of the collector may be added. This botanical garden of the
information is given at lower right corner of world was established
sheet and is called 'label'. by an Italian Prof.
Luca Ghini (A. D.
1490-1556) at Pisa,
Italy. Botanical garden
at Kew in England
is known for largest
collection of more Prof. Luca Ghini
than 30,000 specimens (preserved plants) and
more than 7 million herbaria.

Internet my friend
Collect information about Prof.
Fig. 1.1 Herbarium Almeida, Prof. V. N. Naik, Dr. A. V. Sathe,
Dr. P. G. Patwardhan with reference to
1.3 Botanical Gardens :
their taxonomic work and biodiversity
Botanical gardens are the places where
conservation.
plants of different varieties collected from
different parts of the world, are grown in a
scientific and systematic in a in vivo manner.
Plants are labeled. The label-board shows
scientific as well as common name of the plant.

Fig. 1.2 Botanical Garden : Kolkata 255 years old Banyan tree

2
 Conservation of Biodiversity : 1.5 Zoological Parks :
Biodiversity is the degree of variation Zoological Park generally known as
of life forms in an ecosystem. Biodiversity zoo, is a place of interest for common man.
is essential to maintain ecological stability. In a zoo, wild animals are kept in captivity.
The extent of complexity and density of They are protected and care is taken to provide
biodiversity can be regarded as a measure conditions similar to their natural habitat. (ex-
of health of an ecosystem. Population situ) In a zoo, a naturalist can study food habits
explosion and over exploitation of resources and behavior of animals.
has resulted in loss of biodiversity at an Flora, manuals, Monographs and
alarming rate. Conservation involves Catalogue are some other tools of maintaining
attempting to slow down, stop or even reverse biodiversity records. Flora is the plant
the loss in the natural habitat of organism. life occurring in a particular area on time.
This is known as in- situ conservation. Why A Monograph describes any one selected
does the loss of biodiversity matter? For biological group where as manual provides
many people, it is a simple moral or ethical information, keys about identification of species
issue. We share our planet with a huge range found in a particular area.
of other organisms and we have no right to
harm them. Biodiversity helps to maintain
stability in an ecosystem. Loss of one variety
of organisms can affect entire ecosystem.
1.4 Museum :
Museums are the places where,
collections of preserved plant and animal
specimens are kept. Plant and animal
specimens may be preserved in formalin (10%
to 40% formaledehyde) in transperent jars.
Jars are labelled. Larger animals like birds and
mammals are usually stuffed and preserved.
This science is known as taxidermy. Specimens
in dried form are also kept in museum. Fig. 1.4 Zoological Park
We can even find systematic collections
of shells, skeletons of animals, insect boxes in
Can you tell?
museums. 1. 1. What are the
Thus, biological museums in essentials of a good herbarium?
educational institutes are reference hubs of 2. Why should we visit botanical gardens,
biodiversity studies. museums and zoo?
3. What is ' ex- situ' and ' in- situ' conservation?

1.6 Biodiversity parks :

It is an ecological assemblage of
species that form self-sustaining communities
on degraded / barren landscape e.g. Late
Uttamrao Patil biodiversity park Gureghar,
Mahabaleshwar. This park is the best model
for conservation of natural heritage in urban
Fig. 1.3 Biological Museum landscape.

3
 Systematic classification of living 1.7 Key :
organisms is helpful in understanding Key is taxonomical aid used for
the interrelations. In order to understand classification of plants and animals. The keys
interrelations between organisms and maintain are based on contrasting characters. One of the
harmony on planet earth, study of biodiversity contrasting characters gets accepted and other
is a must. rejected. The statement in key is called a lead.
Normally keys are analytical in nature. Let us
Know the scientists study about classification of living organisms
in next chapter.
Dr. S. P. Agharkar
One of the leading
botanists of India, Dr.
Do you know ?
S. P. Agharkar was born
in November 1884 in When plants from any forest locality
Malvan, Maharashtra. He are conserved on the name of holy place it is
explored biodiversity of called as sacred grove these also considered
Western Ghats where he as sacred natural sites by IUCN.
came across a species of freshwater jellyfish,
which was until then only known to be found
in Africa. These findings were published
in scientific journal Nature in 1912. Dr. Internet my friend
Annandale, the Superintendent of the Indian
1. Collect information about botanical gar-
Museum in Kolkata, helped Dr.Agharkar in
dens, zoological parks and biodiversity hot
his further endeavours to collect, preserve and
spots in India.
conduct microscopic examinations of animal
2. Collect information of endemic flora and
and plant specimens. The institute ARI, Pune
fauna of India.
has been named after his name.

Find out
Human being is at key position in maintaining biodiversity of earth. Find out more
information about the following.
1. Laws to protect and conserve biodiversity in India.
2. Environmental effects of ambitious projects like connecting rivers or connecting cities by
constructing roads.
3. Did Bauxite mining in Western Ghats affect critically endangered species like – Black
panther, different Ceropegia spp., E riocanlon spp.?

4
 Exercise
1. Choose correct option
A. Which is not a property of living being? E. What do you understand from terms like
a. Metabolism in situ and ex situ conservation?
b. Decay 4. Write short notes
c. Growth
A. Role of human being in biodiversity
d. Reproduction
conservation.
B. A particular plant is strictly seasonal plant. B. Importance of botanical garden.
Which one of the following is best suited
if it is to be studied in the laboratory? 5. How can you, as an individual, prevent the
loss of Biodiversity?
a. Herbarium
b. Museum Practical / Project :
c. Botanical garden
1. Make herbarium under the guidance of
d. Flower exhibition
your teacher.
C. A group of students found two 2. Find out information about any one
cockroaches in the classroom. They had sacred grove (devrai) in Maharashtra.
a debate whether they are alive or dead.
Which life property will help them to do
so?
a. Metabolism
b. Growth
c. Irritability
d. Reproduction

2. Distinguish between botanical gardens,

zoological park and biodiversity park
with reference to characteristics
3. Answer the following questions
A. Jijamata Udyan, the famous zoo in
Mumbai has acclimatised humbolt
penguins. Why should penguins be
acclimatised when kept at a place away
from their natural habitat?
B. Riya found peculiar plant on her visit to
Himachal Pradesh. What are the ways
she can show it to her biology teacher and
get information about it?
C. At Andaman, authorities do not allow
tourists to collect shells from beaches.
Why it must be so?
D. Why do we have green house in botanical
gardens?

5
 2. Systematics of Living Organisms

Can you recall? Natural : It is the classification which is based

on objectively significant rather than being
What is five kingdom system of selected for convenience like artificial system
classification? of classification e.g. Bentham and Hooker's
system of classification.
There is great diversity of organisms
around us. Since time immemorial, we Phylogenetic : It is the classification based on
humans have been exploiting this wealth for common evolutionary descent. e.g. Engler and
our own benefit. During this process man prantles classification.
tried to differentiate between and identify In the system of classification the
the organisms. Eventually this evolved into terms like ‘taxa’ and ‘categories’ are often
a branch of biology known as systematics or used. Each category is referred to as a unit of
classification. The methods of classification classification. In fact, it represents a rank and
dates back to ancient time when Indian, Greek is commonly termed as taxon.
and Roman philosophers have contributed their
might to systematise science. Archaea
2.1 Systematics : Bacteria Eukaryota
‘‘Systematics is the study of kinds and
diversity of organisms and their comparative
and evolutionary relationship’’(G. Simpson,
1961). Common ancestor
Taxonomy : Fig 2.1 Phylogenetic descent
Taxonomy means classification
following certain rules or principles. Word
Taxonomy comes from two Greek words, 2.3 Three domains of life :
taxis – meaning arrangement and nomous It is believed that the life originated on
meaning law or rule. The term taxonomy was earth in its very simple form. Constant struggle
first introduced by A. P. de Candolle (Swiss of the early living beings gave rise to more and
Botanist) [1778-1841]. more perfect forms of life. This struggle and
progress is evolution which led to formation of
2.2 Classification : diverse life forms. Carl Woese in 1990 proposed
It is the arrangement of organisms three domains of life to classify life forms. They
or groups of organisms in distinct categories are Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya. Domain is
in accordance with a particular and well an unit larger than Kingdom in the system of
established plan. This classification is based classification.
on similarities and dissimilarities among the Bacteria and Archaea both have
organisms. prokaryotic cells where as Eukarya have
Artificial : eukaryotic cell. All the three domains have
It is the classification that is based on very unique ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Archaea
few easily observable and non-evolutionary are known for their survival in very extreme
featurs such as habit, colour, form, etc.; often conditions like high tempreature, salinity,
irrespective of their affinity (relationship) acidic conditions, etc. Bacteria, though are
with other organisms. e.g. Linnaeus system of prokaryotes differ from Archaea in structure of
classification. cell wall.

6
2.4 Chemotaxonomy : It helps to study newly identified
It is method of biological classification species as well as understanding ecological
based on similarities and differences in and evolutionary relationships between living
structure of certain compounds present among beings. The process of DNA barcoding includes
the organisms being classified. In short, it is the two basic steps: (a) collecting DNA barcode
classification based on chemical constituents data of known species and (b) matching the
of organisms. e.g. Archaea cell wall is without barcode sequence of the unknown sample
peptidoglycan and that of Prokarya is with against the barcode library for identification.
peptidoglycan. Among Eukarya, fungi have DNA barcoding has many applications. A
chitinous cell wall while plants have cellulosic few to mention are, protection of endangered
cell wall. species, preservation of natural resources,
pest control in agriculture, identifying disease
2.5 Numerical taxonomy :
vectors, authentication of natural health
The system is based on quantification
products and identification of medicinal plants.
of characters and develops an algorithm for
classification. The basic aim of this taxonomy
was to create a taxonomy using numeric Can you tell?
algorithms like cluster analysis rather than
using subjective evaluation of their propertise. 1. Which characters of organisms are visible
This system was first proposed by Sokel and characters?
Sneath in 1963. 2. Name the recent approaches in taxonomy.
3. What is DNA barcoding?
2.6 Cladogram : 4. What is evolution?
It is a typical branching pattern. As 5. Enlist uses of taxonomy.
shown on previous page, a diagram of three
domains of life is a cladogram. It represents 2.9 Taxonomic Categories :
a hypothetical relationship denoting a Classification is not a single step
comparison of organisms and their common process but involves hierarchy of steps in which
ancestors. each step represents a rank or category. Since
2.7 Phylogeny : the category is a part of overall taxonomic
It is evolutionary relationship of arrangement it is called taxonomic category
organism. It is an important tool in classification and all categories together constitute the
as it takes into account not merely the taxonomic hierarchy. Kingdom, division, class,
morphological status but also the relationship order, family, genus, species are the categories
of one group of organism with other groups in hirarchial sequence. These are compulsory
of life. The system helps to understand the categories. Besides, there are some facultative
evolution and also focuses on the similarities categories like sub-order, sub-family, etc. to be
of their metabolic functioning. Woese’s three used as per need.
domain concept as well as Whittakar’s five 2.10 Taxonomic Hierarchy :
kingdom system are very good examples of
Taxon : A taxon is the taxonomic group
phylogenetic relationship.
of any rank in the system of classification
2.8 DNA barcoding : (H.J. Lam 1948) e.g. in plant kingdom each
DNA barcoding, is a new method for one of the following such as Angiosperms,
the identification of any species based on its Dicotyledonae, Polypetalae, Malvaceae
DNA sequence from a tiny tissue sample of the represents a taxonomic group i.e. a taxon.
organism under study.

7
 Category Taxon Taxon • Cohort / Order : It is taxonomic rank
used in the classification of organisms and
Kingdom Plantae Animalia
recognised by nomenclature codes. An order
Division/Phylum Angiospermae Chordata
is a group of closely related families showing
Class Dicotyledonae Reptilia
definite affinities. Order thus is a step above
Sub-class Polypetalae Diapsida family in taxonomic hierarchy. Members
Series Thalamiflorae - belonging to same order but different families
Order Malvales Squamata may show very few dis similarities. e.g. family
Family Malvaceae Elapidae - Papavaraceae, Brassicaceae, Capparidaceae,
Genus H ibiscus N aj a etc with parietal plancentation are grouped
Species rosa- sinensis naj a in order Parietales. Families of dogs and cats
though are different, they belong to same order
Table 2.2 Classification of China-rose and
Carnivora.
Cobra
• Class : The class is the distinct
2.11 Units of Classification : taxonomic rank of biological classification
• Species : Species is the principal having its own distinctive name. A group of
natural taxonomic unit, ranking below a genus higher taxonomic rank than order. Class is the
and denoted by latin binomial (considered as assemblage of closely allied orders. Orders
the basic) unit of classification. It is a group Carnivora and order Primates belong to class
of organisms that can interbreed under natural Mammalia. Thus monkeys, gorillas, gibbons
condition to produce fertile offspring. It was (Primates) and dogs, cats, tigers (Carnivora)
thought to be an indivisible, stable and static belong to same class.
unit. However in the modern taxonomy, sub- • Division / Phylom : The division is
division of species such as sub-species, varities a category composed of related classes e.g.
and populations are seen and given more division. Angiospermae includes two classes
importance. - Dicotyledonae and Monocotyledonae (In
• Genus : Genus is a taxonomic rank animal classification division is a sub-unit of
or category larger than species used in the Category / Phylum).
biological classification of living and fossil • Sub-kingdom : Different divisions
organisms. Genus is a group of species bearing having some similarities form sub-kingdom.
close resemblance to one another in their e.g. The divisions Angiospermae and
morphological characters but they do not Gymnospermae will the sub-kingdom
interbreed. e.g. Tiger, Leopard, Lion all three Phanerogams or Spermatophyta.
belong to same genus Panthera. They have • Kingdom : It is the highest taxonomic
common characters yet are different from each category composed of different sub-
other because their genus is same but species is kingdoms. e.g. sub-kingdom Phanerogams
different. Another example is genus Solanum. and Cryptogams form the Plant kingdom or
Brinjal and potato both belong to this genus. Plantae which includes all the plants while all
animals are included in kindom Animalia.
• Family : It is one of the major
hierarchial taxonomic rank. A family represents The taxonomic categories we have
a group of closely related genera. e.g. genera considered so far are broad categories.
like H ibiscus, Gossypium, Sida, Bombax are Scientists have added sub-categories to these
included in same family Malvaceae. Cat also in order to place organisms in more scientific
belongs to family of leopards, tigers and lions, manner. You will observe that as we go higher
family Felidae but dog belongs to different in taxonomical ladder, number of common
family Canidae. characters go on decreasing.

8
 If we are comparing two organisms Before 2011, the code which was set up
that are related to each other only at division or to confirm the scientific names was ICBN
phylum level, their classification may become means International Code of Botanical
difficult. Nomenclature. Recently XIX International
Botanical Congress (IBC) was held in
Can you tell? Shenzhen, China in July 2017. This code
is also called "Shenzhen code", so the old
1. Why horse and ass are considered to be
code ICBN has been changed to ICNAFP
two different species or animals?
means "International Code of Nomenclature
2. Make a flow chart showing taxonomic
for Algae, Fungi and Plants". This code was
hierarchy.
published on 26th June 2018.
2.12 Nomenclature : According to this system the scientific
Any object that becomes known to name of sunflower is H elianthus annus. In the
human intelligence must possess a name. It above H elianthus indicates name of the genus
may not be possible or convenient to describe it (generic name) and second word annus denotes
in order to communicate ideas about it. The art name of the species.
of naming the objects is in fact, a science called The Binomial Nomenclature system follows
nomenclature. All living organisms are known certain rules.
by a particular name. y Name of organism is composed of two
1. Vernacular / Local names / Common Latin / Greek words.
names: Widely distributed organisms have y Generic name is a simple noun. It should
a large number of common names. Pansy come first and begin with capital letter.
(V iola tricolor L. ) grown in most European y Specific name is the descriptive adjective
and American gardens has about 50 common which should come later and begin with
English names. In a multilingual country like small letter.
India, almost all useful plants have local names y Scientific names must be underlined
which differ from language to language and separately if hand written and must be
even from dialect to dialect. As in Ayurveda, printed in italics.
mango (Mangif era indica L. ) is known by over y The generic and specific name should not
50 different names, all in the Sanskrit language. have less than three letters and more than
Hence the common names obviously have thirteen letters.
limited usage and for universal applications, a y Usually the name of the author who names
unique name for a particular individual is very a plant or animal is also written in full or
much essential. abbreviated form after scientific name. e.g.
2. Scientific Names : To overcome the Mangif era indica L. Where L stands for
difficulties raised by common names, scientists Linnaeus.
have given scientific names to all the known
organisms. These are systematic, thus provide Internet my friend
means for international communication. 1. Collect the information about most
Initially the polynomial system was used recent system of classification of living
but Carl Linnaeus used binomial system of organisms and Kingdom System of
nomenclature. He introduced this system in his Classification. e.g. Search for APG
book ‘‘Species Plantarum’’ published in 1753. system of classification for Plants.
International Code of Botanical Nomenclature 2. Collect the information about
(ICBN) has been set up to confirm the scientific classification systems for all types of
names. organisms.

9
 Membrane bound organelles e.g.
Know the scientists mitochondria, chloroplast, endoplasmic
reticulum are absent. Ribosomes are smaller in
Carl Linnaeus classified living
size (70S) than in eukaryotic cells. The mode of
organisms in two kingdoms based on mode
reproduction in monera is asexual or with the
of nutrition, whether they are migratory,
help of binary fission or budding. Very rarely,
sedentary, etc. But this broad classification
sexual reproduction is by conjugation method.
as Kingdom Plantae and Kingdom Animalia
Morphologicaly, bacteria are
was found inadequate. It could not classify
categorised into four groups, the spherical-
the organisms that show characters of both the
Coccus, the rod-shaped bacillus, the comma or
Kingdoms for ex. Bacteria, Fungi, Euglena
kidney shaped- vibrio and the spiral- spirillum.
etc. Hence to avoid confusion scientist R.H.
On the basis of evolution, bacteria can
Whittaker (1969) proposed Five Kingdom
be classified as Archaebacteria and Eubacteria.
system of classification. This system shows
the Phylogenetic relationship between the a. Archebacteria :
organisms. The five kingdoms are. These are differentiated from other
bacteria on the basis of their different cellular
features. These bacteria are mostly found
1. Kingdom Monera in the extreme environments; hence termed
extremophiles. They are found in a variety
2. Kingdom Protista
of places from volcanic craters to salty lakes
3. Kingdom Plantae and hot springs. Their ability to withstand such
4. Kingdom Fungi hostile environment speaks of their capacity
to survive in very severe conditions. Bacteria
5. Kingdom Animalia that can withstand high salinities are called
R. H. Whittaker
halophiles while those that withstand extreme
temperature are known as thermophiles. A
very common example is of methanogenic
2.13 Salient features of Five Kingdoms : bacteria found in gut of ruminants (cows and
buffaloes). These bacteria help in production of
1. Kingdom Monera :
methane in biogas plants.
It contains unicellular organisms with
prokaryotic cellular organization. Monera
includes unicellular prokaryotic organisms.
Coccus Coccobacillus Vibrio Bacillus
These are omnipresent. They are found in all
types of environment which are not generally
inhabited by other living beings. Few are Spirillum Spirochete
photoautotrophs or chemoautotrophs; but
majority are heterotrophic in nature. These Fig. 2.3 Different shapes of bacterial cells
organisms do not have well defined nucleus.
b. Eubacteria :
DNA exists as a simple double stranded
These are commonly referred as true
circular single chromosome called as nucleoid.
bacteria. They have cell wall of peptidoglycan.
Smaller circular molecules of DNA as extra-
They are found as autotrophs and heterotrophs.
chromosomal genetic elements called plasmids
The autotrophs can be photosynthetic like
are often present. Cell wall is made up of
Chlorobium (Green sulphur bacteria) and
peptidoglycan (also called murein) which is a
Chromatium or chemosynthetic like sulphur
polymer of sugars and amino acids.
bacteria.

10
 These are mostly multicellular 2. Kingdom Protista :
filamentous forms living in fresh water. The This group includes all the unicellular
body is covered by mucilagenous sheath. but eukaryotic organisms. These organisms
The genetic material is typical prokaryotic. show link with all eukaryotic Kingdoms like
Chl-a, Chl-b, carotenes and xanthothylls are Plantae, Fungi and Animalia.
the photosynthetic pigments. Filaments show a. Plant like protista :
heterocyst which helps in nitrogen fixation. They are also termed Chrysophytes.
Heterotrophs are the most abundant. They are commonly termed phyto-planktons.
Most of them are decomposers and known They are microscopic and mostly photosynthetic
for breaking down large molecules in simple and are major producers in oceans. Most of
molecules or minerals. They can be anaerobes them are referred to as diatoms as the have
helping in curdling of milk (L actobacilli), body wall made up of two soap-box like fitting
fixation of nitrogen (Az otobacter), antibiotic silica covers. “Diatomaceous earth" is nothing
production (Streptomyces), composting and but these shells left behind for so many years.
degrading oil. But the story doesn’t end here, Diatomaceous earth is granular hence finds use
some of them are pathogens i.e. causing disease in polishing and filtration.
(typhoid, cholera, tuberculosis, tetanus).

Heterocyst

Mucilagenous
sheath

Fig. 2.5 Diatoms

Fig. 2.4 Cynaobacterium (N ostoc) b. Animal like Protista :- They are also termed
protozoans. They lack cell wall. They are
heterotrophs. They are believed to be primitive
Can you tell?
animal forms. Amoeboid protozoans have
1. What are salient features of Monera? pseudopodia as locomotory organs. Amoeba is
2. What will be the shape of a bacillus and free living form but Entamoeba is endoparasite
coccus type of bacteria? and causes amoebic dysentery. Flagellated
3. Write a note on useful and harmful protozoans have flagella as locomotory
bacteria. organ. Trypanosoma is a common flagellated
pathogen which causes sleeping sickness.
Mycoplasma : Paramoecium is a cilliate protozoan
These are smallest of the living forms. having cilia for locomotion. In Paramoecium,
They do not have cell wall. Many forms are gullet (a cavity) opens on the cell surface.
pathogenic. They are found resistant to Plasmodium is a sporozoan protozoa. It causes
common antibiotics due to absence of cell wall. malaria. It forms spores in one of its life stage.

11
 Contractile e. Euglenoids :- They lack cell wall but have a
Micronucleus vacuole tough covering of proteinaceous pellicle.
Macronucleus
They possess two flagella, one short
Food
and other long. They behave as heterotrophs in
Vacuoles
absence of light but possess pigments, similar
Cilia to that of higher plants, for photosynthesis.
Cytopyge
Gullet
Lysosomes Oral Groove Nucleus Nucleolus
Trichocyst
Mitochondria
Fig. 2.6 Param oeciu m Chloroplasts
Flagellum
Stored
c. Dinoflagellates :- These are aquatic (mostly carbohydrate
marine) and photosynthetic. The cell wall Endoplasmic
is made up of cellulosic stiff plates. They reticulum
Photoreceptor Golgi apparatus
possess a pair of flagella. They have a wide
Contractile vacuole
range photosynthetic pigments, which can be
yellow, green, brown, blue and red. Gonyaulax
is dinoflagellate that is responsible for famous Fig. 2.8 Eu g l ena
‘red tide’. It makes even sea appear red.
3. Kingdom Plantae:
Apical horn The kingdom is dominated by
Flagellar pore (s) autotrophs. It also includes some semi-
Epitheca autotrophic members, the insectivorous plants
like Venus fly trap, pitcher plant, bladderwort,
Cingulum as well as heterotrophic parasitic members
like Cuscuta. Members of this kingdom
Hypotheca Flagella Plates are multicellular, having eukaryotic cells
containing chlorophyll. Cells have cell wall
Sulcus mostly made up of cellulose. Plants exhibit
Ventral view
alternation of generation i.e., life cycle has two
distinct phases. Kingdom Plantae is divided into
two major groups Cryptogamae / Cryptogams
and Phanerogamae / Phanerogams.
Anatomical horns We will study this kingdom in detail in
Dorsal view next chapter.
Fig. 2.7 G ony au l ax 4. Kingdom Fungi : These are eukaryotic
heterotrophs showing extracellular digestion.
d. Fungi like protista :- They are commonly They are found in warm and humid places. They
from the group Myxomycetes. These are have simple body which may be unicellular or
saprophytic organisms found on decaying made up of long thread like structures called
leaves. Their cells aggregate to form a large hyphae. Large fungi such as mushrooms have
cell mass called plasmodium (not a malaria a compact mass of cells. Unicellular organisms
parasite). The spores produced by plasmodium have a protoplast with many nuclei. e.g.
are very tough and survive even very harsh Rhiz opus, Saccharomyces (Yeast-unicellular
conditions. fungus).

12
 Filamentous fungi consist of a body b. Ascomycetes :
called mycellium in which hyphae are present. These are called as sac-fungi. These
The hyphae may be with septa or without fungi are mostly multicellular. Rarely
septa. They may be uni or multinucleate. The unicellular varieties include yeast. The hyphae
non-septate multinucleate hyphae are called are branched and septate. Sac fungi can be
coenocytic hyphae. The cell wall in fungi is decomposers, parasites or coprophilous (grow
composed of chitin, a polysaccharide or fungal on dung). Morels and truffles are varieties
cellulose. The fungi exhibit hetrotrophic mode of sac fungi that are consumed as delicacies.
of nutrition. Mostly they are saprophytic, some N eurospora is useful in genetic and biochemical
are parasitic or predators. They reproduce assays.
sexually as well as asexually. Asexual Ex. Aspergillus, Penicillium, Claviceps,
reproduction takes place by fragmentation, N eurospora, Saccharomyces.
fission and budding. Some fungi are symbiotic;
either live with algae as lichens or as mycorrhiza
in association with roots of higher plants.
They are useful as well as harmful.
Mushrooms are consumed as food, yeast is
used in bakery and breweries. Penicillium, a
fungus, is well known for antibiotic production.
Harmful fungi cause diseases in plants and
animals. e.g. Puccinia.
The fungi are further classified on the
basis of their structure, mode of spore formation
Fig. 2.10 A spe rgi l l u s
and fruiting bodies as follows-
a. Phycomycetes : c. Basidiomycetes :
These are commonly called algal fungi. These are commonly called club fungi.
Mycelium is made up of aseptate coenocytic They have branched, septate hyphae. e.g.
hyphae. They commonly grow in moist and Agaricus (mushrooms), Ganoderma (bracket
damp habitats, on decaying organic matter as fungi), U stilago (smuts), Puccinia (rusts), etc.
well as in aquatic habitats or as parasites on
plants.
e.g. Mucor, Rhiz opus (bread mould),
Albugo (parasitic fungus on mustard).

Sporangium

Sporangiophore

Hypha

Fig. 2.11 Mushroom

d. Deuteromycetes :
These are called imperfect fungi, which
Fig. 2.9 M u cor
are known to reproduce only asexually.
e.g. Alternaria, Colletotrichum.

13
 2.14 Acellular organisms :
a. Viruses : Viruses were named so by Louis
Pasteur; considering the meaning, Venom or
poison. These obligate parasites were given
the name 'virus' by M. J. Beijernek, after
observation that they were able to migrate in
an agar gel. Thus, being and infectious soluble
agent, he called the filtrate as 'contagium
vivum fluidum'. It was scientist Stanley who
Fig. 2.12 A l ternaria demonstrated that viruses are inert outside
the host cell and can be crystallised. They are
Can you tell? made up of proteins.
Viruses lack their own cell machinery.
1. Write a note on economic importance of They have protein coat (capsid) around nucleic
fungi. acid strand, thus considered to be acellular
2. Why are fungi considered as heterotrophic organisms. Viruses are inactive outside a host
organisms? cell; but once they enter their specific host cell,
3. What are coenocytic hyphae? they take charge of cellular machinery of host
4. Classify fungi into their types. cell and duplicate themselves. Viruses thus can
5. Kingdom Animalia : Members of this be called infectious nucleoprotein particles.
kingdom are heterotrophs; adapted to holozoic
Types of viruses :
nutrition. Most of them have capacity of
As per genetic material, viruses are
locomotion. They are multicellular eukaryotes
grouped as DNA or RNA viruses.
where cells lack chlorophyll as well as cell
wall. Growth is determinate (follow definite
pattern). Do you know ?
In chapter four, we will study Viruses have either DNA or RNA as
about Kingdom- Animalia and its further their genetic material but never DNA as well
classification. as RNA.

Can you tell?

1. Differentiate between Plantae and
Animalia.
2. How are fungi different from plants?
3. Have you seen any diseased plant in your
farm?
Hollow core
o
Do you know ? Radius 40 A
RNA
New variety of Banana seedlings Capsomeres
produced by tissue culture technique like
‘Shrimanti’, Basarai, G-9 are virus free RNA
varieties.
Viruses, Viroids are groups of acellular
o
organisms that are not included in Whitaker’s Pitch 23 A
Five Kingdom classification. Fig. 2.13 Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)

14
 Protein coat called capsid is made up of c. Lichens : Lichen is co-existence of algae
smaller units, the capsomeres. Capsomeres are and fungi for mutual benefit. Algal member,
arranged in polyhedral or helical forms. Capsid the phycobiont as it is called, mostly belongs
protects genetic material. to cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) or green
The genetic material in viruses is either algae. Fungal member is called mycobiont.
single-stranded RNA or single or double- They are excellent example of symbiosis. The
stranded RNA or double-stranded DNA. algal component of lichens provides food to
Viruses that infect bacterial cells are called fungal part while fungus provides shelter to
bacteriophages which normally have double- alga and also absorbed water and minerals to
stranded DNA. alga. The association is intense and it is difficult
to identify them as separate living beings.
Though found in extreme environments
Head
like snow clad poles, lichens are sensitive
Collar Core to pollution. They are not found in polluted
Sheath regions, hence are considered as pollution
indicators. Lichens also play important
role in soil formation by using specific acid
Baseplate productions.
Tail fibers

Fig. 2.14 Bacteriophage

Viruses cause disorders like leaf curling,

yellowing, mosaic formation etc. in plants. You
have heard of foot and mouth disease in animals
Fig. 2.15 Lichens
or swine flu which are viral diseases. Small
pox, mumps, herpes to common cold, viruses
are the causative agents of many diseases in Can you tell?
humans. The list includes AIDS too!
1. Why are viruses called infectious
b. Viroids : Potato spindle tuber disease was nucleoproteins?
found to be caused by single stranded RNA 2. Describe genetic material in plant
which lacks protein coat. T. O. Diener in 1971 and animal viruses as well as in
reported that this is low molecular weight bacteriophages.
RNA and smaller in size than viruses. These 3. Differentiate between viruses and viroids.
infectious RNA strands are called viroids.
o

Internet my friend
Prions : In modern medicine, certain infectious neurological
diseases were found to be transmitted by abnormally folded proteins. These proteins are called
prions. The word prion comes from ‘proteinaceous infectious particle’. e.g. mad cow disease in
cattle, Jacob's disease in human. Find more information about prions.

15
 Observe and Discuss Complete the following table on the basis of previous
knowledge.
Characters Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
Cell wall Present in some Present ...............
-------- organisms ............... (cellulose)
Nuclear Absent Present Present ................ Present
membrane
Body Unicellular ................. Multicellular/ Tissue /organ Tissue/
organization loose tissue organ
/system
Mode of Autotrophic Autotrophic
nutrition ............. Photosynthetic ................... (Photosynthetic) --------
Heterotrophic
Ecological Decomposers .................... Decomposers ................. Consumers
role
Do Yourself
Complete the following table through collecting information about sunflower,
tiger with characteristic features.
Category Taxon Characteristics
Kingdom
Sunflower

Category Taxon Characteristics

Kingdom
Tiger

16
 Exercise

1. Choose correct option 5. Draw neat labelled diagrams

A. Which of the following shows single A. Paramoecium
stranded RNA and lacks protein coat? B. Euglena
a. Bacteriophage b. Plant virus C. TMV
c. Viroid d. Animal virus 6. Complete chart and explain in your word
B. Causative agent of red tide is
_____________.
a. Dinoflagellate b. Euglenoid
c. Chrysophyte d. Lichen Types of Viruses Animals
C. Select odd one out for Heterotrophic
bacteria.
a. Nitrogen fixing bacteria
b. Lactobacilli
c. Methanogens 7. Identify the following diagrams, label
d. Antibiotic production them and write detail information in
D. Paramoecium : Ciliated Protist your words
Plasmodium : ____________
a. Amoeboid protozoan b. Ciliophora
c. Flagellate protozoan d. Sporozoan
2. Answer the following
A. What are the salient features of monera?
B. What will be the shape of bacillus and
coccus type of bacteria?
C. Why is binomial nomenclature
important? A

3. Write short notes

A. Useful and harmful bacteria.
B. Five Kingdom system
C. Useful Fungi
4. Complete tree diagram in detail

Fungi

Protista

17
 8. The scientific name of sunflower is given
below. Identify the correctly written
name.
A. H elianthus annus
B. H elianthus Annus
9. Match the following.
Kingdom Examples
i. Monera a. Lichen
ii. Protista b. Cyanobacteria
C iii. Plantae c. Rhiz opus
iv. Fungi d. Spirogyra
10. Complete the following
A. Plant-like Protista -

B. - Entamoeba

Practical / Project :
1. Make a group of students. Observe
D living organisms in your school/college
campus and try to write their characters
with respect to habit, habitat, mode
of nutrition, growth- determinate or
indeterminate, type of reproduction
- vegetative reproduction - asexual
reproduction - Sexual reproduction.
With the help of similarity and
dissimilarity, try to classify organisms
into different categories. Similar work
should implement for animal group.
2. Find out types of lichens and its economic
importance.
E

18
 3. Kingdom Plantae

Can you recall?

Observe and Discuss
1. Why do we call as plants producers on
Collect different water samples of
land ?
fresh water. Mount them on a glass slide and
2. What are differences between
observe under a compound microscope. Try
sub-kingdoms Cryptogamae and
to identify the organisms which are visible
Phanerogamae?
under it.
3. Differentiate between Thallophytes and
Bryophytes. 3.2 Salient features of major plant
4. Give any two examples of Pteridophyta. groups under Cryptogams :
3.1 Kingdom plantae : A. Division : Thallophyta - Members
In earlier chapter, we have studied are mostly aquatic, few grow on other plants
different aspects of classification. as epiphytes. Some grow symbiotically and
Kingdom Plantae is further classified epizoic i.e. growing or living non-parasitically
on the basis of characteristics like absence on the exterior of living organisms. Aquatic
or presence of seeds, vascular tissues, algae grow in marine or fresh water. Most of
differentiation of plant body, etc. them are free living while some are symbiotic.
• Phanerogams are commonly called seed Plant body is thalloid i.e. undifferentiated
producing plants. They produce special into root, stem and leaves. They may be small,
reproductive structures that are visible unicellular, microscopic like Chlorella (non-
(Phaneros – visible) motile), Chlamydomonas (motile). They can
• Cryptogams are spore producing plants be multicellular, unbranched, filamentous like
and do not produce seeds and flowers. Spirogyra or branched, filamentous like Chara.
They reproduce sexually by gametes but Sargassum, a huge macroscopic sea weed
sex organs are concealed (kryptos : hidden, which measures more than 60 meters in length
gamos : marriage). is also an alga.
Classification of Kingdom Plantae is
represented as follows :

Kingdom- Plantae

Cryptogams Phanerogams

Non-Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants

Thallophyta Bryophyta Pteridophyta Gymnosperms Angiosperms

Dicotyledonae Monocotyledonae

Chart 3.1 Classification of Kingdom Plantae

19
 The algal cell wall contains either Pyrenoids are located on Chloroplast.
polysacchrides like cellulose / glucose or a Members are rich in protein, so used as food;
verity of proteins or both. Reserve food is in the used even by space travellers. e.g. Chlorella.
form of starch and its other forms. Reprocuction Chlamydomonas, Spirogyra, Chara, V olvox,
takes place by vegetative asexual and sexual U lothrix etc.
way. The life cycle shows phenomenon of
alternation of generation, dominant haploid and Internet my friend
reduced diploid phases. Algae are classified as
per its pigments like chlorophyll, xanthophylls 1. Make a list of green algae with their
and phycobilin. characteristic shape of chloroplast.
2. Enlist the forms of filamentous algae.
a. Chlorophyceae (green algae) : 3. Write different pigments found algae.
These are mostly fresh water (few
brackish water and marine). b. Phaeophyceae (Brown algae) :
Plant body is unicellular, colonial, filamentous. Plant body : Mostly marine, rarely
Cell wall contains cellulose. fresh water. Simple branched / filamentous (e.g.
Chloroplasts are of various shapes Ectocarpus) / profusely branched (Petalonia).
like discoid, plate-like, reticulate, cup-shaped, Cell wall has cellulose, fucans
ribbon-shaped or spiral with chlorophyll a and and algin. Photosynthetic pigments like
b. The stored food is in the form of starch. chlorophyll-a, -c and fucoxanthin are present.
Mannitol, laminarin and starch are stored
Chloroplast
food materials. Body is usually differentiated
Nucleus into holdfast, stalk called stipe and leaf-like
C hl am y dom onas photosynthetic organ called frond. Many
species of marine algae are used as food. e.g.
Pyrenoid (starch storage) Porphyra, L aminaria, Sargassum. Some species
are used for production of hydrocolloids. e.g.
Mitochondria (Amino acid synthesis)
Ectocarpus, F ucus, etc.

Oogonium
(contains eggs)
Lamina
C hara
Antheridium Stipe
(contains sperm)

Gametophyte Holdfast

Mucilage Cell membrane S argas su m

Cell wall Cytoplasm L am inaria

S pi rogy ra
Cytoplasm Nucleus Pyrenoid F u cu s
strand Chloroplast Vacuole

Fig. 3.2 Chlorophyceae Fig. 3.3 Phaeophyceae

20
c. Rhodophyceae (Red algae) :
Plant body These are found in marine Can you tell?
as well as fresh water on the surface, deep sea
1. What are the three major groups of
and brakish water. Plant body is thalloid. Cells
Cryptogams ?
contain chlorophyll a, d and phycoerythrin.
2. Name the accessory pigments of algae.
Cell wall is made up of cellulose and pectin 3. Give salient features of algae.
glued with other carbohydrates. Stored food is Differentiate between Chlorophyceae and
in the form of Floridean starch. Commercially Phaeophyceae.
important agar-agar which is used as solidifying 4. Enlist examples of Chlorophyceae and
agent in tissue culture medium is obtained from Rhodophyceae.
red algae. e.g. Chondrus, Batrachospermum
Porphyra, Gelidium , Gracillaria, Polysiphonia, Observe and Discuss
etc.
You may have seen F unaria plant in
rainy season. Why is it called amphibious
plant?
B atrachospe rm u m
B. Bryophyta
(Bryon : moss ; phyton : plant)
Bryophytes are mostly terrestrial
plants. They are found in moist shady places.
But they need water for fertilization and
completion of their life cycle. Hence they
G racil l aria are called ‘amphibious plants’. They include
approximately 960 genera and about 25,000
species.
Life cycle of Bryophytes shows
sporophytic and gametophytic stages.
Vegetative plant body is thalloid or leafy which
represents gametophytic generation. Spore
Pol y siph onia producing capsule represents sporophytic
generation.
Bryophytes have root-like structures
called rhizoids. Rhizoids are unicellular in
liverworts while multicellular in mosses.
Fig. 3.4 Rhodophyceae
Rhizoids absorb water and minerals and also
Internet my friend help in fixation of thallus on the substratum.
1. Economic importance of algae. Bryophytes are divided into two groups :
2. Role of algae in environment. liverworts and mosses.
3. Different forms of green, red, brown and a. Liverworts (Hepaticeae) :
blue green algae. These are lower members of Bryophyta.
These are primitive group of Bryophytes.
Gametophyte possesses flat plant body called
Do you know ?
thallus. The thallus is green, dorsiventral,
Brown algae- kelps may grow up prostrate with unicellular rhizoids. e.g. Riccia,
to 100 meters in height. Find out more Marchantia.
information about Sargasso sea.

21
Hornworts (Anthocerotae) - These member Economic importance -
possess flattened thallus. The thallus produces Some mosses provide food for
horny structures which are called sporophytes herbivorous mammals, birds, etc. Species of
hence the name hornworts. e.g. Anthoceros. Sphagnum, a moss; provides peat used as fuel.
b. Mosses (Musci) : Mosses are also used as packing material for
These are advanced members of transport of living materials because they
Bryophyta which possess erect plant body. have significant water holding capacity. Just
Gametophytic phase of the life cycle like lichens, mosses are the first living beings
includes two stages namely; protonema stage to grow on rocks. They decompose rocks to
and leafy stage. The protonema is prostrate form soil and make them suitable for growth
green, branched and filamentous (it is also of higher plants. Dense layers of mosses help
called juvenile gametophyte). It bears many in prevention of soil erosion, thus act as soil
buds. Leafy stage is produced from each binders.
bud. Thus protonema helps in the vegetative C. Pteridophyta
propagation. The leafy stage has erect, slender (Pteron : feather, phyton : plant)
stem like (Cauloid) main axis bearing spiral Evolutionarily, Pteridophytes are the
leaf like structures (Phylloid). It is fixed in soil first vascular and true land plants. Hence
by multicellular branched rhizoids. This stage considered as the first successful terrestrial
bears sex organs. Vegetative reproduction plants with true roots, stem and leaves. These
takes place by fragmentation and budding in plants have a primitive conducting system and
secondary protonema. they are the only Cryptogams with vascular
e.g. F unaria, P olytrichum, Sphagnum , etc. tissues. The late Paleozoic era is regarded as the
age of Pteridophytes. The group has about 400
genera and 11,000 species. The plants consist
of pinnate (feather like) leaves. Leaves may
be small called microphylls (e.g. Selaginella)
or large called macrophylls (e.g. N ephrolepis /
fern).
Blade

R iccia (Liverworts) A nthoceros

Frond

Capsule

Sporophyte
Seta
Rhizome
foot
Roots
Back side Front side
Gametophyte

Main axis
F u naria Rhizoids

Fig. 3.5 Mosses

Fig. 3.6 N eph rol epi s (Fern)

22
 Observe and Discuss Observe and Discuss
You may have seen the various plants Observe all garden plants like Cycas,
which do not bear flowers, fruits and seeds Thuja, Pinus, Sunflower, Canna and compare
but they have well developed root, stem and them. Note similarities and dissimilarities
leaves. Discuss. among them. Which differences did you notice
Pteridophytes grow in moist and shady between Gymnosperms and Angiosperms?
places. Pteridophytes show sporophytic and
gametophytic stages in life cycle. e.g. Ferns, 3.3 Salient features of major plant groups
Horsetail. Some are aquatic (Az olla, Marsilea), under Phanerogams
xerophytic (Equisetum) and epiphytic A. Gymnospermae
(L ycopodium). (Gymnos : naked, sperma : seed) :-
Pteriodphytes show heteromorphic There are about 70 genera and 1000
alternation of generations in which the living species of Gymnosperms in world. In
sporophyte is diploid, dominant, autotrophic India it is represented by 16 genera and 53
and independent. It is differentiated into root, species.
stem and leaves. The primary root is short lived
and soon replaced by adventitious roots while Scale
the stem may be aerial or underground. Leaves leaves
may be scaly (Equisetum) simple and sessile
(L ycopodium) or large and pinnately compound
Stem
(N ephrolepis / Ferns).
In these members Xylem consists of
only tracheids and Phloem consists of only
sieve cells. Secondary growth is not seen in
Pteridophytes due to absence of cambium.
a. C y cas plant
Pteridophytes are classified as - body
Psilopsida- (Psilotum), Lycopsida - (Selaginella
and L ycopodium), Sphenopsida - (Equiesetum)
and Pteropsida - (Dryopteris, Pteris and
Adiantum) b. Scale leaf
in C y cas
Economic importance - Pteridophytes are
Used for medicinal purpose and as soil binders.
Many varieties are grown as ornamental plants.

Can you tell?

1. Distinguish between Bryophyta and
Pteridophyta.
2. Why Bryophyta are called amphibians of
Plant Kingdom?
3. Pteridophytes are also known as vascular c. Coralloid roots of
Cryptogams - Justify. C y cas
d. Megasporophyll
4. Give one example of aquatic and Fig. 3.7 C y cas plant
of C y cas
xerophytic Pteridophytes. details

23
 Most of the Gymnosperms are
evergreen, shrubs or woody trees. These are Do you know ?
primitive group of flowering plants producing
Gymnosperms like Ginkgo biloba is
naked seeds. Seeds are not covered by fruit i.e.
called living fossil. It is because the plant is
ovary. They are vascular plants having Xylem
found in living as well as fossil form and the
with tracheids and Phloem with sieve cells.
number of fossil forms is much more than the
The plant body is sporophyte. It is living forms.
differentiated into root, stem and leaves. The Gymnosperms vary in their size. e.g.
root system is tap root type. In some, roots form Sequoia sempervirens is the tallest living plant
symbiotic association with other life forms. in the world. It is commonly called coast red
Coralloid roots of Cycas show association wood of California. The height of the plant is
with blue green algae and roots of Pinus about 366 feet. Taxodium mucronatum has a
show association with endophytic fungi called girth of about 125 feet. Zamia pygmaea is the
mycorrhizae. smallest Gymnosperms and is about 25 cm
In Gymnosperms, stem is mostly erect, only.
aerial, solid and cylindrical. Secondary growth
is seen in Gymnosperms due to presence of
cambium. In Cycas it is usually unbranched, Try this
while in conifers it is branched. The leaves Study the leaves of H ibiscus, Peepal,
are diamorphic. The foliage leaves are green, Canna, Grass and Tulsi. Classify them as
simple needle like or pinnately compound, Monocot and Dicot.
where as scale leaves are small, membranous
and brown. Spores are produced by
microsporophyll (Male) and megasporophyll
Can you recall?
(Female).
1. What are the salient features of
Economic importance - Cycas is grown as
Angiosperms?
ornamental plant. Pinus is used as source of 2. What is double fertilization ?
pine wood, turpentine oil and pine resin. 3. Explain in brief two classes of
Angiosperms? Draw and label one
example of each class.
B. Angiospermae (Angios : enclosed :
vessel, Sperma : seed)
Angiosperms are the most advanced
group of flowering plants. In these plants the
seeds are enclosed within the fruit i.e. ovary.
Angiosperms is a group of highly evolved
plants, primarily adapted to terrestrial habitat.
They vary in size.
Angiosperms show heteromorphic
alternation of generation in which the
sporophyte is diploid, dominant, autotrophic
Fig. 3.8 Pinu s tree with cones and independent. The gametophytes (male or
female) are recessive, haploid and dependent
on the sporophyte.

24
 Angiosperms are heterosporous. a. Monocotyledonae : These plants have
Microspores (commonly called pollens) are single cotyledon in their embryo. They have
formed in microsporangia (or anthers). They adventitious root system and stem is rarely
develop in highly specialized microsporophyll branched. Leaves generally have sheathing leaf
or stamens while megaspores are formed in base and parallel venation while the flowers
megasporangia (or ovules) borne on highly are generally trimerous.
specialized megasporophyll called carpel. The vascular bundles are conjoint,
Besides the essential whorls of collateral and closed type. In Monocots, except
microsporophylls (Androecium) and few plants secondary growth is absent. e.g. Zea
megasporophylls (Gynoecium) there are mays (Maize), Sorghum vulgare (Jowar).
accessory whorls namely calyx (sepals) and
corolla (petals) arranged together to form Corn seed Tassel
flowers.
Silks
Leaf blade
Do you know ?
Wolffia is the smallest Angiosperm,
1mm in size and Eucalyptus grows to over
100 meters.
Ear
Angiosperms are subdivided into two classes:
Roots
a. Dicotyledonae : These plants have two
Fig. 3.10 Z ea m ay s (Maize)
cotyledons in their embryo. They have a tap
root system and the stem is branched. Leaves
Can you tell?
show reticulate venation while the flowers
show tetra or pentamerous symmetry. 1. Give general characters of Gymnosperms
Vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral and Angiosperms.
and open type. Cambium is present between 2. Distinguish between Dicotyledonae and
Xylem and Phloem for secondary growth. In Monocotyledonae.
Dicots secondary growth is commonly found. 3. Why do Dicots show secondary growth
e.g. H elianthus annus (sunflower), H ibiscus while Monocots don't?
rosa- sinensis (China rose).
3.4 Plant life cycle and alternation of
Seeds generations:
Life cycle of a plant includes two phases
or distinct generations namely sporophyte
Ray florets (diploid : 2n) and gametophyte (haploid : n).
Disk florets Some special diploid cells of sporophyte divide
by meiosis to produce haploid cells. These
haploid cells divide mitotically to give rise
Stem
to gametophyte. The gametophyte produces
male and female gametes which fuse during
Tap root
fertilization to produce diploid zygote. It
divides by mitosis to form diploid sporophyte.
Inflorescence The sporophytic and gametophytic generations
of Sunflower generally occur alternately in the life cycle of
Fig. 3.9 H el ianthu s annu s (Sunflower) a plant. This phenomenon is called alternation
of generations.

25
 Distinct alternation of these two
Sporophyte (2n)
generations is observed in Bryophytes
and Pteridophytes. In Gymnosperms and
Angiosperms, gametophyte is much reduced Zygote
and exists within sporophyte. In algae, based (2n)
Sporophyte
upon the nature of dominant phase in life Fertilization
phase
cycle, it is called haplontic, diplontic or haplo- Meiosis
Gametophyte
diplontic life cycle. phase Spores
Gametes (1n)
In Bryophytes haploid gametophyte (1n)
is dominant. It is photosynthetic, independent
thalloid or erect phase. Sporophyte is short
lived, multicellular and depends totally Gametophyte (1n)
or partially on gametophyte for nutrition
Fig. 3.11 Alternation of generation
and anchorage. Whereas in Pteridophytes,
sporophyte is dominant, independent and
vascular plant body. Haploid multicellular Can you tell?
gametophyte is generally autotrophic and short
1. What is alternation of generations?
lived. It alternates with Sporophyte.
2. Which phase is dominant in the life cycle
of Bryophyta and Pteridophyta ?

Diplontic Haplontic Haplo-Diplontic

Haploid single-cell or Haploid multicellular
multicellular organism organism
Gametes Mitosis
n Mitosis Mitosis Mitosis

es
Gametes
es

or
or

Fertilization Meiosis

Sp
Sp

Fertilization Meiosis Fertilization Meiosis

2n Diploid Diploid
Mitosis Plants and
multicellular Fungi and multicellular
some algae some algae organism
In animals organism
Fig. 3.12 Types of life cycle
Diplontic : Haplontic : Haplo-diplontic :
Here mitotic Here mitosis occurs Here mitosis
divisions occurs only in in haploid cells. It results in the occur in both diploid
diploid cells. Gametes formation of single haploid cells or and haploid cells. These
formed through meiosis are a multicellular haploid organism. organisms undergo through
haploid in nature. The diploid These forms produce the gametes a phase in which they are
zygote divide mitotically. through mitosis. Zygote is formed multicellular and haploid
In this process production After fertilization. This cell is the (the gametophyte), and a
of multicellular diploid only diploid cell in the entire life phase in which they are
organism or in the production cycle of the organism. Thus the same multicellular and diploid
of many diploid single cells zygotic cell later undergoes meiosis. (the sporophyte). E.g. Land
takes place. E.g. Animals. E.g. Some Algae and Fungi. plants and in many algae.

26
 Exercise
1. Choose correct option 4. Differentiate between Dicotyledonae and
A. Which is the dominant phase in Pteri- Monocotyledonae based on the following
dophytes? characters
a. Capsule b. Gametophyte a. Type of roots
c. Sporophyte d. Embryo b. Venation in the leaves
B. The tallest living gymnosperm among c. Symmetry of flower
the following is .......... 5. Answer the following questions
a. Sequoia sempervirens A. We observe that land becomes barren
b. Taxodium mucronatum soon after monsoon. But in the next
c. Zamia pygmaea monsoon it flourishes again with
d. Ginkgo biloba varieties we observed in season earlier.
C. In Bryophytes .......... How you think it takes place?
a. Sporophyte and gametophyte B. Fern is a vascular plant. Yet it is not
generation are independent considered a Phanerogams. Why?
b. Sporophyte is partially dependent C. Chlamydomonas is microscopic whereas
upon gametophyte Sargassum is macroscopic; both are
c. Gametophyte is dependent upon algae. Which characters of these plants
Sporophyte includes them in one group?
d. Ginlgo biloba
D. Which of the following nuts will not
D. A characteristic of Angiosperm is ......... be enclosed in fruits? What are the
a. Colloteral vascular bundles peculiar characteristics of these plants?
b. Radial vascular bundles Betel nut/ Areca nut, pine nut, walnut,
c. Seed formation almond, cashew nut, nutmeg.
d. Double fertilization
E. Angiosperms and Gymnosperms 6. Girth of a Maize plant does not increase
resemble in having .......... over a period of time. Justify
a. Vessels in wood 7. Radha observed a plant in rainy season
b. Mode of nutrition on the compound wall of her school. The
c. Siphonogamy plant did not have true roots but rootlike
d. Nature of seed structures were present. Vascular tissue
2. How you place the pea, jawar and fern was absent. To which group the plant
at its proper systematic position? Draw a may belong?
flow chart with example of.
3. Complete the following table
Groups of algae Chlorophyceae Phaeophyceae Rhodophyceae
1. Stored food Starch
2. Cell Wall Cellulose and algin
3. Major pigments Chl- a, d and Phycoerythrin

27
8. Draw neat labelled diagrams 10. Observe the following diagram. Correct
A. Spirogyra it and write the information in your
B. Chlamydomonas words.
C. F unaria
Sporophyte (2n)
D. N ephrolepis
Gametes
E. Haplontic and haplodiplontic life cycle (1n)

9. Identify the plant groups on the basis of

Gametophyte
following features. Meiosis phase
A. Seed producing plants Fertilization
Sporophyte
B. Spore producing plants phase
C. Plant body undifferenciated into Root, Zygote
(2n)
Stem and leaves
D. Plant need water for fertilization
E. First vascular plants Spores
(1n)
Practical / Project :
1. Study the N eph rol epi s plant in detail.
2. Study the coralloid roots, scale leaf
and megasporophyll of cycas in
detail.

28
 4. Kingdom Animalia

Can you recall?

c. Tube within tube body plan : Digestive
1. What is the basis for classification ? system is present in tube-like body cavity.
2. Who proposed Five Kingdom Mouth and anus are present at two separate
classification system? ends of digestive system. Annelida onwards all
3. What is the need and importance of phyla show this type of body plan.
classification?
You are familiar with animals, their
general characteristics and great diversity
observed in this group. Let us learn about how
this diverse group is classified systematically.
4.1 Criteria used for animal classification:
Grades of organization - Cellular, Fig. 4.3 Fish
Cell-Tissue, Tissue-Organ, Body Symmetry-
Observe and Discuss
Assymmetry, Radial Symmetry, Bilateral
Symmetry, Body Cavity - Acoelomate, Observe the diagram given below and
Pseudocoelomate, Coelomate. Germ Layers discuss the criterias of classification.
-Diploblastic, Triploblastic. Segmentation- Triploblast
Diploblast
Unsegmented, Segmented. Endoderm
4.2 Animal body plan : Digestive
a. Cell aggregate plan : In this body plan, cells cavity
do not form tissues or organs. Their is minimal Ectoderm
differentiation and division of labour among Non-living layer Mesoderm
cells. It is found in porifera.

Fig. 4.1 Sponge

b. Blind sac body plan : In this body plan, Asymmetry Radial Bilateral
body is like a sac with single opening. Digestion
is carried out in this sac-like structure where Types of Symmetry
ingestion and egestion takes place through same
4.3 Animal Classification :
opening. e.g. Members of Phylum Cnidaria.
1. Phylum : Porifera
Mouth (pori-pores; feron-bearing)
e.g. Scypha, Euspongia (Bath sponge),
Euplectella (Venus' flower basket)
These are aquatic animals, most of
Fig. 4.2 H y dr a them are marine and few are fresh water. They
are also called 'sponges'.

29
 Most of them have asymmetrical body. They reproduce asexually as well as
Body of these animals consists of many cells sexually. Asexual reproduction is performed by
with little division of labour. Hence their body fragmentation and gemmule formation. These
is considered as a colony of different types of animals have ability of regeneration. Sexual
cells. reproduction is performed by formation of
These are sedentary animals. On their gametes. Fertilization is internal. Development
body, they bear numerous minute pores called takes place through indirect larval stage.
'ostia' through which water enters in the body
cavity- spongocoel. Water leaves the body Osculum
through single large opening called 'osculum'. Silica spicules
Water is circulated in the body through Ostium
the 'canal system'. During its circulation, cells
of the animal body absorb food, exchange Mesohyl
(semi fluid
respiratory gases and release excretory central matrix)
products. cavity
Epidermis Collar Choanocyte
Osculum
Ostia
Nucleus
Flagellum
holdfast
Choanocyte
Body Fig. 4.5 Typical Sponge body
Apopyle
Internet my friend
Common Which are the larval stages of Porifera?
Base
a. S y con 2. Phylum : Cnidaria
e.g. H ydra, Aurelia (Jelly fish), Physalia
(Portuguese man-of-war), Adamsia (sea
anemone), Diploria (Brain coral), Gorgonia
(sea fan).
They are aquatic, mostly marine and
few are fresh water forms. They are sessile or
free swimming. They show radial symmetry
and are diploblastic with blind-sac body
plan. Animals exhibit two body forms. Polyp
is cylindrical form (H ydra) and medusa is
b. Eu sp ong ia c. Eu p l ectel l a umbrella-like (Aurelia - Jelly fish).
Fig. 4.4 Animals - Porifera Umbrelar surface
Marginal lappet
Subumbrelar
Spongocoel is lined by special
surface
flagellated cells called 'choanocytes' or 'collar
cells'. Beating of flagella creates water current.
Body of these animals is supported Marginal tentacles
Oral arm
by calcareous or siliceous 'spicules' or
proteinaceous 'spongin fibers'.
A u rel ia
Fig. 4.6 Animal of Cnidaria

30
 Body cavity is meant for circulation as Secretory (adhesive)
well as digestion. Hence called gastrovascular granules
Adhesive
cavity or coelenteron. Tentacles bear cnidoblasts granule
or stinging cells which are meant for anchorage, Radiating fibre
offence and defence. Cnidarians reproduce both Covering cell
asexually and sexually. Asexually reproduction Spiral filament
Nucleus Spiral
takes place by budding and regeneration. (nucleus)
filament
Sexual reproduction takes place by gamete Straight filament
Synapse
formation. They exhibit alternation of polypoid (nucleus) Root
Neuron
generation with medusoid generation. This Mesenchyme
phenomenon is called metagenesis i.e. polyps
produce medusae asexually and medusae C ol l ob l ast
produce polyps sexually. (e.g. Obelia)
Spines
Thread tube
Stylet

Refractile rods Operculum

Lasso

Pl eu rob rachia
Cytoplasm
Fig. 4.8 Animal of Ctenophora
Nucleus
Before discharge After discharge
Fig. 4.7 Cnidoblast 4. Phylum : Platyhelminthes
(platy -flat, helminth -worms)
Find out
e.g. Planaria, Taenia (Tapeworm),
Information about coral reef and sea fan. F asciola (Liver fluke).
3. Phylum : Ctenophora Body of these animals is dorso-
These are commonly called comb jellies ventrally flattened, hence are called as flat
or sea walnuts. These are exclusively marine, worms. Animals are acoelomate, triploblastic
free swimming animals. Body is diploblastic, showing organ-system grade of organization.
radially symmetrical with blind-sac body Mostly endoparasitic and few are free-living.
plan. Animals have tissue-level organisation. Parasitic forms shows presence of hooks and
Locomotion is carried out by eight rows of suckers for attachment to the body of host.
cilliated comb plates. Characteristic feature Body is covered by cuticle (in parasites) or
of ctenophores is bioluminescence. Like cilia (in free-living forms). Digestive system is
cnidarians, ctenophores also exhibit extra generally absent in parasitic forms, but in free-
and intracellular digestion. Reproduction is living forms, it is incomplete (blind-sac plan).
sexual with indirect development. Cnidoblasts Animals have flame cells or protonephridia,
are absent hence these are called acnidarians. helpful for excretion and osmoregulation.
Instead, they have colloblasts (sticky cells) to Animals are hermaphrodite (bisexual). Self
capture the prey. Ctenophora is represented by fertilization is seen. Few have high power of
very few members, hence it is considered as regeneration and show polyembryony.
one of the minor phyla. e.g. Pleurobrachia ,
Ctenoplana.

31
 Mouth
Oral Gastrovascular
Pharynx Cavity Eyespots
Sucker
Head lobe Immature
Neck proglottid
Sucker
hook Mature
proglottid

Gravid
proglottid

a. F asciol a Ventral nerve cords c. Pl anaria

Excretory pore b. T aenia

Fig. 4.9 Animals of platyhelminthes
5. Phylum : Aschelminthes (ascus-sac,
Anus Tail Mouth Dorsal lip
helminth-worm) / Nemathelminthes
Ventral lip
(nema-thread) Cloaca
e.g. Ascaris (Roundworm), W uchereria Tail
(filarial worm), Ancylostoma (hook worm). Head
These are mostly parasitic, few forms
Male
are free-living. Body is long, cylindrical, thread
Cuticle Head
like, circular in cross-section, hence are called
round worms. They are triploblastic, bilaterally a. Ascaris Female
symmetrical, pseudocoelmate, with tube within
tube body plan. Body is covered by tough and
resistant cuticle. Body wall has longitudinal
muscles but no circular muscles. Alimentary
canal is complete with mouth and anus at
opposite ends. Pharynx is well developed and
muscular. Excretion takes place by canals or b. Ancylostoma hookworm
gland cells. Excretory products are eliminated
Fig. 4.11 Animals of Aschelminthes
through excretory pore. Nervous system has
nerve ring and nerves. Animals are unisexual
i.e. sexes are separate. Animals like Ascaris Can you tell?
shows sexual dimorphism. Usually female is 1. State parasitic adaptations in liverfluke
longer and broader and have straight posterior and Ascaris.
end. Male is shorter and narrower and has 2. Give example of free living platyhelminth.
curved posterior end with a pair of penial
setae for copulation. Fertilization is internal. 6. Phylum : Annelida (Annulus : Ring)
Development may or may not include larval e.g. N ereis, Pheretima (Earthworm),
stage. Tail Anal pore
H irudinaria (Leech).
They are commonly called ring worms
or segmented worms. Animals may be aquatic
and few may be ectoparasitic or free living or
Mouth
Sheath burrowing in moist soil. They show bilateral
symmetry with metameric segmentation.
Fig. 4.10 Wuchereria

32
 A special region of the body called - This is largest phylum of kingdom
clitellum is present. Locomotion is with the animalia. These animals have jointed
help of longitudinal and circular muscles. appendages, hence the name -Arthropoda.
Locomotory structures like setae (earthworm), These are omnipresent and solitary or colonial,
parapodia (N ereis) or suckers (leech) are most of them are free-living (Barnacles are
present. Alimentary canal is complete. sedentary). Few are parasitic and sanguivorous
Exchange of gases takes place through body (female mosquito, bed bug). Their body
is bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic,
wall. Circulatory system is of closed type.
eucoelomate, metamerically segmented with
Excretion and osmoregulation is carried out
tube within tube body plan and organ-system
with the help of nephridia. Nervous system level of organization. Body is covered by
consists of nerve ring and ventral nerve cord. tough, non-living chitinous exoskeleton. Hence,
Nerve cord is ventral, solid and ganglionated. they need periodic moulting (ecdysis). Body is
Mostly hermaphrodites and few are dioecious divided into head, thorax and abdomen.
(N ereis).

a. N ereis a. Peripl aneta b. A rchispi rostrept u s

c. H ottentotta
b. H iru do c. Pheretim a
Fig. 4.13 Animals of Arthropoda
Fig. 4.12 Animals of Annelida
Digestive system is complete.
Circulatory system is of open type, blood flows
Always Remember
through body cavity (haemocoel). Respiratory
All animals from Annelida onwards organs are gills, trachea, book lungs, book gills.
are triploblastic, coelmate with organ system Excretion takes by green glands, Malpighian
level of organization. tubules or coxal glands. Nervous system is
formed by nerve ring and double, ventral,
ganglionated nerve cord. Sense organs are
Find out well developed in the form of antennae, simple
1.
1. What are the merits and demerits of or compound eyes, various receptors. Sexes
hermaphroditism? are separate showing sexual dimorphism,
2. Why are leeches used in Ayurveda? fertilization is generally internal, development
3. What is the role of earthworms in is direct or indirect by metamorphosis. In some
arthropods like honey bees, bugs etc. offsprings
agriculture? What is vermicompost?
are produced by parthenogenesis. Some insects
7. Phylum : Arthropoda (Arthros : Joint, exhibit polymorphism e.g. honey bee, ants,
Podos : leg) termites etc. Some arthropods are economically
e.g. Cockroach, Butterfly, Scorpion, important such as Apis (honey bees) for their
Millipede , Prawn. honey and wax.

33
 Lac is produced by L accif er lacca (Lac Digestive system is well developed,
insect). Lobsters, prawns and crabs are edible, complete with anterior mouth and posterior
silk worms produce silk. Some arthropods are anus. Buccal cavity has a rasping organ called
harmful which acts as vector e.g. mosquito. radula which is provided with transverse rows
L ocusta (locust) is a gregarious pest. L imulus of teeth. Aquatic forms show numerous feather
(King crab) is known as living fossil. like gills called ctenidia, useful for aquatic
respiration. Gills are present in mantle cavity.
Find out (space between visceral mass and mantle)
1.
1. Why is phylum arthropoda considered as Terrestrial forms may show presence of lungs.
most successful phylum? Circulatory system is of open type
2. What do we mean by parthenogenesis? (except Sepia, which possesses closed type).
3. What do we mean by living fossil? Blood contains a copper containing blue
4. How the bees produce honey? respiratory pigment called haemocyanin.
5. What will happen if arthropods do not Excretion occurs by kidneys, also called as organ
moult? of Bojanus. Nervous system is formed by three
pairs of ganglia. Ganglia are interconnected
8. Phylum : Mollusca (Mollis : soft)
by commissures and connectives. Sense organs
e.g. Pila, Bivalve, Octopus (devil fish),
such as eyes for vision, tentacles for tactile
Sepia (cuttle fish), Chaetopleura (Chiton),
sensation, osphradia for testing purity of water
Pinctada (Pearl oyster), L oligo (Squid), Aplysia
are present. Sexes are separate, animals are
(Sea hare), Dentalium (Tusk shell).
mostly oviparous, development is direct or
This is second largest phylum. Molluscs
indirect.
are either free living or sedentary. They are
aquatic or seen in marshy places. Few are Economic importance - Pearl oyster
terrestrial. These are soft bodied and show tube gives precious pearls. Many molluscs are
within tube body plan. These are bilaterally edible. Shells of molluscs are rich source of
symmetrical, but few are asymmetrical due calcium.
to torsion (twisting). Body is divisible into
head, foot and visceral mass. Visceral mass Can you tell?
is enclosed in thick muscular fold of body
1. Explain the term metameric segmentation.
wall called mantle. Mantle secretes a hard
2. Give characteristics of Arthropoda.
calcareous shell, the shell may be external or
3. Enlist harmful Arthropods.
internal or absent. Muscular foot is present on
4. Why do Molluscs have shell?
ventral side.

a. S p isu l a b. C haetop l eu ra c. Pil a

d. S ep ia e. O ctop u s

Fig. 4.14 Animals of Mollusca

34
9. Phylum : Echinodermata Nervous system is simple with a nerve
(Echinus - Spines, derma - skin) ring around mouth and radial nerves in the
e.g. Asterias (Sea star), Cucumaria (Sea arms. Sexes are separate (sometimes bisexual),
cucumber), Echinus (Sea urchin), Antedon (sea fertilization is external, development is indirect.
lily), Ophiothrix (Brittle star). They show high power of regeneration.
These are exclusively marine, solitary,
10. Phylum : Hemichordata (Hemi : Half,
sedentary or free-living and gregarious,
Chordata : Rod)
benthic.
e.g. Balanoglossus, Saccoglossus.
These are radially symmetrical
Earlier, this Phylum was considered
animals with pentamerous symmetry. Body
as sub-phylum of Chordata because buccal
may be spherical, elongated or star-shaped.
diverticulum was considered as notochord.
Endoskeleton is made up of calcareous ossicles.
But, now it is placed as a separate phylum of
Spines are present on the body, hence the name
Non-chordata. These are exclusively marine
echinodermata. The body is without definite
animals, usually living at the bottom of sea in
body divisions, instead, there are two sides as
burrows. Mostly these are free living but the
oral and aboral.
animals like Rhabdopleura are sedentary. Body
The peculiar character is presence of
is soft, vermiform, unsegmented and divided
water vascular system in which water enters
into three parts - proboscis, collar and trunk.
through madreporite. This system is used
Buccal cavity gives rise to rod-like buccal
in locomotion, food capturing, respiration,
diverticulum which is considered as notochord
etc. Digestive system is complete. Mouth is
by some scientists.
ventrally present on oral surface and anus on
aboral surface. Proboscis
Respiration is performed by peristomial
Anus
gills, papillae, respiratory tree, etc. Circulatory
system and excretory system is absent. Collar

Branchial region

Genital region

a. A ntedon b. O ph iothrix Hepatic region

a. B al anogl ossu s

c. A sterias d. C u cu m aria b. S accogl ossu s

Fig. 4.15 Animals of Echirodemata Fig. 4.16 Animals of Hemichordata

35
 Alimentary canal is complete, straight 11. Phylum : Chordata
or 'U' shaped. Respiration occurs by numerous Chordates are characterised by
gills, arranged in two longitudinal rows, presence of cartilagenous notochord at least
present in the pharyngeal region. Gills open by in early embryonic life, presence of gill slits
gill slits. in the pharyngeal (neck) region, presence of
Circulatory system is simple and hollow, dorsal nerve cord running through out
open type. Excretion occurs with the help of the length of body and ventral heart.
glomerulus. Nervous tissue is embedded in Phylum Chordata is divided into three
epidermis on both dorsal and ventral sides. subphyla-Urochordata, Cephalochordata and
The sexes are separate (sometimes bisexual). Vertebrata. Urochordata and Cephalochordata
Fertilization is external and development is are collectively called Protochordates.
indirect through free swimming larva. This a. Subphylum : Urochordata or Tunicata
phylum is the connecting link between non- e.g. H erdmania, Sal pa, D oliolum.
chordata and chordata. These are also called as tunicates or
ascidians. They are exclusively marine. Body
Can you tell? is soft and covered by 'test' or 'tunic' which is
1. Give salient features of Phylum made up of tunicine. Notochord is present only
Echinodermata. in the tail of larva, hence the name, urochordata.
2. Hemichordata is the connecting link Notochord is lost during metamorphosis.
between non-chordata and chordata. Pharynx has many gill slits. Closed circulatory
Give reasons. system is present. Development is indirect.

Observe and Discuss

Compare and contrast between
Chordates and Non-chordates.

Non-Chordate Exoskeleton Pulsating dorsal

blood vessel

Anus a. H erd m ania b. A scid ia

Nerve cord Digestive tube
Chordate Notochord
Fig. 4.17 Animals of Urochordata

b. Subphylum : Cephalochordata
Post-anal tail
Gill slits
Heart Anus e.g. Branchiostoma (Amphioxus or L ancelet)
They are exclusively marine. These are
Find out also called as lancelet, which are small fish
Why Balanoglossus
like animals that rarely exceed 5 cm in length.
is considered as connecting link between
Non-Chordates and Chordates? Lancelets partly live burried in
soft marine sediments. Notochord extends
Do you know ? Notochord is throughout the length of body and present
flexible rod-like structure of vacuolated cells. throughout the life. Myotomes (muscle blocks)
It is located along the dorsal side of chordate are present. Post-anal tail is present. Closed
embryos. It gives support to the body and circulatory system is present. Blood is without
provides attachment to muscles. pigment.

36
 Buccal cirri Digestive system lacks stomach.
Vestibule Respiration occurs by 6 to 15 pairs of gills slits.
Gills slits are without operculum. Heart is two
Pharynx Notochord chambered with one auricle and one ventricle.
Gill slits Dorsal hollow Gonad is single, large and without gonoduct.
nerve cord
Fertilization is external. They are anadromous
Midgut diverticulum
i.e. migrate for spawning to fresh water from
Midgut
Atriopore their marine habitat. After spawning, they die
Myotomes within few days. Larvae metamorphose and
then migrate to ocean.
Anus

Caudal fin Can you tell?

A m p hioxu s
1. H erdmania is called a Chordate. Explain.
Fig. 4.18 Animal from Cephalochordata 2. Give characteristics of Petromyz on.
c. Subphylum : Vertebrata Comment on its mode of nutrition.
In these chordates, notochord is replaced 2. Division : Gnathostomata
by cartilaginous or bony vertebral column. It is It is divided into two superclasses -
divided into two divisions - A gn athostom ata Pisces (bear fins) and tetrapoda (bear four
(no jaws) and G nathostom ata (jaws present). limbs).
1. Division : A gn athostom ata A. Superclass : Pisces
This division includes the lowest or These are aquatic animals. These are
most primitive vertebrates, which are without poikilothermic (body temperature changes
jaws. They include only one class of living according to the change in surrounding
vertebrates - the Cyclostomata. temperature). Lateral line system is present
Class : Cyclostomata (Cyclos : Circular, Stoma which shows presence of rheoreceptores for
- mouth) L at/ Grk. detection of water current. Locomotion is
e.g. Petromyz on (Lamprey), Myxine (Hagfish). by body muscles and fins. Caudal fin acts as
Cyclostomes are jawless and eel- steering wheel. Exoskeleton is of dermal scales.
like animals. Skin is soft, smooth containing Endoskeleton is either bony or cartilagenous.
unicellular mucus glands, but no scales. Median Body is streamlined and boat shaped. This
fins are present but paired fins are absent. feature offers minimum resistance during
They are ectoparasites. They have sucking swimming. Respiration is by gills. Heart is two
chambered and is ventral in position. It shows
and circular mouth without jaws. Cranium and
single and closed circulation. Heart always
vertebral column made up of cartilage.
shows presence of deoxygenated blood, so it
is described as venous heart. They have well
developed brain with large olfactory lobes.
Sexes are separate. Most fishes are oviparous
and some are viviparous.
Sea lamprey
Superclass Pisces is divided into two
classes as below.
1. Class Chondrichthyes :
Detail of mouth (chondron : cartilage, ichthyes : fish)
e.g. Scoliodon (dog fish), Pristis
(sawfish), Electric ray, Common skate,
Fig 4.19 Petrom y z on
Hammer headed shark.

37
 Carcanodon (great white shark), Trygon Exocoetus (flying fish), H ippocampus
(Sting ray) (sea-horse), Pomphret, L abeo rohita (Rohu),
Catla (Katla), Clarias (Magur), Aquarium
Dorsal fin
Lateral line fishes. Betta -(fighting fish), Pterophyllum
Eye (Angle fish).
Osteichthyes includes fishes in which
bony endoskeleton is present, hence called as
bony fishes. These are aquatic, present in both
Mouth Caudal fin
fresh and marine waters. Exoskeleton is formed
Pelvic fin
Gill clefts
Median ventral fin
of cycloid and ctenoid scales. Mouth is mostly
terminal in position. They show two dorsal
a. S col iod on
fins. Tail fin is formed by two equal lobes
i.e. homoceral (symmetrical). Four pairs of
gill slits are present, covered with operculum.
Air bladder is present to maintain buoyancy.
Claspers are absent. Fertilization is external.
These fishes are oviparous.
Operculum
Dorsal fin
b. A noxy p ristis Eye

Fig 4.20 Animals from chondrichthyes

Forked tail

Chondrichthyes includes the animals

Mouth
in which endoskeleton is cartilagenous. These
Ventral fin Pelvic fin
are exclusively marine. Exoskeleton is formed Pectoral fin
a. C atl a
of placoid scales. Teeth are modified placoid
scales which are backwardly directed. Mouth
is ventral in position. There is single dorsal fin
and 2 pairs of lateral fins (pectoral and Pelvic).
Caudal fin is heterocercal (Asymmetrical). Five
to seven pairs of gill slits are present. They are
not covered by operculum. Air bladder is absent
hence these fishes need to swim constantly so
that they do not sink. They are predatory fishes.
Some of them have electric organs e.g. Torpedo b. Exocoetu s c. H ip p ocam p u s
- (electric ray) and some have poison sting e.g. (flying fish) (sea-horse)
Trygon - (sting ray) as organs of offence ans Fig 4.21 Animals from Osteichthyes
defence. Male copulatory organs called claspers
are present. Fertilization is internal. Many of
them are viviparous. Can you tell?

2. Class : Osteichthyes 1. Differentiate between Chondrichthyes

(Osteon : bone , ichthyes : fish) and Osteichthyes on the basis of scales
and caudal fin.
e.g. Bombay duck, Lung fishes
2. What is the lateral line system?
(Protopterus, L epidosiren)
3. Why Piscian heart is called a venous
heart?

38
B. Superclass : T etrapoda 2. Class : Reptilia
These animals bear two pairs of (Repere : to creep or to crawl)
appendages. Some animals like snakes are e.g. N aj a naj a (Cobra), H emidactylus
secondarily limbless. (Wall lizard), Chelonia ( Turtle), Crocodilus
Superclass tetrapoda includes four (Crocodile), Testudo (Tortoise), Chameleon
classes namely, Amphibia, Reptilia, and (Tree lizard), Bangarus (Krait), V ipera (viper).
Mammalia.
a. Lizard
1. Class : Amphibia
(Amphi : both, bias : life)
e.g. Rana (Frog), Buf o (Toad), Salamandra
(Salamander), I chthyophis (Limbless
amphibian), H yla (Tree frog).
Amphibia include the animals which
b. Crocodile
live on land as well as in water (fresh water
only). They are poikilothermic animals. Body
is differentiated into head and trunk. Neck
and tail is usually absent in many adults with
few exceptions. Two pairs of limbs arise from
pectoral and pelvic girdles respectively. These c. Tortoise
help in locomotion. Skin is moist, glandular
with mucous glands. Exoskeleton is absent.
Eyelids are present. Tympanum represents the Fig 4.23 Animals from Reptilia
ear. Excretory products, digestive wastes and
gametes are released through common chamber Reptilia includes crawling animals.
called cloaca. Circulatory system is of closed These are the first true terrestrial vertebrates.
type. Heart is three chambered and ventral in Few may be aquatic or semi-aquatic, also
position. RBCs are biconvex and nucleated. found in marshy area. Locomotion occurs by
Respiration is by skin, lungs and buccopharynx. limbs. The limbs are pentadactyl and digits
Nervous system is well developed. Sexes are bear claws. Limbs help the animal to walk or
separate. These are oviparous. Fertilization creep. Snakes are limbless. Snakes crawl on
is external. Development is indirect through their belly. Reptiles are poikilotherms. Skin is
aquatic larval stage. They show metamorphosis. dry, non-glandular and covered by exoskeleton
of epidermal scales or scutes, shields or plates.
Lizards and snakes shed their skin periodically.
Tympanum is present. Heart has two complete
auricles, but ventricles are incompletely
partitioned. So heart is not perfectly four
chambered (except crocodile). Brain is well
developed. The olfactory lobes and cerebellum
a. A nu ra
are better developed than those of amphibians.
b. B u f o
Sexes are separate and show prominent sexual
dimorphism. Fertilization is internal. They are
oviparous (except viper, it is viviparous) and
c. S al am and er show parental care. .

Fig 4.22 Animals from Amphibia

39
 Body is differentiated into head, neck,
Can you tell? trunk and tail. Skin is thin, dry, non-glandular
except oil gland at the base of tail (uropygial
1. Amphibians do not have exoskeleton.
gland). Bones are hollow (pneumatic) with
Give reason.
air cavities to reduce body weight. Jaws are
2. Why are amphibians and reptilians called
without teeth and modified into beak. Crop
poikilotherms?
and gizzard are present in digestive system.
3. Class : Aves (Avis : bird) Blood is red in colour due to presence of red
e.g. Columba (Pigeon), Psittacula blood cells. RBCs are biconvex and nucleated.
(Parrot), Flight less birds like Struthio (ostrich), Heart is perfectly four chambered. They show
K iw i, Aptenodytes (Penguin), Corvus (crow), double circulation. Respiration takes place by
N eophron (Vulture), Passer (sparrow). lungs, having air sacs to increase the buoyancy.
Brain is enlarged and has well developed
a. S try thio cerebellum for equillibrium. Sexes are separate
with prominent sexual dimorphism. These are
oviparous. Fertilization is internal. Parental
care is very well developed. Seasonal migration
is seen in some birds.
b. Passer
Special features :- The urinary bladder is
absent. The female shows presence of only left
ovary and left oviduct. This helps to reduce
c. Psittacoide a body weight.
4. Class : Mammalia (mammae :
breasts, nipples)
e.g. Bat, Rattus (Rat), Macaca (Monkey),
Camelus (Camel), Whale, Human being,
Cannis (dog), F elis (Cat), Elephas (Elephant),
Equus (Horse), Pteropus (flying fox).
Oviparous - Ornithorhynchus (Platypus).
d. N ecrosy rtes
Viviparous - Macropus (Kangaroo).
Mammalia includes the animals having
mammary glands (milk producing glands)
for the nourishment of young ones. These
e. Pav o
are omnipresent. Mostly terrestrial, some
Fig 4.24 Aves are aquatic and few are aerial and arboreal.
Forelimbs are modified into wings for Limbs are the organs of locomotion and used
flying (some birds have lost the capacity to fly for walking, flying, climbing, burrowing,
e.g. Ostrich), hind limbs are used for walking, swimming, etc. Body is differentiated into head,
clasping tree branches and running. Aquatic neck, trunk and tail. These are homeotherms.
birds have webs between their toes (e.g. Duck). Exoskeleton is in the form of hair, fur, nails,
Body is streamlined (Boat shaped) to reduce hooves, horns, etc. Skin is glandular having
resistance during flight. These are homeotherms sweat glands and sebaceous glands (oil glands).
i.e. their body temperature remains constant. Mammary glands are modified sweat glands.
Exoskeleton is made up of feathers. Scales are
present on hind limbs.

40
 They have external ear (pinna). They
show heterodont dentition. RBCs are biconcave
and enucleated. Blood is red in colour. Heart
is ventral in position and four chambered.
Respiration takes place by lungs. Brain is highly
developed. Cerebrum shows a transverse band
called corpus callosum. Few mammals are
oviparous (e.g. Duck billed platypus). Some
d. M acrop u s
have pouches for the development of immature
young ones, these are called marsupials e.g.
Kangaroo. Majority of mammals are placental
and viviparous.

a. C am el u s b. O rnithorhy nchu s c. T rachy p ithecu s

Fig 4.25 Mammals

Can you tell?

1. Give adaptations in aves for flying.
2. Aves and mammals are homeotherms. Give reason.
3. How mammals differ from other groups of animals.

Do yourself
Observe different animals in your surrounding, write detailed classification and
write down the characteristics of animals in following format.

Picture / Photograph Classification Characteristics

41
 Exercise
1. Choose correct option E. Birds need to keep their body light to help
A. Which of the following belongs to a in flying. Hence, they show presence of
minor phylum? some organs only on one side. How their
a. Comb jelly b. Jelly fish skeleton helps in reducing their weight?
c. H erdmania d. Salpa F. Cnidarians and Ctenophorans are both
diploblastic. Which other character do
B. Select the animal having venous heart.
they have in common, which is not found
a. Crocodile b. Salamander
in other Phyla?
c. Rohu d. Toad
G. Crab and Snail both have a protective
C. In Ascaris, __________________. covering. Is it made up of the same
a. mesoglea is present material?
b. endoderm is a discontinuous layer
H. Sponge and sea star show calcareous
c. mesoderm is present in patches
protective material. Do they belong to the
d. body cavity is absent
same Phylum?
D. Which of the following is incorrect in I. Fish and snake both have scales. How do
case of birds? these scales differ from each other?
a. Presence of teeth
J. Lower Phyla like Arthropods and
b. Presence of scales
Cnidarians show metamorphosis. Is it also
c. Nucleated RBCs
found in any class of Phylum Chordata?
d. Hollow bones
E. Chitinous exoskeleton is a characteristic 3. Draw neat labelled diagram
of ___________. A. Sycon
a. Dentalium b. Antedon B. Aurelia
c. Millipede d. Sea urchin C. Amphioxus
2. Answer the following questions D. Catla
A. Reptiles are known for having three E. Balanoglossus
chambered heart. Which animal shows a F. Scolidon
near four chambered condition in reptiles? 4. Match the following
B. The circulatory system has evolved from
open to closed type in Animal kingdom. Phylum Characters
Which Phylum can be called first to i. Annelida a. Tube feet
represents closed circulation? ii. Mollusca b. Ostia
iii. Ctenophora c. Radula
C. Pinna is part of external ear and it is found
iv. Porifera d. Parapodia
in mammals. Do aves and reptiles show
v. Echinodermata e. Comb plates
external ear in any form?
D. Fish and frog can respire in water. Can
they respire through their skin? If yes,
why do they have gills?

42
5. Identify the animals given in pictures and 6. Observe and identify body symmetry of
write features of its phylum / class given animals

Practical / Project :
A B
Study different animals in kingdom
anamalia and prepare the chart with detail
scientific information.

C D

E F

G H

43
 5. Cell Structure And Organization

1. Can you recall? 1. Who observed cells under the microscope for the first time?
2. Who made the first microscope?
3. How do onion peel cells and our body cells differ?
4. Why bacterial nucleus is said to be primitive?

5.1 Cell : There is no typical shape of a cell.

Cell is called a structural and functional Cells may be spherical, rectangular, flattened,
unit of life of all living organisms capable of polygonal, oval, triangular, conical, columnar,
independent existence and can perform all etc.
functions of life. Cell size varies greatly in various
To see cells clearly we need a plants and animals. Some of them are not
microscope. Larger cells can be seen through visible to naked eye. Some are barely visible
simple microscope but to see smaller cells while some are macroscopic. The smallest cell
we require compound microscope. Simple size can be seen in mycoplasma (0.3 µm in
microscope can magnify image 50 to 100 times length), bacterial cell size is 3 to 5 µm, while
but a compound microscope can do so 1000 the largest size of cell is seen in Ostrich egg
times or more. In the microscope we use in (nearly 15cms). Longest cells are nerve cells.
the laboratory, a beam of light is used to make You already know that cell theory was
things visible hence it is light microscope. To proposed by Schwann and Schleiden. However,
see interior of cell we need electron microscope. in this theory, there was no explanation about
It can magnify image 500000 times. formation of new cells. It was Rudolf Virchow
(1855) who explained for the first time that
Leeuwenhoek new cells are formed by cell division from pre
Microscope
(circa late 1600s) existing cells (Omnis cellula- e- cellulla).
In later years, advanced research in
cytology led to modification in cell theory,
which is now known as Modern Cell Theory.

Fig. 5.1 Microscope

Find out
1. How do a
Red
blood Animal combination of
Flu virus Pollen
cell cell lenses helps in higher
Mitochondria magnification?
C60 Protein Human
Atom egg 2. When do we
use plane and
Frog
Lipids Plant cell egg concave mirror and
Bacteria
diaphragm?
3. What is the
0.1 nm 1 nm 10 nm 100 nm 1 µm 10 µm 100 µm 1 mm
difference between
magnification and
Fig. 5.2 Cell size resolution?

44
Totipotency : It is the capacity or the potential Cell envelop is a three-layered structure
of living nucleated cell to differentiate and with outer glycocalyx, middle cell wall and
divide to form any other type of cell and thereby inner plasma membrane. Glycocalyx is present
a complete new organism. as either slime layer (loose sheath) or capsule
A cell is totipotent because it has the (tough). Bacteria are better observed when
entire genetic information of the organism in its stained.
nucleus. Embryonic animal cells are totipotent The most followed staining method
and termed as stem cells. Stem cells have is ‘Gram staining’ developed by Danish
great medical applications including cure for bacteriologist Hans Christian Gram. The
diseases. cell wall is made up of peptidoglycan (in
Gram positive bacteria) and murein (in Gram
Know the scientists negative bacteria). It gives mechanical strength
A German botanist Matthias to the cell. Cell membrane is a phospholipid
Schleiden (1838) examined number of plants bilayer. All these structures give protection to
and concluded that various tissues of plants the cell and also help in inter-cellular transport.
are composed of different types cells. At that In motile bacteria either cilia or flagella are
time, a British zoologist Theodore Schwann found. Both are driven by rotatory movement
(1839) proposed that cells are bound by a produced by basal body (which works as
thin membrane. He also explained about motor). Other parts are filament and hook.
existence of cell wall as a unique character Some other surface projections are
of plant cell. On the basis of his observation, the tubular pili (which help in inter-cellular
he proposed that animals and plants are made communication) and fimbriae (for clinging to
up of cells and products of cells. support).
Postulates of modern cell theory, The cell membrane shows infoldings
• All living organisms are made up of cells. called mesosomes, which help in cell wall
• Living cells arise from pre-existing cells. formation and DNA replication. Some bacteria
• A cell is the structural and functional unit especially photosynthetic cyanobacteria show
of life. more longer extensions called chromatophores.
• Total activities of cells are responsible for They carry photosynthetic pigments. The
activity of an organism. cytoplasm contains dense particles called
• Cells show transformation of energy. ribosomes helping in protein synthesis.
• Cells contain nucleic acids; DNA and Ribosomes are described by their sedimentation
RNA in the nucleus and cytoplasm. rate in Svedberg units. Bacterial ribosome
are 70S (composed of a larger subunit 50S +
5.2 Kinds of cells :
smaller subunit 30S).
Living organisms are grouped into
two main categories the Prokaryotes and Chromosome (nucleoid region)
Eukaryotes. The prokaryotes have simple Pili
Ribosomes
cellular organization while eukaryotes exhibit
Food granule
high degree of organization.
A. Prokaryotic cells : Flagellum Capsule or
The cell in prokaryotes show following Slime layer
main features. It has chemically complex Cell wall
protective cell envelop. However, it does not Plasma membrane
have well-defined nucleus and other membrane Cytosol
bound cell organelles. Plasmid (DNA)
Fig. 5.3 Prokaryotic cell

45
 Find out Use your brain power
Why do basal body
of bacterial flagella considered as smallest Describe major differences between
motor in the world? prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
B. Eukaryotic Cells :
Do you know ? Cells in which the nucleus has a definite
·
nuclear membrane are known as Eukaryotic
• The term cell was first used by Robert cells. These cells exhibit presence of membrane
Hooke (1665) in his book ‘‘Micrographic’’. bound cell organelles. e.g. Cells of Protists,
• Purkinje and Mohl (1835-37) discovered Plants, Animals and Fungi.
protoplasm. The eukaryotic cells have different
• Camillo Golgi (1838) discovered the Golgi shape, size and physiology but all the cells
apparatus. are typically composed of plasma membrane,
• Robert Brown (1881) discovered the cytoplasm and its organelles viz. Mitochondria,
Nucleus. Endoplasmic Reticulum, Ribosomes, Golgi
• Balbiani (1881) discovered chromosomes complex, etc. and a true nucleus.
in salivary glands of Chironomus larva.
5.3 Components of Eukaryotic cell :
• Flemming (1882) studied cell division in
detail and coined the term Mitosis.
1. Cell wall: It is rigid, supportive and
• Porter (1945) discovered Endoplasmic
protective outer covering of plasma membrane
Reticulum. of plant cells, fungi and some protists. Algae
• C. Benda gave the name Mitochondria. show presence of cellulose, galactans,
• C. de Duve (1955) discovered Lysosomes. mannans and minerals like calcium carbonate
in cell wall. In other plants, it is made up of
hemicelluloses, pectin, lipids and protein.
Always Remember Microfibrils of plant cell wall show presence of
Genetic material in bacterium is a cellulose which is responsible for rigidity. Some
single chromosome made up of circular and of the depositions of cell wall are silica (grass
coiled DNA. It remains attached to mesosome. stem), cutin (epidermal walls of land plants),
This DNA undergoes a very typical replication suberin (endodermal cells of root), wax, lignin.
pattern called as theta model of replication. It gives shape to the cell and protects from
The DNA is not associated with histone mechanical injury and infections.
proteins (as in eukaryotes) hence not referred
to as chromatin. Besides chromosomal DNA Cell wall
Golgi vesicles Cell membrane
many bacteria show plasmids which are small Golgi
Ribosome
circular DNA molecules carrying few genes. Smooth ER
apparatus
They are termed as extrachromosomal self- (no ribosomes) Chloroplast
Nucleolus Vacuole
replicating DNA molecules. They are of two membrane
Nucleus
basic types F – plasmid for reproduction and Rough ER Raphide
R – plasmid for resistance against antibiotics. (endoplasmic crystal
reticulum)
Cytoplasm of prokaryotes is a pool of all Large central
Druse
necessary materials like water, enzymes, vacuole crystal
Amyloplast Mitochondrion
elements, amino acids, etc. Some inclusion (starch grain)
bodies in form of organic (cyanophycean Cytoplasm
starch and glycogen) and inorganic granules
(phosphate and sulphur) are also found. Fig. 5.4 Plant cell

46
Pinocytotic vesicle 2. Cell membrane / Plasma membrane/
Mitochondrion
biomembrane :
Lysosome
Golgi It is thin, quasifluid structure present
Golgi vesicles
apparatus both extracellularly and intracellularly.
Rough ER
(endoplasmic
Nucleolus Extracellularly, it is present around protoplast
reticulum) Nucleus and intracellularly, it is present around most
Smooth ER of the cell organelles in eukaryotic cell. It
(no ribosomes) Centrioles separates cell organelles from cytosol.
o
Thickness of biomembrane is about 75
Microtubules A Under electron microscope, cell membrane
.
Cell (plasma)
Cytoplasm appears trilaminar (made up of three
membrane
Ribosome
layers). It shows presence of lipids (mostly
phospholipids) arranged in bilayer. Lipids
Fig. 5.5 Animal cell
posses one hydrophilic polar head and two
In plants, cell wall shows middle hydrophobic non-polar tails. So, phospholipids
lamella, primary wall and secondary wall. are amphipathic. Lipid molecules are arranged
Middle lamella : It is thin and lies between two in two layers (bilayer) in such a way that their
adjacent cells. It is the first structure formed tails are sandwitched in between heads. Due
from cell plate during cytokinesis. It is mainly to this, tails never come in direct contact with
made up of pectin, calcium and magnesium aqueous surrounding.
pectate. Softening of ripe fruit is due to Cell membrane also shows presence of
solubilization of pectin. proteins and carbohydrates. Ratio of proteins
and lipids varies in different cells. For example-
Primary wall : In young plant cell, it is capable
in human beings, RBCs show approximately
of growth. It is laid inside to middle lamella.
52% protein and 40% lipids.
It is the only wall seen in meristematic tissue,
mesophyll, pith, etc. Fluid mosaic model :
Secondary wall : It is present inner to primary It is most accepted model of cell
wall. Once the growth of primary wall membrane. It was proposed by Singer and
stopps, secondary wall is laid. At some places Nicholson in 1972.
thickening is absent which leads to formation According to this model, it is made up
of pits. of phospholipid bilayer and proteins. Proteins
Plasmodesmata are cytoplasmic are like icebergs in the sea of lipids. Proteins
bridges between neighbouring cells. It shows can change their position. Some proteins are
pores between cell wall and middle lamella. intrinsic i.e. occur at different depths of bilayer.

Middle Glycoprotein Phospholipid Glycolipid

bilayer
lamella Pectin

Primary Cellulose
cell wall microfibril
Hemicellulose
Lipid
bilayer of Protein in
Plasma plasma Peripheral
membrane Integral Protein
membrane membrane
membrane Cytoskeletal channel
protein filament Cholesterol
proteins

Fig. 5.6 Cell wall of plant cell Fig. 5.7 Fluid mosaic model

47
 They span the entire thickness of the It helps in distribution and exchange of
membrane. So, they are called transmembrane materials between various cell organelles.
proteins. They form channels for passage of Cell organelles are nothing but
water. Extrinsic or peripheral proteins are compartments in the cell that carry out specific
found on two surfaces of the membrane. functions. Some of them coordinate with each
Quasifluid nature of lipid enables other and complete specific tasks for the cell.
lateral movement of proteins. This ability to Nuclear membrane, endoplasmic reticulum,
move within the membrane is measured as Golgi complex, lysosomes and various types of
fluidity. vesicles and vacuoles form such a group and
Main function of plasma membrane are together considered as endomembrane
is transport of molecules across it. This system of the cell. Organelles having distinct
membrane is selectively permeable. During functions are not included in endomembrane
passive transport, many molecules move across system. e.g. mitochondria or chloroplast carry
the membrane without spending energy. Some out specific type of energy conversions in the
solutes move by simple diffusion along the cell.
concentration gradient (from higher to lower 4. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
concentration). Neutral solutes may move This little network within the cytosol
across the membrane by the process of simple is present in all eukaryotic cells except ova
diffusion This is called the passive transport. and mature red blood corpuscles. Under the
Water may also move by osmosis. electron microscope, it appears like network of
During active transport, few ions or membranous tubules and sacs called cisternae.
molecules are transported against concentration It forms more than 50% of the total membrane
gradient (from lower to higher concentration). of a eukaryotic cell. This divides the cytoplasm
It requires energy. So, ATP is utilized. As such in two parts viz; one within the lumen of ER
a transport is an energy dependent process called, laminal cytoplasm and non-laminal
in which ATP is utilized, it is called Active cytoplasm that lies outside ER.
transport e.g. Na+/K+ pump. Polar molecules Membrane of Endoplasmic reticulum
cannot pass through non-polar lipid bilayer. is continuous with nuclear envelope at one end
So, they require carrier proteins. and extends till cell membrane.
3. Cytoplasm : It thus acts as intracellular supporting
The cell contains ground substance framework and helps in maintaining position
called cytoplasmic matrix or cytosol. This of various cell organelles in the cytoplasm.
colloidal jelly like material is not static. It shows The outer surface of endoplasmic reticular
streaming movements called cyclosis. The membrane may or may not be studded with
cytoplasm contains water as major component ribosomes. Accordingly, it is called rough or
along with organic and inorganic molecules smooth ER. Smooth and rough ER differ in
like sugars, amino acids, vitamins, enzymes, their functions.
nucleotides, minerals and waste products. Smooth ER is involved in various
It also contains various cell organelles processes in different cells. Depending on cell
like endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, type, it helps in synthesis of lipids (ex. steroid
mitochondria, plastids, nucleus, microbodies secreting cells of cortical region of adrenal
and cytoskeletal elements like microtubules. gland, testes and ovaries), detoxification of
Cytoplasm acts as a source of raw materials drugs and poisons (liver cells) and storage of
as well as seat for various metabolic activities calcium ions (muscle cells).
taking place in the cell.

48
 "Receiving" side of Golgi
Ribosomes Nuclear envelope Nucleus Vesicle
apparatus (cis face)
from ER

New vesicle
Rough endoplastic forming
reticulum
Smooth endoplastic reticulum
trans face
Fig. 5.8 Endoplasmic reticulum
Fig. 5.9 Golgi complex
Rough ER is primarily involved in This explains why Golgi bodies are
protein synthesis. (e.g. pancreatic cells that usually located near ER. Modified and
secrete insulin). These proteins are secreted by condensed secretions leave Golgi through trans
ribosomes attached to rough ER and are called face again as membrane bound vesicles.
secretory proteins. These proteins get wrapped Golgi body carries out two types
in membrane that buds off from transitional of functions, modification of secretions of
region of ER. Such membrane bound proteins ER and production of its own secretions.
depart from ER as transport vesicles. Rough Cisternae contain specific enzymes for specific
ER is also involved in formation of membrane functions. Refining of product takes place in an
for the cell. The ER membrane grows in orderly manner. For example, glycolipids and
place by addition of membrane proteins and glycoproteins that are brought from ER loose
phospholipids to its own membrane. Portions certain sugars and regain other, thus forming a
of this expanded membrane are transferred to variety of products.
other components of endomembrane system.
Golgi bodies also manufacture their
5. Golgi complex : own products. Golgi bodies in many plant cells
Golgi complex or Golgi apparatus or produce non-cellulose polysaccharides like
Golgi body; various terms are used to denote pectin. Manufactured or modified, all products
this assembly, manufacturing cum packaging of Golgi complex leave cisternae from trans
and transport unit of cell. face as transport vesicles.
Golgi complex essentially consists of
stacks of membranous sacs called cisternae.
Diameter of cisternae varies from 0.5 to 1
µm. A cell may have few to several cisternae Always Remember
depending on its function. The cisternae in Golgi body are not
The thickness and molecular physically connected to each other as that are
composition of two membranes of a Golgi sac in ER.
differ from each other. The Golgi sacs show According to recent studies it is
specific orientation in the cell. Each cisterna proposed that cisternae of Golgi body
has a forming or ‘cis’ face (cis: on the same themselves mature moving from cis to trans
side) and maturing or ‘ trans’ face (trans: the face. It is called ‘Cisternal maturation model’.
opposite side). It is also said that some vesicles recycle their
Transport vesicles that pinch off from enzymes that have been carried forward by
transitional ER merge with cis face of Golgi moving cisternae back to less mature region.
cisterna and add its contents into the lumen.

49
 While they are leaving from the Golgi, Lysosomes are polymorphic in nature.
certain markers may get impregnated on their We can classify lysosomes as, Primary
membrane so that they can identify their lysosomes; which are nothing but membrane
specific target cell or cell organelle. bound vesicles in which enzymes are in inactive
6. Lysosomes : state.
Lysosomes can be considered as Secondary lysosomes or hybrid
dismantling and restructuring units of a cell. lysosomes, which are formed by fusion of
These are membrane bound vesicles containing lysosome with endocytic vesicle containing
hydrolytic enzymes. The enzymes in lysosomes materials to be digested, represented as
are used by most eukaryotic cells to digest heterophagic vesicle. This is larger in size than
(hydrolyse) macromolecules. The lysosomal primary lysosome.
enzymes show optimal activity in acidic Residual body is the vesicle containing
pH. Lysosomes arise from Golgi associated undigested remains left over in the heterophagic
endoplasmic reticulum. vesicle after releasing the products of digestion
The list of lysosomal enzymes includes in the cytosol.
all types of hydrolases viz, amylases, proteases Lysosomes which bring about digestion
and lipases. These enzymes are in inactive state of cells own organic material like a damaged
and are activated only when a lysosome comes cell organelle, are called autophagic vesicles
in contact with another particular organelle to (or suicide bags). An autophagic vesicle
form a hybrid structure. essentially consists of lysosome fused with
After the action of enzymes is over, the membrane bound old cell organelle or organic
lysosome is reformed and re-used. Lysosomes molecules to be recycled. Remember, every
are thus found in various structural forms and week, a human liver cell recycles half of its
carry out various functions for the cell. macromolecules.
Lysosomes bring about intracellular
and extracellular digestion. The intracellular
Lysosome structure digestion is brought about by autophagic
Single-wall vesicle or secondary lysosomes which contain
membrane
foreign materials brought in by processes like
phagocytosis. e.g. Food vacuole in amoeba or
macrophages in human blood that engulf and
destroy harmful microbes that enter the body.

Always Remember
Enzyme complexes
Lysosomal enzymes do not digest their
own membrane proteins. Three-dimensional
Plasma
membrane
Rough ER shape of these proteins probably protects the
membrane.
Transport vesicle
Accidental release of lysosomal
Golgi enzymes in limited amount does not harm the
apparatus
cell because pH of cytosol is near neutral.
Food Lysosomes
Any insufficiency in secretion of
Autophagy
lysosomal enzymes leads to disorders e.g. in
Phagocytosis
genetic disorder, Tey Sach’s disease, due to
Food
vacuole insufficiency of lipase, brain gets impaired
Fig. 5.10 Lysosomes due to accumulation of fats.

50
 Extracellular digestion is brought about In addition to endomembrane system,
by release of lysosomal enzymes outside the there are several other cell organelles
cell. e.g. acrosome, a cap like structure in bound by single layer of plasma membrane
human sperm is a modified lysosome which in the cell.
contain various enzymes like Hyaluronidase. Microbodies : Microbodies are found in both
These enzymes bring about fertilization plant and animal cells. These are minute
by dissolving protective layers of ovum. membrane bound sacs. Microbodies contain
During metamorphosis process found various types of enzymes based on which
in many organisms, lysosomal enzymes help in they are classified into different types; few of
reusing the tissues of redundant organs. They which are explained here :
also help in destruction of malignant cells. e.g. Sphaerosomes : These are found mainly in
T-lymphocytes. cells involved in synthesis and storage of fats.
7. Vacuoles : e. g. endosperm of oil seeds. The membrane
Vacuoles are membrane bound sacs of sphaerosome is half unit membrane i.e. this
prominently found in plant cells. In animal membrane has only one phospholipid layer.
cells, whenever present they are few in number Peroxisomes : Peroxisomes contain enzymes
and smaller in size. Generally, there are two or that remove hydrogen atoms from substrate
three permanent vacuoles in a plant cell. and produce toxic hydrogen peroxide by
In some large plant cells, a single large utilisation of oxygen. At the same time
vacuole occupies the central part of the cell. It peroxisome also contains enzymes that
is called central vacuole. In such cells vacuole convert toxic H2O2 to water. Conversion of
can occupy as much as 90% of the total volume toxic substances like alcohol takes place in
of the cell. liver cells by peroxisomes.
The vacuoles are bound by
semipermeable membrane, called tonoplast
8. Glyoxysomes :
membrane. This membrane helps in maintaining
These membrane bound organelles
the composition of vacuolar fluid; the cell sap,
contain enzymes that convert fatty acids
different from that of the cytosol. Composition
to sugar. They can be observed in cells of
of cell sap differs in different types of cells. The
germinating seeds where the cells utilise
cell sap of central vacuole is a store house of
stored fats as source of sugar till it starts
various ions and thus is hypertonic to cytosol.
photosynthesising on its own.
Small vacuoles in seeds of certain plants store
organic materials like proteins. Vacuoles store
excretory products or even compounds that are Membrane
harmful or unpalatable to herbivores, thereby
protecting the plants. Attractive colours of the Matrix
petals are due to storage of such pigments in
vacuoles.
Core
Intake of food or foreign particle by
phagocytosis involves formation of food
vacuole. In fresh water unicellular forms like
Paramoecium, excretion and osmoregulation
takes place by contractile vacuoles. Vacuoles
maintain turgidity of the cell.
Fig. 5.11 Glyoxysomes

51
9. Mitochondria (Singular :
Mitochondrion) : Use your brain power
These are important cell organelles
1. Why do we call mitochondria as power
involved in aerobic respiration. Mitochondria
house of cell? Explain in detail. Hint:
are absent in prokaryotic cells and red blood
Refer chapter Cellular Respiration.
corpuscles (RBCs). Their shape may be oval or
2. Are mitochondria present in all
spherical or spiral strip like.
eukaryotic cells?
It is a double membrane bound
organelle. Outer membrane is permeable to Oxysomes :
various metabolites due to presence of a protein Inner membrane of mitochondria
-Porin or Parson’s particles. Inner membrane is bears numerous particles - Oxysomes (F1-F0
selectively permeable to few substances only. / Fernandez - Moran / Elementary particles /
Both membranes are separated by a space- mitochondrial particles). Each particle consists
outer chamber. of head and stalk / foot. Head (F1) / lollipop
Inner membrane shows several finger like head faces towards matrix and foot (F0) is
or plate like folds- cristae. Inner membrane embedded in inner membrane. Head acts as
bears numerous particles- oxysomes and an enzyme ATP synthase and foot as proton
cytochromes / electron carriers. channel. Oxysomes are involved in proton
Inner membrane encloses a cavity- inner pumping and ATP synthesis.
chamber, containing a fluid- matrix. Matrix 10. Plastids :
contains few coils of circular DNA, RNA, 70S Like mitochondria, plastids too are
types of ribosomes, lipids and various enzymes double walled organelles containing DNA,
of Krebs cycle and other pathways. RNA and 70S ribosomes. But they are larger
DNA Ribosomes in size and can be observed under light
Matrix microscope. Plastids are classified according
Outer membrane
Inner membrane to the pigments present in it as leucoplasts,
Intermembrane chromoplasts and chloroplasts.
space
Leucoplasts do not contain any
pigments, they are of various shapes and sizes.
F0 portion These are meant for storage of nutrients. e.g.
F1 portion Cristae Amyloplasts that store starch, Elaioplasts that
Head (F1)
store oils and Aleuroplasts that store proteins.

Pedicel (F0) Internal membrane

Plastoglobule
Base Intermembrane space Ribosome
Perimitochondrial space External membrane
Outer chamber
Protein layer Granum
Lipid layer F1 particles Chloroplast
Respiratory DNA
chain and Stroma
enzymes
Intracristal
Thylakoid
space
Thylakoid
Mitochondrial crista Lumen membrane
Inner
F1 particles Lamella
membrane
Outer membrane
Fig. 5.13 Chloroplast
Fig. 5.12 Mitochondrion

52
 Something interesting : Both lamellae. Space outside thylakoids is is filled
mitochondria and chloroplast are double with stroma. The stroma, and the space inside
walled organelles, they have DNA and thylakoids contain various enzymes essential
ribosomes and can duplicate within the for photosynthesis. Like other plastids,
cell on their own! It is considered that stroma of chloroplast also contains DNA and
primitive eukaryotic cell engulfed an aerobic ribosomes.
nonphotosynthetic prokaryotic cell. This 11. Ribosomes :
guest cell developd symbiotic relationship You are aware that ribosomes are
with the host cell. In course of evolution, both protein factories of the cell. They use the
merged as a single cell with a mitochondrion. genetic information to synthesise proteins.
One of these cells might have engulfed Ribosomes were first observed as dense
photosynthetic prokaryote and evolved into particles in electron micrograph of a cell by
photosynthetic eukaryotic cells. This is called scientist Pallade in 1953. Ribosomes are made
‘Endosymbiont theory’ i.e. coexistence of cell up of Ribosomal RNA and proteins. They do
within cell! not have any membranous covering around
Chromoplasts contain pigments like them.
carotene and xanthophyll, etc. They impart red, Prokaryotes
Small
Eukaryotes
subunit
yellow or orange colour to flowers and fruits.
30S 16S rRNA
Now you must have understood why potato subunit 21 proteins
18S rRNA 40S
33 proteins subunit
looks white in colour and shoe flower petals are Large
subunit
red. Both leucoplasts and amyloplasts donot
contain photosynthetic apparatus we find in 50S
23S rRNA 28S rRNA
5S rRNA 5.8S rRNA 60S
chloroplasts. Let us now study the chloroplast subunit subunit
34 proteins 5S rRNA
in details. 50 proteins
Plant cells, cells of algae and few Complete
protists like Euglena contain chloroplasts. You ribosome
70S 80S
have observed ribbon shaped chloroplast in
Spirogyra. It differs in size, number and shape
in various cells in which it is found. In plants, it Fig. 5.14 Ribosome
is found in green regions; mainly in mesophyll
In a eukaryotic cell, ribosomes are
of leaf. This chloroplast is lens shaped. But
present in mitochondria, plastids and in cytosol.
it can also be oval, spherical, discoid or
Ribosomes in cytoplasm are either found
ribbon like. A cell may contain single large
attached to outer surface of Rough Endoplasmic
chloroplast as in Chlamydomonas or there are
Reticulum and nuclear membrane or freely
20 to 40 chloroplasts per cell seen in mesophyll
suspended in cytoplasm. Both are similar in
cells. Chloroplasts contain green pigment -
structure and are 80S type. Each ribosome is
chlorophyll along with other enzymes that help
made up of two subunits; a large and a small
in production of sugar by photosynthesis.
subunit.
Inner membrane of double walled
Bound ribosomes generally produce
chlorophyll is comparatively less permeable.
proteins that are transported outside the cell
Inside the cavity of inner membrane, there
after processing in ER and Golgi body. e.g.
is another set of membranous sacs called
Bound ribosomes of acinar cells of pancreas
thylakoids. Thylakoids are arranged in the
produce pancreatic digestive enzymes. Free
form of stacks called grana (singular: granum).
ribosome come together and form chains called
The grana are connected to each other by
polyribosomes for protein synthesis.
means of membranous tubules called stroma

53
 Free ribosomes generally produce Nuclear
Nucleoplasm
enzymatic proteins that are used up in cytoplasm membrane
like enzymes required for breakdown of sugar.
Both types of ribosomes can interchange
Nucleolus
position and function. Number of ribosomes
Nuclear pore
is high in cells actively engaged in protein
synthesis.

Always Remember Fig. 5.15 Nucleus

The particle size of ribosomes is The nucleoplasm or karyolymph
measured in terms of Svedberg unit (S). It is a contains various substances like nucleic
measure of sedimentation rate of a particle in acids, protein molecules, minerals and salts.
ultracentrifuge. It is thus a measure of density It contains chromatin network and nucleolus.
and size of a particle. Nucleolus is another component which is not
1S = 10-13 sec. bound by cell membrane.
Nucleolus is made up of rRNA and
Know the scientists ribosomal proteins and it is best known as the
site of ribosome biogenesis. Depending on
Venkatraman Ramakrishnan : Won
synthetic activity of a cell, there are one or more
Nobel Prize in Chemistry in the year 2009,
nucleoli present in the nucleoplasm. For ex:
for explaining the structure and working of
cells of oocyte contain large nucleolus whereas
ribosomes. He shared the prize with Yonath
sperm cells contain small inconspicuous
(Israel) and Thomas Steitz (USA).
one. They appear as dense spherical bodies
12. Nucleus : present near chromatin network. They produce
Structure of nucleus of a eukaryotic rRNA and ribosomal proteins which are then
cell becomes distinct in a non-dividing cell or transported to cytoplasm and are assembled
during interphase. Such an interphase nucleus together to form ribosomes.
is made up of nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm,
nucleolus and chromatin network.
Can you recall?
Nuclear envelope is a double walled
delimiting membrane of nucleus. Two 1. Consider the following cells and comment
membranes are separated from each other about the position, shape and number
by perinuclear space (10 to 50nm). Outer of nuclei in a eukaryotic cell. Add more
membrane is connected with endoplasmic examples from your previous knowledge
reticulum at places. It also harbours ribosomes about cell and nucleus.
on it. The inner membrane is lined by nuclear - Cuboidal epithelial cell, different types
lamina- a network of protein fibres that helps of blood corpuscles, skeletal muscle fibre,
in maintaining shape of the nucleus. The two adipocyte.
membranes along with perinuclear space help 2. Why nucleus is considered as control unit
in separating nucleoplasm from cytoplasm. of a cell.
However, nuclear membrane is not continuous. 3. Can cells like Xylem or mature human
At places, there are small openings called RBCs called living?
nucleopores. The nucleopores are guarded 4. What is a syncytium and coenocyte?
by pore complexes which regulate flow of
substances from nucleus to cytoplasm and in
reverse direction.

54
Chromatin material : 13. Cytoskeleton :
Nucleus contains genetic information With advancement in light and electron
in the form of chromosomes which are nothing microscopy, scientists revealed presence of
but DNA molecules associated with proteins. network of fibrils throughout the cytoplasm.
In a nondividing cell, the chromosomes appear It is called cytoskeleton. Cytoskeleton
as thread like network and cannot be identified consists of microtubules, microfilaments and
individually. This network is called chromatin intermediate filaments. Microtubules are made
material. The chromatin material contains up of protein- tubulin. Microfilaments are
DNA, histone and non-histone proteins and made up of actin and intermediate filaments
RNA. In some regions of chromatin, DNA are composed of fibrous proteins. Cytoskeleton
is more and is genetically active called helps in maintenance of shape of cell,
euchromatin. Some regions that contain more contraction of cell, mobility of cell and cell
of proteins and less DNA and are genetically organelles, changes in shape of the cells and
inert, are called heterochromatin. cell division.
Cilia and flagella :
Outer nuclear membrane They are fine hair like membrane bound
Inner nuclear
Nucleolus protoplasmic outgrowths that occur on the free
membrane
surface of the cell. They generate a current
Nuclear
pore in fluid medium for passage of material and
Perinuclear locomotion. Cilia are small in size and many in
space number. Cilia act as oars causing movement of
Hetero- cell.
chromatin
Chromatin Flagella are longer and few in number.
threads Flagella present in prokaryotic bacteria are
Chromocentre structurally different from that of eukaryotic
Karyolymph
Karyosome flagella. Cilium or flagellum consists of basal
body, basal plate and shaft.
Basal body is placed in outer part
Fig. 5.16 Ultrastructure of nucleus of cytoplasm. It is derived from centriole. It
has nine peripheral triplets of fibrils. Shaft is
When the cell prepares to divide, the exposed part of cilia or flagella. It consists of
chromosomes coil and get condensed. At two parts- sheath and axoneme. Sheath is
metaphase stage, they become distinct and can covering membrane of cilium or flagellum.
be clearly identified. You will study this process
as well as structure and types of chromosome Central microtubules Radial spokes
in other chapters. Every species of living Inner sheath
Plasma
organism has specific number of chromosomes membrane Nexin
like normal human cell has 46.
The nucleus contains entire genetic
information, hence play important role in
heredity and variation. It is the site for synthesis
of DNA, RNA and ribosomes. It plays important
role in protein synthesis. Chromosome number B tubule
Dynein
being constant for a species, it is important in arms A tubule
phylogenetic studies. Nucleus thus is the master Doublet microtubule
cell organelle. Fig. 5.17 Structure of Cilia

55
 Core called axoneme possesses 11 Microtubule triplet
fibrils running parallel to long axis. It shows
9 peripheral doublets and two single central
fibrils (9+2). The central tubules are enclosed Connecting
by central sheath. fibers

This sheath is connected to one of the

tubules of peripheral doublets by a radial spoke.
Central tubules are connected to each other by
bridges. The peripheral doublets are connected Microtubule
A-C Linder triplet
to each other through linkers or interdoublet
bridge.
Centrioles and centrosomes : Foot
Centrosome is usually found near the
nucleus of an animal cell. It contains a pair
of cylindrical structures called centrioles. Radial
fibre
The cylinders are perpendicular to each other (spoke)
and are surrounded by amorphous substance
called pericentriolar material. Each cylinder Fig. 5.18 Structure of Centriole
of centriole is made up of nine sets of triplet
microtubules made up of tubulin. Evenly At the proximal end of centriole, there
spaced triplets are connected to each other by is a set of tubules called hub. The peripheral
means of non-tubulin proteins. triplets are connected to hub by means of radial
spokes. Due to this proximal end of centriole
looks like a cartwheel. The centrosomes help
in assembly of spindle apparatus during cell
division. It forms basal body of cilia and
flagella.

Do Yourself
Prepare a concept map of cell structure.

56
 Exercise
1. Choose currect option
A. Growth of cell wall during cell I. Golgi body is absent in
elongation take place by ............. a. Prokaryotes
a. Apposition b. Intussusception b. Mature mammalian RBC
c. Both a & b d. Super position c. Alkaryotes d. All of the above
B. Cell Membrane is composed of 2. Answer the following questions
a. Proteins and cellulose A. Plants have no circulatory system?
b. Proteins and Phospholipid Then how cells manage intercellular
c. Proteins and carbohydrates transport?
d. Proteins, Phospholipid and some
B. Is nucleolus covered by membrane?
carbohydrates
C. Fluid mosaic model proposed by Singer
C. Plasma membrane is Fluid structure due and Nicolson replaced Sandwich model
to presence of proposed by Danielli and Davson?
a. Carbohydrates b. Lipid Why?
c. Glycoprotein d. Polysaccharide
D. The RBC surface normally shows
D. Cell Wall is present in glycoprotein molecules. When
a. Plant cell b. Prokaryotic cell determining blood group do they play
c. Algal cell d. All of the above any role?
E. Plasma membrane is E. How cytoplasm differs from
a. Selectively permeable nucleoplasm in chemical composition?
b. Permeable
3. Answer the following questions
c. Impermeable
A. Distinguish between smooth and rough
d. Semipermeable
endoplasmic reticulum.
F. Mitochondria DNA is B. Mitochondria are power house of cell.
a. Naked b. Circular Give reason.
c. Double stranded d. All of the above
C. What are types of plastids?
G. Lysosomes are not help full in
a. Osteogenesis 4. Label the diagrams and write down the
b. Cellular digestion details of concept in your word
c. Metamorphosis
d. Lipogenesis
A
H. Which of the following set of organelles
contain DNA
a. Mitochondria, Peroxysome
b. Plasma membrane, ribosome
c. Mitochondria, chloroplast
d. Chloroplast, dictyosome

57
 6. Label the A, B, C, and D in above diagram
and write the functions of organells A and
B B.

C
D
C

7. Identify each cell structures or organelle

from it's description below.
i. Manufactares ribosomes
ii. Carrys out photosynthesis
iii. Can bud of vesicles, which form the
golgi apparatus.
iv. Manufactures ATP in animal and plant
cells.
D
v. Selectivelly permeable.
8. Onion cells have no chloroplast. How can
we tell they are plants?
Practical / Project :
1. Observe the cells of Onion root tip under
microscope.
2. Observe the cells from buccal epithelium
stained with Giemsa under microscope.
5. Complete the flow chart

Transport vesicle

Golgi apparatus

Autophagy

58
 6. Biomolecules

Can you recall? Chemically all living organisms

1. Which are different cell components? have basic three types of macromolecules,
2. What is the role of each component of cell? which are polymers of simple subunits
called monomers. The polysaccharides
Our planet is having a wide diversity
(carbohydrates), polypeptides (proteins)
of living organisms that are classified as
and polynucleotides (nucleic acids) are the
unicellular (consisting of a single cell; including
polymers of monosaccharides, amino acids and
bacteria and yeast) or multicellular having
nucleotides respectively (Figure 6.1). Lipids
many cells (e.g. plants and animals). You have
are water insoluble and small molecular weight
also learnt that living organisms have cell as
compounds as compared to macromolecules.
the basic structural and functional unit. The
cells have protoplasm containing numerous 6.2 Biomolecules in the cell
chemical molecules, the biomolecules. A. Carbohydrates :
Biochemistry is biological chemistry The word carbohydrates means
that provides us the idea of the chemistry ‘hydrates of carbon’. They are also called
of living organisms and molecular basis for saccharides. They are biomolecules made
changes taking place in plants, animals and from just three elements: carbon, hydrogen
microbial cells. It develops the foundation and oxygen with the general formula (CH2O)n.
for understanding all biological processes They contain hydrogen and oxygen in the same
and communication within and between cells ratio as in water (2:1). Carbohydrates can be
as well as chemical basis of inheritance and broken down (oxidized) to release energy.
diseases in animals and plants.
Based on number of sugar units,
Chemical analysis of all living carbohydrates are classified into three types
organisms indicates presence of the most namely, monosaccharides, disaccharides and
common elements like carbon, hydrogen, polysaccharides (Table 6.2).
nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur, calcium, phosphorus,
magnesium and others with their respective
content per unit mass of a living tissue.

Biomolecules
Organic Inorganic

Macromolecules Micromolecules Prime Macro Trace

elements elements elements
Polysaccharides Polynucleotides Lipids Secondary Carbon (C) Nitrogen (N)
metabolites Hydrogen (H) Phosphorus (P)
Polypeptides Oxygen (O)
Simple Potassium (K)
Nucleotide Fatty Glycerol Alkaloids Present in air /
sugar Calcium (Ca)
Amino acids Phenolics water
Terpenoids Magnesium (Mg)
acid Sulfur (S)
Saturated fatty Unsaturated Essential oils
acids fatty acids Toxins Boron (B), Chlorine (Cl), Zinc (Zn),
Lectins Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe), Sodium
(Na), Molybdenum (Mo), Nickel
Fig.6.1 Biomolecules in living system (Ni), Silicon (Si), Cobalt (Co)

59
 Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides

(Simple sugars) (Two monosaccharides) (Polymer of monosaccharides)
1. Triose-3carbons 1. Sucrose (cane sugar) a. Homopolysaccharides:
(e.g. Glyceraldehyde) on hydrolysis, it produces polymer of one type of
2. Tetrose-4 carbons Glucose and Fructose monosaccharides
(e.g. Erythrose) 2. Lactose (milk sugar) e.g. Starch - plant storage
3. Pentose-5 carbons on hydrolysis, it produces molecule
(e.g. Ribose in RNA and Glucose and Galactose e.g. Cellulose - cell wall
deoxyribose in DNA) 3. Maltose (malt sugar) component
4. Hexose- 6 carbons on hydrolysis, it produces e.g. Glycogen - animal storage
(e.g. Glucose- blood sugar, two units of Glucose molecule
Fructose-fruit sugar and b. Heteropolysaccharides:
Galactose-product of lactose) polymer of different types of
5. Heptose-7 carbons monosaccharides e.g. Hyaluronic
(e.g. Sedoheptulose) acid, heparin, blood group
substances, chondroitin sulphate
Table 6.2 Classification of Carbohydrates

1. Monosaccharides : These are the simplest a ketone(-C=O) group are classified as ketoses.
sugars having crystalline structure, sweet eg. ribulose, fructose.
taste and soluble in water. They cannot be a. Glucose : It is the most important fuel in
further hydrolysed into smaller molecules. living cells. Its concentration in the human
They are the building blocks or monomers of blood is about 90mg per 100ml of blood. The
complex carbohydrates. They have the general small size and solubility in water of glucose
molecular formula (CH2O)n, where n can be 3, molecules allows them to pass through the
4, 5, 6 and 7. They can be classified as triose, cell membrane into the cell. Energy is released
tetrose, pentose, etc. according to the number when the molecules are metabolised by cellular
of carbon atoms in a molecule as mentioned in respiration.
the table 6.2.
Monosaccharides containing the b. Galactose : It looks very similar to glucose
aldehyde (-CHO) group are classified molecules. They can also exist in α and β
as aldoses e.g. glucose, xylose, and those with forms. Galactose react with glucose to form
the dissacharide lactose. However, glucose and
galactose cannot be easily converted into one
another. Galactose cannot play the same role
in respiration as glucose.
c. Fructose : It is the fruit sugar and chemically
Fig. 6.3 Structure of Glucose it is ketohexose but it has a five-atom ring
rather than a six-atom ring. Fructose reacts with
All monosaccharides are reducing
glucose to form the sucrose, a disaccharide.
sugars due to presence of free aldehyde or
ketone group. These sugars reduce the Benedict's 2. Disaccharides : Monosaccharides are rare
reagent (Cu2+ to Cu+) since they are capable in nature. Most sugars found in nature are
of transferring hydrogens (electrons) to other disaccharides. Disaccharide is formed when
compounds, a process called reduction. two monosaccharide react by condensation

60
reaction releasing a water molecule. This monosaccharides. The properties of a
process requires energy. A glycosidic polysaccharide molecule depend on its length,
bond forms and holds the two monosaccharide branching, folding and coiling.
units together. a. Starch : Starch is a stored food in the plants. It
Sucrose, lactose and maltose are exists in two forms: amylose and amylopectin.
examples of disaccharides. Sucrose is a non- Both are made from α-glucose. Amylose is
reducing sugar since it lacks free aldehyde or an unbranched polymer of α-glucose. The
ketone group. Lactose and maltose are reducing molecules coil into a helical structure. It forms a
sugars. Lactose also exists in beta form, which colloidal suspension in hot water. Amylopectin
is made from β-galactose and β-glucose. is a branched polymer of α-glucose. It is
Disaccharides are soluble in water, completely insoluble in water.
but they are too big to pass through the cell
membrane by diffusion. They are broken down
in the small intestine during digestion. Thus Amylose
formed monosaccharides then pass into the
blood and through cell membranes into the
cells.
Amylopectin
hydrolysis
C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Disaccharide + Water monosaccharide + monosaccharide

Fig. 6.5 Starch

b. Glycogen : It is amylopectin with very short
distances between the branching side-chains.
Glycogen is stored in animal body particularly
in liver and muscles from where it is hydrolysed
as per need to produce glucose.
Fig. 6.4 Maltose c. Cellulose : It is a polymer made from
Monosaccharides are used very quickly β-glucose molecules and the polymer molecules
by cells but if a cell is not in need of all the are 'straight'. Cellulose serves to form the cell
energy released immediately then it may get walls in plant cells. These are much tougher
stored. Monosaccharides are converted into than cell membranes. This toughness is due to
disaccharides in the cell by condensation the arrangement of glucose units in the polymer
reactions, which result in the formation of chain and the hydrogen-bonding between
polysaccharides as macromolecules. These are neighbouring chains.
too big to escape from the cell.
Biological significance of Carbohydrates:
3. Polysaccharides : It supplies energy for metabolism.
Monosaccharides can undergo a series Glucose is the main substrate for ATP
of condensation reactions, adding one unit synthesis. Lactose, a disaccharide is present
after the other to the chain till a very large in milk provides energy to lactating babies.
molecule (polysaccharide) is formed. This Polysaccharide serves as structural component
is called polymerization. Polysaccharides of cell membrane, cell wall and reserved food
are broken down by hydrolysis into as starch and glycogen.

61
 Unsaturated Fatty Acids are with
Can you tell? one or more double bonds between the carbon
atoms of the hydrocarbon chain. Oleic acid
1. Enlist the natural sources, structural found in nearly all fats and linoleic acid found
units and functions of the following in many seed oils are examples of unsaturated
polysaccharides. fatty acids.
a. starch b. cellulose c. glycogen These fatty acids are basic molecules
2. The exoskeleton of insects is made up of which form different kinds of lipids. Lipids
chitin. This is a ....... may be classified as simple, compound and
a. mucoprotein b. lipid derived lipids.
c. lipoprotein d. polysaccharide
3. List names of structural polysaccharides Simple Lipids : These are esters of fatty acids
4. What are carbohydrates? with various alcohols. Fats and waxes are
5. Write a note on oligosaccharide and simple lipids. Fats are esters of fatty acids
glycosidic bond. with glycerol (CH2OH-CHOH-CH2OH).
Triglycerides are three molecules of fatty acids
B. Lipids :
and one molecule of glycerol. Generally,
These are group of substances with
unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature
greasy consistency with long hydrocarbon
and are called oils. Unsaturated fatty acids are
chain containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
hydrogenated to produce fats e.g. Vanaspati
In lipids, hydrogen to oxygen ratio is greater
ghee.
than 2:1 (in carbohydrates it is always 2:1).
Fats are a nutritional source with high
Lipid is a broader term used for fatty acids and
calorific value. Fats act as reserved food
their derivatives. They are soluble in organic
materials. In plants it is stored in seeds to
solvents (non-polar solvents). Let’s understand
nourish embryo during germination. In animals
what fatty acids are.
fat is stored in the adipocytes of the adipose
Fatty acids are organic acids which
tissue. Fats deposited in subcutaneous tissue
are composed of hydrocarbon chain ending
act as an insulator and minimise loss of body
in carboxyl group (-COOH). They can be
heat. Fats deposited around the internal organs
saturated fatty acids with no double bonds
act as cushions to absorb mechanical shocks.
between the carbon atoms of the hydrocarbon
Wax is another example of simple lipid.
chain. Palmitic and stearic acids found in all
They are esters of long chain fatty acids with
animal and plant fats are examples of saturated
long chain alcohols. They are most abundant
fatty acids.
in the blood, the gonads and the sebaceous
glands of the skin. Waxes are not as readily
hydrolysed as fats. They are solid at ordinary
temperature.

Fig. 6.6 Saturated and unsaturated fatty acid Fig. 6.7 Triglyceride

62
 Waxes form water insoluble coating on Adrenocorticoids, sex hormones
hair and skin in animals, waxes form an outer (progesterone, testosterone) and vitamin D
coating on stems, leaves and fruits. are synthesised from cholesterol. Cholesterol
is not found in plants. In plants, sterols exist
chiefly as Phytosterols. Yam Plant (Dioscorea)
produces a steroid compound called diosgenin.
It is used in the manufacture of antifertility
Fig. 6.8 Wax in pills. i.e. birth control pills.
bee hive
Find out
Compound lipids : These are ester of fatty
acids containing other groups like phosphate 1. Why do high cholesterol level in the blood
(Phospholipids), sugar (glycolipids), etc. They cause heart diseases?
contain a molecule of glycerol, two molecules 2. Polyunsaturated fatty acids are believed
of fatty acids and a phosphate group or simple to decrease blood cholesterol level. How?
sugar. Some phospholipids such as lecithin
also have a nitrogenous compound attached
Can you tell?
to the phosphate group. Phospholipids have
both hydrophilic polar groups (phosphate and 1. Differentiate between the saturated and
nitrogenous group) and hydrophobic non-polar unsaturated fats.
groups (hydrocarbon chains of fatty acids). 2. What are lipids? Classify them and give at
Phospholipids contribute in the formation of least one example of each.
cell membrane. Glycolipids contain glycerol,
fatty acids, simple sugars such as galactose C. Proteins :
and nitrogenous base. They are also called The term 'protein' (Gk. proteious
cerebrosides. Large amounts of them have meaning first or of primary importance) was
been found in the brain white matter and myelin suggested by Berzelius (1830). Mulder adopted
sheath. the term protein to refer to the complex organic
nitrogenous substances found in the cell of all
Water
animals and plants.
Characteristics : Proteins are large molecules
Nonpolar tails containing amino acid units ranging from 100
Polar head to 3000. Proteins have high molecular weights.
group In proteins, amino acids are linked together by
Water peptide bonds which join the carboxyl group of
Phospolipid molecules
one amino acid residue to the amino group of
Fig. 6.9 Lipid bilayer in aqueous medium another residue. A protein molecule consists of
one or more polypeptide chains. Proteins can
Sterols : They are derived lipids. They are contain any or all of the 20 naturally occurring
composed of fused hydrocarbon rings (steroid amino acid types.
nucleus) and a long hydrocarbon side chain. The linear sequence of amino acids
One of the most common sterol is cholesterol. in polypeptide chain of a protein forms its
It is widely distributed in all cells of the primary structure. Functional proteins have
animal body, but particularly in nervous tissue. 3-dimensional conformation. Some proteins
Cholesterol exists either free or as cholesterol such as keratin of hair consists of polypeptide
ester. chain arranged like a spiral helix.

63
 Such spirals are in some cases right- Simple proteins : Simple proteins on hydrolysis
handed called a-helix, in others left-handed yield only amino acids. These are soluble in
called β-helix. The spiral configuration is held one or more solvents. Simple proteins may be
together by hydrogen bonds. The sequence soluble in water. Histones of nucleoproteins
of amino acids in the polypeptide chain also are soluble in water. Globular molecules of
determines the location of its bend or fold and histones are not coagulated by heat. Albumins
the position of formation of hydrogen bonds are also soluble in water but they get coagulated
between different portions of the chain or on heating. Albumins are widely distributed
between different chains. Due to formation e.g. egg albumin, serum albumin and legumelin
of hydrogen bonds peptide chains assume a of pulses are albumins.
secondary structure.
Conjugated proteins : Conjugated proteins
In some proteins, two or more peptide
consist of a simple protein united with some
chains are linked together by intermolecular
non-protein substance. The non-protein group
hydrogen bonds. Such structures are called
is called prosthetic group e.g. haemoglobin.
pleated sheet. Pleated sheet structure is found
Globin is the protein and the iron containing
in protein of silk fibres. In large proteins such
pigment haem is the prosthetic group. Similarly,
as myoglobin and enzymes, peptide chains
nucleoproteins have nucleic acids as prosthetic
are much looped, twisted and folded back on
group. On this basis, proteins are classified as
themselves due to formation of disulphide
glycoproteins and mucoproteins. Mucoproteins
bonds. Such loops and bends give the protein
are carbohydrate-protein complexes e.g. mucin
a tertiary structure. Whereas in haemoglobin,
of saliva and heparin of blood. Lipopoteins are
protein subunits are held together to form
lipid-protein complexes e.g. conjugate protein
quaternary structure.
found in brain, plasma membrane, milk etc.
Proteins are extremely reactive and
highly specific in behaviour. Proteins are Derived proteins : These proteins are not found
amphoteric in nature i.e. they act as both acids in nature as such. These proteins are derived
and bases. The behaviour of proteins is strongly from native protein molecules on hydrolysis.
influenced by pH. Like amino acids, proteins Metaproteins, peptones are derived proteins.
are dipolar ions at the isoelectric point i.e. the
sum of the positive charges is equal to the sum of
the negative charges and the net charge is zero. Can you tell?
The ionic groups of a protein are contributed by
the side chains of the polyvalent amino acids. 1. All proteins are made up of the same
A protein consists of more basic amino acids amino acids; then how proteins found
such as lysine and arginine exists as a cation in human beings and animals may be
and behaves as a base at the physiological pH different from those of other ?
of 7.4. Such proteins are called basic proteins. 2. What are conjugated proteins? How do
Histones of nucleoproteins are basic proteins. they differ from simple ones? Give one
A protein rich in acidic amino acids exists as example of each.
an anion and behaves as an acid. Such proteins 3. Which of the following is a simple
are called acidic proteins. Most of the blood protein
proteins are acidic proteins. a. nucleoprotein
b. mucoprotein
Classification of proteins :
c. chromoprotein
On the basis of structure, proteins are
d. globulin
classified into three categories:

64
D. Nucleic Acids : 1. Structure of DNA :
DNA is a very long chain made up of
Know the scientists alternate sugar and phosphate groups. The
Swiss biochemist, Friederich sugar is always deoxyribose and it always
Miescher (1869) discovered and isolated joined to the phosphate in the same way, so that
nucleic acids from the pus cells. By 1938, it the long chain is perfectly regular, repeating
became evident that nucleic acids are of two the same phosphate-sugar sequence over and
types- deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA) and over again. Each sugar of the sugar-phosphate
ribose nucleic acid (RNA). DNA is found in chain has a 'base' attached to it and the base is
chloroplasts and mitochondria. DNA is the not always the same. This unit which consists
hereditary material in most of the organisms. of a sugar, phosphate and a base is called
The nucleic acids are among the largest of nucleotide. The nitrogenous base and a sugar
all molecules found in living beings. They of a nucleotide form- a molecule, nucleoside.
contain three types of molecules a) 5 carbon Thus, nucleoside does not contain phosphate
sugar, b) Phosphoric acid and c) Nitrogen group. Four types of nucleosides are found in
containing bases. Three join together to form DNA molecule. In a nucleoside, nitrogenous
a nucleotide of nucleic acid. base is attached to the first carbon atom (C-1)
of the sugar and when a phosphate group gets
Fuelgen (1924) showed that attached with that of the carbon (C-5) atom
chromosomes contain DNA. He established of the sugar molecule a nucleotide molecule is
that nucleic acids contain two pyrimidine formed.
(cytosine and thymine) and two purine (adenine
and guanine) bases. Wilkins and co-workers Purines
showed that the purine and pyrimidine bases are
placed regularlyo along the DNA molecules at a
distance of 3.4 A , DNA is composed of : Sugar
molecule (It is a pentose sugar of deoxyribose
type) Phosphoric acid (also called phosphates
when in chemical combination) Nitrogen
containing bases (these are nitrogen containing Pyrimidines
organic ring compounds). Principally bases are
of two types: (a) pyrimidine bases (b) purine
bases
Pyrimidine bases are single ring
(monocyclic) nitrogenous bases. Cytosine,
Thymine and Uracil are pyrimidines. Purine
are double ring (dicyclic) nitrogenous bases
Adenine and guanine are purines. Fig. 6.10 Nitrogen bases in Nucleic acid
Erwin Chargaff (1950) estimated the
relative amounts of the four nitrogenous bases A single strand of DNA consists of
viz. adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine in several thousands of nucleotides one above
DNA. They observed that the pyrimidine and the other. The phosphate group of the lower
purine always occur in equal amount in DNA. nucleotide attached with the 5th carbon atom of
They also found that the base ratio i.e. A+T / the deoxyribose sugar forms phospho-di-ester
G+ C may vary in the DNA of different groups bond with that of the, 3rd carbon atom of the
of animals and plants but A+T/ G+C ratio deoxyribose sugar of the nucleotide placed just
remains constant for a particular species. above it.

65
 DNA Model :
According to Watson and Crick, DNA
molecule consists of two strands twisted around
Major groove
each other in the form of a double helix. The two
strands i.e. polynucleotide chains are supposed
to be in opposite direction so end of one chain
having 3’ lies beside the 5' end of the other. One
Minor groove turn of the double helix of the DNA measures
o
about 34A . It consists paired nucleotides and
the distance betweeno
two neighbouring pair
nucleotides is 3.4A . The diameter of the DNA
o
Hydrogen bond molecule has been found be 20A.
There are certain organisms like
Bacteriophage ϕ x 174 and several bacterial
viruses which possess single stranded DNA.
Fig. 6.11 Structure of DNA
Single long chain of polynucleotides of 2. Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) :
DNA consists of one end with sugar molecules Another nucleic acid found in the living
not connected with another nucleotide having organisms is Ribose nucleic acid. In most of
C-3 carbon not connected with phosphate the organisms it is not found to be hereditary
group, similarly the other end having C-5 of the material but in certain organisms like tobacco
sugar is not connected with any more phosphate mosaic virus, it is the hereditary material.
group. These two ends of the polynucleotide Like DNA, ribose nucleic acid also consists
chain are called as 3' and 5' ends respectively. of polynucleotide chain with the difference
The single polynucleotide strand of DNA is not that it consists of single strand. In some cases
straight but helical in shape. The DNA molecule e.g. Reovirus and wound tumour virus, RNA is
consists of such two helical polynucleotide double stranded. The nucleotides of RNA have
chains which are complementary to each other. ribose sugar instead of the deoxyribose sugar
The two complementary polynucleotide chains as in the case of DNA.
of DNA are held together by the weak hydrogen
bonds. Adenine always pairs with thymine,
and guanine with cytosine ( a pyrimidine with
a purine). Adenine-thymine pair consists of
Uracil
two hydrogen bonds and guanine-cytosine pair
consists of three hydrogen bonds (Thus, if the
sequence of bases of a polynucleotide chain is
known, that of the other can be determined). Ribonucleotide

Do you know ?
Watson and Crick did not conduct
any experiment on DNA. Crick was expert in
physics, X-ray crystallography and Watson
Cytosine
in viral and bacterial genetics. They only
analyzed and comprehended the results of
experiments performed by scientists like R.
Franklin, M. Wilkins, etc. Fig. 6.12 Single strand of RNA

66
 In case of RNA, Uracil substitutes It is also single stranded but to number
thymine of DNA. Purine, pyrimidine equality is of complementary base sequences after pairing,
not found in RNA molecule because of its single it is shaped like clover-leaf (Holley,1965).
stranded structure. RNA strand is usually found Each tRNA can pick up particular amino
folded upon itself in certain regions or entirely. acid. Following four parts can be recognized
These foldings helps in stability of the RNA on tRNA 1) DHU arm (Dihydroxyuracil loop
molecule. Most of the RNA polynucleotide / amino acid recognition site 2) Amino acid
chains start either with adenine or guanine. binding site 3) Anticodon loop / codon
Three types of cellular RNAs have been recognition site 4) Ribosome recognition
distinguished: (a) messenger RNA (mRNA) or site. In the anticodon loop of tRNA, three
template RNA, (b) ribosomal RNA (rRNA), (c) unpaired nucleotides are present called as
transfer RNA (tRNA) or soluble RNA. anticodon which pair with codon present on
mRNA carries genetic information for mRNA. The specific amino acids is attached
arranging amino acids in definite sequence. It at the 3' end in acceptor stem of clover leaf of
is a linear polynucleotide. It accounts 3% of tRNA.
cellular RNA. Its molecular weight is several 3' Amino acid
million. mRNA molecule carrying information attachment side
to form a complete polypeptide chain is called
5'
cistron. Size of mRNA is related to the size of
message it contains. Synthesis of mRNA begins
at 5’ end of DNA strand and terminates at 3’ Acceptor
stem
end.
D-loop
Cistron
5' 3' T loop
Initiation codon Termination codon

Fig. 6.13 The mRNA

Variable loop
rRNA form 50-60% part of ribosomes.
It accounts 80-90% of the cellular RNA. It Anticodon
is synthesized in nucleus. Kurland (1960) loop
discovered it. It gets coiled here and there due
Anticodon
to intrachain complementary base pairing.
Sugar-phosphate backbone Fig. 6.15 The tRNA

Can you tell?

D
1. Describe the structure of DNA molecule
Hydrogen
bond
as proposed by Watson and Crick.
2. Difference between DNA and RNA is
because of
a. sugar and base
Bases b. sugar and phosphate
c. phosphate and base
Fig. 6.14 The rRNA d. sugar only
tRNA molecules are much smaller 3. Differentiate between DNA and RNA.
consisting of 70-80 nucleotides. 4. What is nucleotide? How is it formed?
Mention the names of all nucleotides.

67
E. Enzymes : The prosthetic group is firmly bound to
Thousands of different chemical the protein component by chemical bonds and
reactions take place automatically at a given is not removed by hydrolysis. If the prosthetic
time in a tiny living cell. The reactions take group is removed the protein part of the enzyme
place at the body temperature. If these enzymes becomes inactive.
were not present in the cell, either the reactions There are enzymes which require certain
would not occur or if they occur they would organic compounds and inorganic ions for
occur at a very very slow rate. their activity. The organic compounds that are
tightly attached to the protein part are called co-
Know the scientists enzymes whereas the inorganic ions which are
loosely attached to the protein part are called
German chemist Edward Buchner
co-factors. Some of the organic co-enzymes
discovered enzymes by accident. Buchner
are nicotinamide-adenine-dinucleotide (NAD)
discovered that living cells were not
and flavin mononucleotide (FMN). Inorganic
necessary but that yeast extract could bring
ions of metals which act as co-factors include
about fermentation. He then coined the term
magnesium, copper, zinc, iron, manganese etc.
Enzyme (Gk. En = in, zyma = yeast i.e. in
Iron (Fe++) is a co-factor of enzyme catalase,
yeast). This term is now commonly used for
manganese is a co-factor of peptidases. Often
all biocatalysts.
metal co-factors are referred to as enzyme
Each enzyme catalyzes a small number activators.
of reactions, specifically perhaps only one. Properties of Enzymes :
The substance upon which an enzyme acts is Proteinaceous Nature : All enzymes are
termed as the substrate. The enzymes which basically made up of protein.
act within the cell in which they are synthesized
Three-Dimensional conformation : All
are known as endo-enzymes e.g., enzymes
enzymes have specific 3-dimensional
produced in the chloroplast and mitochondria,
conformation. They have one or more active
if they act outside the cell in which they are
sites to which substrate (reactant) combines.
synthesized, they are known as exo-enzymes
The points of active site where the substrate
e.g., enzymes released by many fungi. These
joins with the enzyme is called substrate-
enzymes, synthesised by living cell, retain their
binding site.
catalytic property even when extracted from
cells. Catalytic Property : Enzymes are like
inorganic catalysts and influence the speed of
Do you know ? biochemical reactions but themselves remain
unchanged. After completion of the reaction
Rennet tablets used for coagulating and release of the product they remain active
milk protein casein (cheese) contain renin to catalyse again.
enzyme that is obtained from the stomach of A small quantity of enzymes can
calf. catalyse the transformation of a very large
quantity of the substrate into an end product.
Nature of Enzymes :
For example, sucrase can hydrolyse 100000
On the basis of chemical composition,
times of sucrose as compared with its own
enzymes can be put into two categories.
weight.
(i) Purely proteinaceous enzymes e.g.
proteases that spilt protein (ii) Conjugated Specificity of action : The ability of an enzyme
enzymes are made up of a protein to which a to catalyse one specific reaction and essentially
non-protein prosthetic group is attached. no other is perhaps its most significant property.

68
 Each enzyme acts upon a specific acid. Similarly, the enzyme glutamate pyruvate
substrate or a specific group of substrates. transaminase catalyses the transfer of an amino
group from the substrate glutamate to another
Reversibility of action : Enzymes are very
substrate pyruvate.
sensitive to temperature and pH. Each enzyme
exhibits its highest activity at a specific pH, Classification of Enzymes :
called optimum pH. Any increase or decrease Oxidoreductases : These are enzymes
in pH causes decline in enzyme activity e.g. catalyzing oxidation and reduction reactions
enzyme pepsin (secreted in stomach) shows by the transfer of hydrogen and/or oxygen. e.g.
highest activity at an optimum pH of 2 (acidic). alcohol dehydrogenase
Trypsin (in duodenum) is most active at an
alcohol
optimum pH of 9.5 (alkaline). Both these Alcohol + NAD+ Aldehyde + NADH2
enzymes viz. pepsin and trypsin are protein dehydrogenase
digesting enzymes.
Transferases : These enzymes catalyse
Temperature : Enzymes are destroyed at the transfer of certain groups between two
higher temperature of 60-70°C or below, they molecules. e.g. glucokinase
are not destroyed but become inactive. This
Glucokinase
inactive state is temporary and the enzyme can Glucose + ATP Glu-6-Phosphate + ADP
become active at suitable temperature. Most of
the enzymes work at an optimum temperature Hydrolases: These are enzymes catalyse
between 20°C and 35oC. hydrolytic reactions. This class includes
amylases, proteases, lipases etc. eg. Sucrase
Nomenclature of Enzymes :
There are various ways of naming Sucrase
Sucrose Glucose + Fructose
enzymes. Enzymes are named by adding the
suffix-‘ase’ to the name of the substrate on Lyases : These enzymes are involved in
which they act e.g. protease, sucrase, nuclease elimination reactions resulting in the removal
etc. which break up proteins, sucrose and of a group of atoms from substrate molecule
nucleic acids respectively. to leave a double bond. It includes aldolases,
The enzymes can be named according decarboxylases, and dehydratases, e.g
to the type of function they perform e.g. fumarate hydratase.
dehydrogenase remove hydrogen, carboxylase Histidine
add CO; decarboxylases remove CO2, oxidases Histidine Histamine + CO2
helping in oxidation. decarboxylase

Some enzymes are named according Isomerases : These enzymes catalyze

to the source from which they are obtained structural rearrangements within a molecule.
e.g. papain from papaya, bromelain from the Their nomenclature is based on the type of
member of Bromeliaceae family, pineapple. isomerism. Thus these enzymes are identified as
According to international code racemases, epimerases, isomerases, mutases,
of enzyme nomenclature, the name of each e.g. xylose isomerase.
enzyme ends with an -ase and consists of Isomerase
double name. The first name indicates the Glu-6-Phosphate Fructose-6-Phosphate
nature of substrate upon which the enzyme acts Ligases or Synthetases : These are the
and the second name indicates the reaction enzymes which catalyse the covalent linkage
catalysed e.g. pyruvic decarboxylase catalyses of the molecules utilizing the energy obtained
the removal of CO2 from the substrate pyruvic from hydrolysis of an energy-rich compound

69
like ATP, GTP e.g. glutathione synthetase, Mechanism of enzyme action :
Pyruvate carboxylase. Pyruvate The basic mechanism by which enzymes
carboxylase catalyze chemical reactions begins with the
Pyruvate + CO2 + ATP
binding of the substrate (or substrates) to the
Oxaloacetate + ADP + Pi
active site on the enzyme. The active site is the
specific region of the enzyme which combines
Can you tell? with the substrate.
D
1. Which enzyme is needed to digest food The binding of the substrate to the
reserve in caster seed? enzyme causes changes in the distribution of
a. amylase b. diastase electrons in the chemical bonds of the substrate
c. lipase d. protease and ultimately causes the reactions that lead
2. Co-enzyme is --------- to the formation of products. The products are
a often a metal b. often a vitamin released from the enzyme surface to regenerate
c. always as organic molecule the enzyme for another reaction cycle. There
d. always an inorganic molecule are two models to explain the mechanism
3. List the important properties of enzymes. of forming Enzyme-Substrate complex, as
4. Name the chemical found in the living described below:
cell which has necessary message for the
production of all enzymes required by it.

Try this
To demonstrate the
effect of heat on the activities of inorganic
catalysts and enzymes.
Procedure : Take 2 ml of hydrogen peroxide Fig. 6.16 Mechanism of enzyme action
(H2O2) in two test tubes, Add a pinch of Lock and Key model:
manganese dioxide (MnO2) powder to one
The specific action of an enzyme with a
and a small piece of potato (to provide
single substrate can be explained using a Lock
enzyme catalase) or fresh liver (to provide
and Key analogy first postulated in 1894 by
enzyme peroxidase) to other test tube. Keep
Emil Fischer. In this analogy, the lock is the
the tubes at room temperature in summer and
enzyme and the key is the substrate. Only the
at 38°C in winter. You will find that bubbles
correctly sized key (substrate) fits into the key
of oxygen evolve in both the test tubes. Both
hole (active site) of the lock (enzyme).
MnO2 and cellular enzymes (catalase or
peroxidase) cause breakdown of H2O2 and
evolution of oxygen. Now take two fresh test
tubes and repeat the experiment. This time, use
boiled and cooled manganese dioxide and the
liver/potato piece. You will find that oxygen
evolves in the hydrogen peroxide solution
containing boiled and cooled manganese
dioxide. But oxygen does not evolve in the
other tube containing boiled and cooled liver/
potato piece. This activity confirms that heat
does not affect catalytic action of inorganic
catalyst but inactivates the enzyme. Fig. 6.17 Lock and key model

70
Induced Fit model (Flexible Model): Km or the Michaelis-Menten constant
Koshland (1959) proposed the induced is defined as the substrate concentration
fit theory, which states that approach of a (expressed in moles/lit) to produce half of
substrate induces a conformational change in maximum velocity in an enzyme catalysed
the enzyme. It is the more accepted model to reaction. It indicates that half of the enzyme
understand mode of action of enzyme. Unlike molecules (i.e. 50%) are bound with the
the lock-and-key model, the induced fit model substrate molecules when the substrate
shows that enzymes are rather flexible structures concentration equals the Km value.
in which the active site continually reshapes by Km value is a constant and a
its interactions with the substrate until the time characteristic feature of a given enzyme. It is
the substrate is completely bound to it (it is also a representative for measuring the strength of
the point at which the final form and shape of ES complex. A low Km value indicates a strong
the enzyme is determined). affinity between enzyme and substrate, whereas
a high Km value reflects a weak affinity between
them. For majority of enzymes, the Km values
are in the range of 10-5 to 10-2 moles.
2. Enzyme Concentration :
The rate of an enzymatic reaction
is directly proportional to the concentration
of the substrate. The rate of reaction is also
Fig. 6.18 Complex Flexible model directly proportional to the square root of the
concentration of enzymes. It means that the rate
Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity : of reaction also increases with the increasing
Following factors affect enzyme concentration of enzyme. And the rate of
activity : reaction can also decreased by decreasing the
1. Concentration of Substrate : concentration of enzyme.
Increase in the substrate concentration
gradually increases the velocity of enzyme
activity within the limited range of substrate
levels. A rectangular hyperbola is obtained
when velocity is plotted against the substrate
concentration. Three distinct phases (A, B and
C) of the reaction are observed in the graph.
Where V = Measured velocity, Vmax = Maximum
velocity, S = Substrate concentration, Km =
Michaelis-Menten constant.
Graph 6.20 Effect of enzyme
concentration
3. Temperature :
The enzymatic reaction occurs best at
or around 37oC which is the average normal
body temperature in homeotherms. The rate
chemical reaction is increased by a rise in
temperature but this is true only over a limited
range of temperature. Enzymes rapidly
Graph 6.19 Effect of substrate denature at temperature above 40oC.
concentration on enzyme activity

71
 The activity of enzymes is reduced at Concept of Metabolism: Metabolism is the
low temperature. The temperature at which sum of the chemical reactions that take place
the enzymes show maximum activity is within each cell of a living organism and
called Optimum temperature. provide energy for vital processes and for
synthesizing new organic material.
It involves continuous process of
breakdown and synthesis of biomolecules
through chemical reactions. Each of the
metabolic reaction results in a transformation
of biomolecules. Most of these metabolic
reactions do not occur in isolation but are
always linked with some other reactions.
In living systems, cells are ‘work
centres’ where metabolism involves two
Graph 6.21 Effect of temperature on following types of pathways.
enzyme activity a. Catabolic pathways lead to formation of
simpler structure from a complex biomolecules
4. Effect of pH :
e.g. when we eat wheat, bread or chapati, our
Similar to temperature, there is also
gastrointestinal tract digests (hydrolyses) the
pH at which an enzyme will catalyze the
starch to glucose units with help of enzymes
reaction at the maximum rate. Every enzyme
and releases energy in form of ATP (Adenosine
has different optimum pH value. The enzyme
triphosphate).
cannot perform its function beyond the range
of its pH value. b. Anabolic pathway is called biosynthetic
pathway that involves formation of a more
complex biomolecules from a simpler structure,
e.g., synthesis of glycogen from glucose and
protein from amino acids. These pathways
consume energy.
Metabolic pool : It is the reservoir of
biomolecules in the cell on which enzymes can
act to produce useful products as per the need
of the cell. The concept of metabolic pool is
pH
significant in cell biology because it allows one
type of molecule to change into another type
Graph 6.22 Effect of pH on enzyme e.g. carbohydrates can be converted to fats and
activity vice-versa.
Catabolic chemical reaction of
5. Other Substances :
glycolysis and Krebs cycle only provide ATP
The enzymes action is also increased but also makes available metabolic pool of
or decreased in the presence of some other biomolecules that can be utilized for synthesis
substances such as co-enzymes, activators and of many important cellular components. The
inhibitors. Most of the enzymes are combination metabolites can be added or withdrawn from
of a co-enzyme and an apo-enzyme. Activators this pool according to the need of the cell. The
are the inorganic substances which increase balance between catabolism and anabolism
the enzyme activity. Inhibitor is the substance maintain homeostasis in the cell as well as in
which reduces the enzyme activity. the whole body.

72
 CO2 and H2O

Fig. 6.22 Catabolic and anabolic reactions

Secondary metabolites (SMs) : Secondary Economic importance -

metabolisms are small organic molecules Secondary metabolites :
produced by organisms that are not essential for 1. Secondary metabolites from natural
their growth, development and reproductions. sources have made a significant
Several types of bacteria, fungi and plants contribution for millennia. In modern
produce secondary metabolism. medicine, drugs developed from secondary
Secondary metabolites can be classified on metabolites have been used to treat
the basis of chemical structure (e.g. SMs infectious diseases, cancer, hypertension
containing rings, sugar), composition (with or and inflammation.
without nitrogen), their solubility in various 2. Morphine was the first alkaloid isolated
solvents, or the pathway by which they are from plant Papaver somnif erum. It is used
synthesized (e.g.phenylpropanoid produces as pain reliever and cough suppressant.
tannins). A simple way of classifying secondary 3. SMs like alkaloids nicotine and cocaine
metabolites includes three main groups such as, and the terpenes cannabinol are widely
1. Terpenes : Made from mevalonic acid used for recreation and stimulation.
that is composed mainly of carbon and 4. Flavours of secondary metabolites
hydrogen improve our food preference.
2. Phenolics : Made from simple sugars 5. Characteristic flavours and aroma of
containing benzene rings, hydrogen and cabbage and its relatives are caused
oxygen. by nitrogen and sulphur-containing
chemicals, glucosinolates, protect these
3. Nitrogen-containg compounds :
plants from many pests.
Extremely diverse class may also contain
6. Tannins are added to wines and chocolate
sulphur.
for improving astringency.
7. Since most of secondary metabolites are
having antibiotic properties, they are also
used as food preservatives.

73
 Exercise
1. Choose correct option 2. Solve the following questions
A. Sugar, amino acids and nucleotides unite A. Observe the following figure and name
to their respective subunits to form-------- the type of bond shown by arrow in the
a. bioelements b. micromolecules structure.
c. macromolecules d. all of these P P
A T S
S P
B. Glycosidic bond is found in ---------------.
a. Disaccharide b. Nucleosides P
G C S
S
c. Polysaccharide d. all of theses P
P
C. Amino acids in a polypeptide are joined S T A S
by ---------------bond. P
a. Disulphide b. glycosidic P
C G S
S
c. hydrogen bond d. none of these P P

D. Lipids associated with cell membrane 3. Answer the following questions

are ------------. A. What are building blocks of life?
a. Spingomyelin b. Isoprenoids B. Explain the peptide bond.
c. Phospolipids d. Cholesterol C. How many types of polysaccharides you
E. Linoleic, Linolenic and -------------------- know?
acids are referred as essential fatty acids D. Enlist the significance of carbohydrates.
since they cannot be synthesized by the E. What is reducing sugar?
body and hence must be included in daily F. What is the basic difference between
diet. saturated and unsaturated fatty acid?
a. Arachidonic b. Oleic G. Enlist the examples of simple protein and
c. Steric d. Palmitic add their significance.
H. Explain the secondary structure of protein
F. Haemoglobin is a type of -------------- with examples.
protein, which plays indispensible part in I. Explain the induced fit model for mode of
respiration. enzyme action.
a. simple b. derived J. What is RNA? Enlist types of RNA.
c. conjugated d. complex K. Describe the concept of metabolic pool.
G. When inorganic ions or metallo-organic L. How do secondary metabolites useful for
molecules bind to apoenzyme, they mankind?
together form------ 4. Solve the following questions
a. isoenzyme b. holoenzyme A. Complete the following chart.
c. denatured enzyme d. none of these
Protein Physiological role
H. In enzyme kinetics, Km= Vmax/2. If Km Collagen ............................
value is lower, it indicates ---------------- ........................... Responsible for muscle
a. Enzyme has less affinity for substrate contraction
b. Enzyme has higher affinity towards Immunoglobulin ...............................
substrate IgG
c. There will be no product formation ..................... Significant in respiration
d. All active sites of enzyme are saturated. Fibrinogen ................................

74
 B. Answer the questions with reference to I. What are nucleic acids? Enlist the point
the following figure. of differences among DNA and RNA.
J. What are the types of RNA? Mention the
Polypeptide role of each class of RNA.
Oxidation
K. What is metabolism? How metabolic
Reduction pool is formed in the cell.
Polypeptide
6. If double stranded DNA has 14% C
i. Name the type of bond formed (cytosine) what percent A (adenine), T
between two polypeptides. (thymine) and G (gaunine) would you
ii. Which amino acid is involved in the expect?
formation of such bond? 7. Name
iii. Amongst I, II, III and IV structural i. The term that describes all the chemical
level of protein, which level of reactions taking place in an organism.
structure includes such bond?
ii. The form in which carbohydrate is
C. Match the following items given in transported in a plant.
column I and II. iii. The reagent used for testing for reducing
Column I Column II sugar.
i. RNA a. Induced fit model
Practical / Project :
ii. Yam plant b.Flax seeds
iii. Koshland c. Hydrolase 1. Perform an experiment to study starch
iv. Omega-3-fatty acid d. Uracil granules isolated from potato.
v. Sucrase e. Anti-fertility pills 2. Study the action of enzyme urease on
urea.
5. Long answer questions
A. What are biomolecules? Explain the
building blocks of life.
B. Explain the classes of carbohydrates
with examples.
C. Describe the types of lipids and mention
their biological significance.
D. Explain the chemical nature, structure
and role of phospholipids in biological
membrane.
E. Describe classes of proteins with their
importance.
F. What are enzymes? How are they
classified? Mention example of each
class.
G. Explain the properties of enzyme?
Describe the models for enzyme actions.
H. Describe the factors affecting enzyme
action.

75
 7. Cell Division

Daughter cells
Can you recall? G1 (8 hours or more)
Cytokinesis
1. How do your wounds heal? Interphase
2. What is the difference between growth of Mitosis
non-living material and living organism? (1-3 hours)
• Cell growth

Te
An

lo
Life of all multicellular organisms • Normal cell

p
ap

ha
ha function
Meta s

se
starts from single cell i.e. zygote. Growth of phas e • Organelle
every living organism depends on cell division. Propha e duplication
se
As stated in the cell theory, every cell arises
from the pre-existing cell. • Protein on
cati
7.1 Cell cycle : synthesis pli
re
Sequential events occurring in the life A
• DN
of a cell is called cell cycle. There are two
phases of cell cycle as interphase and M-phase.
During interphase, cell undergoes growth or G2 (2-5 hours)
S (6-8 hours)
rest as per the need. During M-phase, the cell
undergoes division. Interphase alternates with Fig. 7.1 Cell cycle
the period of division.
Interphase : Interphase is the stage between Discuss with Teacher
two successive cell divisions. It is the longest Some cells do not have gap phase
phase of cell cycle during which the cell is highly in their cell cycle whereas some cells spend
active and prepares itself for cell division. The maximum part of their life in gap phase.
interphase is divisible into three sub-phases as Search for such cells. Some cells are said to
G1 -phase, S-phase and G2 -phase. be in their G0 phase. What is this G0 phase?
G1-phase : This is also known as first gap period
or first growth period. It starts immediately M-phase or period of division : 'M' stands
after cell division. Cell performs RNA synthesis for mitosis or meiosis. M-phase involves
(mRNA, rRNA and t-RNA), protein synthesis karyokinesis and cytokinesis. Karyokinesis is
and synthesis of membranes during this phase. the division of nucleus into two daughter nuclei
S-phase : It is synthesis phase in which DNA whereas cytokinesis is division of cytoplasm
is synthesized or replicated, so that amount of resulting in two daughter cells.
DNA per cell doubles. Histone proteins are also 7.2 Types of cell division :
synthesized during this phase. Three kinds of cell division are found
G2 phase : G2 is the second growth phase, in animal cells. They are amitosis or direct
during which nucleus increases in volume. division, mitosis or indirect division and
Metabolic activities essential for cell division meiosis or reductional division. Mitosis can be
occur during this phase. Various proteins performed by haploid as well as diploid cells
necessary for cell division are synthesized but meiosis can be performed by diploid cells
during this phase. Besides, RNA synthesis only. In honey bee, drones develop from haploid
also occur during this phase. In animal cells, unfertilized eggs whereas in Marchantia,
a daughter pair of centrioles appear near the haploid spores form gametophyte by mitosis.
pre-existing pair.

76
A. Amitosis : It is the simplest mode of cell Due to condensation, each chromosome
division. During amitosis, nucleus elongates becomes visible under light microscope
and a constriction appears somewhere along its which can be seen with its sister-chromatids
length. This constriction deepens and divides connected by centromere. The nucleolus starts
the nucleus into two daughter nuclei. This to disappear. Nuclear membrane disintegrates
is followed by the division of the cytoplasm and disappeares gradually. Centrosome which
which results in the formation of two daughter had undergone duplication during interphase
cells. This division occurs in unicellular begins to move towards opposite poles of the
organisms, abnormal cells, old cells and in cell. Mitotic apparatus is almost completely
foetal membrane cells. formed.
2. Metaphase : In this phase, chromosomes
Internet my friend are completely condensed so that they appear
What is Karyogram or Karyotype? very short. Sister-chromatids and centromere
become very prominent. All the chromosomes
B. Mitosis : This is a type of cell division
lie at equatorial plane of the cell. This is
in which a cell divides to form two similar
called metaphase plate. Mitotic spindle is
daughter cells which are identical to the parent
fully formed. Centromere of each chromosome
cell. It is completed in two steps as karyokinesis
divides into two, each being associated with a
and cytokinesis.
chromatid.
Karyokinesis is nuclear division which Metaphase plate
Spindle fibres
is sub-divided into prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telephase. Although for the
sake of convenience above mentioned steps
are used, it must be remembered that mitosis
is a continuous process that starts with the
disappearance of nuclear membrane in
prophase and ends with separation of two fully
formed cells after cytokinesis. Fig. 7.3 Metaphase
1. Prophase : This phase involves condensation 3. Anaphase : The chromatids of each
of chromatin material, migration of chromosome separate and form two
centrosomes, appearance of mitotic apparatus chromosomes called daughter chromosomes.
and disappearance of nuclear membrane. The formed chromosomes are pulled away
Early prophase in opposite direction by spindle apparatus.
Duplicated Chromosomes being pulled away appear like a
centriole bunch of banana during midway of anaphase.
Nucleolus
Each set of chromosomes reach at opposite
poles of the cells marks the end of anaphase.
Nuclear Chromosome
membrane
Late prophase
Chromatids
Nuclear moving to
membrane opposite
disappears poles
Condensed
chromosomes

Fig. 7.2 Prophase Fig. 7.4 Anaphase

77
4. Telophase : The telophase is the final Cytokinesis : The division of the cytoplasm
stage of karyokinesis. The chromosomes with into two daughter cells is called cytokinesis.
their centromeres at the poles begin to uncoil, The division starts with a constriction. This
lengthen and loose their individuality. The constriction gradually deepens and ultimately
nucleolus begins to reappear. The nuclear joins in the centre dividing into two daughter
membrane begins to appear around the cells. This process of division of cytoplasm is
chromosomes. Spindle fibres break down perpendicular to the spindle. This mechanism
and get absorbed in the cytoplasm. Thus two of cytokinesis is characteristic of animal cells.
daughter nuclei are formed in a cell. However, plant cells are covered by a
relatively non-flexible cell wall. Due to this,
Newly formed daughter nuclei furrow can not be formed. Instead, cell wall/
partition starts to appear at the centre of the
cell and grows outward to meet the existing
lateral walls. The formation of the new cell
wall begins with the formation of a simple
precursor, called the 'cell-plate' that represents
the middle lamella between the walls of two
adjacent cells.
Daughter cells At the time of cytoplasmic division,
organelles like mitochondria and plastids get
Fig. 7.5 Telophase distributed between the two daughter cells.
Significance of mitosis : As mitosis is
Do you know ? equational division, the chromosome number
is maintained constant. It ensures equal
Pulling away of daughter
distribution of the nuclear and the cytoplasmic
chromosomes is achieved by elongation and
content between the daughter cells, both
shortening of two types of spindle fibres.
quantitatively and qualitatively. The hereditary
Spindle fibre present between centriole and
material (DNA) is also equally distributed.
centromere, called as kinetochore fibres
It helps in the growth and development of
contract and the spindle fibres present
organisms.
between two opposite centrioles, called as
polar fibres elongate.

Cytokinesis Cytokinesis
in animal in plant cell
cell

Cleavage furrow
Vesicles forming Wall of
cell plate parent cell Cell plate
New cell
wall

Contractile ring Daughter cells Daughter cells

of microfilaments
Fig. 7.6 Cytokinesis

78
 Old and worn-out cells are replaced 1. First meiotic division or Heterotypic
through mitosis. It helps in the asexual division – (Meiosis I)
reproduction of organisms and vegetative 2. Second meiotic division or Homotypic
propagation in plants. The process of mitosis division (Meiosis II)
also maintains the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio. A. First meiotic division or Heterotypic
Although mitosis is a very reliable process division (Meiosis I)
for preserving the genetic make-up of cells or During 1st meiotic division, diploid cell
organisms, it cannot introduce variation or new is divided into two haploid cells. The daughter
combination of existing genes. cells resulting from this division are different
from the parent cell in chromosome number.
D Can you tell? Hence this division is also called heterotypic
1. What is cell cycle? division.
2. Which processes occur during interphase? It consists of the phases like prophase-I,
3. Which are the steps of mitosis? metaphase-I, anaphase-I, telophase-I and
cytokinesis-I
Internet my friend Prophase-I : This phase has longer duration.
Significant features which are peculiar to
How the life span of a cell is decided? meiosis occurs in this phase. This phase
can be sub-divided into five sub-stages as
Death of cell : You may think of it as a bad Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene
for cells in your body to die. In many cases, and Diakinesis.
that's true: it's not good for cells to die because
Leptotene : The volume of nucleus increases.
of an injury (for example, due to scrape or a
The chromosomes become distinct, long
harmful chemical), which is called necrosis.
thread-like and coiled. They take up a specific
However, some cells of our body die; not
orientation- the 'bouquet stage' inside the
randomly but in a carefully controlled way. For
nucleus. This is characterised with the ends
example, during the embryonic development,
of chromosomes converged towards that side
the cells between the embryonic fingers died
of the nucleus where the centrosome lies.
in a process called apoptosis to give a definite
The centriole divides into two and migrate to
shape to the fingers. This is a common form
opposite poles.
of programmed cell death where cells undergo
Zygotene : Intimate pairing of non-sister
"cellular suicide" when they receive certain
chromatids of homologous chromosomes
signals. Apoptosis involves the cell death, but it
takes place by formation of synaptonemal
benefits the organism as a whole (for instance,
complex. This pairing is called synapsis. Each
by letting fingers develop or by eliminating
pair consists of a maternal chromosome and a
potential cancer cells).
paternal chromosome. Chromosomal pairs are
C. Meiosis : The term meiosis was coined called bivalents or tetrads.
by J. B. Farmer in 1905. It takes place only Pachytene : Each individual chromosome
in reproductive cells during the formation begins to split longitudinally into two similar
of gametes. By this division, the number of chromatids. At this stage, tetrads become
chromosomes is reduced to half, hence it is also more clear in appearance because of presence
called reductional division. The cells in which of four visible chromatids. The homologous
meiosis take place are termed as meiocytes. chromosomes of each pair begin to separate
Meiosis produces four haploid daughter cells from each other. However, they do not
from a diploid parent cell. Meiosis is of two completely separate but remain attached
subtypes : together at one or more points.

79
 These points appear like a cross (X) Diakinesis : In this phase, the chiasmata beings
known as chiasmata. Chromatids break at these to move along the length of chromosomes
points and broken segments are exchanged from the centromere towards the ends of
between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes. The displacement of chiasmata
chromosomes. This is called as crossing-over is termed as terminalization. The terminal
or recombination. chiasmata exist till the metaphase.
Diplotene : Though chiasmata are formed The nucleolus disappears and the
in pachytene, they become clearly visible in nuclear membrane also begins to disappear.
diplotene due to the beginning of repulsion Spindle fibres starts to appear in the cytoplasm.
between synapsed homologous chromosomes.
This is called desynapsis. It involves
disappearence of synaptonemal complex.
Leptotene Zygotene Pachytene Diplotene Diakinesis
Do yourself

Write down the explanation

of prophase I in your words.

Fig. 7.7 Prophase I

Metaphase-I : The spindle fibres become well This is reductional division. The
developed. The tetrads move towards the equator sister chromatids of each chromosome are
and they orient themselves on the equator in connected by a common centromere. Both
such a way that centromeres of homologous sister chromatids of each chromosome are now
tetrads lie towards the poles and arms towards different in terms of genetic content as one of
the equator. Due to increasing repulsive forces them has undergone the recombination.
between homologous chromosomes, they are
ready to separate from each other.
Astral rays
Pole Spindle
apparatus

Recombined Chromosomes
Interpolar
chromosomes with sister
Tetrad fibres
chromatids

Chromosomal
fibres
Fig. 7.8 Metaphase-I
Fig. 7.9 Anaphase-I
Anaphase-I : In this phase, homologous
chromosomes are pulled away from each Telophase-I : The haploid number of
other and carried towards opposite poles by chromosomes after reaching their respective
spindle apparatus. This is disjunction. The two poles, become uncoiled and elongated. The
sister chromatids of each chromosome do not nuclear membrane and the nucleolus reappear
separate in meiosis-I. and thus two daughter nuclei are formed.

80
Cytokinesis-I : After the karyokinesis, It consists of the following phases
cytokinesis occurs and two haploid cells are : prophase-II, metaphase-II, anaphase-II,
formed. telophase-II and cytokinesis-II.
In many cases, these daughter cells
Prophase-II : The chromosomes are distinct
pass through a short resting phase or interphase
with two chromatids. Each centriole divides
/ interkinesis. In some cases, the changes of the
into two resulting in the formation of two
telophase may not occur. The anaphase directly
centrioles which migrate to opposite poles and
leads to the prophase of meiosis II.
form asters. Spindle fibres are formed between
Nuclear membrane the centrioles. The nuclear membrane and
reappear
nucleolus disappear.
Metaphase-II : Chromosomes gets arranged
at the equator. The two chromatids of each
chromosome are separated by the division of the
centromere. Some spindle fibres are attached to
Daughter cells the centromeres and some are arranged end to
Fig. 7.10 Cytokinesis-I end between two opposite centrioles.
Anaphase-II : The separated chromatids
B. Second meiotic division or Homotypic become daughter chromosomes and move to
Division (Meiosis II) opposite poles due to the contraction of the
During this division, two haploid cells spindle fibres attached to centromeres.
formed during first meiotic division divide
Telophase-II : During this stage the daughter
further into four haploid cells. This division is
chromosomes uncoil. The nuclear membrane
similar to mitosis. The daughter cells formed
surrounds each group of chromosomes and the
in second meiotic division are similar to their
nucleolus reappears.
parent cells with respect to the chromosome
number formed in meiosis-I. Hence this division
is called homotypic division.
Curiosity box:
1. What is exact structure of synaptonemal complex?
2. What is structure of chiasmata?
3. Which type of proteins are involved in formation of spindle fibres?
4. Why and how some spindle fibres elongate and some contract?
5. What is the role of centrioles in formation of spindle apparatus?
6. What would have happened in absence of meiosis?

Telophase I
(and cytokinesis)
Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II
Fig. 7.11 Meiosis II

81
Cytokinesis-II : Cytokinesis occurs after
nuclear division. Two haploid cells are formed Internet my friend
from each haploid cell. Thus, in all, four haploid
daughter cells are formed. These cells undergo Different types of proteins like
further changes to develop into gametes. cyclins, maturation promoting factor (MPF),
cyclosomes, enzymes like cyclin dependent
Significance of Meiosis : Meiotic division kinases (CDK) play important role in control of
produces gametes. If it is absent, the number cell cycle. Collect more information about these
of chromosome would double or quadruple proteins and enzymes from internet, prepare a
resulting in the formation of monstrosities power-point presentation and present it in the
(abnormal forms). The constant number class.
of chromosomes in a given species across
generations is maintained by meiosis. Because
of crossing over, exchange of genetic material
takes place leading to genetic variations, which
are the raw materials for evolution.

Can you tell?

D
1. What is difference between mitosis and meiosis?
2. What is difference between meiosis-I and meiosis-II?
3. Elaborate the process of recombination.

Do Yourself
Prepare a concept map on cell division in following box.

82
 Exercise
1. Choose correct option
A. The connecting link between Meiosis-I I. Histone proteins are synthesized during
and Meiosis-II is ............... ......
a. interphase-I b. interphase-II a. G1 phase b. S-phase
c. interkinesis d. anaphase-I c. G2 phase d. Interphase
B. Synapsis is pairing of ............. 2. Answer the following questions
a. any two chromosomes A. While observing a slide, student observed
b. non-homologous chromosomes many cells with nuclei. But some of the
c. sister chromatids nuclei were bigger as compared to others
d. homologous chromosomes but their nuclear membrane was not so
clear. Teacher inferred it as one of the
C. Spindle apparatus is formed during which phase in the cell division. Which phase
stage of mitosis? may be inferred by teacher?
a. Prophase. b. Metaphase.
B. Students prepared a slide of onion root
c. Anaphase. d. Telophase.
tip. There were many cells seen under
D. Chromosome number of a cell is almost microscope. There was a cell with two
doubled up during ............... groups of chromosomes at opposite ends
a. G1-phase b. S-phase of the cell. This cell is in which phase of
c. G2-phase d. G0-phase mitosis?
E. How many meiotic divisions are C. Students were shown some slides
necessary for formation of 80 sperms? of cancerous cells. Teacher made a
a. 80 b. 40 c. 20 d. 10 comment as if there would have been
a control at one of its cell cycle phase,
F. How many chromatides are present in
there wouldn’t have been a condition
anaphase-I of meiosis-I of a diploid cell
like this. Which phase the teacher was
having 20 chromosomes?
referring to?
a. 4 b. 6 c. 20 d. 40
G. In which of the following phase of mitosis D. Some Mendelian crossing experimental
chromosomes are arranged at equatorial results were shown to the students.
plane? Teacher informed that there are two
a. Prophase b. Metaphase genes located on the same chromosome.
c. Anaphase d. Telophase He enquired if they will be ever separated
H. Find incorrect statement - from each other?
a. Condensation of chromatin material E. Students were observing a film on
occurs in prophase. Paramoecium. It underwent a process
b. Daughter chromatids are formed in of reproduction. Teacher said it is due
anaphase. to cell division. But students objected
c. Daughter nuclei are formed at and said that there was no disappearnce
metaphase. of nuclear membrane and no spindle
d. Nuclear membrane reappears in formation, how can it be cell division?
telophase. Can you clarify?

83
 F. Is the meiosis responsible for evolution? 6. If an onion has 16 chromosomes in its leaf
Justify your answer. cell, how many chromosomes will be there
G. Why mitosis and meiosis-II are called in its root cell and pollen grain.
as homotypic division? 7. Identify the following phases of mitosis
H. Write the significance of mitosis. and label the 'A' and 'B' given in diagrams
I. Enlist the different stages of prophase-I.
3. Draw labelled digrams and write
explanation
Spindle fibres
A. With the help of suitable diagram,
describe the cell cycle. A
B. Distinguish between mitosis and
meiosis.
C. Draw the diagram of metaphase.
4. Match the following column-A with
column-B
Column-A Column-B
(phases) (Their events)
a. Leptotene 1. Crossing over
b. Zygotene 2. Desynapsis B
c. Pachytene 3. Synapsis
d. Diplotene 4. Bouquet stage

5. Is a given figure correct? why?

Practical / Project :
Fix the onion root tips at different
durations of the day starting from 6am up to
9am at the intervals of half an hour. Prepare
the slide of each fixed root tip and analyse the
relation between time and phase of mitosis.

84
 8. Plant Tissues and Anatomy

Can you recall? 1. Origin :

1. Which component bring about important Primordial meristem or promeristem
processes in the living organisms? is also called as embryonic meristem. Usually
2. What is tissue? occupying very minute area at the tip of root
3. Explain simple and complex tissue. and shoot. Primary meristem originates from
4. Complete the flow chart. the primordial meristem and occurs in the
Organisms organs Cells plant body from the beginning, at the root and
shoot apices. Cells are dividing and different
8.1 Tissue : permanent tissues are produced from primary
Anatomy is the study of internal meristems. Secondary meristematic tissues
structure of organism. Organs are made up develop from living permanent tissues during
of group of cells. A group of cells having later stages of plant growth; hence are called
essentially a common function and origin is as secondary meristems. This tissue occurs in
called as tissue. Plant tissues are grouped as the mature regions of root and shoot of many
meristematic tissue and permanent tissue on plants. Secondary meristem is always lateral
the basis of its ability to divide. (to the central axis) in position e.g. fascicular
8.2 Meristematic Tissue : cambium, inter fascicular cambium, cork
It is a group of young cells. These are cambium.
living cells with ability to divide in the regions 2. Position : Apical meristem is produced
where they are persent. These are polyhedral from promeristem and forms growing point of
or isodiametric in shape without intercellular apices of root, shoot and their lateral branches.
spaces. Cell wall is thin, elastic, mainly It brings about increase in length of plant body
composed of cellulose. Protoplasm is dense and called as apical initials. Shoot apical
with distinct nucleus at the center and vacuoles meristem is terminal in position whereas in root
if present, are very small. Cells show high rate it is subterminal i.e. located below the root cap.
of metabolism. These cells are immature. Intercalary meristematic tissue is present in
the top or base area of node. Their activity is
mainly seen in monocots. These are short lived.

Cell wall Apical meristem

Nucleus

Cytoplasm
Intercalary
meristem

Fig. 8.1 Meristematic cells

A. Classification of Meristem : Following Lateral

criterias are used for classification of meristems meristem
viz. origin, function and position as follows-
Fig. 8.2 Location of meristematic tissue

85
 Lateral meristem is present along Parenchyma has distinct intercellular
the sides of central axis of organs. It takes spaces. Sometimes, cells may show compact
part in increasing girth of stem or root. arrangement. The cytoplasm of adjacent cells
eg. intrafascicular cambium. It is found in is interconnected through plasmodesmata
vascular bundles of gymnosperms and dicot and thus forms a continuous tissue. These
angiosperms. cells are distributed in all the parts of plant
3. Function : Young growing region of the plant body viz. epidermis, cortex, pericycle, pith,
has Protoderm that forms protective covering mesophyll cells, endosperm, xylem and
like epidermis arround the various organs. phloem. These cells store food, water, help in
Meristem called Procambium is involved gaseous exchange, increase buoyancy, perform
in developing primary vascular tissue while photosynthesis and different functions in plant
the other structures like cortex, endodermis, body. Dedifferentiation in parenchyma cells
pericycle medullary rays, pith are formed from develops vascular cambium and cork cambium
the region of Ground meristem. These are at the time of secondary growth.
three groups of meristem based on function.
Cytoplasm

Vacoule
Nucleus
Can you tell?
Intercellular
1. Enlist the characteristics of meristematic air spaces
tissue.
2. Classify meristematic tissue on the basis
of origin.
Thin primary cell wall
8.3 Permanent tissue :
This is group of cells which have lost
Fig. 8.3 Simple permanent tissue
the capacity of division and aquired permanent
size, shape and functions. It is due to different
morphological, physiological and functional 2. Collenchyma : It is a simple permanent
changes that occur during maturation of the tissue made up of living cells. The cell wall
cell. Depending upon types of cells, there are is cellulosic but shows uneven deposition of
two types as simple and complex permanent cellulose and pectin especially at corners. The
tissues. walls may show presence of pits. Cells are
A. Simple permanent tissues : similar like parenchyma containing cytoplasm,
These are made up of only one type of nucleus and vacuoles but small in size and
cells carrying similar functions. This tissue is without intercellular gaps. Thus appears to
either living or dead. Following are the types of be compactly packed. The cells are either
simple permanent tissues namely, Parenchyma, circular, oval or angular in transverse section.
Collenchyma and Sclerenchyma. Collenchyma is living mechanical tissue and
serves different functions in plants. It gives
1. Parenchyma : Cells in this tissue are thin mechanical strength to young stem and parts
walled, isodiametric, round, oval to polygonal like petiole of leaf. It allows bending and pulling
or elongated in shape. Cell wall is composed action in plant parts and also prevents tearing
of cellulose. Cells are living with prominent of leaf. Growth of organs and elongation are
nucleus and cytoplasm with large vacuole. other functions. Collenchyma is usually absent
This is less specialized permanent tissue. in monocots and roots of dicot plant.

86
 B. Complex permanent tissues : This tissue
Vacoule
is heterogenous comprising of more than one
Nucleus type of cells and all function as a single unit.
This tissue is involved in conducting the sap
and food from source to sink area. Xylem
and phloem are the complex tissues present in
plants.
Cell wall
1. Xylem : It is a dead complex tissue.
Components of xylem are tracheids, vessels,
xylem parenchyma and xylem fibres.
Fig. 8.4 Collenchyma
Perforation Fibre
3. Sclerenchyma : It is simple permanent tissue plates
made up of compactly arranged thick walled
dead cells. The cells are living at the time of
production but at maturity they become dead.
As cells are devoid of cytoplasm their thickened Vessel
walls are due to uniform deposition of lignin. member
Cells remain interconnected through several
pits. It is of two types viz. fibres and sclerids.
Fibres are thread-like, elongated and narrow Tracheids
structures with tapering and interlocking end
walls. These are mostly in bundles, pits are a. Xylem tissue
narrow, unbranched and oblique. They provide
mechanical strength. Sclerids are usually Crushed
broad, with blunt end walls. These occur phloem
singly or in loose groups and their pits are deep Common cell
branched and straight. These are developed Xylem
parenchyma
due to secondary thickening of parenchyma
cells and provide stiffness only. Protoxylem

Metaxylem
Narrow
Simple pit
lumen
pair Protoxylem
cavity
Lumen
(cavity) b. Vascular bundle

Fig. 8.6 Xylem tissue and Vascular bundle

Lignified thick
Transverse section cell wall Longitudianl
section The xylem also provides mechanical
Fig. 8.5 Sclerenchyma strength to the plant body. Tracheids and
This tissue functions as the main vessels conduct water and minerals. These
mechanical tissue. It permits bending, shearing are also known as hadrome. In pteridophytes
and pulling. It gives rigidity to leaves and and gymnosperms tracheids are conducting
prevents it from falling. It also gives rigidity to elements and vessels in angiosperms,
epicarps and seeds. Commercial fibres are also Selaginella (Pteridophyte) and Gnetum
produced from sclerenchyma fibres. e.g. jute, (Gymnosperm) show presence of vessels.
flax, hemp.

87
 Tracheids are elongated, tubular and Xylem fibres are sclerenchymatous
dead cells. The ends are oblique and tapering. cells and serve mainly mechanical support.
The cell walls are uniformly thickened These are called wood fibres. These are also
and lignified. This provides mechanical elongated, narrow and spindle shaped. Cells
strength. Tracheids contribute 95% of wood are tapering at both the ends and their walls
in Gymnosperms and 5% in Angiosperms. are lignified.
The different types of thickening patterns are Phloem : This is a living tissue. It is also called
seen on their walls such as annular (in the as bast. Phloem is responsible for conduction
form of rings), spiral (in the form of spring/ of organic food material from source (leaf
helix), scalarif orm (ladder like), pitted is most generally) to a sink (other plant parts). Phloem
advanced type (small circular area) which may was named as leptome by Haberlandt as
be simple or bordered. similar to xylem. On the basis of origin, it is
Vessels are longer than tracheids with proto (first formed) and meta (laterly formed)
perforated or dissolved ends and formed by phloem. It is composed of sieve cells, sieve
union of several vessels end to end. These are tubes, companion cells, phloem parenchyma
involved in conduction of water and minerals. and phloem fibres.
Their lumen is wider than tracheids and the
Sieve plate Companion cell
thickening is due to lignin and similar to
tracheids. In monocots, vessels are rounded
Ground tissue cell
where as they are angular in dicot angiosperms.
The first formed xylem vessels (protoxylem)
are small and have either annular or spiral
thickenings while latter formed have larger Nucleus
vessels (metaxylem) have reticulate or pitted
thickenings. When protoxylem is arranged Sieve tube
towards pith and metaxylem towards periphery Fig. 8.8 Leptome
it is called as endarch e.g. in stem and when
the position is revert as in the roots is called as
exarch. Sieve tubes are long tubular conducting
channel of phloem. These are placed end to end
with bulging at end walls. The sieve tube has
sieve plate formed by septa with small pores.
The sieve plates connect protoplast of adjacent
sieve tube cells. The sieve tube cell is a living
cell with a thin layer of cytoplasm but loses
its nucleus at maturity. The sieve tube cell is
connected to companion cell through phloem
Annular Spiral Scalariform Simple Bordered parenchyma by plasmodesmata. Sieve cells are
Reticulate Pitted found in lower plants like pteridophytes and
Fig. 8.7 Tracheids gymnosperms. The cells are narrow, elongated
with tapering ends and sieve area located
Xylem parenchyma cells are small
laterally.
associated with tracheids and vessels. This
is the only living tissue among this complex Companion cells are narrow elongated
tissue. The function is to store food (starch) and and living. These cells are laterally associated
sometimes tannins. Parenchyma are involved with sieve tube elements. Companion cells
in lateral or radial conduction of water or sap. have dense cytoplasm and prominent nucleus.

88
 Sieve tube
Epidermis Cuticle Guard cells
Sub-stomatal
chamber
companion
cell

Phloem Stoma Mesophyll

parenchyma

A Waxy layer Cuticle

Sieve plate Cuticular pegs
A. Phloem in T. S. B. Phloem in L. S.
Epidermis
Fig. 8.9 Phloem tissue Anticlinar
walls of
Nucleus of companion cell regulates Epidermal
functions of sieve tube cells through simple B cells
pits. From origin point of view, sieve tube cells
and companion cell are derived from same cell. Fig. 8.10 Epidermal tissue system
Death of the one results in death of the other
type.
Subsidiary cells
Phloem parenchyma cells are living, Epidermal cells
elongated found associated with sieve tube and Inner thick wall
companion cells. The chief function is to store
food, latex, resins, mucilage, etc. The cells Nucleus
carry out lateral conduction of food material. Stomatal pore
These cells are absent in most of the monocots.
Guard cell
Phloem fibres are the only dead tissue
among this unit. These are sclerenchymatous.
Generally absent in primary phloem, but Fig. 8.11 Epidermal cells
present in secondary phloem. These cells are
with lignified walls and provide mechanical A. Epidermal tissue system : It forms the
support. These are used in making ropes and outer covering of plant body and is derived
rough clothes. from protoderm or dermatogen. The two types
of structures are seen in epidermal tissue system
Can you tell? viz epidermis and epidermal appendages.
Epidermis is the outermost protective
1. Write a note on parenchyma. cell layer made up of compactly arranged
2. Describe schlerenchyma fibres. cells without intercellular spaces. Cells
3. Sketch and label T.S. of phloem tissue. show presence of central large vacuole, thin
8.4 Tissue Systems : Plant tissues are cyctoplasm and a nucleus. The outer side of the
derived from meristems and their structure and epidermis is often covered with a waxy thick
functions depend on the position. On the basis layer called the cuticle which prevents the loss
of their structure and location, three types of of water. It may bear hairs. Root epidermis has
tissue systems are present viz. Epidermal tissue root hairs. These are unicellular elongated and
system, ground tissue system and vascular involved in absorption of sap from the soil. In
tissue system. stem, epidermal hairs are called trichomes.

89
These are generally multicellular, branched Phloem (outer)
or unbranched, stiff or soft or even secretory. Cambium Cambium
(outer)
These help in preventing water loss due to Phloem
Xylem
transpiration. Phloem (inner)
Xylem
Small gateways in the epidermal cells Cambium (inner)
Collateral closed
are called as stoma. Such stoma are controlled Collateral open Bicollateral open
or guarded by specially modified cells called Phloem
Phloem
guard cells. These guard cells may be kidney
shaped (dicot) or dumbbell shaped (monocot), Xylem Xylem
collectively called as Stomata. Stoma, guard
Hadrocentric Leptocentric Radial
cells and subsidiary cells form a unit called
stomatal apparatus. Stomata are further Fig. 8.12 Vascular bundles
covered by subsidiary cells. Guard cells have
It is a feature of family Cucurbitaceae.
chloroplasts to carry out photosynthesis. Guard
When one vascular tissue is completely
cells change their turgor pressure causing its
encircling the other, it is called as concentric
opening and closing, thus they play a vital role
vascular bundle, this may be leptocentric
in exchange of gases and water vapour.
(phloem encircled by xylem) or hadrocentric
B. Ground tissue system : All the plant (xylem encircled by phloem). When one
tissues excluding epidermal and vascular complex tissue is encircling on both the faces
tissue is ground tissue. It is made up of simple of the other it is amphicribral (xylem encircled
permanent tissue e.g. paranchyma. It is present by phloem on both faces) and amphivasal
in cortex, pericycle, pith and medullary rays (phloem encircled by xylem on both faces).
in the primary stem and root. Collenchyma
8.5 Secondary growth in plants :
and schlerenchyma in the hypodermis and
The vertical growth of the roots and
chloroplasts containing mesophyll tissue in
stems in length with the help of apical meristem
leaves is also ground tissue.
is called as primary growth. Dicotyledonous
Vascular tissue system : These are the distinct plants and gymnosperms exhibit increase
patches of the complex tissue viz. Xylem and in girth of root and stem. In dicot stem,
phloem. On the basis of their arrangement secondary growth begins with the formation
in the plant body these are radial when both of a continuous cambium ring. The cambium
the complex tissue are situated separately present between the primary xylem and
on separate radius as separate bundle. This primary phloem of a vascular bundle is called
is a common feature of roots. In the stem, intraf asicular cambium. The cells of medullary
the complex tissue is collectively present as rays adjoining these intrafascicular cambium
neighbours of each other on the same radius in strips become meristematic (regain the
the form of xylem inside and phloem outside capacity to divide) and form the interf ascicular
hence called conj oint, collateral, vascular cambium. Thus a complete and continous ring
bundles. of vascular cambium is formed.
These bundles may be further of open The cambium ring cuts off new cells,
type (secondary growth takes place) containing towards both the sides, inner and outer. The
cambium in between them and closed cells that are cut-off towards pith (inner side)
type if cambium is not present (secondary mature into secondary xylem and cells that
growth absent). When phloem is present in are cut-off towards periphery mature into
a vascular bundle on both the sides of xylem secondary phloem. Generally, amount of
and intervening cambium tissue, it is called secondary xylem is more than the secondary
bicollateral vascular bundle. phloem.

90
 In woody plants, secondary tissues 8.6 Wood :
constitute the bulk of the body. This provides During favourable conditions, spring
support, conduction of water and minerals and w ood (early wood) is formed which has
protection. Lateral meristems play a major role broader xylem bands, lighter colour, tracheids
in development of secondary tissues. with thin wall and wide lumen, fibres are
Formation of cambial ring : With the onset less in number, low density. Whereas, during
of favourable season, meristematic cells unfavourable season autumn w ood (late wood)
of intrafascicular cambium become active. is formed which has narrow xylem band,
Simultaneously, the ray parenchyma cells, darker in colour, lumen is narrow and walls are
both fusiform initials and ray initials become thick with abundant fibres are present of high
meristematic. This is known as dedif f erentiation. density. Tracheary elements of heartwood are
plugged by in-growth of adjacent parenchyma
These form patch of cambial cells (meristematic
cells i.e. tyloses. They are filled by oils, gums,
cells) in between the adjacent bundles and
resins, tannins called as extractives. Thus inner
produce interfascicular cambium. Now both
non-functinal, durable part which is resistant
intrafascicular and interfascicular cambium
to pathogens is called duramen or heartwood.
join and form a complete ring. This is known
Outer light, functional part of secondary xylem,
as cambial ring. This is possible because they
cells are living, no deposition, lighter and less
lie in one plane.
Primary durable, more susceptible to pathogens and
Secondary phloem Cork involved in conduction of sap is called as sap
phloem Bark w ood (alburnum).
Pith 8.7 Cork cambium and secondary
growth:
Increase in diameter of stem by
secondary growth is mainly due to the activity
Vascular
of vascular cambium present the outer cortical
Cortex
cambium layer. When epidermis gets ruptured, it
Phloem Primary Epidermis becomes necessary to replace these cells by
Xylem
xylem Secondary Cork
new cells. Phellogen (cork cambium) develops
Sclerenchyma xylem cambium
in extrastelar region of stem. The outer cortical
cells of cortex become meristematic and produce
Fig. 8.13 Secondary growth in a layer of thin walled, rectangular cells. These
Dicot stem cells cut off new cells on both sides. The cells
produced on outer side develop phellem (cork)
Secondary growth in roots : It is also observed wheras on the inner side produce phelloderm
in most of the dicot and gymnospermic roots (secondary cortex). The cork is impervious in
by producing secondary vascular tissue and nature and does not allow entry of water due to
periderm. Secondary growth is produced suberized walls.
by vascular cambium and cork cambium Secondary cortex is parenchymatous
respectively. in nature. Phellogen, phellem and phelloderm
Conjuctive parenchyma cells present constitute periderm. Activity of cork cambium
on the inner edges of primary phloem bundles develops a pressure on the other cells and these
cells die. Bark is non-technical term refering
become meristematic. These cells add
to all cell types found external to vascular
secondary xylem and secondary phloem on the
cambium including secondary phloem. Bark of
inner and outer side respectively. These events
early season is soft and of the late season is
are similar to secondary growth in stems.
hard.

91
 Lenticles are aerating pores present as
(raised scars) the surface of bark. These are Root hair
portions of periderm, where phellogen activity Epiblema
is more, lenticles are means for gaseous and Exodermis
water vapour exchange.
Monocot stems lack cambium hence
secondary growth does not take place. But
accessory cambium development in plants Cortex
like, Dracena, Agave, Palms and root of sweet
potato show presence of secondary growth.
Endodermis
This is called as anomalous secondary growth.
Pericycle
Can you tell? Phloem

1. Concentric vascular bundles are always Metaxylem

closed. Describe. Protoxylem
2. How is the arrangement of vascular bun-
dles in dicot and monocot stem? Fig. 8.14 T. S. of dicot root
3. How is the structure of vascular bundles
The central part of stele or vascular
of the root?
cylinder is called Pith. It is narrow and made
4. Why vascular bundles of dicot stem are
up of parenchymatous cells, with or without
described as conjoint collateral and open?
intercellular spaces. At later stage, a cambium
8.8 Anatomy of Root, Stem and Leaf : ring develops between xylem and phloem
A. Anatomy of Dicot Root : which causes secondary growth in thickness.
The transverse section of a typical B. Anatomy of monocot root :
dicotyledonous root shows following It resembles that of a dicot root in its
anatomical features. The outermost single layer basic plan. However, it possesses more than
of cells without cuticle is Epiblema. Some of six xylem bundles (polyarch condition). Pith is
its cells are prolonged into unicellular root hair. large and well-developed. Secondary growth is
Next to it is the Cortex which consists of several absent.
layers of typical parenchymatous cells. After Root hair
the death of epiblema, outer layer of cortex Epiblema
become cutinized and is called Exodermis.
The cortical cells store food and water. The
innermost layer of cortex is called Endodermis.
The cells are barrel-shaped and their radial Cortex
walls bear Casparian strip or Casparian bands
composed of suberin. Near the protoxylem,
there are unthickened passage cells. A single
layer of parenchymatous Pericycle is present
just below endodermis which bounds the stele Endodermis
or vascular cylinder. Stele consists of 2 to Pericycle
6 radial vascular bundles. Xylem is exarch. Protoxylem
Based on the number of groups of xylem and Metaxylem
phloem, the stele may be diarch to hexarch. Phloem
A parenchymatous connective tissue Pith
or conjunction tissue is present between xylem
and phloem. Fig. 8.15 T. S. of Monocot root

92
C. Anatomy of Dicot Stem (Sunflower) : Stele is the central core of tissues
A transverse section of dicot stem differentiated into pericycle, vascular bundles
shows the following structures : Epidermis and pith. Pericycle is the outermost layer
is single, outermost layer with multicellular of vascular system situated between the
outgrowth called trichomes. A layer of cuticle endodermis and vascular bundles. In sunflower,
is usually present towards the outer surface it is multilayered and also called hard bast.
of epidermis. Cortex is situated below the Vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral,
epidermis and is usually differentiated into open, and are arranged in a ring. Each one is
three regions namely, hypodermis, general composed of xylem, phloem and cambium.
cortex and endodermis. Hypodermis is situated Xylem is endarch. A strip of cambium is
just below the epidermis and is made of 3-5 present between xylem and phloem. Pith is
layers of collenchymatous cells. Intercellular situated in the center of the young stem and is
spaces are absent. General cortex is made made up of large-sized parenchymatous cells
up of several layers of large parenchymatous with conspicuous intercellular spaces.
cells with intercellular spaces. Endodermis is D. Anatomy of Monocot Stem :
an innermost layer of cortex which is made up
It differs from dicot. Epidermis is
of barrel shaped cells. It is also called starch
without trichomes and the hypodermis is
sheath.
sclerenchymatous. Vascular bundles are
numerous and are scattered in ground tissue.
Each vascular bundle is surrounded by a
sclerenchymatous bundle sheath. Vascular
bundles are conjoint, collateral and closed
(without cambium). Xylem is endarch and
shows lysigenous cavity. Pith is absent.
Secondary growth is also absent.

Epidermis
Hypodermis
(Diagrammatic) Vascular bundle

Hair
Ground tissue
Epidermis Starch Grains
Cuticle
General Hypodermis
(sclerenchyma) Epidermis
Cortex
(Parenchyma)
Hyprodermis
(Collenchyma)
Phloem
Phloem
Endodermis Metaxylem
Cambium
Protoxylem
Metaxylem
Protoxylem cavity
Medullary rays Protoxylem
Bundle sheath
Wood
parenchyma Ground tissue
(parenchyma)
(Part enlarged)
Fig. 8.16 T. S. of Dicot stem Fig. 8.17 T. S. of Monocot stem

93
E. Anatomy of Leaf : Dorsiventral Leaf is Vascular system is made up of a number
very common in dicotyledonous plants where of vascular bundles of varying size depending
the mesophyll tissue is differentiated into upon the venation. Each one is surrounded by
palisade and spongy parenchyma. The leaves a thin layer of parenchymatous cells called
are commonly horizontal in orientation with bundle sheath. Vascular bundles are closed and
distinct upper and lower surfaces. The upper xylem towards upper epidermis and phloem
surface which faces the sun is darker than the towards lower epidermis. Cambium is absent
lower surface. hence no secondary growth in the leaf.
V. S. of Typical dicot leaf : Lower epidermis consists of a single
Upper epidermis consists of a single layer of compactly arranged rectangular,
layer of tightly packed rectangular, barrel parenchymatous cells. A thin layer of cuticle
shaped, parenchymatous cells which are is also present. The lower epidermis contains
devoid of chloroplast. A distinct layer of cuticle a large number of microscopic pores called
lies on the outside of the epidermis. Stomata stomata. There is an air-space called sub-
are generally absent. Between upper and lower stomatal chamber at each stoma.
epidermis, there is chloroplast-containing F. Isobilateral Leaf : In this leaf both the
photosynthetic tissue called Mesophyll. surfaces are equally illuminated as both the
Mesophyll is differentiated into surface can face the sun, and show similar
palisade and spongy tissue. Palisade structure. The two surfaces are equally green.
parenchyma is present below upper epidermis Generally monocotyledonous plants have
and consists of closely packed elongated cells. isobilateral leaves.
The cells contain abundant chloroplasts and
help in photosynthesis. Spongy parenchyma A typical monocot leaf : resembles a dicot leaf
is present below palisade tissue and consists of in its anatomical structure. However, it shows
loosely arranged irregularly shaped cells with stomata on both the surfaces and mesophyll
intercellular spaces. The spongy parenchyma is not differentiated into palisade and spongy
cells contain chloroplast and are in contact tissue. It has parallel veins. These are conjoint,
with atmosphere through stomata. collateral and closed.

Bundle sheath
Xylem Adaxial Bulliform cells help in leaf rolling
epidermis
Phloem

Palisade
mesophyll Amphisto-
matic
Air cavity leaf with
Spongy stomata
mesophyll on both
epidermis.
Sub-stomatal
cavity
Stoma Abaxial
epidermis

Fig. 8.17 V. S. of dicot leaf Fig. 8.18 V. S. of Monocot leaf

94
 Exercise
1. Choose the correct option
A. Location or position of meristematic D. There were two cut logs of wood lying
regions is divided into ................... types in the campus. One had growth rings
a. one b. two and other didn’t. Teacher said it is due
c. three d. none of the above to differences in their pattern of growth
B. Cambium is also called ................ which is dependent on season. How?
a. apical meristem E. While on the trip to Kashmir, Pintoo
b. intercalary meristem observed that cut portions of large trees
c. lateral meristem shows distinct rings, which he never
d. none of the above found in Maharashtra. Why is so?
C. Collenchyma is a type of ................. F. A student was observing a slide with no
tissue. label under microscope. The section had
a. living b. dead some vascular bundles scattered in the
c. living and dead d. none of the above ground tissue. It is section of a monocot
stem! He exclaimed. No! it is section
D. ..................... is a complex permanent of fern rachis, said the teacher. Teacher
tissue. told to observe vascular bundle again.
a. Parenchyma b. Sclerenchyma Student agreed, Why?
c. Chlorenchyma d. Xylem
G. Student found a wooden stopper in lab.
E. Mesophyll tissue is present in................ He was told by an old lab attendant
a. root b. stem that it is there for many years. He kept
c. leaf d. flower thinking how it did not rot?
2. Answer the following questions H. Student while observing a slide of leaf
section observed many stomata on the
A. A fresh section was taken by a student but upper surface. He thought he has placed
he was very disappointed because there slide upside down. Teacher confirmed it
were only few green and most colourless is rightly placed. Explain.
cells. Teacher provided a pink colour
solution. The section was immersed in 3. Write short notes on the following points
this solution and when observed it was A. Structure of stomata
much clearer. What is the magic? B. Secondary growth
B. While observing a section many scattered C. Peculiarity of a sclerenchyma cell wall
vascular bundles could be seen. Teacher
said but in spite of this large number the 4. Differentiate
stem cannot grow in girth. Why? A. Vascular bundle of monocot and dicot
C. A section of the stem had vascular B. Xylem and Phloem functioning
bundles, where one tissue was wrapped C. Internal or anatomical difference
around the other. How will you between monocots and dicots.
technically describe it?

95
5. Draw neat labelled diagrams 8. Distinguish between Dicot and Monocot
A. T. S. of Dicot leaf. leaf on the basis of following characters.
B. T. S. of Monocot root.
Characters Dicot leaf Monocot leaf
C. T. S. of dicot stem.
Stomata ............. .............
6. Write the information related to diagrams
given below Intercellular ............. .............
space
Venation .............

Vascular ............. .............

bundle
Mesophyll ............. .............
cells

Practical / Project :
1. Prepare detail anatomical charts with
digramatic representation of dicot and
monocot plants.
2. Observe different slides related to
anatomy of flowering plants under the
guidence of teacher.

7. Identify the following diagrams, label it and prepare a chart of characteristics.

b. c.
d.

a.

96
 9. Morphology of Flowering Plants

Can you recall? 9.2 Morphology :

You have learnt the diversity and Morphologically plant shows vegetative
structure of Angiospermic plant in 6th standared. structures like root, stem, leaf and reproductive
structures such as flowers, fruits and seeds.
9.1 Angiosperms :
Our earth has a vast diversity of
Flower
plants. The flowering plants dominate the
world of plants as they are well adapted to the Fruit
environmental conditions. These plants show
considerable variation in their general external Stem
and internal characters with respect to their Leaf Shoot
habitat. Such variations help the plant body to system
carry out different functions. You have studied
a broad classification of kingdom Plantae.
Angiosperms are one of flowering plants from
phanerogams.
Angiosperms can be classified into Primary roots
different types on the basis of habitat and it can Root
Secondary roots system
be represented as follows :

Hydrophytes - Growing in
Fig. 9.2 Typical Angiospermic plant
aquatic habitat e.g. H ydrilla
A. Root : Root is descending axis of plant body
Xerophytes - Growing in which is positively geotropic and hydrotropic
regions with scanty or no but negatively phototropic and aerotropic. Root
rainfall like desert e.g. Opuntia grows beneath the soil surface towards gravity.
Angiosperms

Roots are generally non-green, cylindrical and

Psammophytes - Growing in without nodes and internodes.
sandy soil e.g. Elymus Typical Root Structure : A typical root has
different regions :-
Lithophytes - Growing on rock
e.g. Couchidium Region of
maturation

Halophytes - Growing in saline Region of

soil e.g. Mangroove plants like root hairs
Rhiz ophora Region of cell
elongation
Chart 9.1 Angiosperm classification-
based on habitat Meristematic
region
In angiosperms seed germinates under
favourable environmental conditions and Region of
root cap
produces a seedling which develops into a new
plant. Fig. 9.3 Regions of root

97
 A parenchymatous multicellular root are, fixation or anchorage of plant body in
structure in the form of cap, present over young the soil, absorption of water and minerals from
growing root apex is known as root cap. Cell soil and conduction of absorbed materials up to
of root cap secrete mucilage for lubricating the stem base etc.
passage of root through the soil. Cells of Types of Root :
root cap show presence of starch granules On the basis of origin, roots can be
which help in graviperception and geotropic classified as Tap roots or true roots and
movement of root. Usually single root cap is Adventitious roots.
present in plants. But in plants like Pandanus a. Tap root : The root which develops from the
or screw pine multiple root caps are present. radicle of an embryo during seed germination
In hydrophytes root caps are replaced by root is known as tap root or true root. The main root
pocket e.g. Pistia, Eichhornia etc. Due to is called as primary root; its branches of first
presence of root cap the growing apex of root is order are called as secondary roots whereas
subterminal in position. The apex of the root is branches of second order are called as tertiary
a growing point about 1 mm in length protected roots e.g. Pea, Bean, Sunflower etc.
by root cap. This region is called as region The main root with all its branches is
of cell division or meristematic region. The known as tap root system. Tap root system is
structure is developed by compactly arranged commonly seen in dicotyledonous plants.
thin walled actively dividing meristematic cells.
b. Adventitious roots : A root that develops
These cells bring about longitudinal growth of
from any part other than radicle is known as
root. It is followed by Region of elongation.
adventitious root. Such root may develop from
This region of cells is present just above zone
the base of the stem, nodes or from leaves. In
of cell division. The cells are newly formed
monocots, radicle is short lived and from the
and show rapid elongation to bring about
base of stem a thick cluster of equal sized roots
increase in length of the root. The cells help in
arise. This is adventitious root system. eg.
absorption of mineral salts. A Region of root
Maize, Wheat, Sugarcane etc. It is also known
hair / absorption/piliferous zone is made up of
as fibrous root system as they look like fibre.
numerous hair like outgrowths. The epiblema
The growth of roots is superficial. Adventitious
or piliferous layer produces tubular elongated
root in some plants are used for vegetative
unicellular structures known as root hair. They
propagation. eg. Euphorbia, Carapichea
are in close contact with soil particles and
ipecacuanha (Ipecac) etc.
increase surface area for absorption of water.
Root hair are short lived or ephimeral and are
replaced after every 10 to 15 days. Region of
cell maturation or differentiation is major
portion of root is developed by this region.
The cells of this region are quite impermeable
to water due to thick walled nature. The cells
show differentiation and form different types a. Tap root b. Adventitious
of tissues. This region helps in fixation of system root system
plant and conduction of absorbed substances.
Fig. 9.4 Types of root
Development of lateral roots also takes place
from this region. Modification of root : When roots have to
perform some special type of function in
Function of Root : Roots carry out several
addition to or instead of their normal function
functions which can be categorized into primary
they develop some structural changes. Such
and secondary functions. Primary functions of
roots are called as metamorphosed roots.

98
Modifications of tap root
a. Food storage : When tap root stores food Pneumatophores Lenticles
it becomes swollen fleshy and also develops
definite shape. Main or primary root is the
main storage organ but sometimes hypocotyl
part of embryo axis also joins the main root.
Secondary roots remain thin. Stem in such
cases remain reduced, discoid and leaves are
radicle leaves. On the basis of shape swollen Roots
tap roots are classified as Fusiform, Conical Fig. 9.6 Respiratory roots
and Napiform.
The fusiform root is swollen in The roots show presence of lenticels
the middle and tapering towards both ends i.e. minute pores for gaseous exchange
forming spindle shaped structure. e.g. Radish ( Pneuamatic - Hollow, phore - stalk) e.g.
(Raphanus sativus) The conical root is broad Rhiz ophora, Avicennia, Sonneratia, H eritiera
at its morphological base and narrows down (ver. sundri) etc.
towards its apex is called as conical root. e.g. Modifications of Adventitious Roots :
Carrot (Daucus carota) In napiform root, base a. Food storage : Fibrous roots also show food
of root is highly swollen, almost spherical in storage like tap root but the main difference is
shape and abruptly narrows down towards its that fibrous root usually do not develop definite
apex. e.g. Beet (Beta vulgaris) shape. These roots are further classified as
Simple tuberous, Fasciculated tuberous,
Beaded and Nodulose roots.

Conical root Fusiform root Napiform root

Simple Fasciculated Moniliform
Fig. 9.5 Swollen tap roots
Fig. 9.7 Tuberous root
b. For Respiration : Pneumatophores or Simple tuberous roots become swollen
Respiratory Roots : Halophytes are the plants and do not show definite shape. They are
which grow in saline swamps, marshy places produced singly. The roots arise from nodes
and salt lakes. These plants produce special over the stem and penetrate into the soil. E.g.
kind of roots called as pneumatophores or sweet potato or shakarkand (I pomoea batatas).
breathing roots. The main root system of these A cluster of roots arising from one point which
plants do not get sufficient air for respiration becomes thick and fleshy due to storage of food
as soil is water logged. Due to this, mineral is known as fasciculated tuberous root. These
absorption of plant also gets affected. clusters are seen at the base of the stem. E.g.
To overcome this problem underground Dahlia, Asparagus, etc. These beaded roots are
roots develop special roots which are negatively also called as moniliform roots. These roots
geotropic; growing vertically upward. These are swellings at regular intervals like beads
roots are conical projections present around of a necklace. e.g. Spinacia oleracea (Indian
main trunk of plant. Spinach).

99
 The cluster of long slender roots become
enlarged at the tips forming nodules is known
as nodulose roots. E.g. Arrow (Maranta root)
Amhaldi (Curcuma amada).
Nodulose root

Fig. 9.10 Maize plant roots

These roots provide additional support
to the plant body. In Screwpine or Pandanus
Fig. 9.8 Nodulose root
(Kewada), stilt roots arise only from the
lower surface of obliquely growing stem for
Do you know ?
A banyan tree additional support. These roots show multiple
growing in the Indian Botanical Garden, howrah root caps.
(Kolkata) has nearly 1700 such prop roots. The
3. Climbing roots : Different climbers with
crown of tree has a large circumference. The
weak stem produce roots at their nodes by
tree is about 200 years old.
means of which they attach themselves to
b. For mechanical support : support and there by raise themselves above
1. Prop roots : These roots arise from the ground e.g. Betel leaf or Pan, black pepper
horizontal branches of tree like Banyan tree or Piper nigrum (Kali Mirch), Pothos or money
(F icus benghalensis) and grow vertically plant.
downwards till they penetrate the soil. These
prop roots show secondary growth, become
thick, act like pillars to provide mechanical
support to the heavy branches.
Climbing roots

Fig. 9.11 Climbing roots

4. Clinging Roots : These tiny roots develop
along internodes, show disc at tips, which
exude sticky substance. This substance enables
plant to get attached with walls of buildings.
They do not damage substratum. e.g. English
Ivy (H edera helix).
Fig. 9.9 Banyan tree
2. Stilt roots : These roots normally arise from
a few lower nodes of a weak stem in some
monocots shrubs and small trees. They show
obliquely downward growth penetrating soil
and provide mechanical support to the plant. In
the members of family Poaceae, the plants like
Maize, Jowar, Sugarcane etc. produce stilt root
in whorl around the node. Fig. 9.12 Clinging roots

100
5. Plank Roots/Buttresses : Often develop 2. Sucking roots or Haustoria : Specialised
at the base of large trees form plank like microscopic sucking roots developed by
extensions around stem. e.g. Silk cotton, Pipal parasitic plants to absorb nourishment from
etc. the host. V iscum album is a partial parasite.
It develops haustoria which penetrate into
xylem of host plant for absoptional food. In
Cuscuta reflexa or Dodder (Amarvel) haustoria
penetrates vascular strand and suck food from
phloem, water and minerals from xylem.
Cuscuta is leafless plant with yellow stem. It is
a total parasite.
Fig. 9.13 Plank roots
6. Buoyont roots : Roots developed at the
nodes of aquatic herbs like (J ussiaea repens),
become highly inflated and spongy providing
buoyancy and helping the plant to float.

Fig. 9.16 Sucking roots

B. Stem : The aerial part of the plant body is
know as shoot system. Stem is the main axis of
this shoot system. Stem is the ascending part
of the plant body which develops from plumule
Fig. 9.14 Spongy roots and reproductive units and is differentiated
into nodes and internodes. It is usually
c. For special functions :
positively photorophic, negatively geotropic
1. Epiphytic roots : Small epiphytic plants and negatively hydrotropic. It shows different
such as orchids growing on the branches of types of buds (axillary, apical, accessory, etc.).
huge trees in dense rain forests and are unable to At nodes it produces dissimilar organs such as
obtain soil moisture. They produce specialized leaves and flowers and similar organs such as
root to hang in the air. The roots are provided branches. Young stem is green and capable of
with a spongy membranous absorbent covering photosynthesis.
of the velamen tissue. The cells of velamen The primary functions of the stem are to
that absorb moisture from air. A tissues are produce and support branches, leaves, flowers
hygroscopic and have porous walls The roots and fruits; conduction of water and minerals
may be silvery white or green but without root and transportation of food to plant parts.
cap e.g. V anda, Dendrobium etc.
Apical bud Leaf

Periole

Clinging root

Epiphytic root Internode Node

(Hanging root) Axillary bud

Stem
Fig. 9.15 Epiphytic roots Fig. 9.17 Stem structure

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Modifications of stem : Stem develops some 2. Stem Tuber : Special underground branches
modifications for additional or accessory of stem at their tips become swollen due to
functions. To perform such function stem shows storage of food material which is mostly starch.
different modifications : Presence of distinct nodes but not internodes
a. Underground stem : In some herbaceous classifies tuber as stem. At nodal part scale
plants stem develops below the soil surface leaves are present with axillary buds commonly
called as underground stem. Underground known as ‘eyes’. ‘Eyes’ can produce aerial
stem remains dormant during unfavourable shoots under favourable conditions. Tubers are
condition and on the advent of favourable porpogated vegetatively e.g. Potato (Solanum
condition produces aerial shoots. Underground tuberosum), Matalu (H elianthus tuberosus).
stem is known to store food, helps in perinnation Tuber has two distinct ends viz. apical end
and basal end called as rose and heel end
and vegetative propagation.
respectively. The number of nodes and eyes is
more towards rose end.
Use your brain power
Why underground stem is different from roots?

1. Rhizome : It is prostrate dorsiventrally

thickened and brownish in colour. It grows
either horizontally or obliquely beneath the soil.
Rhizome shows nodes and internodes, bears
terminal and axillary buds at nodes. Terminal
bud under favourable conditions produces
aerial shoot which degenerates at the end of Fig. 9.19 Tuber of potato
favourable condition Growth of rhizome takes 3. Bulb : Bulb is an underground spherical
place with lateral buds such growth is known or pyriform stem. Stem is highly reduced and
as sympodial growth. e.g. Ginger (Zingiber discoid. It bears a whorl of fleshy leaves. The
officinale), Turmeric (Curcuma domestica), scale leaves or fleshy leaves show concentric
Canna etc. In plants where rhizomes grows arrangement over the stem. These store food
obliquely, terminals bud brings about growth material. Some outer scale leaves become
of rhizomes. This is known as monopodial thin and dry. The reduced stem produces
growth. e.g. N ymphea, N elumbo (Lotus), Pteris adventitious roots at its base. The bulb is of
(Fern) etc. different types Tunicated or layered bulb is
made up of fleshy leaves arranged in concentric
manner with outer dry scale leaf. e.g. Onion.
In garlic the bulb is scaly or non-tunicatied.
The fleshy scales are arranged in overlapping
Internode
pattern.
Scale leaf
Bud

Node
Adventitious root
a. Scaly bulb e.g. Garlic b. Tunicate bulb e.g. Onion
Fig. 9.18 Rhizome of Ginger Fig. 9.20 Bulbs

102
4. Corm : Corm is swollen underground Presence of nodes with scale leaves and
spherical or subspherical vertically growing axillary buds is observed. Eg. Cynodon (Lawn
stem. It is condensed structure with circular grass) Centella (Hydrocotyl), Oxalis etc.
or ring like nodes. Presence of axillary buds
and scales is observed. Adventitious buds are Strawberry
New plantlet Main plant body
produced which help in vegetative propagation.
Adventitious roots are produced at lower part
of stem e.g. Colocasia (Arbi), Amorphophallus
(Zamikand or Elephant foot) etc.
Runner
Soil surface New root Root
Old corm Underground Fig. 9.23 Runner
stem
Daughter 3. Stolons : The slender lateral branch arising
corm from the base of main axis is known as
Adventitious Node stolon. In some plants it is above ground (wild
roots strawberry). Primarily stolon shows upward
Fig. 9.21 Corm growth in the form of ordinary branch, but
when it bends and touches the ground terminal
b. Sub aerial stem : The stems are generally
bud grows into new shoot and adventitious
weak or straggling stems growing over the
roots e.g. Jasmine, Mentha etc.
ground and need support for perpetuation.
Sometimes these stems are found to grow
beneath the soil surface also. Thus they show
Jasmine
contact with both air and soil. Sub aerial stems
are meant for perennation and vegetative
propagation. Scale leaves and axillary buds are
present over stem surface. The later produces Stolon
Crown
aerial shoots. Daughter plant
The different types of sub aerial
shoots are as follows: Fig. 9.24 Stolon
1. Trailer : The shoot spreads over the ground 4. Sucker : It is non green runner like branch
without intervals. The branches are either flat of stem. It which develops from underground
i.e. procumbent or partly vertical i.e. documbent base of roots. It grows horizontally below
e.g. Euphorbia, tridax etc. soil and finally comes above the soil surface
to produce a new plant. Sucker can be termed
as underground runner eg. Chrysanthemum,
Ground Banana etc.
Trailer weak stem Main stem

Fig. 9.22 Eu p horb ia trailer

2. Runner : They are special narrow, prostrate Roots
or horizontal green branches which develop
at the base of erect shoots known as crown. Sucker
Runners spread in all directions to produce new Tap root
crowns with bunch of adventitious roots. C hry santhem u m Fig. 9.25 Sucker

103
5. Offset : These are one internode long
Cactus
runners in rosette plants at ground or water
level. Offset helps in vegetative propagation
e.g. Water hyacinth or Jal kumbhi (Eichhornia)
and Pistia.
Leaves Lamina
Offset

Fig. 9.28 Phylloclade

Swollen
petiole 3. Cladodes : The branches of limited
growth i.e. one internode long and performing
Spongy
Roots Offset
Root photosynthetic function are called as cladodes.
stem pocket True leaves are reduced to spine or scales. E.g.
a. Pistia b. Eichhornia
Asparagus.
Fig. 9.26 Offset
c. Aerial modification : Stem or it's vegetative Cladodes
part modify to carry out specialized functions.
They develop various modifications for this
purpose. Such modified stems are called
as metamorphosed stems. The different
modifications can be discussed as under : Scaly leaf
1. Thorn : It is modification of apical or
axillary bud. Thorn is hard pointed and mostly
straight structure (except Bougainvillea where Fig. 9.29 Cladodes
it is curved and useful for climbing) It provides
protection against browsing animals and also Use your brain power
helps in reducing transpiration. Apical bud
Why the stem has to performs
develops into thorn in Carrisa whereas axillary
photosynthesis in xerophytes?
bud develops into thorn in Duranta, Citrus,
Bougainvillea, etc.
4. Cladophylls : These are leaf like structures
bore in the axil of scale leaf. It has floral bud
and scale leaf in the middle i.e. upper half is
leaf and lower half is stem. e.g. Ruscus.

Fig. 9.27 Thorn

2. Phylloclade : Modification of stem into
leaf like photosynthetic organ is known as
phylloclade. Being stem it possesses nodes and
internodes. It is thick, fleshy and succulent,
contains mucilage for retaining water e.g.
Opuntia, cylindrical in Casuarina and ribbon
like in Muehlenbeckia. Fig. 9.30 Cladophylls

104
Stem tendrils : Tendrils are thin, wiry, photosynthetic, leafless coiled structures. They give
additional support to developing plant. Tendrils have adhesive glands for fixation.
Apical bud in V itis quadrangularis gets Axillary tendril
modified in to tendril. The further growth in Passiflora
is carried out by axillary bud. This axillary bud
branching pattern is termed dichotomous. gets modified
in tendril

Extra axillary bud is the one Normally floral buds are

which grows outside the axil. destined to produced flowers.
This bud in cucurbita gets modi- But in plants like Antigonon
fied in to tendril. they produce tendrils.

5. Bulbils : In plants like Agave, Dioscorea The nature of leaf base is varies in
etc. axillary bud becomes fleshy and rounded different plants. It may be pulvinus (swollen),
due to storage of food called as bulbil. When sheathing or ligulate etc.
it falls off it produces new plant and help in In some plants leaves possess a pair of
vegetative propagation. lateral outgrowths called as stipules. The leaf
with stipule is said to be stipulate and without
stipule is exstipulate. Stipules are normally
green protective structure.
Veinlet Apex
Margin Blade
Vein
Base
Fig. 9.31 Bulbils
Petiole
C. Leaf :
Leaves are the most important Axial bud
appendages as they carry out photosynthesis Stipule
and also help to remove excess amount of
Fig. 9.32 Structure of leaf
water from plant body. Leaf develops from leaf
primordium. Leaf is dorsiventrally flattened
Petiole or mesopodium : The part of leaf
lateral appendage of stem. It is produced at
which connect leaf lamina with the leaf base
nodal region. Leaf is thin, expanded and green
is known as petiole of leaf. A leaf with petiole
due to presence of photosynthetic pigments. It
is petiolate and a leaf without petiole is termed
shows exogenous origin. Axil of leaf shows
as sessile leaf.
presence of axillary bud. Leaf shows limited
Petiole helps lamina to get exposed to
growth, does not show apical bud or a growing
light and also helps in conduction.
point.
1. Typical leaf structure : It shows presence Lamina or epipodium : Large expanded, flat
of three main parts Leaf base or Hypopodium, and green part of leaf. The lamina surface
Petiole or Mesopodium and Leaf lamina/ plays important role in photosynthesis, gaseous
blade or epipodium. exchange and transpiration. The leaf is either
Leaf base : The point by which leaf remains dorsiventral or isobilateral. Dorsiventral leaf is
attached to stem is known as leaf base. common in Dicots and isobilateral in Monocots.

105
 Centric or cylindrical leaves are those b. Palmately compound : In which all the
in which both the surfaces of leaf cannot be leaflets are attached at tip of petiole.
distinguished distinctly. Leaf lamina varies
greately in shpe, margin and apex.
2. Leaf venation : Arrangement of veins and
veinlets in leaf lamina is known as venation.
Veins are responsible for conduction of water
and minerals as well as food. The structural Unifoliate Bifoilate Trifoliate
(Oxalis)
framework of the lamina is developed by veins. (Citrus) (Zorina)

Internet my friend

Collect imformation of types of leaf venation.

R P

Quadrifoliate Multifoliate
(Marsilea) (Bombax)

Fig. 9.33 (b) Types of Compound leaf

4. Modification of leaves : Apart from
3. Types of leaf : Based on incision of lamina
photosynthesis leaf also performs transpiration
leaves are of two main types. i.e. simple and
gaseous exchange and perception of light
compound. The leaf with entire lamina is called
for flowering. However leaves may undergo
simple leaf and leaf in which lamina is divided
modifications to perform several other
into number of leaf lets called as compound
functions. As per the modification their are
leaf.
different types of leaves shown below.
Compound leaf are of two types..
a. Leaf spines: Sometimes entire leaf is
a. Pinnately compound : Leaflets are present
modified into spines (Opuntia) or margin of leaf
laterally on a common axis called rachis, which
becomes spiny (Agave) or stipule modifies into
represents the midrib of the leaf.
spine (Acacia) to check the rate of transpiration
or to protect plant from grazing. E.g. Ziz yphus
etc.

Paripinnate Imparipinnate Bipinnate

(Cassia) (Rosa) (Caesalpinia)

Tripinnate Decompound
(Moringa) (Coriandrum)
Fig. 9.33 (a) Types of Compound leaf Fig. 9.34 Leaf Spines

106
b. Leaf tendril: In some weak stems for
providing addtitional support; leaf, leaflet or
other part modifies to produce thin, green, wiry,
coiled structure called as leaf tendril. It helps in
climbing.

Fig. 9.37 Phyllode

5. Phyllotaxy : Arrangement of leaves
on the stem and branches in a specific manner
is known as phyllotaxy. It enable leaf to get
sufficient light.

Whole leaf tendril Leaflet tendril

E.g. L athyrus E.g. Pisum sativum

Alternate Whorled
Single leaf from each Many leaves from each
node E.g. Mango node E.g. N erium

Leaf tip tendril Stipular tendril

E.g. Gloriosa E.g. Smilax
Fig. 9.35 Leaf tendrils
c. Leaf hooks: In plants like Bignonia unguis-
cati (Cat’s nail) the terminal three leaflet get
modified into three stiff curve and pointed Opposite decussate Opposite superposed
hooks used to cling over bark of tree. A pair of leaf from each A pair of leaf from each
node and the consecutive node and the consecutive
pair at right angle E.g. pair is arranged just
Calotropis above. E.g. Jamun
Fig. 9.38 Types of phyllotaxy
D. Inflorescence :
A specialised axis or branch over which
flowers are produced or borne in definite
Fig. 9.36 Leaf hooks manner is known inflorescence. Inflorescence
has two parts Penduncle and flowers. There
d. Phyllode: When petiole of leaf becomes
are basic types of inflorescence.
flat, green and leaf like it is called as phyllode.
In Acacia auriculof ormis the normal leaf is All the flowers do not mature at same
bipinnately compound and falls off soon. time. Chances of pollination increase and large
The petiole modifies itself into phyllode. It is number of flowers can be pollinated in single
xerophytic adaptation. visit also makes the plant attractive.

107
Types of inflorescence : Stigma
Anther
a. Racemose : Growth of peduncle is infinite
Filament
or unlimited. Apical bud is free for continuous Carpel Style
growth. Flowers are borne in acropetal or pistil
succession. (Mature flowers at the base) Order Ovary Petal
of opening is centripetal. Sepal
Flower bud Ovule Thalamus
Pedicel

Fig. 9.41 Typical Flower (Digrammatic)

Mature Flower with bilateral symmetry or
flower
Clitoria is called zygomorphic flower e.g.
Sweet pea and flower with radial symmetry is
called actinomorphic flower e.g. Sunflower.
Peduncle

Fig. 9.39 Racemose Always Remember

b. Cymose : Growth of peduncle is finite Terminologies related to flower :
limited. Apical meristem terminates into flower. 1. Complete : Presence of all four floral
Flowers are borne in basipetal succession. whorls.
(Mature flowers at the apex) Order of opening 2. Incomplete : Absence of any one of the
is centrifugal. floral whorl.
3. Perfect : Both androecium and gynoecium
Mature are present, also called as hermophrodite
flower or bisexual flower.
4. Imperfect : Any one reproductive whorl
Flower bud is present also called as monophrodite or
unisexual flower.
5. Unisexual : It can be either staminate
(male)/ pistillate (female) flower
Peduncle
6. Neuter : When both reproductive whorls
Fig. 9.40 Cymose are absent, it is said to be neuter flower
e.g. Ray floreti of sunflower.
E. Flower : Flower is highly modified and
7. Monoecious plant : Male and female
condensed shoot meant for sexual reproduction.
reproductive flowers are borne on same
On the basis of position a flower can
plant. E.g. Maize.
be axillary or terminal. In a typical flower, the
8. Dioecious plant : Only one type of
thalamus (Consists of four compactly arranged
unisexual flowers are present on plant e.g.
nodes and three highly condenseed internodes.
Date palm.
From each node of thalamus, a circle or whorl
of modified leaves is produced. a. Insertion of floral whorls : The position and
A flower may or may not show arrangement of rest of the floral whorls with
presence of bract at base of pedicel or over the respect to gynoecium on the thalamus is known
pedicel, such a flower is said to be bracteate or as insertion of floral whorls. In a typical flower
ebracteate respectively. A flower with pedicel thalamus consist of four compactly arranged
is said to be pedicellate flower and without nodes and three internods. Slope of thalamus
pedicel is called as sessile flower. decides insertion of floral whorls.

108
 Do you know ?

Mango is polygamous
plant and produces all
types of flowers, staminate,
bisexual and neuter.
Hypogynous Perigynous Epigynous
Fig. 9.42 Insertion of floral whorls
a. Hypogyny : When the convex or conical 1. Calyx (K) : It is outermost floral whorl
thalamus is present in flower, ovary occupies and individual members are known as sepals.
the highest position while other floral parts are Sepals are usually green in colour and perform
below ovary. Ovary is said to be superior and photosynthesis. If all the sepals are united,
flower is called as hypogynous flower. E.g. the condition is gamosepalous and if they are
Brinjal, Mustard, China rose etc. It is denoted free, the condition is called as polysepalous.
as G in floral formula. Gamosepalous calyx is found in china rose and
b. Perigyny : When cup shaped or saucer polysepalous calyx is found in Brassica.
shaped thalamus is present in a flower, ovary and The main function of sepals is to protect
other floral parts occupy about same position. inner floral parts in bud condition. Sometimes
Such an ovary is said to be semi- superior or sepals become brightly coloured (petaloid
semi-inferior. All floral whorls are at the rim of sepals) and attract insects for pollination e.g.
thalamus. Flower is perigynous e.g. Rose, Pea, Canna, Mussaenda etc. Calyx i.e. Sepals
Bean, etc. It is denoted as G - in floral formula. modify into hairy structures called as pappus.
c. Epigyny : When thalamus completely Such calyx helps in dispersal of seeds or fruits.
encloses ovary and may show fusion with wall; E.g. Sonchus.
the other floral parts occupy superior position 2. Corolla (C): It is second floral whorl
and ovary becomes inferior. Such flower is said from outer side and variously coloured. The
to be epigynous flower, e.g. Sunflower, Guava individual member is called as petal. Petals may
etc. It is denoted as G - in floral formula. be sweet to taste, posses scent, odour, aroma or
fragrance etc. The condition in which petals are
b. Floral parts and their structure : All floral
free is said to be polypetalous (e.g. Rose) and
parts develop from thalamus from different
if they are fused it is called as gamopetalous
nodes. From each node of thalamus circle or
(e.g. Datura). The main function of corolla is to
whorl of modified leaves is produced. Thalamus
attract different agencies for pollination.
is called as torus or receptacle. Thalamus is
green in colour hence it can perform the process Perianth (P) : Many times calyx and corolla
of photosynthesis. remain undifferentiated. Such member is
known as tepal. The whorl of tepals is known
as Perianth.
Do you know ?

Type of Calyx Nature of Sepals Example

Caducous Sepals fall off as soon as the flower bud opens. e.g. Argemone (Poppy)
Deciduous Sepals survive till (withering of petals) fruit e.g. L otus, mustard
formation
Persistent Sepals remain even after fruit formation e.g. Brinjal, Pea, etc.

109
 Valvate : Margins of sepals or petals remain either in contact or
lie close to each other but do not overlap. e.g. Calyx of Datura,
Calotropis.
Twisted : Margins of each sepal or petal is directed inwards
and is overlapped. While the other margin is directed outwards
and overlap the margin of adjacent. e.g. Corolla of China rose,
Cotton etc.
Imbricate : One of the sepals or petals is internal and is
overlapped at both the margins. One is external i.e. completely
outside Rest of the members. Overlap and get overlapped. e.g.
Cassia, Bauhinia, etc.
Vexillary : Corolla is butterfly shaped and consists of five
petals. Outermost and largest is known as standard or vexillum,
two lateral petals are wings and two smaller fused forming boat
shaped structures keel. e.g Pisum sativum
Table 9.43 Arrangement of sepals, petals or tepals
If all the tepals are free the condition is Typical stamen shows three different parts :
called as polyphyllous and if they are fused the 1. Anther : It is terminal in position. Anther
condition is called as gamophyllous. Sepaloid produces pollen grains. It is usually bilobed
perianth shows green tepals while petaloid bithecous, tetralocular/tetra sporangiate
perianth brightly coloured tepals. E.g. L ily, structure. e.g. Datura. In some plants it
Amaranthus, Celosia, etc. It protects other floral is monotheocus (single lobed). Bilocular
whorls. Petaloid tepal helps in pollination and bisporangiate structure e.g. H ibiscus.
sepaloid tepals can perform photosynthesis. 2. Filament : It is a stalk of stamen and bears
Aestivation : The mode of arrangement of anther at its tip. It raises anther to a proper
sepals, petals or tepals in a flower with respect height for easy dispersal of pollen grains.
to the members of same whorl is known as 3. Connective : It is in continuation with the
aestivation. (Refer table 9.42) filament. It is similar to mid rib and connects
Epicalyx : It is an additional whorl of sepal two anther lobes together and also with the
like structures formed by bractiole which filament.
occurs on the outside of calyx. These are 5-8 in Cohesion of stamens : When stamens are
number. It is a characteristic feature of family. united by filaments and anthers are free, the
Malvaceae. They are protective in function. condition is adelphy.
e.g. Ladies finger
3. Androecium (A): It is third floral whorl from Syngenesious Syngeny
outer side. Androecium is male reproductive
part of a flower. The individual member is
known as stamen. If all the stamens are free the
condition is polyandrous and if they are fused.
(Cohesion = Fusion between members of a
similar whorl.
Adhesion = Fusion between members of
dissimilar whorls) Monoadelphous diadelphous Polyadelphous
Fig. 9.44 Cohesion of Stamens

110
Adhesion of stamens : When the stamens are Free central : Ovules are borne on central axis
united to petals or tepals they are described as which is not attached to ovary wall. e.g. Fig.
epipetalous e.g. Datura, Lily etc.
Syngeneious and Synandrous : When anthers
are united and filaments are free it is known
as syngeny. e.g. Sunflower, stamens are fused
by both filaments and anthers in synandrous Marginal Axile Parietal
conditions e.g. Cucurbita.
4. Gynoecium (G): It is the female reproductive
part of flower and innermost in position. It is
also known as pistil. The individual member
of gynoecium is known as carpel. The number Basal Free central
of carpels may be one to many. If all the
Fig. 9.45 Types of placentation
carpels are fused the condition is described as
syncarpous and if they are free the condition F. Fruit : Angiosperms produce fruit
is described as apocarpous. The polycarpellary after fertilization from ovary. Sometimes
gynoecium can be bicarpellary (two carpels fruit is produced from ovary without
e.g. Datura) tricarpellary (three carpels e.g. fertilization. Such types of fruits are called
Cucurbita), pentacarpellery (five carpels e.g. as parthenocarpic fruits and phenomenon is
H ibiscus) and so on. called as parthenocarpy. E.g Banana, Grapes,
A typical carpel consists of three parts etc. without or with one or more seeds. The fruit
stigma, style and ovary. Stigma is a terminal which develops only from ovary is true fruit or
part of carpel which receives pollen grains eucarp. e.g. Mango. The fruit which develops
during pollination. It helps in germination from ovary and any other floral part is false
of pollen grain. Stigma shows variation in fruit of pseudocarp. e.g. Apple.
structure to suit the pollinating agent. Style is Exocarp
narrow thread like structure that connects ovary
Mesocarp
with stigma. Ovary is basal swollen fertile part
of the carpel. Ovules are produced in ovary on Endocarp
a soft fertile tissue called placenta.
Placentation : The mode of arrangement
of ovules on the placenta within the ovary is Endocarp
(pit)
placentation.
Types of Placentation :
Fig. 9.46 Mango
Marginal : Ovules are placed on the fused
margins of unilocular ovary. e.g. Pea, Bean etc.
Axile : Ovules are placed on the central axis
of a multilocular ovary. e.g. Chinarose, Cotton;
etc
Parietal : Ovules are placed on the inner wall of
unilocular ovary of multicarpellary syncarpus
gynoecium. e.g. Papaya, Cucumber,
Basal : Single ovule is present at the base of
unilocular inferior ovary. e.g. Sunflower, Rice,
Wheat. Fig. 9.47 Apple

111
 Observe and Discuss
Types of fruits

True fruit has a wall (pericarp) and G. Seed : Seed is a reproductive unit that
seeds. Pericarp is further divided in outer developed from fertilized mature ovule. The
epicarp, middle mesocarp and inner endocarp. seed is made up of seed coat and one or two
Fruits can develop from one ovary cotyledons. Outer most covering of a seed is
of one flower. Such fruits are simple fruits. called seed coat, shows outer layers called
Simple fruits are further classified on the basis testa and inner tegmen. Hilum is a scar on
of their pericarp. Those having thin pericarp the seed coat through which seed attach to the
are dry fruits but those with thick pericarp are fruit. Embryo of a seed enclosed within seed
fleshy fruits. In dry fruits the pericarp becomes coat. Embryonal axis consists of radicle and
dry and thin. It breaks open (dehiscent) at plumule. The part of embryonal axis between
maturity. But in some others it does not cotyledon and plumule is epicotyl, while
break open (indehiscent). Achene (Mirabilis), the part between cotyledons and radicle is
caryopsis (Maize) and Cypsella (Sunflower) hypocotyl. The nutritive tissue in a seed called
are indehiscent fruits. Capsule (Lady's finger) endosperm.
and legume (Pea) are dehiscent fruits. In fleshy
9.3 Study of some important families :
fruits berry (Tomato) has a very soft pericarp
but drupe (Coconut) has stony endocarp. Fabaceae : Pea plant belongs to this family. The
Many ovaris of apocarpous gynoeciun plant is either tree shrub or herb. The root shows
can form one fruit. Such fruits are aggregate root nodules. Pea is a erect climber. The leaves
fruits. Aggregate fruits are a collection (Etario) are pinnately compound arranged in alternate
of many varieties. Accordingly they can be phyllotaxy. The inflorescence is racemose
etario of achenes (Strawberry), etario berries type. Flowers are bisexual and zygomorphic.
(Custard apple), etario of follicles (Calotropis), Calyx has five fused sepals (gamosepalous)
etc. arranged in imbricate aestivation. Corolla
Many ovaries of many flowers but of has five free petals (polypetalous) arranged
one inflorescence can form one fruit. Such fruits vexillary aestivation. The petals are unequal
are composite fruits. These fruits develop from in size. The largest petal is vexillum, to small
one inflorescence. The one which develops petal are wings and to smallest petals are
from hypanthodium inflorescence is syconus keel. Androecium has ten stamens arranged
(fig). Sorosis (Pineapple) develops from Catkin in diadelphous condition. Gynoecium is
inflorescence. monocarpellary. Unilocular ovary is superior
Families are group of plants having with many ovules on marginal placenta. Ovary
very distinguished common characters. develops in legume type of fruit. Seeds are non-
endospermic.

112
 ↑
Floral formula : % K(5) C1 + 2 + (2) A(9) + 1 G1 and actinomorphic. Calyx has five fused sepals
Floral diagram : (gamosepalous) arranged in valvate aestivation.
Corolla has five fused petals (gamopetalous)
arranged valvate aestivation. Androecium
has five free epipetalous (adhesion) stamens.
Gynoecium is bicarpellary, syncarpous.
Bilocular ovary is superior with many
ovules arranged in axile placentation on
Stigma Tendrills swollen placenta. Ovary develops in berry or
Petal capsule type of fruit. Seeds are endospermic.
Ovary ↑
Floral formula : ⊕ K(5) C(5) A5 G(2)
Floral diagram :
Style
Sepal L. S. of flower
Leaflets
Wing
Flower

Standard Foliaceous
stipule
Keel
Corolla opened Habit sketch
Flower
Fig. 9.48 Pea plant details
Solanaceae : Plant is herb, shrub or small
tree. The root shows tap root system. The
stem is erect, woody and branched. It is
covered by hairy structures in some plants.
In potato it is underground tuber. The leaves Fruit
are simple arranged in alternate phyllotaxy
with reticulate venation. The inflorescence is
Cymose type. Flowers are solitary, bisexual Fig. 9.49 D atu ra plant

Activity :
Study family Liliaceae, prepare a table of following characteristics.
Character/Part Description
Symmetry of flower
Bisexual/Unisexual
Calyx
Corolla
Androecium
Gynoecium
Aestivation
a. Calyx
b. Corolla
Placentation
Position of ovary
Type of fruit

113
 Exercise
1. Choose correct option 3. Write notes on
A. Which one of the following will grow A. Fusiform root.
better in moist and shady region? B. Racemose inflorescence
a. Opuntia C. Fasciculated tuberous roots
b. Orchid
D. Region of cell maturation
c. Mangroove
d. L otus E. Rhizome
B. A particular plant had a pair of leaves at F. Stolon
each node arranged in one plane. What is G. Leaf venation
the arrangement called? H. Cymose inflorescence
a. Alternate phyllotaxy I. Perianth
b. Decussate phyllotaxy
J. Vexillary aestivation
c. Superposed phyllotaxy
d. Whorled phyllotaxy K. Axile placentation
C. In a particular flower the insertion of 4. Identify the following figures and write
floral whorls was in such a manner, so down the types of leaves arrangement
the ovary was below other three whorls,
but its stigma was taller than other three
whorls. What will you call such flower?
a. Hypogynous
b. Perigynous
c. Inferior ovary
d. Half superior - half inferior
D. Beet and Arum both store food for
perennation. Are the examples for two
different types? 5. Students were on the excursion to a
a. Beet is a stem but Arum is a root botanical garden. They noted following
b. Beet is a root but Arum is a stem observation. Will you be able to help
c. Beet is a stem but Arum is a leaf them in understanding those conditions?
d. Beet is a stem but Arum is an A. A wiry outgrowth was seen on a plant
inflorescence arising from in between the leaf and
stem.
2. Answer the following questions
B. There was a green plant with flat stem,
A. Two of the vegetables we consume are but no leaves. The entire plant was
nothing but leaf bases. Which are they? covered by soft spines.
B. Opuntia has spines but Carissa has thorns. C. Many obliquelyx roots were given out
What is the difference? from the lower nodes, apparently for
C. Teacher described H ibiscus as solitary extra support.
Cyme. What it means? D. Many plants in the marshy region had
upwardly growing roots. They could be
better seen during low tide.

114
 E. A plant had leaves with long leaf apex, 7. Observe the following figures and label the
which was curling around a support. different parts
F. A plant was found growing on other
plant. Teacher said it is not a parasite. It
exhibited two types of roots.
G. While having lunch onion slices were
served to them. Teacher asked which
part of the plant are you eating?
H. Students observed large leaves of coconut
and small leaves of Mimosa. Teacher
asked it what way they are similar? 8. Differentiate with diagramatic
I. Teacher showed them Marigold flower representation.
and said it is not one flower. What the A. Racemose and cymose infloresance
teacher meant? B. Reticulate and parallel venation
J. Students cut open a Papaya fruit and C. Tap root and Adventitious roots
found all the seeds attached to the sides.
Teacher inquired about the possible
placentation of Papaya ovary. Practical / Project :

6. Match the following 1. Collect different leaves from nearby

region and observe variation in margin,
'Group A' 'Group B'
leaf base, apex etc.
2. Find out and make a note of economically
1 A Marginal important plant from family Fabaceae,
Solanaceae and Liliaceae.
3. Collect different leaves from garden and
observe their veins and classify it.
2
B Basal

3
C Axile

4 D Free central

5 E Parietal

115
 10. Animal Tissue

Can you recall? The cells of this tissue are compactly

arranged with little intercellular matrix. Cells
1. What is tissue?
rest on non-cellular basement membrane.
2. Where is squamous epithelial tissue
Cells are polygonal, cuboidal or
located?
columnar in shape. Single nucleus is present
3. Enlist functions of bone.
at the centre or at the base. This tissue is
avascular. It has good capacity of regeneration.
Do you know ? Major function is protection and it also helps in
absorption, transport, filtration and secretion.
Number of cells in human body. Epithelial tissue is classified into two types :
As we know tissue is a group of cells Simple epithelium and Compound epithelium.
having same embryonic origin, structure and Simple epithelium is made up of single layer of
function. Various tissues combine together in cells. Compound epithelium is made up of two
an orderly manner to form large functional unit or more layers of cells. Lowermost layer lies on
called organs. These organs combine together basement membrane.
and form organ-system. The cells are of two A. Simple epithelial tissue :
types, somatic cells and germ cells. The word 1. Squamous epithelial tissue : Cells of this
somatic is derived from the Greek word 'soma' tissue are flat, thin, polygonal with serrated
means 'body'. All body cells of an organism margin. Cells of this tissue fit together like
except sperm and ova are somatic cells. The tiles of footpath. Hence it is called pavement
sperm and ova are germ cells. They belong to epithelium. Prominent spherical or oval nucleus
reproductive system. is present at the centre of the cell. Function :
Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ systems →Body Protection, absorption, transport, filtration,
secretion. It is found in blood vessels, alveoli,
10.1 Histology : The study of the structure coelom, etc.
and arrangement of tissue is called histology.
There are four types of tissues present in animals Apical surface
namely epithelial, connective, muscular and
nervous. Let us study each type in details.
Nucleus
Know the scientist
Marie Francois Basement
Xavier Bichat (1771- membrane
1802), French anatomist Basolateral surface
and pathologist discovered
tissue. He was known as Fig. 10.1 Squamous epithelial tissue
‘Father of Histology’.
2. Cuboidal epithelial tissue : In this tissue,
Marie Francois Xavier
the cells are cuboidal in shape with a spherical
10.2 Epithelial tissue (epi : above, thelium nucleus at the centre. Function : Absorption,
: layer of cells) secretion. It is found in lining of pancreatic duct,
Epithelial tissue forms a covering on salivary duct, proximal and distal convoluted
inner and outer surface of body and organs. tubules of nephron.

116
 5. Glandular epithelium : Here, the cells may
be columnar, cuboidal or pyramidal in shape.
Nucleus is large and situated towards the base.
Secretory granules are present in the cytoplasm.
Nucleus Cytoplasm The glands may be unicellular (globlet
Connective tissue Basement membrane cells of intestine) or multicellular (salivary
gland) depending on the number of cells.
Fig. 10.2 Cuboidal epithelial tissue Depending on mode of secretion, multicellular
3. Columnar epithelium : Columnar epithelial glands can be classified as duct bearing
cells are tall, pillar like. Inner ends of the cells glands (exocrine glands) and ductless glands
are narrow while free ends are broad and flat. (endocrine glands).
Free surface shows large number of microvilli. Microvilli
Nucleus is oval and is present in the lower half Mucus
of the cell. Function : Secretion, absorption. Cytoplasm
It is found in inner lining of intestine, gall Goblet cell
Nucleus
bladder, gastric glands, intestinal glands, etc.
Cell membrane
Microvilli Absorptive cell
Non- Basement
Mucus in membrane
ciliated goblet cell
Fig. 10.5 Glandular epithelial tissue
Simple Absorptive
columnar cell Exocrine glands pour their secretions
Basement at a specific sites e.g. Salivary gland, sweat
epithelium
membrane glands etc. Endocrine glands release their
Connective tissue secretions directly into blood stream. e.g.
Fig. 10.3 Columnar epithelial tissue thyroid gland, pituitary gland, etc. Function :
Secrete the musus that trap the dust particles,
4. Ciliated epithelium : Cells of this tissue are lubricates the inner surface of respiratory and
cuboidal or columnar. Free ends of cells are digestive tracts, secretion of enzymes and
broad while narrow ends rest on a basement hormones.
membrane. Free ends show hair like cilia.
6. Sensory epithelial tissue : It is composed of
Nucleus is oval and placed at basal end of cell.
modified form of columnar cells and elongated
Function : To create a movement of materials in
neurosensory cells. Sensory hairs are present at
contact in a specific direction and thus able to
the free end of the cell. Function : It perceive
prevent entry of foreign particles in the trachea,
external as well as internal stimuli. These are
push the ovum through oviduct. It is found in
found in nose (Olfactory) Ear (Auditory hair
inner lining of buccal cavity of frog, nasal
cells) Eye (photoreceptors).
cavity, trachea, oviduct of vertebrates, etc.
Olfactory Olfactory tract
bulb Mitral cell
Cilia
Axon
Cytoplasm Cribriform
Supporting
plate
cell
Nucleus Receptor cell
Epithelium Dendrite
Basement
membrane Cilia

Fig. 10.4 Ciliated epithelial tissue Fig. 10.6 Sensory epithelial tissue

117
7. Germinal epithelial tissue : Cells of this
epithelium divide meiotically to produce Use your brain power
haploid gamets. Ex. : Lining of seminiferous When do the transitional cells change
tubules, inner lining of ovary. their shape ?
B. Compound epithelial tissue :
a. Stratified epithelium : b. Transitional epithelium:
Nucleus is present in Structure of transitional
stratum germinativum. epithelium is same like
Cells at free surface stratified epithelium. The
become flat and lack cells can undergo a change
nucleus called stratum in their shape and structure
corneum. depending on degree of
Function : Protection stretch.
Ex. : Epidermis of skin, Function : Distension of
oesophagus cornea, organ
vagina, rectum. Fig. 10.7 Compound epithelial tissues Ex. : Urinary bladder

Cell junctions : The epithelial cells are connected to each other laterally as well as to the basement
membrane by junctional complexes called cell junctions.

Gap Junctions
(GJs) :
This intercellular
Tight junctions
connection allows
(TJs): These
passage of ions and
junctions maintain
small molecules
cell polarity, prevent
between cells as
lateral diffusion of
well as exchange of
proteins and ions.
chemical messages
between cells.

Hemidesmosomes (HDs) Adherens Junctions

: Allow the cells to strongly (AJs) : It is
adhere to the underlying involved in various
basement membrane. Desmosomes (Ds) : signaling pathways
These maintain tissue These provide mechanical and transcriptional
homeostasis by signaling. strength to epithelial regulations.
tissue, cardiac muscles
and meninges.

Chart 10.8 Types of Cell junction :

118
 Can you tell? Macrophage Matrix

1. Explain basic structure of epithelial tis-

sue and mention its types. Fibroblast
2. Epithelial tissue has good capacity of
regenereation. Give reason.
3. Write a note on glandular epithelial
tissue.
Collagen fibres Yellow Mast cell
4. How do cell junctions help in functioning
(white fibres) fibres
of epithelial tissue?
10.3 Connective tissue : It is most widely Fig. 10.9 Areolar tissue
spread tissue in the body. It binds, supports
and provides strength to other body tissues They produce fibres as well as
and organs. It consists of a variety of cells polysaccharides that form the ground
and fibres. These are embedded in the substance or matrix of the tissue. Mast cells are
abundant intercellular substance called matrix. oval cells that secrete heparin and histamine.
Connective tissue protects the vital organs of Macrophages are amoeboid, phagocytic cells.
the body. It is highly vascular except cartilage. Fat cells, also called adipocytes have eccentric
It acts as packing material and also helps in nucleus. These cells store fat. This tissue acts
healing process. as packing material, helps in healing process
Connective tissue is classified on the and connects different organs or layers of
basis of matrix present, as connective tissue tissues. It is found under the skin, between
proper, supporting connective tissue and fluid muscles, bones, around organs, blood vessels
connective tissue. Connective tissue proper is and peritoneum.
further classified as loose connective tissue (ex. 2. Adipose tissue (adipo : fat) : In this
areolar connective tissue and adipose tissue) tissue large number of adipocytes are present.
and dense connective tissue (ex. ligament and Cells are rounded or polygonal. Nucleus is
tendon). Supporting connective tissue also shifted to periphery because fats are stored in
called skeletal tissue includes cartilage and the cell in the form of droplets. Matrix is less
bone. Fluid connective tissue includes blood and fibres and blood vessels are few in number.
and lymph.
A. Connective Tissue Proper
Loose connective tissue : Matrix of loose Empty
connective tissue is semisolid, jelly like, viscous adipose Nucleus
Cytoplasm
cell
matter made up of gelatin. Matrix

1. Areolar tissue (Areola : air pockets): Fine white fibres

Matrix of this tissue contains two types Fat globule
of fibres namely white fibres and yellow fibres.
Blood vessel
White fibres are made up of collagen. They
give tensile strength to the tissue. Yellow fibres Yellow fibre
are made up of elastin and are elastic in nature. Adipose cell
The tissue also contains four different types
of cells; Fibroblast the large flat cells having
branching processes. Fig. 10.10 Adipose tissue

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 There are two types of adipose tissue Ligaments are made up of elastic or
: white adipose tissue appears opaque due to yellow fibres arranged in regular pattern. These
presence of large number of adipocytes. It is fibres make ligaments elastic. They are present
commonly seen in adults. Brown adipose tissue at joints. They prevent dislocation of bones.
is reddish brown in colour due to presence of In dense irregular connective tissue fibres and
large number of blood vessels. fibroblast are not arranged in orderly manner.
Function : Adipose tissue is a good insulator, This tissue is found in dermis of skin.
acts as a shock absorber and a good source of
C. Supporting Connective Tissue
energy because it stores fat. The tissue is found
It is characterized by presence of hard
in sole and palm region as well as around
matrix. It is classified into two types cartilage
organs like kidney.
and bone.
Cartilage : This is a pliable yet tough tissue.
Know your body
It forms endoskeleton of cartilagenous fishes
Achilles Tendon : Achilles Tendon connects like shark. It is widely distributed in vertebrate
the calf muscles to heel bone. Pain at the animals. In cartilage, abundant matrix is
back of ankle or lower calf may signal a delimited by a sheath of collagenous fibres called
problem with an Achilles Tendon. Athletes perichondrium. Matrix is called chondrin. Just
who participate in track and field may face below the perichondrium, immature cartilage
Achilles tendon injury. Most tendon injuries forming cells called chondroblast are present.
occur near joints such as the shoulder, elbow, Chondroblasts mature and get converted into
knee and ankle. chondrocytes. Chondrocytes are seen scattered
in the matrix. Thay are enclosed in lacunae.
B. Dense Connective Tissue Each lacuna contains 2-8 chondrocytes.
In this tissue, fibres and fibroblasts are Based upon the type of matrix, there are
compactly arranged. There are two types, four types of cartilage as explained below.
namely dense regular and dense irregular
Hyaline cartilage (Hyline : Glass like) : In
tissue.
this type of cartilage, perichondrium is present.
In dense regular connective tissue, Matrix is bluish white and gel like.
collagen fibres are arranged in parallel manner.
Very fine collagen fibres and
Two major examples of this tissue are tendons
chondrocytes are present. Hyaline cartilage
and ligaments. Tendons connect skeletal
is elastic and compressible in nature. It acts
muscles to bones. To give tensile strength to the
as a good shock absorber as well as provide
tissue, tendons contain bundles of white fibres.
flexibility. It reduces friction. It is found at the
E.g. Achielles tendon, Hamstring tendon.
ends of long bones, epiglottis, trachea, ribs,
Flexer larynx and hyoid.
Extensor
muscle muscle
Perichondrium
Epiphyseal
bone Chondroblast

Matrix
Tendon
Ligament Lacunae

Chondrocyte
Fig. 10.11 Ligament
Fig. 10.12 Hyline Cartilage

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Elastic cartilage : In elastic cartilage Each lamella contains fluid filled
perichondrium is present. Matrix contain cavities called lacunae. Fine canals that
elastic fibres. Chondrocytes are few in number. radiate from each lacuna are called canaliculi.
It gives support and maintains shape of the Canaliculi of adjecent lamellae connect with
body part. It is found in ear lobe, tip of nose, each other as they traverse through the matrix.
etc. In the lacunae osteoblasts, active bone cells
and osteocytes, the inactive bone cells and
Perichondrium osteoclasts are present. Mammalian bone
shows peculiar haversian system. Haversian
Matrix canal encloses an artery, vein and nerves.
Observe figure 10.15 to understand haversian
Lacuna system. According to presence of matrix there
are two types of bones present in human body.
Chondrocyte In spongy bones, haversian system is absent.
Reticular matrix is arranged in the form of
Elastic fibre
trabeculae. It contains red bone marrow. In
Fig. 10.13 Elastic cartilage compact bones, matrix shows haversian
system without any space between lamellae.
Fibrocartilage : Perichondrium is absent in
fibrocartilage. Matrix contains bundles of
collagen fibres and few chondrocytes, scattered
in fibres. Fibrocartilage is most rigid cartilage.
It maintains position of vertebrae. Intervertebral
Lacuna
discs are made up of fibrocartilage. It is also Canaliculi
found at pubic symphysis.
Venule Osteocyte
Chondroblasts
Arteriole
Matrix Canaliculi
Lacuna Central canal
Lamellae
White fibres
External
circumferential
lamellae Osteon
Periosteum
Fig. 10.14 White fibrous cartilage Central canal
Perforating
Calcified cartilage : This type of cartilage fibers
becomes rigid due to deposition of salts in the
matrix. This reduces flexibility of joints in old
age e.g. Head of long bones.
Bone : Bone is characterised by hard matrix
called Ossein. Ossein is made up of mineral Trabeculae of
Blood vessels Perforating Central
salt hydroxy-apatite (Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2). Outer canals canal spongy bone
tough membrane called periosteum encloses
the matrix. Blood vessels and nerves pierce
Fig. 10.15 Bone detailed structure
through periosteum. Matrix is arranged in the
form of concentric layers called lamellae.

121
 Can you tell? Striations
1. Give reason.
a. Bone is stronger than cartilage.
b. As we grow old, cartilage becomes
rigid.
Nucleus
2. Explain histological structure of
mammalian bone.

D. Fluid Connective tissue (Vascular)

Blood and lymph are fluid connective
Z line Z line
tissue present in the body of an animal. You
will study these tissues in details in chapter
'Circulation' in class XII.
Sacromere 1. Sacromere is a
Can you recall? repeating unit of
contraction within
1. How many skeletal muscles are present the myofibril
in human body ? 2. The myofibril
can be seen to be
2. How can exercise improve your muscu- made up of repeating
lar system ? Sacromere units of overlaping
myofilaments
10.4 Muscular tissue :
The cells of this tissue are elongated Fig. 10.16 Muscular tissue
and are called muscle fibres. Each muscle
fibre is covered by a membrane sarcolemma.
Each muscle fibre is a syncytial fibre
Cytoplasm of muscle cell is called sarcoplasm.
that contains several nuclei. The cell membrane
Large number of contractile fibrils called
called sarcolemma delimits the cytoplasm
myofibrils are present in sarcoplasm. One
called sarcoplasm. Sarcoplasm contains large
or many nuclei are present in muscle cell
number of parallely arranged myofibrils hence
depending on the type. Myofibrils are made up
nuclei get shifted to periphery. Each myofibril
of proteins, actin and myosin. Muscle fibres
is made up of repeated functional units called
contract and decrease in length on stimulation.
sarcomeres. Each sarcomere has a dark band
Hence, muscular tissue is known as contractile
called anisotropic or 'A' band in the centre. In
tissue. It is vascular tissue and is innervated by
the centre of 'A' band is light area called 'H'
nerves too. Muscle cells contain large number
zone or 'Hensen's Zone'. In the centre of 'H'
of mitochondria.
zone there is 'M' line. 'A' bands are made up
A. Types of Muscular Tissue of myosin as well as actin. On either side of
1. Skeletal muscles : These muscles are 'A' band are light bands called isotropic or 'I'
found attached to bones. Skeletal muscles bands that contain only actin. Myosin are thick
consists of large number of fasciculi which and dark coloured while actin filaments are
are wrapped by connective tissue sheath thin and light coloured. Adjacent light bands
called epimysium or fascia. Each individual are separated by 'Z' line (Z - Zwischenscheibe
fasciculus is covered by perimysium. Each line). Dark and light bands on neighbouring
fasiculus in turn consists of many muscle fibres myofibrils correspond with each other hence
called myofibres. the muscle gets striated appearance.

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 Skeletal muscles show quick and strong These are found in the walls of visceral
voluntary contractions. They bring about organs and blood vessels. Hence they are
voluntary movements of the body. You will also called as visceral muscles. They may be
study about working of skeletal muscles in the arranged lengthwise (longitudenal muscles) or
chapter movement and locomotion. around circumference (circular muscles) of any
organ.
Red and white muscles : On the basis of
amount of a red pigment, skeletal muscles 3. Cardiac Muscles : Muscles of this
are of two main types – Red and white. tissue show characters of both striated and
Red muscles contain very high amount of non-striated fibres. Sarcolemma is not distinct.
myoglobin while white muscles contain very Hence uni-nucleate muscle fibres appear to
low amount of this pigment. be multi-nucleate. Adjacent muscle fibres
Myoglobin is an iron containing join together to give branched appearance
red coloured pigment only in muscles. It to the tissue. Points of adhesion of muscle
consists of one haeme and one polyepeptide fibres are formed by transverse thickenings of
chain. It can carry one molecule of oxygen. sarcolemma called intercalated discs.
Due to presence of myoglobin, the muscles
can obtain their oxygen from two sources, Striations
myoglobin and haemoglobin.
Nucleus
2. Smooth or Non-striated muscles :
These muscles are present in the form of sheets
or layers. Each muscle cell is spindle shaped
or fusiform. The fibres are unbranched having Juction between
single nucleus at the centre. Sarcoplasm adjacent cells
contains myofibrils. Myofibrils are made up of
contractile proteins actin and myosin. Smooth
muscles contain less myosin and more actin
as compared to skeletal muscles. Striations
are absent. These muscles undergo slow and
sustained involuntary contractions. They are Fig. 10.18 Cardiac muscles
innervated by autonomous nervous system.
These junctions at places allow cardiac
muscles to contract as a unit. i.e. It helps in
Plasma membrane quick transfer of stimulus. The cardiac muscles
are striated involuntary muscles.
Some mammalian cardiac muscles are
Myofibrils
modified are capable of generating impulse on
Nucleus their own. Hence mamalian heart is a myogenic
heart. In some animals, cardiac muscles need
Sarcoplasm
neural stimulus to initiate the contraction. Such
a heart is called neurogenic heart. Cardiac
muscles form myocardium of the heart wall.

Can you tell?

Compare and contrast between vari-
Fig. 10.17 Smooth muscle ous types of muscles.

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B. Nervous Tissue :
Nervous tissue is composed of nerve Dendrites
cells or neurons and neuroglia. Neuron is
Cell body
the structural and functional unit of nervous
Dendron
system. Neuroglial cell are non-nervous
Neuroplasm
supporting cells that fill in the interneuronal
Nucleolus
space. The neuroglial cells are capable of Nucleus
regeneration and division but neurons are not
capable of regeneration because of lack of Axon
Nucleus of
centriole. Intercellular matrix is absent in the Schwann
neural tissue. Neuron is an impulse generating Neurilemma

Impulse to CNS
cell
and impulse conducting unit. They bring about
quick communication within the body. Neurons Schwann cell
change action potential of their membrane on Node of Ranvier
receiving any external stimulus. This property
of neuron is called excitability. They also carry Telodendron
a wave of electric impulse from dendron to
axon, the processes of neuron. This is called
conductivity.
A neuron is made up of cyton or cell
body. It contains granular cytoplasm called
neuroplasm and centrally placed nucleus. Fig. 10.19 Structure of Multipolar Neuron
Neuroplasm contains mitochondria, Golgi
apparatus, RER and granules called Nissl’s Afferent Neuron : It carries impulses from
granules. They are made up of RNA. Cell body sense organ to central nervous system (CNS).
gives out two types of processes namely dendron Hence it is also called sensory neuron. It is
and axon. Dendrons are short, branched, found in dorsal root of spinal cord.
processes. The fine branches of dendron are Efferent Neuron : It carries impulses from
called dendrites. They carry impulse towards CNS to effector organ. Hence it is also called
cyton. motor neuron. It is found in ventral root of
An axon is single, elongated, cylindrical spinal cord.
process. Axon is bounded by axolemma. The Interneuron or association neuron : These
protoplasm of the axon is axoplasm. It contains are located between sensory and motor
large number of mitochondria and neurofibrils. neurons. These perform processing, integration
Axon is enclosed in a fatty sheath called of sensory impulses and activate appropritate
myelin sheath. Outer covering of myelin sheath motor neuron to generate motor impulse.
is neurilemma. Myelin sheath and neurilemma Depending on the presence or absence
are parts of another cell called Schwann's cell. of myelin sheath, neurons are classified into
Schwann cell shows nucleus at periphery. The two types. i.e. myelinated and non-myelinated
myelin sheath is absent at intervals along the nerve fibre.
axon and the place is called Node of Ranvier. Myelinated or medullated nerve fibres
The terminal arborization of an axon is called have a insulating fatty layer called myelin
telodendron. sheath around the axon. This makes the fibre
Based on their functions, Neurons are appear white in colour. This sheath is secreted by
classified into three types Schwann cells. The sheath is not continuous. It
is interrupted at nodes of Ranvier. Neurilemma
surrounds the axon.

124
 The impulse is conducted at a faster 1. Unipolar/Monopolar Neuron : It has a
rate in such nerve fibres because it jumps from single process originating from cyton. Both
one node to the next. Such transmission of axon and dendron arise from cyton at one
impulse is called saltatory conduction. Myelin point. They conduct impulses to central
sheath prevents the loss of the impulse during nervous system. Ex. Neurons of dorsal root
conduction. Cranial nerves of vertebrates are ganglion of spinal nerve.
myelinated. Schwann cell of a non-medullated 2. Bipolar Neuron : It has two processes. A
nerve fibre does not secrete myelin sheath. single dendron and an axon are given off
These fibres are grey in colour due to absence from opposite poles of the cyton. They bring
of fatty layer. Conduction of impulse in a non- about transmission of special senses like
myelinated fibre is slower as compared to sight, smell, taste, hearing etc. Ex. Neurons
myelinated nerve fibre. Nerves of autonomous of retina of eye, olfactory epithelium.
nervous system are non-myelinated. Functional 3. Multipolar Neuron : Cyton is star shaped
contact between axonal ends and dendrites of and gives out more than two processes.
adjacent neurons is called a synapse. You will There is only one axon and remaining are
learn about synapse in chapter control and dendrons. Axon initiates from a funnel
coordination, class-XII. shaped area called axon-hillock.

Internet my friend
Learn about transmission of impulse Can you tell?
from one neuron to another. 1. Differentiate between medullated and
non medullated fibre.
2. Classify neuron on the basis of number
of processes given out from cyton with
examples.

a. Multipolar neuron Observe and Discuss

Explain the structure of nerve.

A
b. Bipolar neuron

Covering of a spinal nerve

Axon
Myelin sheath
B Endoneurium
Perineurium
c. Unipolar neuron Epineurium

Fig. 10.19 Nervous tissue Blood

vessel
Based on the number of processes Fasicle
given out from cyton, neurons are classified
in to three types.

125
 Exercise
1. Choose correct option
F. Supriya stepped out into the bright street
A. The study of structure and arrangement from a cinema theatre. In response, her
of tissue is called as _____________ eye pupil shrunk. Identify the muscle
a. anatomy b. histology responsible for the same.
c. microbiology d. morphology
3. Answer the following quetions
B. ____________ is a gland which is both A. What is cell junction? Describe different
exocrine and endocrine. types of cell junctions.
a. Sebaceous b. Mammary
B. With help of neat labelled diagram,
c. Pancreas d. Pituitary
describe the structure of areolar
C. _____________ cell junction is mediated connective tissue.
by integrin. C. Describe the structure of multipolar
a. Gap b. Hemidesmosomes neuron.
c. Desmosomes d. Adherens
D. Distinguish between smooth muscles
D. The protein found in cartilage is _______. and skeletal muscles.
a. ossein b. haemoglobin 4. Complete the following table
c. chondrin d. renin
Cell / Tissue / Muscles Functions
E. Find the odd one out 1. Cardiac muscles ----------
a. Thyroid gland b. Pituitary gland 2. ---------- Connect skeletal
c. Adrenal gland d. Salivary gland muscles to bones.
3. Chondroblast cells ----------
2. Answer the following questions
4. ---------- Secrete heparin
A. Identify and name the type of tissues in
and histamine
the following:
a. Inner lining of the intestine 5. Match the following
b. Heart wall 'A' Group 'B' Group
c. Skin 1. Muscle a. Perichondrium
d. Nerve cord 2. Bone b. Sarcolemma
e. Inner lining of the buccal cavity 3. Nerve cell c. Periosteum
B. Why do animals in cold regions have a 4. Cartilage d. Neurilemma
layer of fat below their skin?
C. What enables the ear pinna to be folded Practical / Project :
and twisted while the nose tip can’t be 1. To study the different tissues with
twisted? the help of permanent slides in your
D. Sharad touched a hot plate by mistake college laboratory.
and took away his hand quickly. Can 2. Collect the information about the
you recognize the tissue and its type exercise to keep muscles healthy and
responsible for it? strong.
E. Priya got injured in an accident and hurt
her long bone and later on she was also
diagnosed with anaemia. What could be
the probable reason?

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 11. Study of Animal Type - Cockroach

Can you recall? Exoskeleton : Body of cockroach is protected

by hard, waxy, tough, non-living exoskeleton.
1. How many different types of animals are
Exoskeleton is formed by a nitrogenous
present around us?
polysaccharide-chitin that provides strength,
2. Can a person complete detailed study of
elasticity and surface area for attachment of
each of those animals?
muscles. Each body segment of cockroach is
3. Which phylum is most diverse and
covered by four chitinous plates (sclerites)
populous?
namely, dorsal tergum, ventral sternum and
11.1 Habit and habitat : two lateral pleurons.
Cockroaches are omnipresent i.e. Filiform
Head
present everywhere, all over the world. It antennae
prefers damp and moist places, crevices to live. Compound eye
Pronotum Tegmina
It is omnivorous, nocturnal and cursorial. Mesothrox
Periplaneta americana, Blatta orientalis and Prothoracic leg Hind
Blatta germanica are the three common species Metathorax wing
of cockroach found in India. Mesothoracic Abdomen
11.2 Systematic Position : leg
Anal cerci
Kingdom : Animalia (Cell wall absent, Metathoracic leg
heterotrophic nutrition.)
Fig. 11.1 Dorsal view
Phylym : Arthropoda (Jointed appendages are
present, segmented body, chitinous exoskeleton. Head
Antenna
Class : Insecta (Two pairs of wings and three
pairs of walking legs are present.) Compound eye Prothorax
Genus : Periplaneta (Nocturnal, straight Mesothorax
wings.) Fore leg Middle leg
Species : americana (Origin is in Continent of Wing
America)
Abdomen
Curiosity box:
1. Why do insects need moulting? Hind leg
Anal cercus
2. What is the difference between simple
and compound eyes? Fig. 11.2 Ventral view
Body Division : Body is divided into three
11.3 External morphology :
regions namely head, thorax and abdomen.
Shape and size : Cockroach has an elongated, Head is attached at right angles to thorax by a
bilaterally symmetrical and dorso-ventrally thin, narrow, movable neck or cervix.
flattened body. They are triploblastic,
Head : It is formed by the fusion of six
eucoelomate and truly segmented animals.
segments. It is triangular or ovate in shape. It
Body cavity is called as haemocoel, filled with
is highly mobile due to flexible neck. It bears
haemolymph.
a pair of long antennae, a pair of compound
Coloration : Cockroach is glistening brown or
eyes and mouth parts adapted for chewing and
red brown in colour.
biting of food.

127
 Ocellar spot ii. Mandibles (True jaws) : These are two dark,
Compound eye hard, chitinous structures with serrated median
margins. They are present on either side, behind
the labrum. They perform coordinated side-
wise movements to cut and crush the food. This
movement is effected with the help of adductor
and abductor muscles
Maxilla iii. Maxillae (Accessory jaws) : These are
also called as first pair of maxillae. These are
Mandible
situated on the either side of mouth behind the
Labrum mandibles. Each maxilla consist of sclerites
like cardo, stipes, galea, lacinia and maxillary
palps. Maxillary palps act as tactile organs.
Labium The maxillae hold food, help the mandibles
Fig. 11.3 Head for mastication. Maxillae are also used for
cleaning the antennae and front legs.
1. Antennae : Also called as feelers. There are iv. Labium (lower lip) : It is also called as
filamentous, long, segmented structures that second maxilla which covers the pre-oral cavity
can be moved in all directions. They are lodged from ventral side and is firmly attached to the
in membranous pits called antennal sockets. posterior part of head. It has labial palps which
They are tactile (touch) as well as olfactory is three jointed and sensory in function. It is
(smell) organs, useful in locating the food useful in pushing the chewed food in the pre-
material in the vicinity. oral cavity and also prevents the loss of food
2. Fenestrae are also called as ocellar spots falling from the mandibles during the chewing.
situated at the base of each antenna and they v. Hypopharynx (Tongue) : In front of the
appear as white spots. labium and between first maxillae, there is a
some what cylindrical single structure called
3. Compound eyes : They are paired, dark,
hypopharynx or lingua. A salivary duct opens
kidney shaped structures placed on lateral
at the base of this structure. Lingua bears
sides of the head and are made up of large
comb-like plates called super-lingua on either
number of ommatidia (singular ommatidium).
side. It is useful in the process of feeding and
Ommatidia are structural and functional units
mixing of saliva with food.
of compound eye, each forming an image of
very small part of visual field. Collectively,
compound eye produces a mosaic image.
4. Mouth parts : Cockroach has pre-oral cavity Grinding Labrum
region
in front of mouth in which foods is received.
Incising
It is bounded by chewing and biting type of
Mandible region Mandible
mouth parts. These are movable, segmented
appendages which assist in ingestion of food. Hypopharynx
Mouth parts of cockroach comprise of....
i. Labrum (Upper lip) : It is single flap-like
movable part which covers the mouth from
upper side. It forms an anterior wall of pre-oral
cavity. It is useful in holding of the food during
feeding. Maxilla Labium Maxilla

Fig. 11.4 Mouth parts

128
Thorax : Thorax is three segmented. Anterior Laterally, tergum is jointed to sternum
segment is prothorax, middle mesothorax and by soft cuticle called pleura. The posterior
posterior metathorax. Thorax bears three pairs segments are telescoped in. Due to this, eighth
of walking legs ventrally (one at each segment) and ninth terga get overlapped by the seventh.
and two pairs of wings dorsally (attached to The tenth tergum projects backward. It is
mesothoracic and metathoracic segment). deeply notched. The tenth tergum also bears a
Legs : Three pairs of walking legs are present pair of small, many jointed anal cerci. In the
on ventral side. Each leg has five podomeres male, the abdomen is narrow and tapering than
namely coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia and that in female. In male, the ninth sternum also
tarsus. Tarsus is the last segment and is made up bears a pair of short, unjointed anal style.
of five movable segments or tarsomeres. Last 11.4 Body cavity : A body cavity or true
tarsomere bears a pair of claws and cushion- coelom is present around the viscera. Because
like arolium helpful in clinging. of the open type of circulation, the body cavity
is filled up with blood. Hence, it is called
Trochanter haemocoel. In the haemocoel, fat bodies are
Coxa
seen. It is in the form of loose, whitish mass
Femur
of tissue. The fat body is made up of large,
polygonal cells which contain fat globules,
proteins and sometimes glycogen.
Tibia 11.5 Digestive system of cockroach :
Digestive system of cockroach consists
of mouth parts, alimentary canal and a pair of
salivary glands.
Alimentary canal is a long (6-7 cm) tube
Tarsus
of different diameters and two openings.
Alimentary canal is divisible into three
regions as Foregut (stomodaeum), Mid-gut
Fig. 11.5 Leg of cockroach (mesenteron) and Hindgut (proctodaeum).
Wings : Two pairs of wings as forewings Pharynx
and hindwings are present on dorsal side.
Forewings are first pair of dark, opaque, thick, Salivary gland
leathery wings which are protective in function. Salivary reservoir
Hindwings are thin, broad, membranous, Oesophagus
delicate and transparent. These are attached
to tergum of metathorax. These are helpful in Crop
flight and hence are also called as true wings. Gizzard
Hepatic caeca
Spiracles : These are a series of slit-like Mesenteron
openings on either side the body. In all, there or midgut
are ten pairs - two on thorax and eight on Malpighian
abdomen. The spiracles let the air into and out tubules
Rectum
of the tubes called trachea. lleum
Colon
Abdomen : The abdomen is elongated and
made up of ten segments. Each segment has a Fig. 11.6 Digestive system of Cockroach
dorsal tergum and ventral sternum.

129
Mouth : Mouth / pre-oral chamber is a narrow Hind-gut (Proctodaeum) : Hindgut consists
space bounded by mouth parts. Hypopharynx of ileum, colon and rectum. Ileum is short and
is present at the centre of mouth. Salivary duct narrow part of hind-gut. Malpighian tubules
opens at the base of hypopharynx. Mouth opens open in the anterior lumen of ileum, near the
into foregut. junction of mid-gut with hind-gut. Posterior
Fore-gut (Stomodaeum) : region of ileum contains sphincter. Ileum
Foregut consists of pharynx, sends nitrogenous wastes and undigested food
oesophagus, crop and gizzard. Pharynx is very towards colon.
short, narrow but muscular tube. It contains Colon is longer and wider part of hind-gut.
taste sensillae. It leads to oesophagus. It sends the waste material towards rectum.
It reabsorbs water from wastes as per need.
Oesophagus is slightly long and narrow Rectum is oval or spindle-shaped, terminal
tube. It opens in crop. Crop is large, pear- part of hind-gut. It contains six rectal pads
shaped sac like organ. It temporarily stores the along internal surface for absorption of water.
food and then sends it to gizzard. Rectum opens outside by anus. Anus is present
Gizzard (Proventriculus) is small, on ventral side of 10th segment. Anus is last/
spherical organ. Internally, it is provided with posterior opening of digestive system. It gives
a circlet of six chitinous teeth and backwardly out undigested food.
directed bristles. Teeth are responsible for
crushing the food. Bristles help in filtering the Salivary Glands : Cockroach has a pair of
food. Foregut ends with gizzard. salivary glands which secrete saliva. Each
gland consists of two glandular lobes and one
receptacle or reservoir. Glandular lobes consists
of many irregular-shaped and white lobules.
Longitudinal These lobules secrete saliva. Each gland has
groove a salivary duct. Both ducts unite together to
form a common salivary duct. Receptacle of
Circular each gland is thin-walled, elongated, sac-like
muscles
structure. Each receptacle has a duct. These
ducts unite to form common reservoir duct.
Teeth Both common ducts i.e. common salivary duct
and common reservoir duct unite together to
form common efferent salivary duct. Efferent
salivary duct opens at the base of tongue or
Fig. 11.7 T. S. of Gizzard hypopharynx.
Hypopharynx
Mid-gut (Mesenteron) : Midgut consists Common efferent salivary
of stomach and hepatic caecae. Stomach Lobular canal
Common
(ventriculus) is straight, short and narrow. It is salivary Common
reservor Reservoir or
duct salivary receptacle
lined by glandular epithelium. Which secretes duct duct
Reservoir
digestive enzymes. Hence, stomach is mainly duct
responsible for digestion and absorption.
Hepatic caecae are thin, transparent, short, Salivary duct
blind (closed) and hollow tubules. Hepatic Glandular part
caecae secrete digestive enzymes and thus help
in digestion of food. Fig. 11.10 Salivary glands of Cockroach

130
Food and digestion : Cockroach is omnivorous. Sinuses : Coelom of cockroach is gets divided
It feeds upon plant and animal material. It has into three sinuses as pericardial, perivisceral
chewing and biting type of mouth parts, that and perineural sinus. Pericardial sinus is
chew the food and push it into alimentary dorsal, very small and contains dorsal vessel.
canal. As food passes through the alimentary Perivisceral sinus is middle and largest. It
canal, it is digested and finally undigested food contains fat bodies and almost all major visceral
is eliminated through anus. organs of alimentary canal and reproductive
system. Perineural sinus is ventral, small and
Do you know? contains ventral nerve cord. It is continuous
Cockroaches eat young cockroach. into legs. All the three sinuses communicate
Such tendancy is called Cannibalism. with each other through pores present between
two successive points of attachments of
11.6 Circulatory system or blood vascular diaphragms.
system:
Dorsal blood vessel : This is present in
Cockroach has open type of circulatory
pericardial sinus, just below the tergum. It is
system that consists of colourless blood
divisible into posterior heart and anterior aorta
(haemolymph), a dorsal blood vessel (heart
(dorsal aorta / cephalic vessel). Heart is about
and dorsal aorta) and haemocoel.
2.5cm long, narrow, muscular tube that is open
A. Haemolymph : Haemolymph of cockroach anteriorly and closed posteriorly. It starts from
is without any pigment; hence it is colourless. 9th abdominal segment and extends anteriorly
It consists of plasma and seven types of blood upto 1st thoracic segment. It is divisible into
cells / haemocytes. Plasma consists of water thirteen chambers. Ten chambers are in
with some dissolved organic and inorganic abdominal region and three are in thoracic
solutes. It is rich in nutrients and nitrogenous region. Each chamber has a pair of vertical slit
wests like uric acid. like incurrent aperture / opening called ostium
(pl. - ostia). Ostia are present along lateral side
Use your brain power
in posterior region of first 12 chambers.
Why body cavity of cockroach is Each ostium has lip-like valves that
called as haemocoel? allow flow of blood from sinus to heart only.
B. Haemocoel : Body cavity (coelom) of Heart is continued by a short, thin walled vessel
cockroach is divided into three sinuses due called as dorsal aorta. It lies in head region and
to two diaphragms i.e. dorsal and ventral opens in the haemocoel.
diaphragm.
Dorsal and ventral diaphragms are Anterior aorta
thin fibromuscular septa (sing.—septum). It
remains attached to terga along lateral sides at
Alary muscles
intermittent points.
Dorsal diaphragm has 12 pairs (2
thoracic and 10 abdominal) of fan like alary
muscles. Alary muscles are triangular with
pointed end attached to terga at lateral side
and broad end lies between heart and dorsal
diaphragm. Ventral diaphragm is flat and Chambers of heart
present just above the ventral nerve cord.
Laterally, it is attached to sterna at intermittent Fig. 11.11 Circulatory System
points.

131
Blood circulation in cockroach : Spiracles : Spiracles are respiratory openings.
Blood circulates between sinuses and They are paired, present on ventro-lateral side
heart due to contraction and relaxation of heart of body, in pleural membrane. Cockroaches
and alary muscles. Heart alternately contracts have two pairs of thoracic and eight pairs of
(systole) and relaxes (diastole). After diastole, abdominal spiracles. The spiracles open into a
there is a third phase in the heart cycle known series of air sacs from which the tubes called
as diastasis. Heart remains in expanded state trachea arise.
during diastasis. Trachea : The trachea form a definite pattern of
During diastole, alary muscles contract, branching tubes arranged transversely as well
making the dorsal diaphragm flat. As a result as longitudinally. They are about 1mm thick
blood passes from perivisceral to pericardial and have spiral or annular thickening of chitin.
sinus through fenestrae and finally to the heart The inner lining of chitin prevents the trachea
through ostia. During systole, contraction starts from collapsing. Each trachea branches into
at posterior end and wave of contraction passes number of smaller tubes called tracheoles.
anteriorly. Due to this, blood is pushed towards Tracheole : These are fine intracellular tubes
cephalic vessel i.e. dorsal aorta. During systole, that penetrate deep into tissues. They are thin
ostia remain closed with the help of valves. As and not lined with chitin. They end blindly in
a result of systole, blood is flushed into head the cells. Each tracheole at the blind end is filled
region from where it goes to perivisceral and with a watery fluid through which exchange
perineural sinus. of gases takes place. The content of this fluid
Alary muscles are relaxed during keeps changing. At high muscular activity, a
systole. Due to this, dorsal diaphragm becomes part of fluid is drawn into the tissues to enable
convex, reducing the volume of pericardial more and rapid oxygen intake. The rhythmic
sinus. This makes the blood to move from movements of thoracic and abdominal muscles
pericardial sinus to perivisceral sinus through renew the air in the tracheal system. The body
fenestrae. fluid does not distribute the gases but simply
11.7 Respiratory system or tracheal acts as a stationary medium for diffusion.
system : 11.8 Excretory System :
Cockroach has an internal respiratory Malpighian tubules are main excretory
system of air tubes called tracheal system, organs of cockroach. They are attached to
by which air is brought into the body and is the alimentary canal between the midgut
in contact with every part of body. It allows and hindgut. They are thin, yellow coloured,
exchange of gases directly between the air and ectodermal thread-like structures hanging
tissues without the need of blood. freely in the haemocoel. They are about 150 in
number.
Chitin of Chitinous lining Malpighian Tubule : Each Malpighian
Small Trachole
body wall
Epithelium fluid tubule is lined with a single layer of glandular
tracheae
Tracheoles
epithelial cells having microvilli. Their distal
Lumen
portion is secretory and proximal part is
absorptive in function. They extract water and
nitrogenous wastes from the haemocoel and
Tracheole cell convert them into uric acid and pass them into
Spiracle
ileum. As the cockroach excretes uric acid, it is
Muscle fibre said to be uricotelic. In addition, the fat bodies,
nephrocytes and uricose glands (in male
Fig. 11.12 Respiratory System cockroach only) also help in excretion.

132
 In cockroach, urate cells (nephrocytes) Brain or supra oesophageal Optic nerve
ganglion Antennary nerve
associated with fat bodies and cuticle are
Circumoesophageal Labrofrontal nerve
also believed to be excretory in function. The connective
Mandibular nerve
nephrocytes are cells present along with the Suboesophageal
Maxillary nerve
ganglion
fat bodies or present along the heart and store Prothoracic Labial nerve
nitrogenous wastes. The excretory products ganglion Prothoracic nerves
later are removed in the haemocoel. Some Ventral nerve cord Mesothoracic
nitrogenous wastes are deposited on the cuticle Mesothoracic nerves
ganglion Metathoracic
and eliminated during moulting. nerves
Metathoracic
ganglion 1st abdominal
11.9 Nervous system : ganglion
The nervous system of cockroach Abdominal nerves
consists of Central Nervous System (CNS), 6th abdomibal
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS), and gangliaon
Autonomus Nervous System (ANS). Nervous Fig. 11.13 Central Nervous System
system of cockroach is ventral, solid and B. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
ganglionated. Peripheral nervous system consists of
A. Central Nervous System (CNS): nerves arising from various ganglia of CNS.
CNS consists of nerve ring and ventral Six pairs of nerves arise from cerebral ganglia.
nerve cord. Nerve ring is made up of supra- They go to eyes, antennae and labrum. Nerves
oesophageal ganglia, circum-oesophageal arising from sub-oesophageal ganglion go
connective and sub-oesophageal ganglion. to mandibles, maxillae and labium. Nerves
A pair of supra-oesophageal / cerebral arising from thoracic ganglia go to the wings,
ganglia is collectively known as brain. Brain legs and internal thoracic organs. Nerves from
is present in head, above the oesophagus abdominal ganglia go to the abdominal organs
and between antennal bases. Each cerebral of respective abdominal segments.
ganglion is formed by fusion of three small C. Autonomous Nervous System (ANS):
ganglia- protocerebrum, deutocerebrum and It consists of four ganglia and a retrocerebral
tritocerebrum. complex. These ganglia are as follows.
Sub-oesophageal ganglion is bilobed;
1. Frontal ganglion : It is present above the
present below the oesophagus in head. It is also
pharynx and in front of brain.
formed by fusion of 3 pairs of ganglia.
2. Hypocerebral ganglion : It is present on the
Cerebral ganglia are connected to sub-
anterior region of oesophagus.
oesophageal ganglion by a pair of lateral nerves
3. Ingluvial ganglion : It is present on crop. It
called as circum-oesophageal connectives.
is also called as visceral ganglion.
Connectives arise from cerebral ganglia.
4. Ventricular ganglion : It is present on
Ventral nerve cord (VNC) : It arises
gizzard.
from sub-oesophageal ganglion. It is present
along mid-ventral position, in perineural sinus. Sense organs :
It is double nerve cord and consists of nine Collect the information and complete
segmental, paired ganglia. First three pairs the chart:
of segmental ganglia are large and known as Sense Organ Location Function
thoracic ganglia. Six pairs of segmental ganglia 1. Antennae
are in abdomen. Sixth abdominal ganglion 2. Eyes
is largest and it is present in 7th abdominal 3. Maxillary palp
segment. There is no ganglion in 6th segment. 4. Labial palp
5. Anal Cerci

133
Knowledge Enhancer : Compound eyes The sperms produced by the testes are
are present in the cockroach, situated on the stored in seminal vesicles and are glued together
dorsal surface of the head. Each eye consists in the form of bundles called spermatophores.
of about 2000 hexagonal ommatidia (singular These spermatophores are deposited in female
: Ommatidium). Each ommatidium is like reproductive tract during copulation.
a simple eye, forming image independently,
2. Female Reproductive System : Female
hence with the help of several ommatidia, a
reproductive system consists of primary and
cockroach receives several images of an object.
secondary reproductive organs. Primary
Compound eye gives mosaic or hazy vision,
reproductive organs are ovaries. There is a pair
but the animal is able to detect even a slightest
of large ovaries, lying laterally in the 2nd to 6th
movement of the object. This kind of vision is
abdominal segments. Each ovary is formed
with more sensitivity but less resolution.
of a group of 8 ovarian tubules or ovarioles,
11.10 Reproduction system : containing a chain of developing ova.
Cockroach is dioecious organism i.e. All ovarioles of an ovary open in lateral
male and female individuals are separate. oviduct of respective side. Both lateral oviducts
1. Male Reproductive System : Male unite to form common oviduct or vagina.
reproductive system consists of primary and Common oviduct or vagina opens into the
secondary reproductive organs. Primary genital chamber (bursa copulatrix), the female
sex organs (male gonads) are called testes organ of copulation.
which are paired and located in the 4th to 6th A sperm storing structure called
abdominal segments. They produce sperms spermatheca is present in the 6th segment that
which are carried by vasa deferentia. It is a open into the genital chamber. Besides, paired
pair of thin tubular structure arising from the accessory glands-collaterial glands are also
testes and opening into the ejaculatory duct present that open in genital chamber.
through seminal vesicle. They carry sperms to Female gonapophyses consist of six
the ejaculatory duct. Ejaculatory duct opens chitinous plates surrounding the genital pore.
into male gonopore situated ventral to anus.
Mushroom shaped gland or Utricular
gland is accessory reproductive gland. It is
present in the 6th to 7th abdominal segments. Ovary
Male gonapophyses or phallomere are Oviduct
Spermatheca Common
external genitalia of male. These are three oviduct
asymmetrical chitinous structures surrounding or vagina
the male gonophore. Collaterlal
glands
Testis Genital
Gonapophyses Vestibulum chamber
Phallic gland
Small tubules
Fig. 11.15 Female Reproductive System
Long tubules
Seminar vesicle
Vas deferens Fertilization and formation of ootheca :
Ejaculatory duct
Right phallomere
Male and female cockroaches come
Ventral phallomere together by their posterior ends and with the
Anal cercus
Left
Caudal style
help of phallomeres. The spermatophores are
phallomere
Titillator
Pseudopenis transferred to the genital chamber of female
Fig. 11.14 Male Reproductive System cockroach.

134
 The sperms are released from Cockroach may undergo moulting for
spermatophore and they reach the spermatheca. about 13 times before reaching the adult stage.
The eggs are discharged from both the ovaries The nymphal stages have wing pads but only
alternately into the common oviduct and adult cockroaches have wings.
pass into the genital chamber where they 11.11 Interactions with mankind :
are fertilized by the sperms coming from the
1. Cockroach causes damage to the household
spermatheca. The process of fertilization is
materials like clothes, shoes, paper etc. They
internal.
also eat and destroy the food stuff.
Ootheca : The secretion of collaterial glands 2. They contaminate food which gives typical
forms a capsule around them is called as smell and make it unpalatable.
ootheca or egg case. Ootheca is dark reddish 3. As they live in sewage pipes and gutter
to blackish brown capsule about 8 mm long, holes, they carry with them harmful pathogens
containing 14 to 16 fertilized eggs in two rows. causing diseases like cholera, diarrhoea,
Ootheca are dropped or glued to a suitable tuberculosis, typhoid, etc.
surface like a crack or crevice of good humidity
4. Cockroach serves as a part of food chain
near the food source. On an average, a female
also. Many amphibians, birds, lizards and
produces 9 to 10 oothecae.
rodents prey upon them making them a part of
Development of Eggs : The development of food chain. They are eaten by certain groups of
Periplaneta americana is paurometabolous i.e. people in South America, China and Myanmar.
there is development through nymphal stage. 5. Cockroach is used as experimental animal
Embryonic period varies as per temperature in laboratories and for biological research, as
and humidity. At 24oC, duration is about 58 they can be obtained easily without causing
days and at 30oC, the duration is about 32 days. damage to ecological balance.
Fertilized egg Nymph Adult
Control Measures : As cockroach is
The nymph looks like the adult but economically harmful organism it must be
far smaller and is sexually immature. After controlled in an efficient way. Some of the
sufficient growth, nymph undergoes moulting measures are as follows :
and enters into next instar (a stage between two
successive moults). 1. Good Sanitation : Dark and humid places
of kitchen, cupboards, trolleys must be cleaned
American Oriental
Smokey regularly. Cracks and crevices and such areas
brown German
must be filled. There should not be any place in
a home, where accumulation of garbage may
take place.

Cockroaches frequently enter home by

migrating up from sewer connections if the
drain trap is dry. So always keep the drain trap
filled with water.

2. Chemical control : Organophosphates,

carbamates, pyrethroids and boric acid are
efficient poisons of cockroaches, various types
of their formulations are available in market,
Fig. 11.16 Cockroach Development stages under various brand names.

135
 Do you know ? Internet my friend
·
Cockroaches are considered as bio- Collect the information about
indicators! Their presence indicate unhygienic techniques and objectives of rearing the
conditions. cockroaches in countries like China and
make a powerpoint presentation including
video clips.

Interesting information :-
Different insects feed upon different types of food materials. Ex : Butterflies feed
upon nectar, mosquito (female) and bedbugs on human blood, mantis on other animals, etc.

Depending upon nature of food and feeding habits, different insects have different
types of mouthparts. Collect images of different mouthparts and paste in appropriate
boxes.

Piercing and sucking

Siphoning mouth parts Sponging mouthpart mouthpart
(Butterfly) (Housefly) (female mosquito)

Piercing and sucking Chewing and biting Chewing and lapping

(bed bug) ( praying mantis ) (honey bee)

136
 Exercise
1. Choose correct option
A. Chemical nature of chitin is ............. G. Describe the cirulatory system of
a. protein. b. carbohydrate. cockroach.
c. lipid. d. glycoprotein.
3. Answer the following questions
B. Cockroach has ................ type of A. How will you identify male or female
mouthparts. cockroach?
a. sponging
B. Write a note on : Gizzard of cockroach.
b. chewing and biting
c. piercing and Sucking C. Give the systematic position of cockroach.
d. lapping D. What would have happened if cockroach
C. Spiracle is a part of .................... system did not had gizzard?
of cockroach. E. What is the functional difference between
a. circulatory b. respiration eyes of cockroach and human being?
c. reproductive d. nervous F. What is the functional difference between
D. ................... is a part of digestive system. respiratory systems of cockroach and
a. Trachea b. Hypopharynx human being?
c. Haemocyte d. Seminal vesicle
4. Explain the following in short
E. ..................... is also called as brain of
A. What are anal cerci?
cockroach.
a. Supra-oesophageal ganglion B. What is the ganglion?
b. Sub-oesophageal ganglion C. What is the role of hypopharynx?
c. Hypo-cerebral ganglion D. What is mesenteron?
d. Thoracic ganglion E. Location of turgum.
2. Answer the following questions F. What is ootheca?
A. Describe the digestive system of G. How many chambers are present in heart
cockroach. of cockroach?
B. Give an account on tracheal system of Practical / Project :
cockroach?
Visit to nearest sericulture farm and
C. Describe nervous system of cockroach.
study the life cycle of silk worm.
D. With help of neat labelled diagram,
describe female reproductive system of
cockroach.
E. With help of neat labelled diagram,
describe the digestive system of
cockroach.
F. A student observed that the cockroaches
are killed for dissection by simply putting
them in soap water. He inquired whether
soap is so poisonous. Teacher said it is
due to its peculiar respiratory system.
How?

137
 12. Photosynthesis

Can you recall? All the pigments chlorophylls, carotenes

and xanthophylls are located in the thylakoid
1. Why energy is essential in different life
membranes. These pigments absorb light of
processes?
a specific spectrum in the visible region. The
2. How do we get energy?
pigments are fat soluble and located in the lipid
part of the membrane. With the help of certain
Use your brain power enzymes, they participate in the conversion
of solar energy into ATP and NADPH. The
Justify: All life on earth is 'bottled solar energy'.
enzymes of stroma utilize ATP and NADPH to
Photosynthesis is the only process on produce carbohydrates.
earth by which solar energy is trapped by green Internal membrane
plants and converted into food. Photosynthesis Plastoglobule
Intermembrane space Ribosome
may be defined as synthesis of carbohydrates External membrane
( glucose) f rom inorganic materials like CO2
Granum
and H 2 O w ith the help of solar energy trapped
Chloroplast
by pigments like chlorophyll. DNA
Light
6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O Stroma
Chloroplast
This process is unique to green plants
Thylakoid
and is the final light energy trapping process Thylakoid
on which all life ultimately depends. It is one Lumen membrane
Lamella
of the most massive chemical processes going
Thylakoid
on earth.
Atmosphere contains only about 0.03
percent carbon dioxide by volume. This small
percentage represents 2200 billion tons of CO2 Stroma lamellae
in the atmosphere. The oceans contain over Fig. 12.1 Chloroplasts
50 times by amount of atmospheric CO2 in the Two predominant types of chlorophylls :
form of dissolved gas or carbonates. From these Chlorophyll a and b differ in the
two sources, about 70 billion tons of carbon is nature of groups. Chlorophyll a has a
fixed by the green plants annually. methyl group (-CH3) while chlorophyll b
12.1 Chloroplasts : has an aldehyde group (-CHO). Chemically
These are mainly located in the chlorophyll molecule consists of two parts
mesophyll cells of leaves. The CO2 reaches head of tetrapyrrol the Porphyrin ring and a
them through the stomata and water reaches long hydrocarbon tail called phytol attached
them through veins. In higher plants, the to the porphyrin group. Carotenoids are lipid
chloroplasts are discoid or lens-shaped. Each compound present universally in almost all the
chloroplast is bounded by double membrane. higher plants and several micro-organisms.
Inside the membranes is found a ground They are usually red, orange, yellow, brown,
substance, the stroma. Inside the stroma is and are associated with chlorophyll. They are
found a system of chlorophyll bearing double- of two types - the carotenes and xanthophylls.
membrane sacs or lamellae. These are stacked The carotenes (C40H56) are orange red and
one above the other to form grana (singular, xanthophylls contain oxygen. The light energy
granum). Individual sacs in each granum are absorbed by the carotenoids is transferred to
known as thylakoids. chlorophyll a to be utilized in photosynthesis.

138
 12.2 Nature of Light :
Internet my friend Light is a form of energy. It travels
as stream of tiny particles called photons. A
Collect information : Why does chlorophyll
photon contains a quantum of light. Light has
appear red in reflected light and green in
different wavelengths having different colors.
transmitted light?
One can see electromagnetic radiation with
wavelengths ranging from 390nm to 730nm.
Activity 1 This part of the spectrum is called the Visible
Grind the spinach leaves in small light. It lies between wavelengths of ultraviolet
quantity of acetone / nail paint remover. Mix and infra-red.
the contents properly and filter with filter
paper in test-tube. Test-tube contains green
filtrate. Take the test-tube in dark-room
and put a flash of torch on it. Now, solution
appears red. Why does this occur? Which
phenomenon is this? Discuss this with your
physics, chemistry and biology teachers.

Activity 2
To separate the chloroplast pigments Fig. 12.2 Electromagentic spectrum of light
by paper chromatography. Concentrate the
extracted chlorophyll solution by evaporation.
Apply a drop of it at one end, 2cm away from Absorption and Action spectrum : All the
edge of a strip of chromatography paper and pigments of the chloroplast absorb light quanta
allow it to dry thoroughly. Take a mixture of or photons and transfer the absorbed energy to
petroleum ether and acetone in the ratio of 9 : chlorophyll a. The amount of light absorbed at
1 at temperature of 40 to 600C. Hang the strip each wavelength can be shown in the form of
in the jar with its loaded end dipping in the a graph. It shows different curves at different
solvent. Close the jar tightly and keep it for wavelengths. Such a curve which shows the
an hour. The pigments separate into distinct amount of light absorbed at each wavelength is
green and yellow bands of chlorophyll and termed as Absorption spectrum.
carotenoid respectively.

Can you tell?

Absorption of light

Tomatoes, carrots and chillies are red

in colour due to presence of pigments. Name
the pigment.
All photosynthetic plants have these
pigments that absorb light between the red and
blue region of the spectrum. Carotenoids found
mainly in higher plants absorb primarily in the Wavelength X axis
violet to blue regions of the spectrum. They
not only absorb light energy and transfer it to Graph 12.3 Absorption spectrum
chlorophyll but also protect the chlorophyll
molecule from photo-oxidation.

139
 The absorption spectrum of chlorophyll 6CO2 + 12H2S C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 12S ↓
a and b clearly shows that more light energy is
This led Van Neil to postulate that in
absorbed at blue, violet and red wavelengths
green plants, water is utilized in place of H2S
of the visible spectrum. The relative rate
and O2 is evolved in place of sulphur. Ruben (in
of photosynthesis at different wavelengths
1941) confirmed it in Chlorella. He used water
indicates close relationship with absorption
labeled with heavy oxygen (18O2) i.e. H218O.
spectrum of chlorophyll a and b. This curve that
shows the rate of photosynthesis at different e- e-
wavelengths is called Action Spectrum. e-
Action spectrum of photosynthesis
CHL CHL CHL+
differs from the absorption spectrum. There
is quite a lot of photosynthetic activity even
in parts of the spectrum where chlorophyll Photon Original orbit
a absorb little light. This infers that the light Ground state Excited state Ionized chlorophyll-a
energy absorbed by other pigments (yellow
and orange carotenoids and also other forms of Fig. 12.5 Photoexitation of chlorophyll-a
chlorophyll) is transferred to chlorophyll a. The oxygen evolved contain 18O2
thereby proving Van Neil’s hypothesis that
Rate of photosynthesis oxygen evolved in photosynthesis comes from
Absorption water. This leads to the currently accepted
Light absorbed

general equation of photosynthesis -

Light
6CO2 + 12H218O C6H12O6+ 6H2O + 6 18O2

In 1937, R. Hill demonstrated that

400 500 600 700 isolated chloroplasts evolved oxygen when
Wavelength of light in nanometers (nm) they were illuminated in the presence of a
suitable electron acceptor such as f erricyanide.
Graph 12.4 Action spectrum of
Ferricyanide is reduced to ferrocyanide by
photosysnthesis
photolysis of water. This is called Hill reaction.
Can you tell?
1. What made Hill to perform his experiment? Think about it Large number of
2. Distinguish between action spectrum and gas bubbles are evolved during day time in a
absorption spectrum. pond of water.
3. Draw well labeled diagram of chloroplast.
Thus Hill reaction proves that :
Use your brain power i. In photosynthesis, oxygen is released from
water.
The photosysthetic lamellae taken ii. Electrons for the reduction of CO2 are
out from a chloroplast and suspended in a obtained from water.
nutrient medium in the presence of CO2 and According to Arnon, in this process
light. Will they synthesize sugar or not? light energy is converted to chemical energy.
12.3 Mechanism of Photosynthesis : This energy is stored in ATP and NADPH is
In 1931, Van Neil proved that bacteria formed as hydrogen donor. This ATP formation
used H2S and CO2 to synthesize carbohydrates is known as photophosphorylation.
as follows :

140
 In modern concept, the process of Photosystems I and II : The thylakoid
photosynthesis is an oxidation and reduction membranes of chloroplasts have two kinds
process in which water is oxidized (to release of photosystems, each with its own set of
O2) and CO2 is reduced to form sugar. It light harvesting chlorophyll and carotenoid
consists of two successive series of reactions. molecules. Chlorophyll and accessory pigments
The first reaction requires light and is called help to capture light over larger area and
L ight or H ill reaction. Second reaction does not pass it on to the photocenters. Thus, a photon
require light and is called Dark or Blackman
absorbed anywhere in the harvesting zone
reaction. Of the two reactions, the former is a
of a P680 center can pass it energy to the P680
photochemical reaction, while the latter is a
biochemical reaction. molecule. The cluster of pigment molecules
which transfer their energy to P680 absorb at
Think about it or below the wavelength 680nm. Together
with P680 they form Photosystem- I I or PS- I I .
Does moon light support photosynthesis?
Likewise, P700 forms Photosystem- I or PS- I
12.4 Light reaction : along with pigment molecule which absorbs
In light reaction, solar energy is light at or below 700nm.
trapped by chlorophyll and stored in the form Photosystem II : This system brings about
of chemical energy as ATP and in the form of photolysis of water and release of oxygen. In
reducing power as NADPH2. Oxygen is evolved this act, when PS-II absorbs light, electrons are
in the light reaction by splitting of water.
released and chlorophyll molecule is oxidized.
When a photon is absorbed by
The electrons emitted by P680 (PS-II) are
chlorophyll molecule, an electron is boosted
ultimately trapped by P700 (PS-I).
to higher energy level. To boost an electron, a
photon must have a certain minimum quantity
of energy called quantum energy. A molecule
that has absorbed a photon is in energy rich
excited state. When the light source is turned
off, the high energy electrons return rapidly to
their normal low energy orbitals as the excited
molecule reverts to its original stable condition,
called the ground state.
Reaction centre : The light absorbing pigments
are located in the thylakoid membranes. They
are arranged in clusters of chlorophyll and
accessory pigments along with special types
of chlorophyll molecules P680 and P700 (the
letter P stands for Pigment and 680 and 700
for the wavelengths of light at which these
molecules show maximum absorbance). P680 Fig. 12.6 ATP synthesis through chemiosmosis
and P700 molecules form the Reaction centers
or Photocenters.
The accessory pigments and other The oxidized P680 regains its electrons
chlorophyll molecule harvest solar energy by the photolysis of water as follows:
and pass it on the reaction centers. These are 4H2O 4H+ + 4OH-
called L ight harvesting or Antenna molecule. 4OH- 4(OH) + 4e-
They function to absorb light energy, which 4OH 2H2O + O2
they transmit at a very high rate to the reaction
4H2O 2H2O + O2 ↑ + 4H+ + 4e-
center where the photochemical act occurs.

141
 Oxygen is given out as byproduct by The cyclic electron-flow is
the photosynthesizing plants. Protons (H+) accompanied by the photophosphorylation of
accumulate inside the thylakoid resulting in a ADP to yield ATP. This is termed as Cyclic
Proton gradient. photophosphorylation. Since this process
The energy released by the protons when involves only pigment system I, photolysis of
they defuse across the thylakoid membrane water and consequent evolution of oxygen does
into the stroma against the H+ concentration not takes place.
gradient is used to produce ATP. ii. Non-cyclic photophosphorylation :
Photosystem I : When light quanta are It involves both PS-I and PS-II
absorbed by photosystem I (P700), energy rich photosystems. In this case, electron transport
electrons are emitted from the reaction center. chain starts with the release of electrons from
These flow down a chain of electron carriers PS-II. In this chain high energy electrons
to NADP along with the proton generated by released from PS-II do not return to PS-II but,
splitting of water. This result in the formation after passing through an electron transport
of NADPH. chain, reach PS-I, which in turn donates it
Hydrogen attached to NADPH is used to reduce NADP+ to NADPH. The reduced
for reduction of CO2 in dark reaction. This is NADP+ (NADPH) is utilized for the reduction
also called Reducing pow er of the cell. of CO2 in the dark reaction.
12.5 Photophosphorylation :
Formation of ATP in the
chloroplasts in presence of light is called
photophosphorylation. It takes place in the two
forms.
i. Cyclic photophosphorylation :
Illumination of photosystem-I causes
electrons to move continuously out of the
reaction center of photosystem-I and back to it.
Fig. 12.8 Non-cyclic photophosphorylation
FRS
Ferredoxin e
-
Electron-deficient PS-II brings about
e-
oxidation of water-molecule. Due to this,
ADP+Pi
e- protons, electrons and oxygen atom are
Cytochrome b6
ATP released. Electrons are taken up by PS-II itself
e- ADP+Pi to return to reduced state, protons are accepted
e- by NADP+ where as oxygen is released.
ATP
2e- As in this process, high energy electrons
Cytochrome f released from PS-II do not return to PS-II and
e- it is accompanied with ATP formation, this is
e-
called N on- cyclic photophosphorylation.
Plastocyanin
Thus, during the photochemical
e-
PS I
reactions, photolysis of water takes place, O2 is
released and ATP and NADPH are synthesized.
ATP and NADPH molecules function as
Light energy vehicles for transfer of energy of sunlight into
dark reaction leaving to carbon fixation. In this
Fig. 12.7 Cyclic photophosphorylation reaction CO2 is reduced to carbohydrate.

142
 The light reaction gives rise to
two important products : i. A reducing agent
Thylakoid Light + Water ADP Carbon Dioxide
NADPH and ii. An energy rich compound ATP.
NADP+
Both these are utilized in the dark phase of
photosynthesis. Light
ATP
Dark
Granum Reactions NADPH Reactions
12.6 Dark reaction :
Carbon fixation occurs in the stroma by
a series of enzyme catalyzed steps. Molecules Stroma
of ATP and NADPH produced in the thylakoids Oxygen Glucose

(light reaction) come in the stroma where

carbohydrates are synthesized. Fig. 12.9 Relation between light
The path of carbon fixation in dark and dark reaction
reaction through intermediate compounds there must be sufficient amount of RuBP which
leading to the formation of sugar and starch accepts CO2 and a regular supply of ATP
was worked out by Calvin, Benson and their and NADPH. Out of each of 12 molecules
co -workers. For this, Calvin was awarded of 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (3-PGAL), 2
N obel Priz e in 1961. molecules are used for synthesis of one glucose
Path of carbon was studied with the help molecule and remaining 10 molecules are used
of radioactive tracer technique using Chlorella, for regeneration of 6 molecules of RuBP.
a unicellular green alga and radioactive 14CO2. 3. Regeneration of RuBP : Through a series of
With the help of radioactive carbon, it becomes complex reactions, 10 molecules of 3-PGAL are
possible to trace the intermediate steps of used for regenration of six molecules of RuBP
fixation of 14CO2. The various steps in the dark at the cost of 6 ATP. For this purpose, six turns
reactions (Calvin cycle / C-3 pathway, fig. of Calvin cycle are needed to be operated so
12.10) are as follows: that a molecule of glucose can be synthesized.
Plants form a variety of organic
1. Carboxylation : CO2 reduction starts with
compounds required for its structure and
a 5-carbon sugar, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate
function through these complex reactions.
(RuBP). It is a 5-carbon sugar (pentose) with
Thus, for every 6 molecules of CO2 and
two phosphate groups attached to it.
Ribulose-1, 5-biphosphate used, 12 molecules
RuBP reacts with CO2 to produce a short
of 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde are produced. Out
- lived 6-carbon intermediate in the presence of
of these 12 molecules, only two are utilized
an enzyme RuBP carboxylase or Rubisco and
for the formation of a molecule of glucose;
immidiately splits into 3-carbon compound,
the other 10 molecules are converted into
3-phosphoglyceric acid (3-PGA). Rubisco is a
ribulose-1, 5-biphosphate which combines with
large protein molecule and comprises 16% of
fresh CO2.
the chloroplast proteins.
2. Glycolytic Reversal : Molecules of 3-PGA Thus, the Calvin cycle regenerates ADP
form 1,3-diphosphoglyceric acid utilizing ATP and NADP required for the light reaction.
molecules. These are reduced to glyceraldehyde- i. Light Reaction (in granum) :
3-phosphate (3-PGAL) by NADPH supplied by 1. 24H2O 24OH- + 24H+
the light reactions of photosynthesis. 2. 24OH- 24OH + 24e-
For the Calvin cycle to run continuously, 3. 24e- + 24H+ + 12NADP+ 12NADPH
4. 18ADP + 18Pi 18ATP
5. 24OH 12H2O + 6O2 ↑

143
 CO2 (6 M)

(6 M 6 RuB RUBISCO
) ATP P (5 C
(6 M ) (6 M
) AD )
P
Unstable compound (6 M, 6 C)
CAR
6 RuMP (5 C, 6 M) BOX
YLA
TIO
N
RE
GE
Ribose-5-phosphate (5 C, 4 M) 3-phosphoglycerate (12 M) (3 C)
NE

ATP (12 M)

N
Sedoheptulose-7-phosphate (7 C, 4 M)
RA

IO
CT
TIO

ADP (12 M)
DU 1, 3-diphosphoglycerate (12 M, 3 C)
N

Erythrose-4-phosphate (4 C)
RE

) NADPH (12 M)
C
te (5
ho spha
e-5-p NADP+ (12 M)
ulos 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde
Xyl
(12 M) (3 C)

Dehydroxy Acetone Phosphate (3 C, 2 M)

Fructose-1, 6-diphosphate (1 M, 6 C)
SYNTHESIS

ADP
ATP

Fructose-6-phosphate (1 M, 6 C)
ADP
ATP
Glucose-6-phosphate (1 M, 6 C)

Glucose (1 M, 6 C)

Fig. 12.10 Schematic Presentation of C-3 Pathway / Calvin cycle

144
ii. Dark reaction (in stroma) : O2
6CO2 + 18ATP + 12NADPH C6H12O6
RuBP Phosphoglycolate + PGA

Chloroplast
+ 6H2O + 18ADP + 18Pi + 12NADP+
PCR
Light cycle Pi
(i + ii) 6CO2 + 24H2O Chloroplast C6H12O6 + PGA
18H2O + 6O2 ↑ ADP Glyoxylate
ATP
Glycerate
Can you tell?
Glycerate Glyoxylate
1. How chlorophyll - a is excited? Show it NAD+

Peroxisome
with a diagram. NADH Glyoxylate + H2O2
2. Describe Calvin's cycle. Hydroxy pyruvate
3. Draw a flowchart of non-cyclic
photophosphorylation. Serine Glycine

Serine Glycine

Mitochondrion
12.7 Photorespiration : NH3
Photorespiration occurs under the
CO2
conditions like high temperature, bright light,
high oxygen and low CO2 concentration. It is a NADH NAD+
wasteful process linked with C3-Cycle, where Fig. 12.11 Photorespiration
instead of fixation of CO2 it is given out. 12.8 C4 pathway or Hatch-Slack pathway :
It involves three organelles chloroplast M. D. Hatch and C. R. Slack while
peroxisomes and mitochondria and occurs working on sugarcane found four carbon
in a series of cyclic reactions which is also compound (dicarboxylic acid) as the first stable
called PCO cycle. Enzyme Rubisco acts as product of photosynthesis. It has been found
oxygenase at higher concentration of O2 and to occur in tropical and sub-tropical grasses
photorespiration begins. When RuBP reacts and some dicotyledons. Some of the important
with O2 rather than CO2 to form a 3-carbon plants are sugarcane, maize, Sorghum etc.
compound (PGA) and 2-carbon compound The plants in which CO2 fixation takes
phosphologycolate. Later is converted to place by Calvin cycle are called C3 plants,
glycolate which is shuttled out of the chloroplast because first product of CO2 fixation is a
into the peroxisomes. 3-carbon phosphoglyceric acid. But in Hatch-
In peroxisomes, enzyme glycolate Slack pathway, first product of CO2 fixation is
oxidase converts glycolate into glyoxylate, a 4-carbon compound, oxaloacetic acid. Hence
which is converted into amino acid glycine such plants are called C4 plants.
by transamination. In mitochondria, two Anatomy of leaves of C4 plants is
molecules of glycine are converted into serine different from leaves of C3 plants. C4 plants
(amino acid) and CO2 is given out. Thus, it show K ranz anatomy. In the leaves of such
looses 25% of photosynthetically fixed carbon. plants, palisade tissue is absent. There is a
Serine is transported back to peroxisomes and bundle sheath around the vascular bundles.
converted into glycerate. It is shuttled back to The chloroplasts in the bundle - sheath cells
chloroplast to undergo phosphorylation and are large and without or less developed grana,
utilized in formation of 3-PGA, which get where as in the mesophyll cells the chloroplasts
utilized in C3 pathway. are small but with well-developed grana.

145
 Pyruvic acid generated in the bundle
sheath cells re-enters mesophyll cells and
regenerates phosphoenolpyruvic acid by
consuming one ATP.
Since this conversion results in the
formation of AMP (not ADP), two ATP are
required to regenerate ATP from AMP. Thus
C4 pathway needs 12 additional ATP. The C3
pathway requires 18 ATP for the synthesis of
one glucose molecule, whereas C4 pathway
requires 30 ATP.
Thus C4 plants are better
photosynthesizers and there is no
Fig. 12.12 Kranz anatomy of C4 plant
photorespiration in these plants.
CO2 taken from atmosphere is accepted
by a 3-carbon compound, phosphoenolpyruvic 12.9 CAM-Crassulacean Acid Metabolism:
acid in the chloroplasts of mesophyll cells, It is one more alternative pathway of
leading to the formation of 4-C compound, carbon fixation found in desert plants. It was first
oxaloacetic acid with the help of enzyme pepco. reported in the family Crassulaceae, so called
It is converted to another 4-C compound, the as CAM (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism).
malic acid. It is transported to the chloroplasts In CAM plants, stomata are scotoactive
of bundle sheath cells. Here, malic acid (4-C) is i.e. active during night, so initial CO2 fixation
converted to pyruvic acid (3-C) with the release occurs in night.
of CO2 in the cytoplasm. Thus concentration of Thus C4 pathway fix CO2 at night and
CO2 increases in the bundle sheath cells. reduce CO2 in day time via the C3 pathway by
Chloroplasts of these cells contain using NADPH formed during the day. PEP
enzymes of Calvin cycle. Because of high caboxylase and Rubisco are present in the
concentration of CO2, RuBP carboxylase mesophyll cell (no K ranz anatomy).
participates in Calvin cycle and not Formation of malic acid during dark is
photorespiration. Sugar formed in Calvin cycle called acidification (phase I).
is transported into the phloem.
Atmospheric CO2

Mesophyll cell

NADP+ NADPH AMP ATP

Malate Oxaloacetate Phosphoenol-

Malate PEP pyruvate (PEP) Pyruvate-
dehydrogenase carboxylase phosphate dikinase

Malic enzyme
Pyruvate
NADP+ NADPH + CO2

Bundle sheath cell

Calvin cycle

Fig. 12.13 C4 Pathway

146
 Malate is stored in vacuoles during In most of the plants, photosynthesis
the night. Malate releases CO2 during the day is maximum in bright diffused sunlight. It
for C3 pathway within the same cell is called decreases in strong light and again slows down
deacidification (phase II). in the light of very low intensity. It has also
Examples of CAM plants : K alanchoe, Opuntia, been found that uninterrupted and continuous
Aloe etc. photosynthesis for relatively long periods of
The Chemical reactions of the carbon time may be sustained without any visible
di-oxide fixation and its assimilation are similar damage to the plant.
to that of C4 plants. Carbon dioxide : The main source of CO2 in
land plants is the atmosphere, which contains
C3 acid only 0.3% of the gas. Under normal conditions
CO2 of temperature and light, carbon dioxide acts
Calvin-
Stomata Benson as a limiting factor in photosynthesis. An
cycle Decarboxylation
closed increase in concentration of CO2 increases the
RUBISCO photosynthesis. The increase in CO2 to about
Starch Secondary Day 1% is generally advantageous to most of the
ATP
carboxylation
C4 acid plants. Higher concentration of the gas has an
inhibitory effect on photosynthesis.
AMP
Stomata
PEP
open Pi
C4 acid
Rate of photosynthesis
PEPC
CO2 Primary Night
HCO3- carboxylation

Fig. 12.14 Crassulacean acid metabolism

Can you tell?

1. C4 plants are more productive. Why? Carbon dioxide concentration
2. Xerophytic plants survive in high
temperature. How? Graph. 12.15 Effect of CO2 concentration
3. Summarise the photosynthetic reaction.
4. Compare C4 plants and CAM plants. Temperature : Like all other physiological
processes, photosynthesis also needs a suitable
12.10 Factors affecting Photosynthesis :
temperature. In the presence of plenty of light
Like all other physiological processes,
and carbon dioxide, photosynthesis increases
photosynthesis is also influenced by a number
with the rise of temperature till it becomes
of factors.
maximum. After that there is a decrease or fall
A. External Factors : in the rate of the process.
Light : It is an essential factor as it supplies
the energy necessary for photosynthesis. The optimum temperature at which the
Both quality and intensity of light affect photosynthesis is maximum is 25 – 300C, though
photosynthesis. Highest rate of photosynthesis in certain plants like Opuntia, photosynthesis
takes place in the red rays and then come takes place at as high as 550C. This is known
the blue rays. In a forest canopy the rate of as the maximum temperature. The temperature
photosynthesis decreases considerably in plants at which the process just starts is the minimum
growing under the it. temperature.

147
Water : Being one of the raw material, water is The slowest factor is that factor which is
also necessary for the photosynthetic process. present in the lowest or minimum concentration
An increase in water content of the leaf results in relation to others. The law of limiting factor
in the corresponding increase in the rate of can be explained by taking two external factors
photosynthesis. Thus the limiting effect of water such as carbon dioxide and light. Suppose a
is not direct but indirect. It is mainly due to the plant photosynthesizing at a fixed light intensity
fact that it helps in maintaining the turgidity of sufficient to utilize 10mg of CO2 per hour only.
the assimilatory cells and the proper hydration On increasing the CO2 concentration,
of their protoplasm. the photosynthetic rate also goes on
increasing. Now, if the CO2 concentration is
B. Internal Factors : Though the presence
further increased, no increase in the rate of
of chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis
photosynthesis will be noted. Thus in this case
but the rate of photosynthesis is proportional
light becomes the limiting factor. Under such
to the quantity of chlorophyll present. It is
circumstances, the rate of photosynthesis can be
because of the fact that chlorophyll merely acts
increased only by increasing the light intensity.
as a biocatalyst and hence a small quantity is
This evidently shows that the
quite enough to maintain the large bulk of the
photosynthetic rate responds to one factor alone
reacting substances.
at a time and there would be a sharp break in the
The final product in the photosynthesis curve and a plateau formed exactly at the point
reaction is sugar and its accumulation in the where another factor becomes limiting. If any
cells slow down the process of photosynthesis. one of the other factors which is kept constant
The thickness of cuticle and epidermis of the (say, light) is increased, the photosynthetic rate
leaf, the size and distribution of intercellular increases again reaching and optimum where
spaces and the distribution of the stomata and again another factor become limiting.
the development of chlorenchyma and other
Significance : This anabolic process uses
tissues also affects the rate of photosynthesis.
inoganic substances and produces food for
Blackman’s law of limiting factors : all life directly or indirectly. This process
The Blackman’s law of limiting factors transforms solar energy into chemical energy.
states that when a process is conditioned as to The released by product O2 is necessary not
its rapidity by a number of separate factors, the only for aerobic respiration in living organisms
rate of the process is controlld by the pace of but also used in forming protective ozone layer
the “slowest factor”. around earth. This process is also helping us
in providing fossil fuels, coals, petroleum and
natural gas.
Rate of photosynthesis

Light intensity

Graph. 12.16 Light intensity

and Photosynthesis

148
 Exercise

1. Choose correct option

A. A cell that lacks chloroplast does not G. C4 pathway is also called as
a. evolve carbon dioxide dicarboxylation pathway because
b. liberate oxygen a. RuBP + CO2 in bundle sheath cells
c. require water b. PEPA + CO2 in mesophyll cells
d. utilize carbohydrates. c. both 'a' and 'b'
d. It occurs in presence of intensive light
B. Energy is transferred from the light
reaction step to the dark reaction step by H. The head and tail of chlorophyll are
a. chlorophyll b. ADP made up of
c. ATP d. RuBP a. porphyrin and phytin respectively
b. pyrrole and tetrapyrrole respectively
C. Which one is wrong in photorespiration
c. prophyrin and phyrol respictively
a. It occurs in chloroplasts
d. tetrapyrole and pyrrole respectively
b. It occurs in day time only
c. It is characteristic of C4-plants I. The net result of photo-oxidation of
c. It is characteristic of C3-plants water is release of
a. electron and proton
D. Non-cyclic photophorylation differs
b. proton and oxygen
from cyclic photophosphorylation in that
c. proton, electron and oxygen
former
d. electron and oxygen
a. involves only PS I
b. Include evolution of O2 J. For fixing one molecule of CO2 in Calvin
c. involves formation of assimilatory cycle, are required
power a. 3ATP + 1NADPH2
d. both 'b' and 'c' b. 3ATP + 2NADPH2
c. 2ATP + 3NADPH2
E. For fixation of 6 molecules of CO2 and
d. 3ATP + 3NADPH2
formation of one molecule of glucose in
Calvin cycle, requires K. In presence of high concentration of
a. 3 ATP and 2 NADPH2 oxygen, RuBP carboxylase converts
b. 18 ATP and 12 NADPH2 RuBP carboxylase converts RuBP to
c. 30 ATP and 18 NADPH2 a. Malic acid and PEP
d. 6 ATP and 6 NADPH2 b. PGA and PEP
c. PGA and malic acid
F. In maize and wheat the first stable
d. PGA and phosphoglycolate
products formed in bundle sheath cells
respectively are L. The sequential order in electron transport
a. OAA and PEPA from PSII to PSI of photosynthesis is
b. OAA and OAA a. FeS, PQ, PC and Cytochrome
c. OAA and 3PGA b. FeS, PQ, Cytochrome and PC
d. 3PGA and OAA c. PQ, Cytochrome, PC and FeS
d. PC, Cytochrome, FeS, PQ

149
2. Answer the following questions O. How can you identify whether the plant is
A. Describe the light-dependent steps of C3 or C4? Explain / Justify.
photosynthesis. How are they linked to P. In C4 plants, bundle sheath cells carrying
the dark reactions? out Calvin cycle are very few in number.
B. Distinguish between: a. respiration Through also, C4 plants are highly
and photorespiration b. absorption productive. Explain.
spectrum and action spectrum c. cyclic Q. What is functional significance of Kranz
photophosphorylation and non-cyclic anatomy?
photophosphorylation
3. Correct the pathway and name it
C. What are the steps that are common to C3
CO2
and C4 photosynthesis?
D. Are the enzymes that catalyse the dark Mesophyll cell Bundle Sheath Cell
reactions of carbon fixation located inside OAA
the thylakoids or outside the thylakoids? Malic
Acid C3
E. Calvin cycle consists of three phases, PEP CO2 pathway
what are they? Explain the significance
of each of them.
F. Why are the plants that consume more 4. Is there something wrong in following
than the usual 18 ATP to produce 1 schematic presentation? If yes, correct it so
molecule of glucose favoured in tropical that photosynthesis will be operated
regions?
G. What is the advantage of having Primary Primary
acceptor acceptor
more than one pigment molecule in a
photocentre? Cytochrome
H. Why does chlorophyll appear green complex NADP reductase
in reflected light and red transmitted PS-I
light? Explain the significance of these PS-II
ADP ATP
phenomena in terms of photosynthesis. NADP+ NADPH

I. Explain why photosynthesis is considered

the most important process in the H2O 2H+ + 1/2 O2 ↑ + 2e
biosphere.
J. Why is photolysis of water accompained Practical / Project :
with non-cyclic photophosphorylation?
1. Draw schematic presentation of different
K. In C-4 plants, why is C-3 pathway processes / cycles / reactions related to
operated in bundle sheath cells only? photosynthesis.
L. What would have happed if C-4 plants 2. Check the effects of different factors on
did not have Kranz anatomy? photosynthesis under the guidance of
M. Why does RnBisCo carry out teacher.
preferentially carboxylation than
oxygenation in C4 plants?
N. What would have happened if plants did
not have accessoy pigments?

150
 13. Respiration and Energy Transfer

Can you recall? Respiration is a catabolic process

wherein complex organic substrate is oxidized
1. Which nutrients are used for energy
to simple components to generate biological
production?
energy. Cellular respiration occurs in two
2. Which is most preferred nutrient among
different ways as anaerobic and aerobic
carbohydrate, protein and fat for energy
respiration.
production? Why?
3. Why do organisms take up oxygen and 13.2 Anaerobic respiration :
release carbondioxide? Anaerobic respiration is the cellular
4. What is aerobic and anaerobic respiration that does not involve the oxygen
respiration? at all. It is also called as fermentation. It is
5. Which steps are involved in aerobic completed through steps like glycolysis and
respiration? conversion of glycolytic product to any suitable
product like lactic acid, ethanol, etc.
Always Remember Glycolysis :
Glycolysis involves the breakdown
1. Maintenance of life requires continuous of glucose molecule into two pyruvic acid
supply of energy. molecules. Hence known as glycolysis. This is
2. Respiration fulfills the continuous need of a common step in anaerobic as well as aerobic
energy. respiration. It occurs in cytoplasm of cell. It is
completed in two phases as preparatory phase
13.1 Formation of ATP : and pay-off phase.
Formation of ATP is called as Overall process of glycolysis is
phosphorylation. In nature, phosphorylation completed through ten steps. First five steps
occurs in three different ways as constitute the preparatory phase through
- photophosphorylation, substrate- which glucose is phosphorylated twice at the
level phosphorylation and oxidative cost of two ATP molecules and a molecule
phosphorylation. You have already learnt the of fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate is formed.
photophosphorylation in the photosynthesis. This molecule is split to form a molecule of
Substrate-level phosphorylation is a glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and a molecule
direct phosphorylation of ADP by transfer of a of dihydroxyacetone phosphate. Both of these
phosphate group from any suitable substrate. It molecules are 3-carbon carbohydrates (trioses)
occurs in cytoplasm of the cells and matrix of and are isomers of each other. Dihydroxy
mitochondria. acetone phosphate is isomerised to second
Oxidative phosphorylation is molecule of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.
phosphorylation of ADP at the cost of energy Thus, two molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-
released during oxidation of substrates like phosphate are formed and here, first phase i.e.
NADH+H+ and FADH2. This occurs on the preparatory phase of glycolysis ends.
inner mitochondrial membrane only. In the pay-off phase, both molecules
When energy is required for any of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate are converted
metabolic process, ATP is hydrolysed. ATP to two molecules of 1, 3-bisphoglycerate
hydrolysis releases the energy which is used for by oxidation and phosphorylation. Here,
the metabolic activities. phosphorylation is brought about with the help
of inorganic phosphate and not ATP.

151
 Glucose (6C, 1M) Glycolysis is under tight control. Its rate
 ATP depends upon the requirement of ATP and
Mg++ Hexokinase
ADP many other factors. Glycolytic rate control
is achieved by complex interplay between
Glucose-6-phosphate (6C, 1M)
ATP consumption, NADH2 regeneration and
 Phosphohexose isomerase regulation of various glycolytic enzymes like
hexokinase, PFK-1, pyruvate kinase, etc. Be-
Fructose-6-phosphate (6C, 1M)
sides, it is also controlled by hormones like
ATP glucagon, epinephrine and insulin.
 Mg++ Phosphofructokinase
ADP
Fructose-1, 6-diphosphate (6C, 1M) Use your brain power
 Aldolase 1. What is role of Mg++, Zn++ in various steps
of glycolysis?
Triose phosphate isomerase 2. Why some reactions of glycolysis are
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate  Dihydroxy acetone phosphate reversible and some irreversible?
(3C,1M) (3C,1M) 3. Why is glycolysis considered as
Triose phosphate isomerase
 biochemical proof of evolution?
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (3C, 2M) 4. Why do athletes like sprinters have higher
 2(H PO ) proportion of white muscle fibers?
3 4 2(NAD+) Triose phosphate
( Non-enzymatic Zn++
reaction) dehydrogenase
2(NADH+H+) Do you know?
1. Glycolysis
1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate (3C, 2M)
is only source of energy production in
2ADP
erythrocytes, renal medulla, brain and sperm.
 Mg++ Phosphoglycerate kinase
2ATP 2. Some plant tissues which are modified to
3-Phosphoglycerate (3C, 2M) store starch (like potato) mainly depend upon
glycolysis for energy production.
 Phosphoglycerate mutase 3. In chapter 3, Biomolecules, you have read
2-Phosphoglycerate (3C, 2M) about the oxygen storing and transporting
pigment myoglobin of skeletal muscles. Red
 Mg++ Enolase (dark) muscles are richer in myoglobin than
2 H2O
the white (pale) muscles. Therefore, red fibers
2-Phosphoenolpyruvate (3C, 2M)
can utilize the oxygen stored in myoglobin to
2ADP
 Mg++ Pyruvate kinase continue energy production over prolonged
2ATP period by aerobic oxidation of glucose. This
Pyruvic acid enables them to perform sustained work over
a long period. On the contrary, white fibers
Overall reaction of glycolysis:
produce the energy needed for very fast and
Glucose+2 ATP+2 iP + 4 ADP +2 NAD+ severe work by glycolysis as sufficient oxygen
2 Pyruvate+2ADP+4ATP+2NADH+H++2H2O is not immediately available to them for such
Both molecules of 1, work. But white muscles accumulate lactic
acid and get fatigued in a short time. Thus
3-bisphosphoglycerate are converted into two
athletes with a higher proportion of red fibers
molecules of pyruvic acid through series of
in their muscles are physiologically better
reactions accompanied with release of energy.
adapted for sustained events like marathon or
This released energy is used to produce ATP (4
swimming over long distances.
molecules) by substrate-level phosphorylation.

152
 Glycolysis
C6H12O6 2CH3COCOOH + 2NADH+H+ 2CH3CHOHCOOH + 2NAD+
Glucose Pyruvic acid Lactic acid
Lactic acid fermentation
Glycolysis
C6H12O6 2CH3COCOOH CO2 ↑ + 2CH3CHO + 2NADH+H+ 2C2H5OH
Glucose Pyruvic acid Acetaldehyde Ethanol
Alcoholic fermentation
In muscles, the NADH+H+ produced Conversion of pyruvic acid to Acetyl CoA :
during glycolysis is reoxidized to NAD+ by This is an oxidative decarboxylation
donating one proton and two electrons to reaction. It is catalyzed by a multienzyme
pyruvic acid which yields lactic acid. Skeletal complex - pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
muscles usually derive their energy by (PDH). This enzyme is present in mitochondria
anaerobic respiration. After vigorous exercise of eukaryotes and cytosol of prokaryotes.
lactic acid accumulates, leading to muscle CoA-SH NAD+ NADH+H+
fatigue. During rest, however, the lactic acid is
Pyruvic acid Acetyl CoA + CO2 ↑
reconverted to pyruvic acid and is channeled
Pyruvate dehydrogenase
back into the aerobic respiration pathway. complex
In yeast, the pyruvate is decarboxylated
to acetaldehyde. The acetaldehyde is then This reaction is called as 'connecting link'
reduced by NADH+H+ to ethanol. Carbon reaction between glycolysis and Krebs cycle.
dioxide is also produced in this process.
Do you know?
This type of anaerobic respiration is termed
alcoholic fermentation. Accumulation of Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
ethanol by fermentation in a culture of yeast needs thiamin (vitamin B1) as a co-enzyme.
may stop further multiplication and lead to It can not function in absence of vitamin
the death of cells. In the presence of oxygen B1. Hence, thiamin deficiency causes
however, yeast can respire aerobically. pyruvic acidosis and lactic acidosis, the life
threatening conditions.
13.3 Aerobic Respiration :
Hence balanced diet is very important
Aerobic respiration involves molecular
in maintenance of health.
oxygen as final electron acceptor which are
liberated during oxidation of glucose. Glucose Krebs Cycle ( TCA cycle/ Citric Acid Cycle):
is completely oxidized in this process which Pyruvic Acid produced by glycolysis
is operated through steps like glycolysis, undergoes aerobic oxidation in the
production of acetyl CoA (connecting link mitochondrial matrix through the TCA cycle.
reaction), Krebs cycle, electron transfer chain This cycle serves a common oxidative pathway
reaction and terminal oxidation. for carbohydrates fats and proteins. Moreover,
First step of aerobic respiration i.e. some intermediates of the TCA cycle are used
glycolysis has been already studied in detail. In in synthesizing important biomolecules such as
case of aerobic respiration, glycolytic product glutamate and aspartate.
i.e. pyruvic acid is converted into actyl CoA. Before participating in the TCA cycle
This process occurs in cytoplasm in case of pyruvic acid enters the mitochondrion. Here it
prokaryotes and in mitochondria in case of is decarboxylated and the remaining 2-carbon
eukaryotes. (For structure of mitochondria, refer fragment is combined with a molecule of
Chapter 5, Cell Sturcture and Organization) coenzyme A to form acetyl-CoA.

153
 Pyruvic acid
NAD+
CoA-SH
NADH•H+
CO2
Ox 
al Acetyl-CoA
oa H2O Condensation
 ce
ta
Dehydrogenation te CoA-SH
Malate Citrate
dehydrogenase
 Malate synthase
Citrate
Hydration H2O
H2O Fumarase Aconitase 
Dehydration
Fumarate cis-Aconitate

 Succinate H2O
NADH+H+ Aconitase
Dehydrogenation dehydrogenase

Isocitrate Dehydration
Succinate FADH2 Isocitrate
Dehydrogenase
Succinyl-CoA
synthetase 
CoA-SH Oxa
α-Ketoglutarate losu
GTP Isocitrate ccin
ic a
Succinyl-CoA

dehydrogenase Dehydrogenase
(ATP) complex cid
 GDP
α-


K

Substrate-level (ADP)
et

phosphorylation +Pi CO2 CoA-SH CO2 Oxidative

og
lu

decarboxylation
ta
ra


te

Oxidative
decarboxylation

Fig. 13.1 Krebs Cycle

This reaction is an oxidative Amphibolic Pathway : Through we describe
decarboxylation process and produces H+ ions the aerobic respiration as catabolic (oxidative)
and electrons along with carbon dioxide. During pathway; it is not entirely correct; especially in
the process NAD+ is reduced to NADH+H+. case of Krebs cycle. Various reactions of Krebs
β-oxidation of fatty acids also produces acetyl- cycle are mainly responsible for step-wise
CoA as the end product. Acetyl-CoA from both oxidation of acetyl part of acetyl CoA leading
sources is condensed with oxaloacetic acid to to release of energy and CO2. However, as per
form citric acid. Citric acid is oxidized step-wise need, acetyl CoA or some other intermediates
by mitochondrial enzymes, evolving carbon like α-ketoglutarate, oxaloacetate are used as
dioxide. This finally regenerates oxaloacetic precursors for synthesis of fatty acids, glutamic
acid to complete the cycle. There are four acid and aspartic acid respectively. Hence,
steps of oxidation in this cycle, catalyzed by Krebs cycle can be correctly refered to as a
dehydrogenases (oxidoreductases) using NAD+ 'Amphibolic pathway' i.e. involving catabolism
or FAD+ as the coenzyme. The coenzymes as well as anabolism.
are consequently reduced to NADH+H+ and
Electron Transport chain (Electron transfer
FADH2 respectively. These transfer their
system) :
electrons to the mitochondrial respiratory chain
Wherever the NADH2 (NADH+H+)
to get reoxidised. One molecule of GTP (ATP)
and FADH2 are produced during glycolysis,
is also produced for every molecule of citric
connecting link reaction and Krebs cycle, they
acid oxidized.
are oxidised with the help of various electron
carriers and enzymes.

154
 These carriers and enzymes are Ubiquinol is oxidised by complex-III
arranged on inner mitochondrial membrane (Cytochrome bc1, complex) and it's electrons
in the form of various complexes as complex are transferred to cytochrome C. Cytochrome
I, II, III, VI and V. NADH+H+ is oxidised C is a small, iron-containing protein, loosely
by NADH dehydrogenase (complex I) and associated with inner membrane. It acts as
it's electrons are transferred to ubiquinone a mobile electron carrier, transferring the
(coenzyme Q CoQ) present on inner membrane electrons between complex III and IV.
of mitochondria. Reduced ubiquinone is called Cytochrome C is oxidised by complex
as ubiqunol. FADH2 is oxidised by complex II IV or cytochrome C oxidase consisting of
(Succinate dehydrogenase) and these electrons cytochrome a and a3. Electrons are transferred
are also transferred to CoQ. During oxidation by this complex to the molecular oxygen. This is
of NADH+H+ and FADH2, electrons and terminal oxidation. Reduced molecular oxygen
protons are released but only electrons are reacts with protons to form water molecule
carried forward whereas protons are released called as metabolic water.
into outer chamber of mitochondria. Protons necessary for this are channeled
from outer chamber of mitochondria into inner
chamber by F0 part of oxysome (complex V)
present in inner mitochondrial membrane. This
proton channeling by F0 is coupled to catalytic
site of F1 which catalyses the synthesis of
ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate. This
is oxidative phosphorylation. As transfer of
protons is accompanied with synthesis of ATP,
this process is named as 'Chemiosmosis' by
Peter Mitchell.
Oxidation of one NADH+H+ leads
to production of 3 ATP molecules where as
oxidation of FADH2 leads to production of 2
ATP molecules. However the number of ATP
produced depends upon the physiological
conditions and source of respiratory substrate.

Internet my friend

What is effect of carbon monoxide

Fig. 13.2 Electron Transport system (ETS) poisoning on cytochromes?
Step of Respiration Production
Consumption

Net benefit

Substrate level Oxidative Phosphorylation

Total

phosphorylation NADH+H+ FADH Total

2

Glycolysis 2 4 2 x 3 =6 ----- 6 10 8
Pyruvate → AcetylCoA ----- ----- 2 x 3 =6 ----- 6 6 6
Krebs cycle ----- 1x2=2 6 x 3=18 2 x 2 = 4 22 24 24
Total 2 [6] 30 + 4 = [34] [40] 38
Table 13.3 Balance sheet for ATP by aerobic oxidation of 1 glucose molecule

155
 Cytoplasm

Glucose Matrix
Glycolysis
Pyruvic acid Pyruvic acid Krebs
Amino acids cycle
Fatty acids Acetyl CoA CO2


O- - +2H+ H2O
NADH+H FADH
+
2
ADP+iP
+ e
H
ATP
Outer chamber H+ H+

Fig. 13.4 Summary of Aerobic Respiration

Significance of ETS :
• The electron transport system (ETS) or The surface of the liquid is carefully
terminal oxidation generates major amount covered with oil to prevent contact with air.
of energy in the form of ATP molecules, The test tube is closed tightly with rubber
34 ATP molecules out of total 38 ATP stopper. One end of a short bent glass tube is
molecules are produced through ETS. inserted through it to reach the air inside the
• It regenerates oxidized coenzymes such as tube. Other end of the glass tube is connected
NAD+ and FAD+ from their reduced forms by a polyethylene or rubber tubing to another
(NADH+H+ and FADH2) for recycling. bent glass tube fitted into a stopper. The open
• It also provides water molecules necessary end of the glass tube (delivery tube) is dipped
for Krebs cycle. into lime water containing in a test tube (Tube
B). Stoppers of both the tubes are fitted tightly
• It releases energy in a stepwise manner to
to prevent leakage of gases. First test tube is
prevent damage of cells.
placed in warm water (370C-380C) in a beaker.
Lime water gradually turns milky, indicating
Always Remember the evolution of carbon dioxide from the yeast
Not only glucose but amino acids preparation.
from protein metabolism and fatty acids from Level of the lime water in the delivery
lipid metabolism also participate in Kreb's tube does not rise, showing that there is no
cycle through acetyl CoA. decline in volume of gas in test tube A and
consequently no utilization of oxygen by yeast.
Try this Preparation is stored for a day or two. When
you open the stopper of tube A. You will notice
Aerobic respiration can be a smell of alcohol indicating the formation of
demonstrated by two simple experiments. ethanol. From this activity it may be inferred
A. A pinch of dry bakers yeast suspended that yeast respires anaerobically to ferment
in water or a few ml of yeast suspension used in glucose to ethanol and carbon dioxide.
a bakery is added to about 10ml of 10 percent
glucose solution in a test tube (Tube A).

156
B. Seed coats of a few germinating seeds
(peas, beans or gram) are removed. Seeds Always Remember
are then put in a test tube filled with mercury.
After closing the test tube with the thumb, it is Removal of Hydrogen from respiratory
vertically inverted in a trough of mercury and materials is the primary process in respiration
the thumb is carefully removed. Being lighter : The fact that during respiration oxygen
than mercury, the seeds rise to the closed upper is taken in and carbon dioxide is given out
end of the test tube. No gas is seen at first in may give a false impression that respiratory
the test tube. As germination proceeds, a gas materials directly unite with oxygen. It must
begins to collect at the top of the mercury in the be remembered that oxygen does not play such
test tube. On introducing a pellet of potassium a primary role in the process of respiration.
hydroxide into the tube, it rises to the top and The primary process in respiration consists
absorbs the gas. The mercury again fills the in removal of hydrogen from the respiratory
tube. The potassium hydroxide reacts with materials. The reactions in which hydrogen
carbon dioxide gas to produce potassium is removed are catalyzed by enzymes called
carbonate and water. dehydrogenases free hydrogen cannot exists in
the cell. As soon as it is removed from respiratory
material it is picked up by substances known as
Use your brain power
acceptors. In aerobic respiration this hydrogen
Do the plants breath like animals? If is ultimately handed over to oxygen. These two
yes, how and why? combine with each other and form water.

Think and Compare

The gas therefore disappears. Evidently
germinating seeds produce carbon dioxide by Comparison of overall equations of
anaerobic respiration in the absence of oxygen photosynthesis and respiration show that to
in the mercury column. some extent, two process are reverse of each
13.4 Utility of stepwise oxidation : other. Photosynthesis involves reduction of CO2
You have noted that both anaerobic and and respiration involves oxidation of glucose.
aerobic respiration are conducted in many steps. Respiratory Quotient :
You may wonder what could be the utility of a Ratio of volume of CO2 released to the
metabolic pathway with so many steps? Such volume of O2 consumed in respiration is called
stepwise metabolism serves several purposes. the respiratory quotient (RQ) or respiratory
i. A stepwise release of the chemical bond energy ratio. It depends on the type of respiratory
facilitates the utilization of a relatively higher substrate.
proportion of that energy in ATP synthesis. When carbohydrates are used as
ii. Activities of enzymes for the different respiratory substrate and are completely
steps may be enhanced or inhibited by oxidized, the RQ is 1, because volume of CO2
specific compounds. This provides a means evolved is equal to volume of O2 consumed, as
of controlling the rate of the pathway and the shown in the equation.
energy output according to need of the cell. When fats or proteins are used as a
iii. The same pathway may be utilized for substrate, the RQ is less than 1, as volume of
forming intermediates used in the synthesis of CO2 evolved is always less than volume of O2
other biomolecules like amino acids. consumed.
Mostly for fats, RQ is about 0.7 and for
proteins it is about 0.9

157
 In case of anaerobic respiration RQ 4. Coupled with photosynthesis, it helps to
is always infinity as CO2 is evolved without maintain the balance between CO2 and O2
taking O2. in the atmosphere.
Significance of Respiration 5. Anaerobic respiration (fermentation) is
1. Respiration provides energy for biosynthesis used in various industries such as diaries,
of cellular materials such as carbohydrates, bakeries, distilleries, leather industries,
proteins, fats, lipids, vitamins, pigments paper industries etc. It is used in the
etc. commercial production of alcohol, organic
2. It is also a source of energy for cell division, acids, vitamins, antibiotics etc.
growth, repairs and replacement of worn 6. Energy of respiration is also used to convert
out parts, movements, locomotion etc. insoluble substances into soluble form.
3. Various intermediates of Krebs cycle are
used as building blocks for synthesis of
other complex compounds.

Internet my friend
Calculate the RQ for different respiratory substrates using appropriate formula.

158
 Exercise
1. Choose correct option 3. Answer the following questions
A. The reactions of the TCA cycle occur in A. When and where does anaerobic
a. ribosomes respiration occur in man and yeast?
b. grana B. Why is less energy produced during
c. mitochondria anaerobic respiration than in aerobic
d. endoplasmic reticulum respiration?
B. In eucaryotes the complete oxidation of C. Where is the respiration electron
a molecule of glucose results in the net transport system located in a cell?
gain of D. Which compound is the terminal
a. 2 molecules of ATP electron acceptor in aerobic respiration?
b. 36 molecules of ATP E. What is RQ.? What is its value for fats?
c. 4 molecules of ATP
F. What are respiratory substrates? Name
d. 38 molecules of ATP
the most common respiratory substrate.
C. The intermediate between glycolysis G. Write explanatory notes on :
and TCA cycle is : i. Glycolysis
a. 2 molecule of ATP ii. Fermentation by yeast
b. 36 molecule of ATP iii. Electron transport chain
c. 4 molecule of ATP H. How are glycolysis, TCA cycle and
d. 38 molecule of ATP electron transport chain linked? Explain.
D. Which step of Kreb's cycle operates I. How would you demonstrate that
substrate-level phosphorylation? yeast can respire both aerobically and
a. α-ketoglutarate → succinyl CoA. anaerobically?
b. Succinyl CoA → succinate J. What is the advantage of step wise
c. Succinate → fumarate energy release in respiration?
d. Fumarate → malate
K. Explain ETS.
2. Fill in the blanks with suitable words L. Discuss. "The respiratory pathway is an
A. Acetyl CoA is formed from ................. amphibolic pathway".
and co-enzyme A. M. Why is Krebs cycle reffered as
B. In the prokaryotes ................. molecules amphibolic pathway?
of ATP are formed per molecule of N. Which of the following step of aerobic
glucose oxidised. respiration would be omitted when fatty
C. Glycolysis takes place in ................. acids are used as respiratory substrate?
D. F1- F0 particles participate in the a. Glycolysis
synthesis of ................. b. Krebs cycle
E. During glycolysis .................. molecules c. Electron transfer chain reaction
of NADH+H+ are formed.
d. Terminal oxidation.

159
4. Compare Practical / Project :
A. Photosynthesis and Respiration.
Make Power point Presentation on
B. Anaerobic and Anaerobic respiration. Glycolysis, Kerbs Cycle and Conduct the
5. Differentiate between group discussion on it in classroom.
A. Respiration ans combustion
B. Glycolysis and Krebs cycle
C. Aerobic respiration and fermentation

6. Identify the cycle given below. Correct it

and fill in the blanks and write discription
of it in your own words

NAD+
CoA-SH
NADH+H+
CO2

Acetyl-CoA
H 2O Condensation

Dehydrogenation CoA-SH
Malate Citrate
dehydrogenase
 synthase
Hydration H2O
H2O Fumarase Aconitase 
Dehydration

 Succinate H2O
Aconitase
dehydrogenase

Dehydration
Isocitrate
Dehydrogenase
Succinyl-CoA
synthetase 
CoA-SH
α-Ketoglutarate Isocitrate
GTP dehydrogenase
(ATP) Dehydrogenase
complex
 GDP
(ADP) 
+Pi CO2


Oxidative
decarboxylation

160
 14. Human Nutrition

Can you recall? Label the diagram

1. What is nutrition?
2. Enlist life processes that provide us
energy to perform different activities.

Nutrition is the sum of the processes by

which an organism consumes and utilises food
substances. WHO (World Health Organisation)
defines nutrition as the intake of food,
considered in relation to the body's dietary
needs. The dietary needs of a healthy human
being include carbohydrates, proteins, fats,
vitamins, minerals, water and fibres in adequate
amounts. The term nutrition includes the
processes like ingestion, digestion, absorption,
assimilation and egestion. Food provides
energy and organic material for growth and
tissue repair. Vitamins and minerals are also
required in small quantities for nutrition. The
food that is consumed needs to be processed
before it is utilised.
is bounded by fleshy lips. It’s side walls are
formed of cheeks, roof is formed by palate
Think about it and floor by tongue. It is internally lined by a
mucous membrane. Salivary glands open into
Our diet includes all necessary the buccal cavity.
nutrients. Still we need to digest it. Why is it
so? Teeth : 32 teeth are present in the buccal cavity
of an adult human being. Human dentition
Digestion is defined as the process by is described as thecodont, diphyodont and
which the complex, non-diffusible and non- heterodont. It is called thecodont type because
absorbable food substances are converted into each tooth is fixed in a separate socket present
simple, diffusible and assimilable substances. in jaw bones by gomphosis type of joint. In
14.1 Human Digestive System : Digestive our life time, we get only two sets of teeth,
milk teeth and permanent teeth. This is called
system of man consists of alimentary canal
diphyodont dentition. We have four different
and associated digestive glands.
type of teeth hence we are heterodont. Types
Alimentary canal : It is a long tubular structure of teeth are incisors (I) canines (C) premolars
starting from mouth and ending with anus. (PM) and molar (M). Each half of each jaw has
It is about 8-10 meters long and consists of two incisors, one canine, two premolars and
following organs : three molars.
Mouth : Also called as oral or buccal cavity Thus, dental formula of adult human
can be represented as.

161
 3 2,1,2,3 The study of teeth with respect to their
I 2 , C 1 , PM 2 , M =
2 1 2 3 2,1,2,3 number, arrangement, development etc is
i.e. 8 × 2=16 teeth in each jaw. =32 teeths known as dentition.
Tongue : It is a muscular, fleshy organ and
Enamel roughly triangular in shape. It lies along the
floor of the buccal cavity. The upper surface of
Dentin the tongue bears numerous projections called
Crown
Pulp papillae. Some papillae bear sensory receptors
Gums called taste buds.

Bone
Root Do you know ?
Root canal
1. Who controls the deglutition?
Nerves and
blood vessels 2. Is deglutition voluntary or involuntary?

Fig. 14.1 Tooth Anatomy Pharynx : The buccal cavity leads to a short
pharynx. Pharynx is a common passage for
food and air. The upper region of pharynx is
Find out called trachea. The pharynx opens into trachea
1. What will be the dental formula of a three through an opening called glottis. The glottis is
years old child? guarded by a cartilaginous flap called epiglottis.
2. What is dental caries and dental plaque? The epiglottis closes during the swallowing
How can one avoid it ? (deglutition) action and prevents entry of food
into the trachea. The lower region of pharynx
Internet my friend is called oropharynx. Oropharynx opens into
oesophagus through gullet.
1. Find out the role of orthodontist and Oesophagus : The oesophagus is a thin,
dental technician. muscular tube. It lies behind the trachea.
2. What is root canal treatment?
This ≈25cm long tube passes through the
A tooth consists of the portion that neck, central aspect of rib cage, pierces the
projects above the gum called crown and the diaphragm and joins the stomach. It is lined by
root that is made up of two or three projections mucus cells. Mucus lubricates the passageway
which are embeded in gum. A short neck of food. Histologically, oesophagus is made
connects the crown with the root. The crown is up of longitudinal and circular muscles. The
covered by the hardest substance of the body rhythmic wave of contraction and relaxation of
called enamel. Enamel is made up of calcium these muscles is called peristalsis that helps in
phosphate and calcium carbonate. Basic shape passage of food through oesophagus.
of tooth is derived from dentin, a calcified
connective tissue. The dentin encloses a cavity Stomach : The stomach is located in the
called pulp cavity. It is filled with connective upper left portion of the abdominal cavity. It
tissue pulp. Pulp cavity contains blood vessels is a muscular sac-like 'J' shaped organ, around
and nerves. Pulp cavity has extension in the 25 to 30cm in length. It is divided into upper
root of the tooth called root canal. The dentin cardiac region and lower pyloric region.
of the root of tooth is covered by cementum, a
bone like substance that attaches the root to the
surrounding socket in the gum.

162
 Jejunum : It is about 2.5 meters long, coiled
Oesophagus middle portion of small intestine. It is narrower
Gastroesophageal
junction than the duodenum.
Fundus Ileum : It is about 3.5 meters long. It is highly
Cardia coiled and little broader than jejunum. The
Lesser curvature ileum opens into the caecum of large intestine
Body at ileocaecal junction.
Large Intestine : Ileum opens into large
intestine. It is 1.5 meters in length. It is wider
Duodenum Greater curvature
in diameter and shorter than small intestine. It
Pylorus consists of caecum, colon and rectum.
Caecum : Caecum is a small, blind sac present
at the junction of ileum and colon. It is 6cm
Fig. 14.2 Stomach
in length. It hosts some symbiotic micro-
Cardia or Cardiac : It is first part in which organisms. An elongated worm like vermiform
oesophagus opens. The cardia surrounds the appendix arises from the caecum. Appendix is
band of circular muscles present at the junction vestigial organ in human beings and functional
of oesophagus and stomach called cardiac in herbivorous animals for the digestion of
sphincter. The cardiac sphincter prevents back cellulose.
flow or regurgitation of food from stomach to Colon : Caecum opens into colon. Colon is
oesophagus. tube like-organ consist of three parts, ascending
Fundus : It is the dome shaped region above colon, transverse colon and descending colon.
and left of cardia. The colon is internally lined by mucosal cells.
Body : It forms the large central portion of Rectum : It is posterior region of large
stomach that stores the food. intestine. It temporarily stores the undigested
Pylorus : It is a narrow posterior region of waste material called faeces till it is egested
stomach. It opens into duodenum, the initial out through anus.
part of small intestine. This opening is guarded Anus : Anus is the terminal opening of
by a set of sphincter muscles called pyloric alimentary canal. It is guarded by sphincter.
sphincter. It regulates the flow of food from It expels faecal matter by a process called
stomach to small intestine. egestion or defaecation.
The stomach temporarily stores the
food and gives the feeling of satiety. It churns 14.2 Histological structure of alimentary
the food and helps in mixing the food with
Find out
gastric juice.
1. What is heart burn? Why do we take
Small Intestine : In human, it is about 6 meters
antacids to control it?
long and 2.5 cms broad tube coiled within
abdominal cavity. The coils are held together 2. You must have heard of appendicitis. It
by mesenteries, supporting the blood vessels, is inflammation of appendix. Find more
lymph vessels and nerves. It is divided into information about this disorder.
three parts.
Duodenum : It is about 26 cm long ‘U’ shaped Activity :
structure. The duodenum turns towards left side
Make a model of human digestive
of abdominal cavity below the stomach.
system in a group.

163
canal : Mucosa of small intestine forms finger
The entire gastrointestinal tract is lined like foldings called villi. The intestinal villi are
by four basic layers from inside to outside lined by brush border or epithelial cells having
namely, mucosa, submucosa, muscularis microvilli at the free surface. Villi are supplied
and serosa. These layers show modification with a network of capillaries and lymph vessels
depending on the location and function of the called lacteals. Mucosa forms crypts in between
organ concerned. the bases of villi in intestine called crypts of
Circular muscle layer Lieberkuhn. These are intestinal glands.
12.3 Digestive Glands :
Glandular The digestive glands associated with
epithelium of the alimentary canal include the salivary
Serosa mucosa
glands, liver and pancreas.
Salivary glands : There are three pairs of
Blood vessel salivary glands which open in buccal cavity.
Longitudinal
Parotid glands are present in front of the ear.
muscle layer
Submucosa The submandibular glands are present below
the lower jaw. The glands present below the
Fig. 14.3 Histology of alimentary tongue are called sublingual. Salivary glands
canal are made up of two types of cells. Serous
Serosa : It is the outermost layer. It is made cells secrete a fluid containing digestive
up of a layer of squamous epithelium called enzyme called salivary amylase. Mucous cells
mesothelium and inner layer of connective produce mucus that lubricates food and helps
tissue. swallowing.
Muscularis : This layer is formed of smooth Liver : This dark reddish-brown coloured gland
muscles. These muscles are usually arranged in is present just below the diaphragm. It occupies
three concentric layers. Outermost layer shows the right upper portion of the abdominal cavity.
longitudinal muscles, middle circular muscles It is the largest gland of the body. It weighs
and inner oblique muscles. This layer is wider about 1.2 to 1.5 kg in an adult human being.
in stomach and comparatively thin in intestinal Each lobe of this bilobed gland is covered by
region. The layer of oblique muscles is absent thin covering called Glisson's capsule. This
in the intestine. capsule is made up of connective tissue. Each
Submucosa : It is formed of loose connective lobe is divided into several structural and
tissue containing blood vessels, lymph vessels functional units of liver called hepatic lobules.
and nerves. Duodenal submucosa shows Each hepatic lobule is polygonal in shape. At
presence of glands. the junction of adjacent lobules a triangular
Mucosa : The lumen of the alimentary canal portal area is present. In this portal area a
is lined by mucosa. Throughout the length of branch of each of hepatic artery, hepatic portal
alimentary canal, the mucosa layer shows vein and bile duct is present.
presence of goblet cells that secrete mucus. This A lobule consist of cords of hepatic
lubricates the lumen of alimentary canal. This cells which are arranged around a central vein.
layer shows modification in different regions In between the cords of hepatic cells, spaces
of alimentary canal. In stomach, it is thrown called sinusoids are present through which the
into irregular folds called rugae. In stomach blood flows. In the sinusoids, phagocytic cells
mucosa layer forms gastric glands that secrete called Kupffer cells are present.
gastric juice.

164
 These cells destroy toxic substances,
Interlobular ducts Acinar cells
dead and worn-out blood cells and
microorganisms. Hepatic cells produce bile
juice. It is collected and carried through bile
duct and stored in sac like gall bladder. The duct Capillary
of the gall bladder and hepatic duct together network
form common bile duct. Liver is a vital organ. alpha cell
Bile juice secreted by liver emulsifies fats and beta cell
makes food alkaline.
delta cell
Liver stores excess of glucose in the Islet of Langerhans Central duct
form of glycogen. Deamination of excess amino
acids to ammonia and its further conversion to Fig. 14.4 Histological structure of Pancreas
urea takes place in liver. It is also involved in
synthesis of vitamins A, D, K and B12. Liver Endocrine part of pancreas is made up
also produces blood proteins like prothrombin of groups of cells called islets of Langerhans
and fibrinogen. During early development, present between the acini. Islets contain
liver acts as haemopoietic organ. Kupffer cells three types of cells. α-cells secrete glucagon,
help in detoxification process and destruction β-cells secrete insulin and somatostatin
of old RBCs. hormone is secreted by δ-cells. Glucagon and
Liver Bile ducts insulin together control the blood-sugar level.
Somatostatin hormone inhibits glucagon and
Hepatic duct
Gall bladder insulin secretion.
Cystic duct
Common Use your brain power
hepatic duct
1. Draw a neat labelled diagram of human
Pancreatic alimentary canal and associated glands
duct in situ.
Pancreas 2. Write a note or human dentition.
3. Liver is a vital organ. Justify.
Common
bile duct 4. Muscularis layer in stomach is thicker
than that in intestine. Why is it so?
Hepatopancreatic
sphincter
Duodenum 12.4 Physiology of digestion :
We are already aware that food we
Fig. 14.3 Liver and Pancreas
consume needs to be processed in order to utilise
Pancreas : Pancreas is a leaf shaped heterocrine it completely. Physiology of digestion includes
gland present in the gap formed by bend of various processes involved in simplification of
duodenum under the stomach. Exocrine part food. Digestion process is carried out by both
of pancreas is made up of acini. Acinar cells mechanical as well as biochemical methods.
secrete alkaline pancreatic juice that contains Mechanical digestion includes various
various digestive enzymes. Pancreatic juice is movements of alimentary canal that help
collected and carried to duodenum by pancreatic chemical digestion. Mastication or chewing
duct. The common bile duct joins pancreatic of food by teeth, churning in stomach and
duct to form hepato-pancreatic duct. It opens peristaltic movements of gastrointestinal tract
into duodenum. Opening of hepato-pancreatic bring about mechanical digestion in human
duct is guarded by sphincter of Oddi. body.

165
 Chemical digestion is a series of Digestion in the stomach : Both mechanical
catabolic (breaking down) reactions that and chemical digestion takes place
hydrolyse the food. Let us now study the process in stomach. The stomach stores the food for
of digestion from the point where it enters the 4-5 hours. The physical digestion happens
body i.e. mouth. by churning of food. Thick muscular wall of
Digestion in the buccal cavity : Both stomach helps churning process. Churning
mechanical and chemical digestion processes further breaks down the food particles and also
take place in mouth. Mastication or chewing helps in thorough mixing of gastric juice with
of food takes place with the help of teeth and food.
tongue. Teeth crush and grind the food. Tongue The mucosa layer of stomach has
manipulates the food. Crushing of food becomes gastric gland. Each gastric glands has three
major types of cells namely, mucus cells, peptic
easier when it gets moistened by saliva. Mucus
or chief cells and parietal or oxyntic cells.
in the saliva lubricates the food as well as it
Mucus cells secrete mucus. Peptic cells secrete
helps in binding the food particles into a mass
proenzyme pepsinogen. Parietal cells secrete
of food called bolus. The bolus is swallowed
HCl and intrinsic factor which is essential for
by deglutition. The tongue presses against
absorption of vitamin B12. Thus, gastric juice
the palate and pushes the bolus into pharynx.
contains mucus, inactive enzyme pepsinogen,
Bolus further passes to the oesophagus.
HCl and intrinsic factor. In infants, stomach
The saliva contains 98% water and 2%
also secretes rennin. Mucus protects the inner
other constituents like electrolytes (sodium,
lining of stomach from HCl present in gastric
potassium, calcium, chloride, bicarbonates), juice.
digestive enzyme salivary amylase. The only HCl in gastric juice makes the food
chemical digestion that takes place in mouth is acidic and stops the action of salivary amylase.
by the action of salivary amylase. It helps in It kills the germs that might be present in the
conversion of starch into maltose. About 30% food. Pepsinogen gets converted into active
starch gets converted to maltose in mouth. enzyme pepsin in the acidic medium provided
Salivary amylase by HCl. In presence of pepsin, proteins in the
Starch Maltose food get converted into simpler forms like
(Polysaccharide) pH 6.8 (Disaccharide) peptones and proteoses.
Saliva also contains lysozyme. It acts as
an antibacterial agent that prevents infections.
HCl
The bolus further passes down through Pepsinogen Pepsin
the oesophagus by peristalsis. Sometimes (Inactive enzyme) pH (1.8) (Active enzyme)
regurgitation or vomiting takes place due to
reverse spasmodic peristalsis. Food from the
oesophagus enters the stomach. The gastro- Pepsin
oesophageal sphincter controls the passage of Proteins Peptones + Proteoses
food into the stomach. Acidic medium

Always Remember
Food remains for a very short time in mouth but action of salivary amylase continues
for further 15 to 30 minutes till gastric juice mixes with food in the stomach. Why do you think
it stops after the food gets mixed with gastric juice?

166
 Rennin found in gastric juice of infants Both pancreatic and intestinal lipases
acts on casein, a protein present in milk. It initially convert fats into fatty acid and
brings about curdling of milk proteins with the diglycerides.
help of calcium. The coagulated milk protein Diglycerides are further converted to
is further digested with the help of pepsin. monoglycerides by removal of fatty acid from
Rennin is absent in adults. At the end of gastric glycerol. The mucus and bicarbonates present
digestion, food is converted to a semifluid in pancreatic juice protect the intestinal mucosa
acidic mass of partially digested food is called and provide alkaline medium for enzymatic
chyme. action. Sub-mucosal Brunner's glands help in
The chyme from stomach is pushed in the action of goblet cells. Most of the digestion
the small intestine through pyloric sphincter for gets over in small intestine. Let us study the
further digestion. action of pancreatic and intestinal secretion in
sequential manner.
Internet my friend
1. What is lactose intolerence? Think about it
2. How are bile pigments formed? How can I keep my pancreas healthy?
Can a person live without pancreas?
Digestion in the small intestine : In the
small intestine, intestinal juice, bile juice Do you know ?
and pancreatic juice are mixed with food.
Why do we feel hungry? Ghrelin is
Peristaltic movements of muscularis layer help
a hormone that is produced mainly by the
in proper mixing of digestive juices with chyme.
stomach and small intestine, pancreas and
Bile juice and pancreatic juice are poured in
brain. It is known as the 'hunger hormone'
duodenum through hepato-pancreatic duct.
because it stimulates appetite, increases food
Bile juice is dark green coloured fluid
intake and promotes fat storage.
that contains bile pigments (bilirubin and
biliverdin), bile salts (Na- glycocholate and Na- Action of pancreatic juice :
taurocholate), cholesterol and phospholipid. Pancreatic amylase acts on glycogen and starch
Bile does not contain any digestive enzyme. and convert those to disaccharides. Lipases
Bile salts neutralise the acidity of chyme and hydrolyse fat molecules into fatty acids and
make it alkaline. It brings about emulsification monoglycerides. Inactive trypsinogen present
of fats. It also activates lipid digesting enzymes in pancreatic juice is converted to its active
or lipases. Bile pigments impart colour to faecal
form, trypsin. This conversion is brought about
matter.
by enterokinase present in intestinal juice.
Pancreatic juice secreted by pancreas
Trypsin converts proteins as well as proteoses
contains pancreatic amylases, lipases
and inactive enzymes trypsinogen and and peptones to polypeptides. It also converts
chymotrypsinogen. Pancreatic juice also chymotrypsinogen to active chymotrypsin.
contains nucleases- the enzymes that digests Chymotrypsin converts polypeptides to
nucleic acids. The intestinal mucosa secretes dipeptides.
digestive enzymes. The goblet cells of
mucosa produce mucus. Mucus plus intestinal Do it yourself
enzymes together constitute intestinal juice or You have studied the representation
succus entericus. The intestinal juice contains of enzymatic actions in the form of reactions.
various enzymes like dipeptidases, lipases, Write the reactions of pancreatic enzymes.
disaccharidases etc.

167
 Nucleases present in pancreatic juice Protein digestion in large intestine ends
help in digestion of nucleic acids to pentose up into production of substances like indole,
sugar and nitrogenous base. skatole and H2S. These are the reason for the
odour of faeces. These bacteria synthesise
Nucleases several vitamins like B vitamins and vitamin
Nucleic acids Nucleotides
K.
Nucleotidases It is essential that the digestive enzymes
Nucleotides Nucleosides + phosphate
and juices are produced in sequential manner
Nucleosidases
Nucleosides Sugar + base and at a proper time. These secretions are
under neurohormonal control. Sight, smell and
Action of intestinal juice : even thought of food trigger saliva secretion.
Tenth cranial nerve stimulates secretion of
gastric juice in stomach. Even the hormone
Do it yourself gastrin brings about the same effect. You
Observe the following reactions and must have experienced hunger pangs at your
explain in words. regular meal times. Can you now reason out
why it happens? Intestinal mucosa produces
Maltase hormones like secretin, cholecystokinin (CCK)
Maltose glucose and gastric inhibiting peptide (GIP). Secretin
Sucrase inhibits secretion of gastric juice. It stimulates
Sucrose glucose + fructose
secretion of bile juice from liver, pancreatic
Lactase
Lactose glucose + galactose juice and intestinal juice. CCK brings about
similar action and induces satiety that is feeling
of fullness or satisfaction. GIP also inhibits
Dipeptides
Dipeptidase
Amino acids gastric secretion.

Do you know ?
Lipase
Emulsified fats fatty acids + monoglycerides Pancreatitis is inflammation of the
pancreas. It may occur due to alcoholism and
Conversion of proteins into amino chronic gallstones. Other reasons include high
acids, fats to fatty acids and monoglycerides, levels of calcium, fats in blood. However, in
nucleic acids to sugar and nitrogenous base 70% of people with pancreatitis, main reason
and carbohydrates to monosaccharides marks is alcoholism.
the end of digestion of food. Food is now
called chyle. Chyle is an alkaline slurry which
contains various nutrients ready for absorption. Use your brain power
The nutrients are absorbed and undigested
1. Make a flow chart for digestion of
remains are transported to large intestine.
carbohydrate.
Remember, mucosa of large intestine
2. What is a proenzyme? Enlist various pro-
produces mucus but no enzymes. Some
enzymes involved in process of digestion
carbohydrates and proteins do enter the large
and state their function.
intestine. These are digested by the action
3. Differentiate between chyme and chyle.
of bacteria that live in the large intestine.
4. Digestion of fats take place only after the
Carbohydrates are fermented by bacterial
food reaches small intestine. Give reason.
action and hydrogen, carbon dioxide and
methane gas are produced in colon.

168
 Observe and Discuss Action of digestive juice in your group.

Fig. 14.5 Regulation of gastric function

14.5 Absorption, assimilation and egestion:
The passage of end products of digestion Absorption of part of glucose, amino
through the mucosal lining of alimentary canal acids and some electrolytes like chloride ions
into blood and lymph is called absorption. are absorbed by simple diffusion depending on
Absorption takes place by various ways like concentration gradient.
simple diffusion, osmosis, facilitated transport Some amino acids as well as substances
and active transport. About 90% of absorption like fructose are absorbed by facilitated
takes place in the small intestine and the rest in transport. In this method, carrier ions like Na+
mouth, stomach and large intestine. bring about absorption. Some ions are absorbed
against concentration gradient. It requires
Mouth: Absorption Stomach: Gastric energy. This type of absorption of mineral
takes place through mucosa is impermeable like sodium is called active transport. Water is
mucosa of mouth to most substances
absorbed along the concentration gradient.
and lower side of hence nutrients reach
Monoglycerides and fatty acids can
tongue into the blood unabsorbed till
capillaries. e.g.
not be absorbed in blood. These dissolve in
small intestine. the centre of spherical aggregates formed by
Some drugs
Little water, bile salts called micelles. Micelles enter into
like certain
electrolytes, intestinal villi. Here, they are reformed into
painkillers.
alcohol and chylomicrons. Chylomicrons are small protein
Small Intestine:
drugs like aspirin coated fat globules. They are transported into
Glucose, fructose,
get absorbed in lymph vessels called lacteals. From here, they
galactose, amino
stomach. are transported to blood stream.
acids, minerals
and water soluble Large Observe the adjacent chart to find
vitamins are intestine: out absorption in various parts of alimentary
absorbed in blood Absorption of water, canal.
capillaries in villi. electrolytes like sodium
Lipids and fat soluble and chloride, drugs and Assimilation : The absorbed food material
vitamins (A, D, E, finally reaches the tissue and becomes a part of
some vitamins takes protoplasm. This is called as assimilation.
K) are absorbed in
lacteals. place.

Absorption of nutrients in alimentary canal

169
Egestion : Undigested waste is converted to You are already aware that little
faeces in colon and reaches rectum. Faeces extra or less of nutrition can lead to dietary
contain water, inorganic salts, sloughed of disorder. Inadequate intake of proteins causes
mucosal cells, bacteria and undigested food. Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM). It can be
Distension of rectum stimulates pressure associated with inadequacy of vitamins and
sensitive receptors that initiate a neural reflex minerals in diet. PEM can cause diseases like
for defecation or egestion. It is a voluntary Kwashiorkar and Marasmus.
process that takes place through anal opening Kwashiorkar : This protein deficiency
guarded by sphincter muscles. disorder is found generally in children between
one to three years of age. Children suffering
Can you recall? from Kwashiorkar are underweight and show
1. What is balanced diet? stunted growth, poor brain developement, loss
of appetite, anaemia, protruding belly, slender
2. Explain the terms undernourished,
legs, bulging eye, oedema of lower legs and
overnourished and malnourished in
face, change in skin and hair colour.
details.
Marasmus : It is a prolonged protein energy
malnutrition (PEM) found in infants under one
Do you know ? year of age. In this disease, protein deficiency
is coupled with lower total food calorific value.
Now a days we talk about calories Inadequate diet impairs physical growth and
of food we consume. What is this calorie? retards mental development, subcutaneous
The amount of heat liberated by complete fat disappears, ribs become prominent,
combustion of 1g food in a bomb calorimeter limbs become thin, skin becomes dry, thin
is termed as gross calorific (gross energy) and wrinkled, loss of weight, digestion and
value. In animals, the energy content of absorption of food stops due to atrophy of
food is expressed in terms of heat energy. digestive glands. There is no oedema.
The actual energy produced by 1g food is its Major cause of these disorders is
physiological value. unavailability of nutritious food. Poverty,
Actual energy produced by 1 gm of food. large family size, ill spacing of children, early
termination of breast feeding and overdiluted
S r . Food Gross Physiological
milk are a few causes. Because of malnutrition,
No. Component calorific value
value (Kcal/g)
infectious diseases become opportunistic and it
(Kcal/g) worsens the condition. Proper diet can help in
1. Fats 9.45 9.0 reversal of symptoms.
2. Proteins 5.65 4.0 Indigestion : Overeating, inadequate enzyme
3 Carbohydrates 4.1 4.0
secretion, spicy food, anxiety can cause
discomfort and various symptoms. It is called
indigestion. Improperly digested food or
14.6 Nutritional disorders and disorders
food poisoning also can cause indigestion. It
of digestive system :
leads to loss of appetite, acidity (acid reflux),
Nutrition related disorders can be
heart burn, regurgitation, dyspepsia (upper
categorised based on the food that an individual
abdominal pain), stomach pain.
consumes and conditions that develop due
Avoiding eating large meal, lying down
to malfunctioning of the organ/s or glands
after meal, spicy, oily, junk food, smoking,
associated with digestive system.
alcohol are the preventive measures for
indigestion.

170
Constipation : When frequency of defaecation
is reduced to less than once per week the
Find out
condition is called constipation. Difficulty
in defaecation may result in abdominal pain 1. Find out the status of malnutrition among
distortion, rarely perforation. The causes are, children in Maharashtra and efforts
affected colonic mobility due to neurological taken by the government to overcome
dysfunction like spinal cord injury, low fibre the situation. Search for various NGOs
diet, inadequate fluid intake and inactivity. working in this field.
Roughage, sufficient fluids in diet, exercise can 2. Are jaundice and hepatitis same disorders?
help improve the conditions.
Diarrhoea : Passing loose watery stools more
than three times a day is called diarrhoea. Do you know ?
Diarrhoea can lead to dehydration. The other Alcoholism causes different disorders
symptoms are blood in stool, nausea, bloating, of liver like steatosis (fatty liver), alcoholic
fever depending on cause and severity of the hepatitis, fibrosis and cirrhosis.
disorder. The causes of diarrhoea are infection Collect more information on these
through food and water or disorders like ulcer, disorders and try to increase awareness
colitis, inflammation of intestine or irritable against alcoholism in society.
bowel syndrome. Collect information about NGOs
Jaundice : We all associate jaundice with working against alcoholism.
yellowness of conjunctiva of eyes and skin
and whitish stool. These are the symptoms
of condition called jaundice. It is a sign of Know the scientists
abnormal bilirubin metabolism and excretion. Kamala
Jaundice develops if excessive break down of Sohonie was the
red blood cells takes place along with increased first Indian woman
bilirubin level than the liver can handle or there to receive Ph.D. in
is obstruction in the flow of bile from liver to science discipline.
duodenum. Bilirubin produced from breakdown She worked under
of haemoglobin is either water soluble or fat the guidence of Dr.
soluble. Fat soluble bilirubin is toxic to brain Robert Hill and dis-
cells. Hence serum bilirubin values have great covered 'Cytochrome
diagnostic importance. There is no specific C', the electron carrier Dr Kamala Sohonie
treatment to jaundice. Supportive care, proper in mitochondria from (1912 - 1998)
rest are the treatments given to the patient. potato.
Dr. Sohonie also worked on nutri-
Vomiting : In this condition, the stomach
tional aspects of legumes, milk and neera.
contents are thrown out of the mouth due to
Her contribution was significant in terms of
reverse peristaltic movements of gastric wall.
India's fight against malnutrition. She had
It is controlled by non-vital vomiting centre
designed a protocol for Aarey dairy to avoid
of medulla. It is typically associated with curdling of milk.
nauseatic feeling.

Internet my friend
Collect the different videos of functioning of digestive system.

171
 Exercise
1. Choose correct option
A. Acinar cells are present in ........... C. Explain heterocrine nature of pancreas
a. liver b. pancreas with the help of histological structure.
c. gastric glands d. intestinal glands
4. Write short note on
B. Which type of teeth are maximum in A. Position and function of salivary glands.
number in human buccal cavity?
B. Jaundice
a. Incisors b. Canines
c. Premolars d. Molars 5. Observe the diagram. This is histological
structure of stomach. Identify and
C. Select odd one out on the basis of
comment on significance of the layer
digestive functions of tongue.
marked by arrow
a. Taste b. Swallowing
c. Talking d. Mixing of saliva in food
D. Complete the analogy:
Ptyalin: Amylase : : Pepsin :
................. .
a. Lipase b. Galactose
c. Proenzyme d. Protease
2. Answer the following questions
A. For the school athletic meet, Shriya was
advised to consume either Glucon-D or 6. Find out pH maxima for salivary
fruit juice but no sugarcane juice. Why it amylase, trypsin, nucleotidase and pepsin
must be so? and place on the given pH scale
B. Alcoholic people may suffer from liver
disorder. Do you agree? Explain your 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
answer.
C. Digestive action of pepsin comes to a 7. Write the name of a protein deficiency
stop when food reaches small intestine. disorder and write symptoms of it
Justify.
8. Observe the diagram given below label
D. Small intestine is very long and coiled. the A, B, C, D, E and write the function
Even if we jump and run, why it does not of A, C in detail.
get twisted? What can happen if it gets A
twisted?
3. Write down the explanation B
A. Digestive enzymes are secreted at
appropriate time in our body. How does
it happen?
C
B. Explain the structure of tooth. Explain E
why human dentition is considered as
thecodont, diphydont and heterodont. D

172
Practical / Project : Here are the events in the process of digestion. Fill in the blanks
and complete the flow chart. Teeth Function : ...................
Enters
Food Mouth Tongue Function : ...................

Salivary Salivary ................... Pairs

Starch Maltose glands secrete saliva
Amylase Oesophagus
function Water Function :
Bolus .........
................... Saliva Function :
Mucin
Acidic medium
Churning
.........
Salivary
.............. Stomach amylase
Proteins Peptones
.......... medium
Gastric HCL : Functions
juice HCl
Chyme Pepsinogen Pepsin
• ........................
Alkaline medium • ........................
Mucin : Function
Proteins
.....................
Trypsin Pepsinogen
Proteins + .................
Proteoses + ................. Bile Juice
Duodenum Contains :
................. • Bile pigments
............... Dipeptides
................. • Bile salts : Function : ................
Dipeptides Amino acids .................
.................
Lipids
Emulsified Pancreatic
............+............
fats Lipase Contains :
Pancreatic Juice
Emulsified Intestinal Fatty Trypsinogen, Chymotrypsinogen, Pancreatic
+..............
fats Lipase acids amylase, Pancreatic lipase, Nucleases, ..............,
Carbohydrates
..............
.................
Pancreatic Chymotrypsinogen Chymotrypsin
Glycogen / Starch .................
amylase
.................
Maltose ..................
................. Intestinal Juice Contains :
Sucrose ............ + ..............
Enterokinase, Intestinal Lipase, Maltase, Sucrase,
..................
Lactose ............... + ................ Lactase, ..............

Nucleic acid Enterokinase

.............................. Chymotrypsin
..................
Nucleic acids ..................
Nucleotides .................. ....................
...................
Nucleosides Sugar +..............

Undergoes Jejunum, Ileum

Chyle Assimilation
Absorption
Intestinal Villi
Unabsorbed Food

Faeces Egestion Large intestine Anus

173
 15. Excretion and Osmoregulation

Can you recall?

Have you ever observed ?
1. Why are various waste products produced 1. When does urine appear deeply coloured?
in the body of an organism ? 2. If we consume onion and garlic, we get
2. How are these wastes eliminated ? bad breath. Why?

Array of chemical processes occur Think about it

in the body of an organism. Sum total of these
processes is called 'metabolism'. Metabolism 1. Do organisms differ in type of metabolic
involves catabolic (breaking down) and wastes they produce?
anabolic (building up) processes. Metabolism 2. Do environment or evolution have any
produces a variety of by-products, some of effect on type of waste produced by an
which need to be eliminated. Such byproducts organism?
are called metabolic 'waste products'. 3. How do thermoregulation and food habits
Metabolic waste products might be affect waste production ?
fluid, gaseous, organic or inorganic. Depending
on the type, they are eliminated through various Body of an organism can store excess
organs of the body of an organism. carbohydrates and fats but is unable to store
excess amino acids. Hence, excess amino acids
15.1 Excretion and excretory products : are essentially broken down by a process called
Elimination of metabolic waste as deamination. In this process, amino group is
products from the body is called excretion. separated from the amino acid and ammonia is
Unlike digestive wastes, which are primarily formed. Toxic ammonia is either excreted as it
composed of unabsorbed or undigested is or further converted to less toxic forms like
substances that have never entered the cells, urea or uric acid before excretion.
metabolic wastes are produced inside body There is no clear correlation between
cells. the phylogenetic relationship of organisms and
Let us try to enlist various excretory their major excretory products, but it's habitat
waste products produced in human body; has. e.g. Tadpole of frog excretes ammonia
Fluids such as water, gaseous wastes like CO2, and adult frogs mostly are ureotelic. Some
nitrogenous wastes like ammonia, urea and terrestrial turtles excrete uric acid whereas
uric acid, creatinine, mineral, salts of sodium, others excrete urea or ammonia.
potassium, calcium, etc. which if, are present Animals can be broadly classified
in body in excess are excreted through urine, into three types based on nitrogenous wastes
faeces and sweat. Pigments formed due to they produce : Ammonia is the basic product
breakdown of haemoglobin are like bilirubin of deamination process. But it is highly toxic.
(excreted through faeces) and urochrome Hence, it is to be diluted immediately. If there
(eliminated through urine). Also, the pigments is no or limited access to water, need for
present in foodstuff like beet root consumed by conversion of ammonia becomes necessary.
organism, excess of vitamins, hormones and Thus, availability of water plays key role in
drugs taken are eliminated. Spices we consume deciding mode of excretion of an organism.
contain volatile substances that are excreted These are of mainly three types :
through lungs.

174
 Think about it
Endotherms consume more food in order to meet energy requirements. Also, carnivorous
diet contains more proteins than herbivorous. Does it affect excretion of nitrogenous waste ?
Ammonotelism : Elimination of nitrogenous ornithine / urea cycle (Krebs and Hanseleit,
wastes in the form of ammonia is called as 1932). 3 ATP molecules are used to produce
ammonotelism. It is basic in nature. Hence, it one molecule of urea.
would disturb pH of body, if retained. Slight Sharks retain more urea in their body
increase in pH would disturb all enzyme- fluid (blood) to make their blood isotonic to
catalyzed reactions in body and would also surrounding marine water. This helps them to
make the plasma membrane unstable. It prevent possible loss of water by exosmosis.
is readily soluble in water and needs large
quantity of water to dilute and reduce Uricotelism (C5H4O3N4) : Elimination of
the toxicity. However, it is energy saving nitrogenous wastes in the form of uric acid is
mechanism of excretion. Hence all animals called as uricotelism. Uric acid is least toxic.
that have plenty of water available for dilution Hence, it can be retained in the body for some
of ammonia, excrete nitrogenous wastes in the time in concentrated form. It is least soluble in
form of ammonia. Such animals are called water. Hence minimum (about 5—10 ml for
ammonotelic. 1 gm ammonia needs about 300 1 gm) or no need of water for its elimination.
– 500 ml of water for elimination. Hence, animals those need to conserve more
Ammonotelism is found in aquatic water follow uricotelism. Ammonia is converted
invertebrates, bony fishes, and aquatic / larval into uric acid by ‘inosinic acid pathway’ in
amphibians. Animals without excretory system the liver of birds. Birds, some insects, many
are also ammonotelic. e. g. Protozoa reptiles, land snails, are uricotelic; because
Ammonotelic animals excrete ammonia they need to conserve the water. However, they
through general body surface (skin), gills and have to spend more energy.
kidneys.

Ureotelism : Elimination of nitrogenous

Use your brain power
wastes in the form of urea (H2N-CO-NH2) is
called as ureotelism. Urea is less toxic and Why ammonia is highly toxic?
less water-soluble than ammonia. Hence it can
be concentrated to some extent in body. Due
Always Remember
to this, it requires less water for elimination.
(Compared to ammonia, about 100 time less Animals like spiders, scorpions and
water in human, several hundred times in camel, penguins excrete guanine. This mode of
kangaroo rat and shark). As it is less toxic and excretion is called guanotelism.
less water soluble; hence, ureotelism is suitable
for animals those need conservation of water to
some extent. Hence it is common in terrestrial Find out
animals, as they have to conserve H2O. It takes You will study about a type of
about 50 ml H2O for removal of 1 gm NH2 in arthritis called gouty arthritis caused due to
form of urea. Mammals, cartilaginous fishes accumulation of uric acid in joints. Where
(sharks and rays), many aquatic reptiles, most does uric acid comes from in case of ureotelic
of the adult amphibians, etc. are ureotelic. They
human beings?
convert ammonia to urea in liver by operating

175
 Observe and Discuss

These are blood reports of patients undergoing investigations for kidney function. What
is creatinine ? What is your observation and opinion about the findings ? Why is it used as an
index of kidney function? Report B
PERFECT PATHOLOGY Reg. No. :- _______
Dr. _________________________ Date :- _________
Report A
Patient name :-________________ Age :-_______
PERFECT PATHOLOGY Reg. No. :- _______
M/F
Dr. ______________________ Date :- Reference :- Dr.________________
Patient name :-__________________ Age :-____ M/F Examination of Blood
Reference :- Dr.________________ Test Result Normal values
Examination of Blood Fasting blood sugar 185 70 - 110 ml/dl
Test Result Normal values Chemical Examination of Urine
Creatinine 1.92 Male : 0.6 to 1.4 mg/dl. Test Result Normal values
Female : 0.6 to 1.2 mg/dl. Sugar Present ++ Absent

Plasma creatinine is produced from catabolism of

creatinine phosphate during skeletal muscle contraction. It Think about it
provides ready source of high energy phosphate. Normally During summer, we tend
blood creatinine levels remain steady because the rate of to produce less urine, why is it
production matches it's excretion in urine. Hence, level above so ?
normal is an indication of poor renal function.
Excretory organs play an important role in maintenence
of constant internal environment of the body called homeostasis. Use your brain power
It requires osmoregulation, the process of controling solute
What would happen if
concentrations and water balance. It can be rightly said that
human being has no option but
composition of blood (and internal environment) is determined
not by what mouth ingests but by what excretory organs retain. to drink sea water ?
Marine birds like Albatross spend their life on the sea.
That means water, they drink is salty ! How do they manage Think about it
osmoregulation then?
Like ectothermic and
They have special glands called salt glands near nostrils.
endothermic animals, do
These are capable of secreting salts by active transport and help
organisms differ in the way
to manage osmotic balance. Many marine organisms like sea
turtles and marine iguanas also have such salt excreting glands. they maintain salt balance ?
Animals can either be isoosmotic to the surrounding
(osmoconformers) or control internal environment independent
Find out
of external environment (osmoregulators). Marine organisms
mostly are osmocomformers because their body fluids and How do freshwater
external environment are isoosmotic in nature. fishes and marine fishes carry
Fresh water forms and terrestrial organisms are out osmoregulation ?
osmoregulators.

176
 Whether conformers or regulators, most Metanephridia : These are unbranched coiled
organisms can tolerate only narrow range of tubes that connect to body cavity through funnel
salt concentrations. Such organisms are called like structures called nephrostomes. Body fluid
stenohaline organisms. (steno : narrow) enters the nephridium through nephrostome
Those who are capable of handling and gets discharged through nephridiopore. eg.
wide changes in salinity are called euryhaline Earthworms.
organisms ex. barnacles, clams etc. In most of the insects, excretion takes
Unicellular forms have contractile place by set of blind ended tubules called
vacuoles which collect and discharge waste malpighian tubules. Crustaceans have green
products outside the cell. Excretion in sponges glands as excretory organs. Members of phylum
takes place by diffusion of waste material in Echinodermata do not have any specialised
water which is discharged through osculum. excretory organs. Waste materials directly
True organs of excretion are found in diffuse into water or are excreted through tube
those animals that show bilateral symmetry. feet. Mammalian kidneys are a collection of
Most common type is simple or branching functional units called nephrons, which are
tube that opens to exterior through pores called well designed to extract metabolic waste.
nephridiopores.
Abdomen
Two major types of nephridia :
Protonephridia : These are network of dead
end tubes called flame cells. These are found
mostly in animals that lack true body cavity e.g. Midgut
Platyhelminthes. Protonephridia are also found Malpighian
tubules
in rotifers, some annelids and Amphioxus.
Hindgut

Rectum

Dry waste
Abdomen with uric acid
Fig. 15.3 Insects excretion

Fig. 15.2 Excretory system in platyhelminthes

177
 Make a table
Use your brain power
1. The details of modes of excretion of nitrogenous wastes. Creatinine is considered
2. The excretory organs found in various animal phyla. as index of Kidney function.
Give reason.
15.2 Excretory system in human being :

Observe and complete

Label the adjacent diagram and complete

following paragraphs.
Kidney : A pair of shaped kidneys are
present on either side of from 12th thoracic
to 3rd Lumbar vertebra. Kidneys are present be-
hind ................ Hence are called Retroperitoneal.
Dimensions of each kidney are 10 x ........ x .........
cms. Average weight is ............ g in males and
135 g in ............... Outer surface is ............. and
inner is concave. Notch on the inner concave sur-
face is called Renal artery enters and renal
vein as well as ureter leave the kidney through hi-
lus. Each kidney has almost 1 million functional
units called ...............

Ureters : A pair of ureters arise from .........of

each kidney. Each ureter is a long muscular tube 25- Fig. 15.4 Excretory system
30 cm. in length. Ureters open into ................ by sepa-
rate openings, which are not guarded by valves. They
Urethra : It is a ......... struc-
pass obliquely through the wall of urinary bladder.
ture arising from urinary blad-
This helps in prevention of ............ of urine due to
der and opening to the exterior
compression of ureters while bladder is filled.
of the body. There are ..........
Urinary bladder : It is a median ............... sac. A urethral sphincters between uri-
hollow muscular organ, the bladder is situated in pelvic nary bladder and urethra.
cavity posterior to public symphysis. At the base of the a. Internal sphincter : Made up
............. there is a small inverted triangular area called of ............ muscles, involuntary
Trigone. At the apex of this triangle is opening of ure- in nature.
thra. At the two points of the base of the triangle are b. External sphincter : Made up
openings of ureters. Urinary bladder is covered exter- of ............. muscles, voluntary
nally by peritoneum. Inner to peritoneum is muscular in nature.
layer. It is formed by detrusor muscles which consist of If this valve is not functioning
three layers of smooth muscles. Longitudenal -circu- properly during inflammation
lar-longitudenal respectively. Innermost layer is made of bladder, it can lead to kidney
up of transitional.............. It helps bladder to stretch. infection.

178
 Kidneys bring about separation and Each kidney is covered by 3 layers
elimination of nitrogenous waste, excess wa- of tissue. Outermost Renal fascia is made up
ter and toxic substances from the body. They of thin layer of fibrous connective tissue. It
maintain homeostasis by way of their role in anchors the kidney to abdominal wall as well
osmoregulation and regulation of pH of body as surrounding tissue.
fluids. They produce calcitriol and renin. Middle layer is a mass of fatty tissue
Erythropoietin secreted by kidneys is essential called adipose capsule. Protects kidneys by
for production of RBCs. Ureters transport urine shock absorption. Innermost layer, renal
from renal pelvis to urinary bladder. Urinary capsule is a smooth transparent fibrous
bladder is a temporary storage organ for urine. membrane that is continuous with outer layer
It helps to expel urine (micturition). Urethra is of ureters. It acts as a barrier against spread of
a passage way for discharging urine from body. infections in kidney. L.S. of kidney shows two
In males, it acts as urinogenital organ. distinct regions within capsule.
Histologically, kidney is divisible
Do you know ? into two regions as renal cortex and renal
medulla. Renal cortex is outer / peripheral, red
Micturition : Average capacity of urinary coloured and granular region. Cortex contains
bladder is 700 ml. When urinary bladder Malpighian bodies, convoluted tubules and
is almost half filled, stretch receptors in blood vessels. Medulla is inner region of kidney
urinary bladder transmit impulses to spinal with pale red colour and striated appearance.
cord. This initiates conscious desire to expel Medulla mainly consists of Loops of Henle
urine. Micturition reflex center of spinal and collecting ducts. All these are arranged in
cord transmit impulses to the wall of urinary conical manner to form renal pyramids. Cortex
bladder and internal urethral sphincter. extends in medulla as columns of Bertini /
Bladder muscles contract and muscles of renal columns between pyramids. Narrow tip
internal urethral sphincter relax. Then of pyramid is called as renal papilla.
external sphincter receives impulses from
conscious centre of brain and relaxes. This Renal papilla
leads to expellation/ elimination of urine Minor calyx of pyramid
from bladder. Renal cortex
Major calyx
Renal
Internet my friend medula

Find out what is floating kidney?

Can you recall?

Observe the figure carefully and label Renal
Renal
column
various regions of L.S. of kidney. pelvis

Renal
Always Remember pyramid
Ureter
Infants up to 2 years of age show lack
of voluntary control over micturition. This
is because neurons to the external sphincter
muscles are not developed. Fig. 15.5 L. S. of Kidney

179
 There are several pyramids. Renal
papilla open into minor calyx. Minor calyces Proximal convoluted
merge together to form major calyces and tubule
major calyces unite together to form renal Juxtaglomerular
pelvis. Renal pelvis (renal sinus) is funnel- apparatus
shaped area in the region of medulla of kidney.
Renal pelvis continues as ureter which leaves Afferent
kidney through hilus. arteriole
Podocyte

Do you know ? Glomerulus

Distal
Nephrology is branch of biology that Efferent convoluted
Glomerular capsule arteriole tubule
deals with structure, function and disorders
of male and female urinary system.
Afferent Glomerulus Blood pressure
Nephron : Nephrons are structural and arteriole 75 mm. Hg
functional units of kidney. Each nephron Efferent
Podocyte arteriole
consists of about 4 - 6 cm long thin-walled showing feet
Capillary
tube- ‘renal tubule’ and a bunch of capillaries- and slit pores
showing pores
in between
‘glomerulus’. Wall of renal tubule is made up of Basement
single layer of epithelial cells. Its proximal end membrane
is wide, blind, cup-like, called as Bowman’s Colloidal Visceral wall
osmotic
capsule. Distal end is open. It is divisible into pressure Parietal wall
Bowman’s capsule, neck, proximal convoluted 30 mm Hg. Capsular space
PCT cell
tubule (PCT), Loop of Henle (LoH), distal Capsular
hydrostatic Basal channel
convoluted tubule (DCT) and collecting tubule
pressure 15 Intercellular space
(CT). mm Hg.
Glomerulus is present in the cup- Microvillus
like cavity of Bowman’s capsule and both Fig. 15.6 Bowman's capsule and glomerulus
are collectively known as renal corpuscle or
Bowman's capsule : It is a cup-like structure
Malpighian body.
having double wall. Both walls are composed
Each Malpighian body is about 200µm
of squamous epithelium. Outer wall is called
in diameter and consists of a Bowman’s capsule
as parietal and inner wall is called as visceral
and glomerulus.
wall. There is a space called as capsular space
Glomerulus : Glomerulus is a bunch of fine
/ urinary space in between two walls. Visceral
blood capillaries lying in the cup of Bowman’s
wall consists of special type of squamous cells
capsule. A small terminal branch of renal
called podocytes having a foot-like pedicel.
artery called as afferent arteriole enters the cup
These podocytes are in close contact with the
cavity and undergoes extensive fine branching
walls of capillaries of glomerulus.
to form network of several capillaries. This
There are small slits called as filtration
bunch is called as glomerulus. Capillary wall
slits in between adjacent podocytes. Parietal
is fenestrated. All capillaries reunite and form
wall is thin consisting of simple squamous
an efferent arteriole that leaves the cup cavity.
epithelium. It continues into neck.
Diameter of afferent is greater than efferent
The wall of neck is made up of ciliated
arteriole to create a high hydrostatic pressure
epithelium. Lumen of neck is called urinary
in glomerulus. It is important for ultrafiltration.
pole. Neck leads to proximal convoluted tubule.

180
Proximal Convoluted Tubule : This is highly DCT helps in water reabsorption and
coiled part of nephron. It is lined by cuboidal regulation of pH of body fluids.
cells with brush border (microvilli) and Collecting tubule: This is a short, straight part
surrounded by peritubular capillaries. It is place of DCT. Collecting tubule reabsorbs water and
of selective reabsorption. Due to convolutions secretes protons. Collecting tubule opens to
(coiling), filtrate flows slowly and remains in collecting duct.
the PCT for longer duration. This ensures the There are two types of nephrons in
reabsorption of maximum amount of useful human kidney. Cortical nephrons with shorter
molecules. loop of Henle which extend very little in
Loop of Henle : This is ‘U’ shaped tube medulla. Most of the nephrons are cortical
consisting of descending and ascending limb. nephrons. Few nephrons have longer loop of
Descending limb is thin walled and permeable Henle that runs deep into medulla. These are
to water. It is lined with simple squamous called Juxtamedullary nephrons.
epithelium. Ascending limb is thick walled and A small branch of efferent arteriole
impermeable to water. It is lined with simple forms peritubular capillary network around
cuboidal epithelium. LoH is surrounded by DCT, PCT and Henle’s loop of cortical nephrons
capillaries called vasa recta. Its function is to also forms loop-shaped vasa recta around
operate counter current system - a mechanism Henle’s loop of juxtamedullary nephrons.
for osmoregulation. Regulation of salt and water Nephrons are responsible for elimination
balance in body is called as osmoregulation. of waste and osmoregulation. Hence are richly
Ascending limb of Henle’s loop leads to DCT. supplied with blood. About one fourth of
Distal convoluted tubule: This is another cardiac output is supplied to kidneys!
coiled part of nephron. Its wall consists of Efferent arteriole Glomerular
simple cuboidal epithelium. Glomerulus (Bowman)
DCT performs tubular secretion / Afferent capsule
augmentation / active secretion in which, wastes arteriole
are taken up from surrounding capillaries and
secreted into passing urine. Distal
convoluted
Blood Supply to tubule
Kidney Proximal
convoluted
Renal artery tubule

Renal arteriole from renal

artery
Afferent arteriole To renal vein
Peritubular
Glomerular capillary capillaries

Ascending
Efferent arteriole limb
Loop of
Henle Descending Collecting
Peritubular capillaries limb duct
network
Calyx
Renal veinule
Fig. 15.7 Nephron and peritubular
Renal vein capillaries network

181
Juxta Glomerular Apparatus : 17.3 Urine formation :
Some smooth muscle cells of the wall Process of urine formation is completed
of afferent arteriole are modified in such a way in three successive steps as- Ultrafiltration /
that their sarcoplasm is granular. These cells are Glomerular filtration, Selective reabsorption,
called ‘juxtaglomerular (JG) cells. Tubular secretion / Augmentation.
In each nephron, beginning part of DCT a. Ultrafiltration / Glomerular filtration :
makes contact with the afferent arteriole of same Diameter of afferent arteriole is greater
nephron. Cells in the wall of DCT in this region than efferent arteriole. Diameter of capillaries
are packed more densely than those in other is still smaller than both arterioles. Due to such
region of DCT. This is called macula densa. difference in diameter, blood flows with greater
Macula densa and the JG cells together form pressure through glomerulus. This is called as
Juxta Glomerular Apparatus (JGA) that plays glomerular hydrostatic pressure (GHP) and
important role in blood pressure regulation normally, it is about 55 mm Hg.
within kidney. This pressure is opposed by osmotic
pressure of blood (normally, about 30 mm Hg)
Can you tell? and capsular pressure (normally, about 15 mm
1. Why are kidneys called 'retroperitoneal'? Hg). Hence net / effective filtration pressure
2. Why urinary tract infections are more (EFP) is 10 mm Hg.
common in females than males? Walls of capillaries are extremely thin.
3. What is nephron? Which are it's main Under the effect of high pressure, walls become
parts? Why are they important? permeable to major components of blood
(except blood cells and macromolecules like
protein). Thus plasma except proteins oozes out
Think about it through wall of capillaries. About 600 ml blood
How much blood is supplied to kidney? passes through each kidney per minute.

.
. . EFP = Hydrostatic pressure in glomerulus - (Osmotic pressure of blood + filtrate hydrostatic pressure)
10 mmHg = 55 - (30 +15)

Glomerular filtration Tubular reabsorption Tubular secretion

The movement of substances from the The movement of substances from The movement of substances from
blood within the glomerulus into the the tubular fluid back into the blood. the blood into the tubular fluid.
capsular space.

Peritubular capillaries
Efferent
arteriole
Nephron loop
Afferent
arteriole
PCT Collecting
DCT tubule
Glomerulus
Glomerular capsule
Ascending limb
Capsular space
Desending limb
Collecting duct
Vasa recta

Fig. 17.8 Process of urine formation

182
 Proximal convoluted tubule Distal convoluted tubule
Renal
tubule Collecting system
Collecting duct
Efferent arteriole
Afferent arteriole

Ascending limb
Glomerular of loop ends
capsule Papillary duct
Capsular space
Glomerulus Ascending limb
Renal corpuscle
Descending limb
of loop begins
Nephron loop

Thin Thick Descending limb

limb limb

Fig. 15.9 Reabsorption

The blood (plasma) flowing through

kidney (glomeruli) is filtered as glomerular Do this
filtrate - at a rate of 125 ml / min. (180 L/d). Check blood reports of patients and
Glomerular filtrate / deproteinized comment about possibility of glucosuria.
plasma/primary urine is alkaline, contains
urea, amino acids, glucose, pigments, and c. Tubular secretion / Augmentation :
inorganic ions. Finally filtrate reaches the distal
Glomerular filtrate passes through convoluted tubule via loop of Henle.
filtration slits into capsular space and then Peritubular capillaries surround DCT. Cells of
reaches the proximal convoluted tubule. distal convoluted tubule and collecting tubule
actively absorb the wastes like creatinine and
b. Selective reabsorption :
ions like K+, H+ from peritubular capillaries
PCT is place of reabsorption. It is
and secrete into lumen of DCT and CT, thereby
highly coiled so that glomerular filtrate
augmenting the concentration of urine and
passes through it very slowly. Columnar cells
changing its pH from alkaline to acidic.
of PCT are provided with microvilli due to
Secretion of H+ ions in DCT and CT is
which absorptive area increases enormously.
an important homeostatic mechanism for pH
This makes the process of reabsorption very
regulation of blood. This process is called as
effective.
tubular secretion or augmentation.
These cells perform active (ATP
Tubular secretion is only mode of excretion in
mediated) and passive (simple diffusion)
marine bony fishes and desert amphibians.
reabsorption.
Substances with considerable 15.4 Concentration of urine :
importance (high threshold) like - glucose, Under the conditions like low water
amino acids, Vit.C, Ca++, K+, Na+, Cl¯ are intake or high water loss due to sweating,
absorbed actively, against concentration human can produce concentrated urine. It can
gradient. Low threshold substances like water, be almost four times concentrated i.e. 1200
sulphates, nitrates, etc. are absorbed passively. mOsm/L than the blood (300 mOsm/L). For this
In this way, about 99% of glomerular filtrate is purpose, a mechanism called countercurrent
reabsorbed in PCT and DCT. mechanism is operated in human kidneys.

183
 Afferent Bowman's capsule ADH makes the cells in the wall of
arteriole ↑ Glomerulus collecting ducts permeable to water. Due to
this, water moves from tubular fluid into tissue
H2O
Efferent NaCl ↑
arteriole ↑ fluid, making the urine concentrated.

↑
↑ Cortex
↑ ↑
↑ Cells in the wall of deep medullar part
300
mOsmolL-1
↑ of collecting ducts are permeable to urea.

↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
NaCl
NaCl
↑
↑
As concentrated urine flows through it, urea
↑
NaCl NaCl
↑ ↑ H2O
Outer

↑
600 NaCl
↑
NaCl
H2O medulla diffuses from urine into tissue fluid and from
↑
↑
mOsmolL-1 NaCl H 2O

↑
↑ H2O
↑

↑ NaCl

H2O
tissue fluid into the tubular fluid flowing through
900

↑ ↑ ↑
↑ thin ascending limb of Henle’s loop. This urea
Inner
↑
↑

NaCl ↑
mOsmolL-1 Urea

medulla cannot pass out from tubular fluid while flowing

1200 1200 H2O

mOsmolL-1 Vasa recta Nephron through thick segment of ascending limb, DCT
and cortical portion of collecting duct due to
Fig. 15.10 Concentration of urine impermeability for it in these regions. However,
while flowing through collecting duct, water
reabsorption is operated under the influence of
Limbs of Henle’s loop of juxtamedullary
ADH. Due to this, urea concentration increases
nephrons and vasa recta operate countercurrent
in tubular fluid and same urea again diffuses
mechanism as follows-
into tissue fluid in deep medullar region. Thus,
This mechanism involves the passage
same urea is transferred between segments of
of fluid from descending to ascending limb of
renal tubule and tissue fluid of inner medulla.
Henle’s loop. Flow of tubular fluid is in opposite
This is called urea recycling; operated for more
direction through both limbs; hence the name-
and more water reabsorption from tubular
counter (opposite) current (flow). In case of
fluid and thereby excreting small volumes of
vasa recate, blood flows from ascending to
concentrated urine.
descending parts of itself.
Osmotic gradient is essential in the
Wall of descending limb is thin and
renal medulla for water reabsorption by
permeable to water where as that of ascending
countercurrent multiplier system. This osmotic
limb is thick and impermeable to water. In the
gradient is maintained by vasa recta by
region of descending limb, water diffuses from
operating countercurrent exchange system.
tubular fluid into tissue fluid due to which,
Vasa recta also have descending and ascending
tubular fluid becomes concentrated. Ascending
limbs. Blood that enters the descending limb of
limb of Henle’s loop is thick walled and its
the vasa recta has normal osmolarity of about
cells can reabsorb Na+ and Cl¯ from tubular
300 mOsm/L. As it flows down in the region
fluid and release into tissue fluid.
of renal medulla where tissue fluid becomes
Due to this, tissue fluid around
increasingly concentrated, Na+, Cl¯ and urea
descending limb becomes concentrated. This
molecules diffuse from tissue fluid into blood
makes the more water to move out from
and water diffuse from blood into tissue fluid.
descending limb into tissue fluid by osmosis.
Due to this, blood becomes more concentrated
Thus, as tubular fluid passes down through
which now flows through ascending part of
descending limb, its osmolarity (concentration)
vasa recta. This part runs through such region of
increases gradually due to water loss and on
medulla where tissue fluid is less concentrated.
the other hand, progressively decreases due
Due to this, Na+, Cl¯ and urea molecules
to Na+ & Cl¯ secretion as it flows up through
diffuse from blood to tissue fluid and water
ascending limb.
from tissue fluid to blood. This mechanism
Besides, whenever water retention is
helps to maintain the osmotic gradient.
necessary, pituitary secretes ADH.

184
 So as to reabsorb water to maximum 15.5 Composition of Urine :
capacity, loops of Henle are longer in desert Normal urine is pale yellow coloured
mammals like camel. Due to this, camel transparent liquid. This colour is due to pigment
excretes concentrated urine. urochrome. Composition of urine depends upon
food and fluid consumed by the individual.
Can you tell? Well yes; let us find out how : There
1. Explain the process of urine formation in are two ways. One by regulating water
details. reabsorption through ADH and other by
2. How does counter current mechanism electrolyte reabsorpion though RAAS.
help concentration of urine? Hypothalamus in midbrain has special
receptors called osmoreceptors. They can detect
change in osmolarity (measure of total number
Use your brain power of dissolved particles per litre of solution) of
In which regions of nephron the blood.
filtrate will be isotonic to blood? If osmolarity of blood increases due
to any reason such as after eating namkeen or
Try this due to sweating, in other words, due to water
loss from the body, osmoreceptors trigger
Read the given urine report and release of Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) from
prepare a note on composition of normal neurohypophysis. (posterior pituitary). ADH
urine. stimulates reabsorption of water from last part
Report A of DCT and entire collecting duct by increasing
PERFECT PATHOLOGY Reg. No. :-_______ the permeability of cells. This leads to reduction
Dr. _____________________ Date :-________ in urine volume and decrease in osmolarity of
Patient name :-_______________Age :-_____ M/F blood. Once the osmolarity of blood comes to
Reference :- Dr.________________ normal, activity of osmoreceptor cells decreases
leading to decrease in ADH secretion. This is
URINE ROUTINE
called negative feedback.
Quantity
Colour Pale yellow
Appearence clear Think
Deposits Absent
What would happen if ADH secretion
Reaction Acidic
decreases due to any reason ?
Specific gravity 1.02
Albumin Absent
In case of haemorrhage or severe
Sugar Absent
dehydration too, osmoreceptors stimulate ADH
Ketone bodies Absent
secretion. ADH is important in regulating water
Bile salts Absent
balance through kidneys.
Bile pigments Absent
In absence of ADH, diuresis (dilution of
Occult blood Negative
urine) takes place and person tends to excrete
Casts Absent
large amount of dilute urine. This condition
called as diabetes insipidus.
Think and appreciate
Another regulatory mechanism is RAAS
How do kidneys bring about (Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone system) by
homeostasis? Is there any role of Juxta Glomerular Apparatus (JGA).
neuroendocrine system in it ?

185
 Whenever blood supply (due to change Kidneys participate in synthesis of
in blood pressure or blood volume) to afferent calcitriol, the active form of Vitamin D which
arteriole decreases (e.g. low BP/dehydration), is needed for absorption of dietary calcium.
JGA cells release Renin. Renin converts Deficiency of calcitriol can lead to brittle
angiotensinogen secreted by hepatocytes in bones.
liver to Angiotensin I. Angiotensin converting Something Interesting :
enzyme further modifies Angiotensin I to Vampire bat from south America is
Angiotensin II, the active form of hormone. a nocturnal sanguivorous mammal. It feeds
Angiotensin II has triple function on blood of large birds and mammals. It has
1. It constricts arterioles in kidney thereby to fly long distances to locate suitable prey.
reducing blood flow and increasing blood Once found, it can even consume blood to
pressure. an extent of more than half it's body mass.
2. Stimulates PCT cells to enhance In such a case, the body of bat becomes too
reabsorption of Na+, Cl- and water. heavy to fly. To compensate for this, while
3. It stimulates adrenal cortex to release the bat is feeding, it's kidneys excrete large
another hormone called aldosterone that amount of dilute urine (upto 24% of it's body
stimulates DCT and collecting ducts to mass). Now bat can fly back to the cave/tree
reabsorb more Na+ and water, thereby where it can spend the day.
increasing blood volume and pressure. During day time, it cannot go to
drink water. At the same time diet being high
Use your brain power on proteins, large amount of nitrogenous
Can we use this knowledge in waste is produced. Instead of diluting waste,
treatment of high blood pressure? Why high kidneys resort to concentrating urine in order
BP medicines are many a times diuretics? to conserve water. This capacity to rapidly
change the osmolarity of urine is a classic
Would only ADH or only RAAS be
example of adaptation.
sufficient for homeostasis?
Both ADH and RAAS are essential.
Only ADH can lower blood-Na+ concentration
by way of water reabsorption in DCT and
collecting duct, whereas RAAS stimulates Na+
reabsorption, thus maintains osmolarity of
body fluid.
Action of ADH and RAAS leads to
increase in blood volume and osmolarity. A
large increase in blood volume and pressure
stimulates atrial wall to produce atrial 15.6 Role of other organs in excretion :
natriuretic peptide (ANP). ANP inhibits Na+
Skin :
and Cl- reabsorption from collecting ducts
Skin of many organisms is thin and
inhibits release of renin, reduces aldosterone
permeable. It helps in diffusion of waste
and ADH release too. This leads to a condition
products like ammonia. Human skin is thick and
called Natriuresis (increased excretion of Na+
impermeable. It shows presence of two types
in urine) and diuresis.
of glands namely, sweat glands and sebaceous
glands. Sweat glands are distributed all over
Can you tell?
the skin. They are abundant in palm and facial
How do skin and lungs help in excretion ? regions.

186
 15.7 Disorders and diseases :
Pores Hair Excessive albumin in urine
(albuminuria) indicates injury to endothelial-
Epidermis Oil gland capsular membrane as a result of increased
(sebaceous blood pressure, injury or irritation of kidney
gland) cells by substances such as toxins or heavy
Dermis Hair-erector metals. Presence of excessive quantities of
muscle ketone bodies in urine may be caused due
Sweat
gland to diabetes mellitus, starvation or too little
Blood
carbohydrates in diet.
Subcutaneous vessels
fatty tissue Presence of leucocytes in urine indicate
possibility of infection of kidney or other
Fig. 15.11 L. S. of Skin urinary organs.

These simple, unbranched, coiled, 1. Kidney stones :

tubular, glands open on the surface of skin These are also called renal calculi -
through an opening called sweat pore. Sweat They may be formed in any portion of urinary
is primarily produced for thermoregulation but tract-from kidney tubules to external opening.
it also excretes substances like water, NaCl, Depending on composition they are
lactic acid and urea. classified into :
Sebaceous glands : Calcium stones : Usually are calcium oxalate
They are present at the neck of hair stones or calcium phosphate ones.
follicles. They secrete oily substance called Struvite stones : These are formed in response
sebum. It forms a lubricating layer on skin to bacterial infection caused by urea splitting
making it softer. It protects skin from infection bacteria. These grow quickly and become quite
and injury. large.
Lungs : Uric acid stones : In people who don't drink
Lungs are the respiratory organs. enough water or consume high protein diet can
They help in excretion of volatile substances suffer from this type of stones.
like CO2 and water vapour produced during Cystine stones : It is a genetic disorder that
cellular respiration. They also excrete volatile causes kidney to excrete too much of certain
substances present in spices and other food amino acid.
stuff. Symptoms : Intermittent pain below rib cage in
back and side ways. Hazy, brownish/reddish/
Can you tell? pinkish urine. Frequent urge to pass urine. Pain
during micturition.
1. What is the composition of sweat?
Diagnosis : Uric acid content of blood, colour of
2. When does kidney produce renin? Where
urine, kidney X-ray, sonography of kidney are
is it produced in kidney?
different diagnostic tests prescribed depending
3. Explain role of lungs and skin in excre-
on symptoms.
tion.
4. Explain how electrolyte balance of blood 2. Uremia :
plasma maintained. Blood normally contains 0.01 to 0.03%
5. Refer to blood report A and B what is the urea; but if it rises above 0.05%, it is called
significance of values of albumin, blood uremia. It is harmful and may lead to kidney
cells, casts etc? failure.

187
3. Nephritis : It is inflammation of kidenys characterised by proteinuria caused due to increased
permeability of glomerular capsular membrane, permitting large amounts of proteins to
escape from blood to urine. This lead to change in blood colloidal osmotic pressure, leading
to movement of fluid from blood to interstitial spaces. It is reflected as edema.
4. Renal Failure : It is decrease or cessation of glomerular filtration, is classified into two types.
a. Acute Renal failure (ARF) : ARF is sudden worsening of renal function that most commonly
happens after severe bleeding. There is decrease in urine output (oligouria-scanty urine) (less
than 400 ml/day or less than 0.5 ml/kg/h in children). Other causes of ARF may include acute
obstruction of both ureters or nephrotoxic drugs. ARF can be detected biochemically by elevated
serum creatinine level.
Venous pressure monitor
b. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) : It Air trap and air detector
is progressive and generally irreversible Clean blood
decline in glomerular filtration rate
(GFR). It may be caused due to chronic
glomerulonephritis. It can be detected Fresh dialysate
by reduced kidney size and possibility of Patient
Dialyser
anaemia.
Used Dialysate
Haemodialysis :
When renal function falls below 5 to Dialyser inflow
pressure monitor
7%, accumulation of harmful substances in
blood begins. In such a condition, the person Heparin pump (to
has to go for artificial means of filtration prevent clotting)
of blood. You have already studied about Removed
Blood pump Arterial blood for
haemodialysis wherein dialysis machine is
pressure cleaning
used to filter blood. In haemodialysis, blood monitor
is filtered outside the body using dialysis
unit. In this procedure, patients’ blood is Fig. 15.12 Haemodialysis
removed; generally from radial artery. It is Dialysate bag
passed through a cellophane tube that acts
as a semipermeable membrane. The tube
is immersed in a fluid called dialysate.
Dialysate is isosmotic to normal blood
plasma. Hence only excess salts if present
in plasma pass through the cellophane tube Peritoneal
space
into the dialysate.
Waste substances being absent in
the dialysate, move from blood into the Catheter
Peritoneum
dialyzing fluid. Filtered blood is returned
to vein. In this process it is essential that Dialysate
with waste
anticoagulant like heparin is added to the
products
blood while it passing through the tube drained
and before resending it into the circulation, from
adequate amount of anti-heparin is mixed. peritoneal
space
The blood has to move slowly through the Drainage bag
tube and hence the process is slow.
Fig. 15.13 Peritoneal dialysis

188
 5. Kidney transplant :
Always Remember It is organ transplant of a healthy
kidney into a patient with end stage renal
Dialysis is regarded as a 'holding
disease. Kidney transplantation is classified
measure' until a renal transplant can
as cadaveric (deceased donor) or living
be performed or sometimes as the only
donor kidney transplant. Living donor kidney
supportive measure in those for whom a
transplant are further classified as genetically
transplant would be inappropriate.
related (living-related) or non-related (living
non-related) transplants.
Peritoneal dialysis :
In this method, the dialyzing fluid is Use your brain power
introduced in abdominal cavity or peritoneal
cavity. The peritoneal membrane acts as If a person is undergoing kidney
semipermeable dialyzing membrane. transplant, immunosuppresants are
administered. Justify.
Toxic wastes and extra solutes pass
into the fluid. This fluid is drained out after
prescribed period of time. Peritoneal dialysis Internet my friend
can be repeated as per the need of the patient.
It can be carried out at home at work or 1. Treatments other than surgical removal of
while travelling. But it is not as efficient as kidney stone like Lithotripsy. (Breaking
haemodialysis. down of kidney stones using shock
Kidneys are associated with secretion waves).
of erythropoietin, renin and calcitriol which is 2. Dietary restrictions suggested for kidney
not possible using dialysis machine. patients.

189
 Exercise
1. Choose correct option
A. Which one of the following organisms I. Tubular secretion does not take place in
would spend maximum energy in ________.
production of nitrogenous waste? a. DCT b. PCT
a. Polar bear b. Flamingo d. collecting duct d. Henle's loop
c. Frog d. Shark
J. The minor calyx ____________.
B. In human beings, uric acid is formed due a. collects urine
to metabolism of __________. b. connects pelvis to ureter
a. amino acids b. fatty acids c. is present in the cortex
c. creatinine d. nucleic acids d. receives column of Bertini
C. Visceral layer : Podocytes :: PCT : K. Which one of the followings is not a part
_______ of human kidney?
a. Cilliated cells a. Malpighian body
b. Squamous cells b. Malpighian tubule
c. Columnar cells c. Glomerulus
d. Cells with brush border d. Loop of Henle
D. Deproteinised plasma is found in L. The yellow colour of the urine is due to
__________. presence of ___________
a. Bowman's capsule a. uric acid b. cholesterol
b. Descending limb c. urochrome d. urea
c. Glomerular capillaries
M. Hypotonic filtrate is formed in _______
d. Ascending limb
a. PCT b. DCT c. LoH d. CT
E. Specific gravity of urine would _______ N. In reptiles, uric acid is stored in _____
if level of ADH increases. a. cloaca b. fat bodies
a. remain unaffected b. increases
c. liver d. anus
c. decreases d. stabilise
O. The part of nephron which absorbs
F. What is micturition? glucose and amino acid is______
a. Urination b. Urine formation a. collecting tubule
c. Uremia c. Urolithiasis b. proximal tubule
G. Which one of the following organisms c. Henle's loop
excrete waste through nephridia? d. DCT
a. Cockroach b. Earthworm
P. Bowman's capsule is located in kidney
c. Crab d. Liver Fluke
in the ________
H. Person suffering from kidney stone is a. cortex b. medulla
advised not to have tomatoes as it has c. pelvis d. pyramids
_______.
Q. The snakes living in desert are
a. seeds b. lycopene
mainly__________
c. oxalic acid d. sour taste
a. aminotelic b. ureotelic
c. ammonotelic d. uricotelic

190
 R. Urea is a product of breakdown of D. Name any one guanotelic organism.
___________ E. Why are kidneys called 'retroperitoneal'?
a. fatty acids b. amino acids F. State role of liver in urea production.
c. glucose d. fats
G. Why do we get bad breath after eating
S. Volume of the urine is regulated garlic or raw onion?
by__________
a. aldosterone b. ADH 3. Answer the following questions
c. both a and b d. none A. John has two options as treatment for
his renal problem : Dialysis or kidney
2. Answer the following questions transplants. Which option should he
A. Doctors say Mr. Shaikh is suffering from choose? Why?
urolithiasis. How it could be explained B. Amphibian tadpole can afford to be
in simple words? ammonotelic. Justify.
B. Anitaji needs to micturate several C. Birds are uricotelic in nature. Give
times and feels very thirsty. This is an reason.
indication of change in permeability of
certain part of nephron. Which is this 4. Write the explanation in your word
part? A. Nitya has been admitted to hospital after
C. Effective filtration pressure was heavy blood loss. Till proper treatment
calculated to be 20 mm Hg; where could be given; how did Nitya's body
glomerular hydrostatic pressure was must have tackled the situation?
70 mm of Hg. Which other pressure is 5. Complete the diagram / chart with correct
affecting the filtration process? How labels / information. Write the conceptual
much is it? details regarding it

A
RETURN TO HOMEOSTASIS
Restoration of normal
blood pressure
INPUT OUTPUT
Increases glomerular Decreased arterial Increases blood
blood flow and pressure pressure in kidney volume and blood
Na+ level
Stimulates juxtaglomerular Stimulates juxtaglomerular
apparatus to send a signal apparatus to secrete renin
to afferent arterioles into the blood ___________

Vasodilation of __________
efferent arterioles
Stimulates
Angiotensin I is converted juxtaglomerular
into angiotensin II apparatus to secrete
renin into the blood
___________

191
 C
B

D
INPUT INPUT
Low water concentration in Na+ transported from
blood detected by osmore- proximal convoluted
ceptors in hypothalamus tubules into blood

Stimulates release of
hypothalamic ADH by
posterior pituitary Causes higher osmotic
pressure in peritubular
blood than in filtrate
______________

RETURN TO HOMEOSTASIS
Facultative water High water con- Restoration of nor-
reabsorption centration in blood mal water concen-
tration in blood
OUTPUT
Inhibits High water
secretion concentration in
of _____ blood

E
6. Prove that mammalian urine contains
urea.

Practical / Project :
Visit to a nearby hospital or
pathological laboratory and collect detailed
information about different blood and urine
tests.

192
 16. Skeleton and Movements

Can you recall?

1. Which are different types of muscular tissues ?
2. Name the type of muscles which bring about running and speaking.
3. Name the muscles which do not contract as per of our will.
4. Which types of muscles show rhythmic contractions?
5. Which type of muscle is present in the diaphragm of the respiratory system ?
6. Name the part of human skeleton situated along the vertical axis.

Organism exhibit varieties of the 3. Whorling movement : performed by

movements. Movements vary from streaming of flagella e.g. Sperms.
protoplasm to peristalsis to walking or running
etc. A movement may or may not end up into Always Remember
locomotion or displacement of organism.
There are about 640 muscles in
16.1 Movements and locomotion : human body. Out of these 634 are paired and
Movements : Movements may be internal or 6 muscles are unpaired.
external. Which of the above mentioned the
movements are internal? Which are external?
Can you add few more examples! Movements 1. Think about it
may be voluntary or involuntary. Three type 1. Why do we shiver during winter ?
of muscles bring about these movements in 2. Why do muscles show spasm after
human beings. rigourous contraction?
a. Smooth muscles bring about involuntary 3. Did you ever feel tickling in muscles?
movements like peristaltic movements
in the alimentary canal, constriction and 4. Muscular movement : Performed by
dilation of blood vessels, etc. muscles, with the help of bones and joints.
b. Contraction and relaxation of the heart is Remember : All locomotions are movements
controlled by cardiac muscles. but all movements are not locomotion.
c. Voluntary movements of limbs, head, trunk, Skeletal muscles are attached to the
eyes, etc. are controlled by striated muscles. bones by tendons and help in the movement
of the parts of skeleton. Tendons are inelastic
Locomotion : The change in locus of whole
thick band of collagen fibers. Movement and
body of living organism from one place to
locomotion is the combined action of bones,
another place is called locomotion. Locomotion
joints and skeletal muscles.
is for search of food, shelter, mate, breeding
ground and escape from enemy. There are four 16.2 Location and structure of skeletal
basic types of locomotory movements found muscles :
throughout the animal kingdom. Major part of the muscle which moves
1. Amoeboid movement : performed by a bone usually do not lie on the same bone but
pseudopodia e.g. leucocytes. is located on the bone atop. e.g. Biceps and
2. Ciliary movement : performed by cilia triceps that move forearm are located in the
e.g. ciliated epithelium. In Paramecium, upper arm. At any joint, two types of bones are
cilia help in passage of food through present i.e. stationary and movable.
cytopharynx.

193
 On the basis of movement, striated muscles are of three types

Agonists : (Prime Antagonists : Bring Synergists : Assist

movers) Bring in- the action oppo- prime movers e.g.
itial movement of site to that of prime Brachialis assist
part e.g. Biceps movers e.g. Triceps Biceps

Chart 16.1 Types of Skeletal Muscles

The end of muscle attached to stationary Some important antagonistic muscles

bone is called origin while the opposite end 1. Flexor and Extensor: Flexor muscle on
attached to movable bone is called insertion. contraction results in bending or flexion of
The middle thick part of muscle is called belly. a joint e.g. Biceps. Extensor on contraction
All the fibres in a muscle do not extend from results in straightening or extension of a
end to end and there is a maximum number in joint e.g. Triceps.
the middle. Thus, large muscles are most often
2. Abductor and Adductor : Abductor muscle
fusiform in shape.
moves body part away from the body axis
16.3 Working of Skeletal Muscles : e.g. Deltoid muscle of shoulder moves
Generally muscles work in pairs and the arm away from the body. Adductor
produce opposite action e.g. Biceps (flexors) moves body part towards the body axis e.g.
bring flexion (folding) and triceps (extensors) Latissimus dorsi of shoulder moves the arm
bring extension of elbow joint. The muscles near to the body.
which bring opposite action are called 3. Pronator and Supinator : Pronator turns
antagonistic. If one member of a pair is capable the palm downward. Supinator to turns the
of bending the joint by pulling of bones, the palm upward.
other member is capable of straightening the 4. Levator and Depressor : Levator raises a
same joint also by pulling. e.g. Triceps and body part. Depressor lowers the body part
Biceps of upper arm are antagonistic to each
5. Protractor and Retractor : Protractor
other.
move forward. Retractor move backward.
In antagonistic pair of muscles, one
member is much stronger than the other. e.g. 6. Sphincters : Circular muscles present in
The biceps is stronger than the triceps. inner wall of anus, stomach, etc. for closure
The fundamental characteristic of and opening.
muscle is contraction. Therefore, muscle can
only pull and not push the bone. Can you tell?
1. Why are movement and locomotion
necessary among animals?
Can you recall?
1. 2. Differentiate between :
Comment on contraction of skeletal a. Flexor and extensor muscles
muscles (Hint : Refer chapter on Animal b. Pronator and Supinator.
Tissues) 3. What are antagonistic muscles? Explain
with example.

194
 You are aware that both flexion and
extension take place by contraction of skeletal Tropomyosin
muscles. Do you know, how do these muscles
contract and bring about movement and
locomotion? Striated muscles are specifically Actin Troponin
designed to bring about vigorous contractions.
Refer to ultra-microscopic structure of
skeletal muscle you have studied in animal Fig. 16.3 Actin filament
tissues. The contractile unit of muscles is called
sarcomere which contains contractile proteins i. F actin : It forms the backbone of actin
actin and myosin. filament. It is double stranded protein. Each
strand is composed of polymerized G actin
Structure of myosin and actin filaments : molecules. One ADP molecule is attached
Myosin filament : to each G actin molecule.
Each myosin filament is a polymerized
ii. Tropomyosin : The actin filament contains
protein. Many monomeric proteins called
two additional protein strands that are
meromyosins constitute one thick filament.
polymers of tropomyosin molecules. Each
Myosin molecule consists of two heavy chains
strand is loosely attached to an F actin. In
(heavy meromyosin/HMM) coiled around each
the resting stage, tropomyosin physically
other forming double helix. One end of each
covers the active binding sites for myosin
of these chains is projected outwardly. It is
of the actin strand.
known as cross bridge. This end is folded into a
globular protein mass called myosin head. iii. Troponin : It is a complex of three
Two light chains are associated globular proteins, which are attached
with each head (Total 4 light chains/light approximately 2/3 rd distance along each
meromyosin/LMM). Myosin head has a tropomyosin molecule. It has affinity for
special ATPase activity. It can split ATP to actin, tropomyosin and calcium ions. The
produce energy. Myosin contributes 55% of troponin complex is believed to attach the
muscle proteins. tropomyosin to the actin. The strong affinity
of troponin for calcium ions is believed to
Tail Heads initiate the contraction process.
16.4 Mechanism of muscle contraction :
Sliding filament theory was putforth by
Myosin tails are arranged to point toward
the centre of the sacromere, and the heads
H.E. Huxley and A.F. Huxley. It is also called
point to the sides of the myofilament band. walk along theory or Ratchet theory.
According to this theory, interaction
between actin and myosin is the basic cause
of muscular contraction. Actin filaments are
interdigitated with myosin filaments. (like the
crossing of fingers of two hands)
Myosin head The head of the myosin is joined to
the actin backbone by a cross bridge forming
Fig. 16.2 Myosin filament a hinge joint. From this joint, head can not
tilt in forward and backward directions. This
Actin filament :
movement is an active process which requires
It is also a complex type of contractile
use of ATP.
protein. It consists of three different components.

195
 Myosin head contains ATPase activity. 16.5 Physiology of muscle relaxation :
It can derive energy by the breakdown of ATP When the muscle is relaxed, the active
molecule. This energy can be used for the sites remain covered with tropomyosin and
movement of myosin heads. troponin complex. Due to this, myosin cannot
During contraction process, the myosin interact with active site of actin and therefore
heads gets attached to the active site of actin contraction cannot occur. When an action
filaments and pull them inwardly, so that actin potential (impulse) comes to muscle through
filaments slide over the myosin filaments. This motor end plate, it spreads throughout the
results in the contraction of muscle fibre. sarcolemma of the myofibril. The transverse
tubules of sarcoplasmic reticulum releases
large number of calcium ions into sarcoplasm.
ADP
P1 These calcium ions interact with
 troponin molecules. This interaction inactivates
troponin-tropomyosin complex. This leads to
change in the structure of tropomyosin.
ATP ADP ADP
hydrolysis
P1
As a result, it gets detached from the
active site of actin (F actin) filament. Thus
 
active site becomes uncovered. Now head of
the myosin cleaves the ATP and derives energy.
ATP Using this energy, myosin gets attached
ATP
to the uncovered active site of actin and results
 in the formation of actomyosin complex.
The myosin heads are now tilted
Fig. 16.4 Cyclic events in backwards and pull the attached actin filament
muscle Contraction inwardly. This results in contraction of the
muscle fibres.
Impulse from Actin filament slide
motor nerve over myosin and
contraction occurs Sarcomere
thick filament thin filament
(myosin filament) (actin filament)
Myosin head tilts and
Action potential pull actin filaments
develops in T towards them
tubule
Myosin head gets Relaxation Contraction
attached to active
T tubule releases Ca++
sites of actin, forming
ions in sarcoplasm
acto myosin complex

A conformation change Myosin head

in troponin - tropomyo- breaks up ATP to
Fig. 16.6 Relaxation and contraction
sin complex derive energy of muscle

Active sites of actin filaments

become uncovered Internet my friend
Collect information about 'T' tubules
Chart 16.5 Mechanism of Muscle of sarcoplasmic recticulum.
Contraction

196
16.6 Relaxation of muscle fibres : 16.7 Properties of Muscles on Electrical
During relaxation all the events Stimulation:
occur in reverse direction. When stimulation A. Single muscle twitch : A muscle contraction
is terminated, actomyosin complex is broken initiated by a single brief-stimulation is called
down and myosin head gets detached from a single muscle twitch. It occurs in 3 stages : a
actin filaments. This process involves use of latent period of no contraction, a contraction
ATP. At the same time calcium ions return period and a relaxation period.
back. This is also an active process that uses B. Summation : If the muscle is stimulated before
energy. Due to disappearance of calcium the end of the twitch, it generates greater
ions, troponin – tropomyosin complex is tension i.e., summation or addition of effect
restored again. This complex covers the takes place. Repeated stimuli will produce
active sites of actin filament. Due to this the increasing strength of contraction (stair case
interaction between actin and myosin ceases phenomenon).
to occur and the actin filaments return C. Tetanus : If stimulation is very rapid and
back to their original position. This results frequent the muscle does not have time to
in muscular relaxation. Like contraction, relax. It remains in a state of contraction called
relaxation is also an active process. tetanus.
D. Refractory period : Immediately after one
Always Remember stimulus, the muscle fibre cannot respond to
Oxygen debt is used in oxidizing another stimulus. This resting or refractory
the accumulated lactic acid aerobically period is about 0.02 seconds.
and in restoring the depleted creatine E. Threshold stimulus : For a muscle fibre
phosphate and ATP. to contract, a certain minimum strength or
intensity of stimulus is required. This is called
Rigor Mortis : Usually, some hours threshold stimulus.
after the death of an individual, its muscles F. All or none principle : A stimulus below
are stiffened. This muscular stiffening, threshold will not result in contraction. A
after death is rigor mortis. It helps in threshold stimulus will result in contraction.
fixation of hours of death after a murder. This contraction leads to maximum force.
After death, the fresh supply of ATP to Higher stimulus will not increase force of
muscles becomes impossible. Therefore contraction i.e. a muscle fibre contracts either
once the local store of ATP is finished, the fully or not at all. This is 'all or none' principle.
detachment of myosin from actin cannot All types of muscle fibres and nerve fibres
take place. This results in permanent state obey this law.
of contraction of the muscle. G. Oxygen debt : During strenuous exercise,
muscle’s oxygen supply rapidly becomes
insufficient to maintain oxidative
Can you tell? phosphorylation of respiratory substrate. At
1. Why are muscle rich in creatine this stage, muscles contract anaerobically and
phosphate? accumulate lactic acid produced by anaerobic
2. What do you understand by muscle glycolysis. Lactic acid produces less ATP and
twitch? is toxic. It causes tiredness, pain and muscle
3. Explain mechanism of muscle cramps. During recovery, oxygen consumption
contraction and relaxation. of the muscle far exceeds than that in the resting
4. Explain the chemical changes taking state. This extra oxygen consumed during
place in muscle contraction. recovery is called oxygen debt of the muscle.

197
 Do you remember? Use your brain power
1. What are the components of our skeletal system ? Can you compare bone,
2. What type of bones are present in our body? muscle and joint which help in
3. How do bones help us in various ways ? locomotion with any of simple
machines you have studied earlier ?

We can compare this unit with lever. Where joint acts as fulcrum, respective muscle
generates the force required to move the bone associated with joint.

F
R E
E E
F
R
R
F
Class I lever : The joint Class II lever : Human body Class III lever : Flexion of
between the first vertebra raised on toes is an example forearm at elbow exhibit
and occipital condyle of skull of second class lever. Toe lever of class III. Elbow joint
is an example of first class acts as fulcrum, contracting acts as fulcrum and Radius
lever. The force is directed calf muscles provides the and ulna provides resistance.
towards the joints (fulcrum); force while raised body acts Contracting biceps muscle
contraction of back muscle as resistance. provides force for the
provides force while the part movement.
of head that is raised acts as
resistance. F R E R E F

Resistance (R) Fulcrum (F) Effort (E)

16.8 Skeletal System :

Multicellular animals need support to Do any of these exoskeletal structures
maintain body structure. Various groups of help in movement and locomotion? How do
organisms show various supportive structures; scales and plates of a snake help in movement
either inside or outside the body or both inside and locomotion? Are scales of a fish and that
as well as outside. You have studied that these of a snake similar? Find out more information
skeletal structures are called exoskeleton. about exoskeletal structures and their role in
When present on outer surface of the body and movement and locomotion.
endoskeleton when they are present inside the Can you imagine life without skeletal
body. system? Our skeletal system is made up of
Bones and cartilage form major cartilage and bone; which together form the
endoskeletal components. Exoskeletal framework of the body. Cartilage is slightly
components change from lower to higher pliable while bones have hard matrix.
groups of animals. These include chitinous
structures, nails, horns, hooves, scales, hair,
etc; you may add to the list.

198
 Bones form the framework of our
body and thus provide shape which give Identify and label
us our identity. They protect delicate Identify the different bones.
organs thus help in smooth functioning
of body. Joints between bones help
in movement and locomotion. Bones
provide firm surface for attachment of
muscles. They are reservoirs of calcium
and one important site for haemopoiesis.
Endoskeleton of an adult human
consists of 206 bones which can be
grouped into two principle divisions;
axial and appendicular skeleton.
Bones of axial skeleton lie along
the longitudinal axis of human body.
Bones of appendicular skeleton include
bones of fore limb, hind limb and girdles.
Girdles are the bones that connect the
limbs to the axial skeleton.

Fig. 16.7 Human Skeleton

Use your brain power Why are long bones slightly bent and not straight ?

Parietal bone
Fontal bone
16.9 Group of skeleton :
Sphenoid bone Temporal
A. Axial Skeleton : Nasal bone
bone
Skull : Ethmoid bone
Made up of 22 bones, skull is Occipital
Lacrimal bone
bone
located at superior end of vertebral Zygomatic bone
column. It consists of two main sets of Maxilla
bones, cranium or brain box and facial Mastoid process
bones. Bones are joined by fixed or Mandible
immovable joints except for lower jaw.
Fig. 16.8 Lateral view of skull
Cranium :
It is made up of four median
and two paired bones. Maxilla
F rontal bon e : Median bone (Unpaired) Palatine Zygomatic
forms forehead, roof of orbit (eye Sphenoid
socket) and most of the anterior part Condyle Vomer
of cranium. It is connected to two Parietal Temporal
parietals, sphenoid and ethmoid bone.
Fpramen
Parietal bo nes : Paired bones, form magnum Occipital
roof of the cranium and greater portion
of sides of the cranium. Fig. 16.9 Ventral view of skull

199
T em por al bon es : Paired bones situated laterally just above the ear Axial skeleton :
on either side. Each temporal bone gives out zygomatic process that Skull
joins zygomatic bone to form zygomatic arch. Just at the base of
Cranium 8
zygomatic process is mandibular fossa, a depression for madibles Face 14
(lower jaw bone) that forms only movable joint of skull. This bone Hyoid
harbours ear canal that directs sound waves into the ear. 1
Processes of temporal bones provide points for attachment Ear ossicles 6
for various muscles of neck and tongue. Vertebral
O ccipi tal bon e : Present at the back of the head, this single bone column 26
forms posterior part and most of the base of cranium. Inferior Thorax
part of this bone shows ‘Foramen magnum’ the opening through
Sternum 1
which medulla oblongata connects with spinal cord. On either Ribs 24
side of foramen magnum are two prominent protuberances called --------------
‘Occipital condyles’. These fit into the corresponding depressions Subtotal : 80
--------------------------------
present in 1st vertebra. Appendicular skeleton
--------------------------------
S p henoid bon e : Median bone present at the base of the skull that Pectoral Girdle
articulates with all other cranial bones and holds them together.
Clavicle 2
This butterfly shaped bone has a saddle shaped region called sella
Scapula 2
turcica. In this hypophyseal fossa, the pituitary gland is lodged.
Upper Limbs
Refer : Read about sella turcica in chapter hormonal co-ordination.
Humerus 2
Ethm oid bon e : This median bone is spongy in appearance. It
Radius 2
is located anterior to sphenoid and posterior to nasal bones. It
Ulna 2
contributes to formation of nasal septum and is major supporting
Carpals 16
structure of nasal cavity.
Metacarpals 10
In this chapter you are going to learn about sutures, a type
Phalanges 28
of immovable joints. In skull there are many sutures present; four
Pelvic Girdle
prominent ones are;
1. Coronal suture : Joins frontal bone with parietals. Hip bone 2
2. Sagittal suture : Joins two parietal bones. Lower Limbs
3. Lambdiodal suture : Joins two parietal bones with occipital Femur 2
bone. Patella 2
4. Lateral/squamous sutures : Joins parietal and temporal bones on Tibia 2
lateral side. Fibula 2
Tarsals 14
Identify and label
Metatarsals 10
A
Name A, B, C and D Phalanges 28
from the given figure and --------------
Subtotal : 126
discuss in group. --------------
D Total : 206
B

Table 16.10 Details

of Human Skeleton
C

200
 Do you know ? If there is a newborn in the family, you are told not to touch the head
as it is still soft. Have you seen it? Why is it so? There are six soft spots called fontanelles in
cranial bones. Eventually they get ossified at the age of two. Fontanelles provide some flexibility
to skull during birth and also for rapid growth of brain during infancy.

Facial Bones : Fourteen facial bones give

characteristic shape to face. Growth of face Sphenoid Frontal
bone
Parietal bone
stops of the age of 16. Facial bones are as bone
Nasal bone
under : Temporal Ethmoid bone
bone
N asal s : Paired bones form bridge of nose. Lacrimal bone
Sphenoid
M axil l ae : Upper jaw bones, paired bones that bone Maxilla
Zygomatic
bone
join with all facial bones except mandible.
Inferior
Upper row of teeth are lodged in these. bone Vomer
Mandible
Pal atines : Paired bones, form roof of buccal
cavity or floor of nasal cavity. Fig. 16.11 Anterior view of skull
Z y gom atic bon es : Commonly called cheek
bones. You have read about zygomatic arch
Internet my friend
earlier in this chapter.
L acrim al bon es : Smallest of the facial bones. Cleft palate and cleft lip.
These bones form medial wall of each orbit.
They have lacrimal fossa that houses lacrimal Greater horns
sacs. These sacs gather tears and send them to (greater cornua)
nasal cavity.
Lesser horns
I nf erior nasal conchae : They form part of (lesser cornua)
lateral wall of nasal cavity. These help swirl
and filter air before it passes to lungs.
V om er : Median, roughly triangular bone that
forms inferior portion of nasal septum.
body
M andi bl e : Median bone that forms lower
jaw. Largest and strongest facial bone. Only
movable bone of skull. It has curved horizontal Thyroid
body and two perpendicular branches i.e. rami. cartilage
These help in attachment of muscles. It has
lower row of teeth lodged in it. Trachea

Hyoid bone : It is a ‘U’ shaped bone that

Fig. 16.12 Hyoid bone
does not articulate with any other bone. It is
suspended from temporal bone by lingaments
and muscles. It is located between mandible Can you tell?
and larynx. It has horizontal body and paired
1. Give schematic plan of human skeleton.
projections called horns. It provides site for
2. Enlist the bones of cranium.
attachment of some tongue muscles and
3. Write a note on structure and function of
muscles of neck and pharynx.
skull.

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 Something interesting : If Police suspect strangulation, they carefully inspect hyoid bone
and cartilage of larynx. These get fractured during strangulation. Various such investigations
are done in case of suspicious death of an individual where ossification of sutures in skull, width
of pelvic girdle, etc. are examined to find out approximate age of victim or gender of victim, etc.
You may find out information about forensic science.

Internet my friend Try this

Find out information about sinuses Feel your spine (vertebral column). Is
present in skull, functions of skull and disorder it straight or curved?
'sinusitis'. There are four curvatures in human spine,
cervical and lumbar curves are secondary and
Can you Tell? convex whereas thoracic and sacral curvatures
are primary and concave. Curvatures help in
Why skull is important for us? Enlist balancing in upright position, absorb shocks
few reasons. while walking and also protect vertebrae from
fracture.
Ear ossicles : Three tiny bones namely malleus,
You will study about intervertebral
incus and stapes, together called ‘ear ossicles’
discs in this chapter. Find information about
are present in each middle ear.
slipped disc.
There are five types of vertebrae in
Incus articulation Malleus articulation human spine namely, 7 cervical (neck), 12
Head of malleus Thoracic (chest), 5 lumbar (abdominal), 5
Short limb sacral (hip region, fused in adults forming
Neck of 1 sacrum) and 4 coccygeal (fused to form
malleus vestigial tail bone called coccyx).
Body Though vertebrae vary in size, shape or
of incus processes, they exhibit similar basic plan.
Anterior process
Long limb
Lateral Handle of malleus Cervical curve
7 Curvical
process Incus (secondary)
vertebrae
Malleus Base of stapes
Posterior limb Thoracic curve
Anterior limb
(primary)
Head of stapes 12 Thoracic
Stapes vertebrae

Fig. 16.13 Ear ossicles Intervertebral

discs

Vertebral Column : Lumbar curve

5 Lumbar (secondary)
Human backbone or vertebral column vertebrae Intervertebral
is made up of a chain of irregular bones called foramina
vertebrae. It consists of 33 vertebrae during
childhood. In adults, five sacral vertebrae Sacrum Sacral curve
fuse to form one sacrum and four coccygeal (primary)
Coccyx
vertebrae fuse to form single coccyx, thus total
number of bones are 26. Fig. 16.14 Vertebral column lateral view

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Typical Vertebra : Spinous process (spine)
Each vertebra has prominent central Transverse process
Lamina
body called centrum. Centra of human Neural arch
vertebrae are flat in anterio-posterior aspect. Pedicle
Hence human vertebrae are amphiplatyan. Vertebral foramen
(neural canal)
From either side of centrum are given out two Posterior (end) view
Cemtrum (body)
short, thick processes which unite to form an Pedicle Lamina
arch like structure called neural arch, posterior Superior articular
process
to centrum. Neural arch forms vertebral
foramen which surrounds the spinal cord. Spinous process
(spine)
Vertebral foramina of all vertebrae form a Transverse process
Centrum (body)
continuous 'neural canal'. Spinal cord along Lateral view Inferior articular process
with blood vessels and protective fatty covering
passes through neural canal. Fig. 16.15 Basic plan of vertebra
Point where two processes of centrum
meet, neural arch is drawn into a spinous
Facet for articulation with
process called neural spine. From the base of odontoid process of axis
Anterior arch
neural arch, two articulating processes called
Anterior
zygapophyses are given out on either side. The portion
Foramen
anterior are called superior and posterior called for vertebral
inferior zygapophyses. In a stack of vertebrae, artery
Facet for
inferior zygaphyses of one vertebra articulates articulation
with superior zygapophyses of next vertebra. with occipital Posterior tubercle
This allows slight movement of vertebrae condyle representing spine
Posterior portion
without allowing them to slip off. At the junction
of zygapophyses, a small opening is formed Fig. 16.16 Atlas vertebra
on either side of vertebra called intervertebral
foramen that allows passage of spinal nerve. A xis v ertebr a : This is the second cervical
From the base of neural arch, lateral processes vertebra. Centrum of this vertebra gives out
are given out called transverse processes. tooth-like ‘Odontoid Process’. This process fits
Neural arch, neural spine and transverse into the anterior portion of vertebral foramen of
processes are meant for attachment of muscles. Atlas vertebra forming pivot joint, also called
Let us now study modifications seen ‘No joint’.
in vertebrae in different regions of vertebral
Odontoid
column. Facet
process
for Atlas
A tl as v ertebr a : This is a ring like 1st cervical Facet for
transverse Pedicle
vertebra. It consists of anterior and posterior
ligament Transverse
arches. It does not have centrum and spinous
process
process. Transverse processes and transverse Foramen Body
foramina are large. Vertebral foramen is for vertebral
Lamina
large and divided into two parts by transverse artery
Spinous process
ligament. Spinal cord passes through anterior
compartment. Anterior zygapophyses, are Fig. 16.17 Axis vertebra
replaced by facets for attachment with occipital
condyle of skull that forms ‘Yes Joint’.

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Typical cervical vertebrae : Vertebrae number S acru m : Sacrum is a triangular bone formed
3 to 6 are called typical cervical vertebrae. They by fusion of five sacral vertebrae. It is located in
show short centrum and bifid spinous process. pelvic cavity between two hip bones. Anterior
Transverse processes of these vertebrae are end of sacrum is broad and posterior end is
reduced; each having large vertebrarterial canal narrow. Vertebral foramina that are formed
at it’s base for passage of vertebral artery. by fusion of vertebrae can be seen. Reduced
7 th
cerv ical v ertebr a ( V ertebr a pr om inens) : neural spines can be observed projecting from
It is the largest cervical vertebra where neural dorsal aspect of sacrum. It gives strength to
spine straight. pelvic girdle.

T horacic v erteb ra : These are twelve in number C occy x : Coccyx is formed by fusion of four
and found in chest region. Centrum of thoracic coccygeal vertebrae. It is reduced and does
vertebrae is heart shaped and all processes are not show vertebral foramina and spinous
well developed. Except for vertebrae number processes. Transverse processes of coccygeal
11, 12; transeverse process of other thoracic vertebrae are reduced. It is a triangular bone.
vertebrae show facets for attachment with ribs. Promontory Articular
Articulating
process for L5
surface for
Spine (spinous process) intervertebral
S1
Lamina disc(body) Surface for
Transverse process S2 articulation
Foramina S3 with the
Facet for tubercle of rib for passage S4 left ilium
Vertebral foramen of nerves S5
C1
Pedicel Coccyx C2
C3
Facet for head of rib C4
Heart- shaped centrum
Fig. 16.20 Sacrum and Coccyx
Fig. 16.18 Thoracic vertebra
Thoracic cage : It consists of twelve thoracic
L u m bar v ertebr a : There are five lumbar vertebrae; which are already discussed; twelve
vertebrae. These are well developed vertebrae pairs of ribs and breast bone, the sternum.
that exhibit all characters of a typical vertebra.
Sternum
Centrum is kidney shaped.
Manubrium

Body Rib Body

Superior
articular Pedicle
process Xiphoid
Vertebral
process
foramen
Spinous Transverse
Lamina process Vertebral column
process
Fig. 16.19 Lumbar vertebra Fig. 16.21 Thoracic cage

Can you tell?

1. Explain the structure of a typical vertebra.
2. How will you identify a thoracic vertebra?
3. Write a note on curvatures of vertebral column and mention their importance.

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Sternum : It is a flat, narrow bone, around 15 On the ventral side, the ribs may or may
cms in length. It is placed medially in anterior not attach to the sternum. Depending on their
thoracic wall (chest region). It consists of three attachment, ribs are classified into three types.
distinct parts-manubrium, body and xiphoid i. T ru e ribs : First seven pairs of ribs are
processes. attached directly to the sternum by means
Manubrium shows two notches on of their coastal cartilages.
anterio-lateral side for attachment with clavicle ii. F al se ribs : Coastal cartilages of ribs no.
of each side. It also shows two notches on each 8, 9 and 10 are attached to rib number 7 on
of the lateral side for attachment of first two either side and not directly to the sternum.
pairs of ribs. Hence these are called false ribs.
Body of sternum is a flat bone that iii. F l oating ribs : Last two pairs of ribs have
shows five notches on lateral aspect which no ventral connection. Hence are called
are meant for direct or indirect attachment of floating ribs.
ribs. Ribs are attached to sternum by means Space between ribs is called intercoastal
of cartilaginous extensions called coastal space. Ribs provide space for attachment of
cartilages. intercoastal muscles.
Xiphoid process is lowermost part of
sternum which is cartilaginous initially and Tubercle
Neck Head
Angle
gets ossified in adults. It provides space for articu-
lates with
attachment of diaphragm and abdominal
Costal vertebral
muscles. groove bodies
Facet articulates
with transverse
Suprasternal or Clavicular Shaft process of vertebra
jugular notch notch
Depression for
Manubrium Inferior border costal cartilage
Sternal
angle
Body Fig. 16.23 Rib
Ribs
Xiphoid
process
Something interesting :
Approximately 8 % of humans have
Fig. 16.22 Sternum an extra pair of ribs attached to the lumbar
vertebra. Such a rib is found in some types
Rib : A rib is a 'C' shaped bone that is attached of gorillas. Hence 13th pair of ribs is called
to respective thoracic vertebrae on dorsal gorilla rib.
side. Twelve pairs of ribs are attached to
twelve thoracic vertebrae. For this attachment, B. Appendicular skeleton : As mentioned
posterior ends of ribs have two protuberances earlier in this chapter, appendicular skeleton
namely the head and tubercle. The head of consists of bones of limbs and girdles.
rib attaches to facet formed by demifacets
of adjacent thoracic vertebrae at the base Pectoral girdle : Also called shoulder girdle, it
of transverse processes. Tip of transverse attaches forelimb skeleton with axial skeleton.
processes of these vertebrae also have facets There are two pectoral girdles, each consists of
for attachment of ribs where tubercles of ribs a shoulder blade or scapula and collar bone or
are attached. clavicle.

205
 Humerus : This is the bone of upper arm. It
Clavicle has hemispherical head at it's proximal end.
Acromion On either side of head of humerus are
Caracoid
present a pair of projections termed greater and
process
Glenoid
lesser tubercles. There is a deep groove between
cavity the tubercles called bicipital groove where a
Scapula
tendon of biceps muscle is attached.
Shaft of humerus shows deltoid
Humerus Body tuberosity. Distal end of humerus shows pulley
like part called trochlea that articulates with
ulna.
Greator Lesser
tubercle tubercle
Fig. 16.24 Pectoral girdle
Bicipital Head
groove
Clavicle : It is ‘s’ shaped slender bone. One end
of clavicle is attached to acromion process of Right humerous
scapula. The other rounded end called sternal anterior aspect
Coronoid
end attaches to manubrium of sternum. This Radial fossa
connects upper arm skeleton to axial skeleton. fossa
Medial
Scapula : It is a large, flat, triangular bone that lateral epicondyle
occupies posterior chest wall extending from epicondyle
second to seventh ribs. It is attached to axial Trochlea
skeleton by muscles and tendons. Capitalum
At it’s lateral angle, scapula bears a Fig. 16.25 Humerus
concave socket called glenoid cavity. Head
of humerus (the upper arm bone) fits into
Radius and Ulna : Radius is located laterally
the glenoid cavity. Two processes arise from
on thumb side of the forearm. Proximal end of
scapula, a beak like coracoid process that
radius has disc like head that articulates with
projects from lateral angle of scapula and
humerus bone. The shaft of radius widens
acromion process, easily felt as high point of
distally to form styloid process.
shoulder. Both are meant for attachment of
Ulna is located medially on little finger
muscles.
side of forearm. At the proximal end of ulna
Bones of forelimb : It consists of humerus, there is a prominent process called 'Olecranon
radius and ulna (together forming forearm process’ that forms elbow joint with humerus
bones), Bones of wrist -the carpals, bones of bone. On the lateral side, near the upper end of
palm-the metacarpals and bones of digits- ulna is present the radial notch into which the
phalanges together making to 30 bones. side of head of radius is fixed.
Radius and ulna articulate with each
other at upper and lower extremities by superior
Can you recall? and inferior radio-ulnar joints. In between the
1. shaft of two bones, interosseous membrane is
How does humerus form ball and present.
socket joint? Where is it located ?

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 Olecranon The two pubis bones are joined medially
Coronoid
process by cartilaginous joint called pubic symphysis.
Head
Pubis and ischium together form a ring of bone
that encloses a space called obturator foramen.

Radius and ulna Sacrum

anterior aspect

Radius Ulna

Styloid
process of Styloid process Acetabulum
radius of ulna Superior Obturator
ramus foramen
Fig. 16.26 Radius and Ulna of pelvis
inferior ramus of pelvis
Carpals : These are bones of wrist, arranged in
two rows of four each. Fig. 16.28 Pelvic girdle
Metacarpals : Five elongated metacarpals Bones of lower limb :
form bones of palm. Their proximal ends join Femur : The thigh bone is the longest a bone in
with carpals and distal ends form knuckles. the body. The head is joined to shaft at an angle
Phalanges : These are bones of fingers and by a short neck. It forms ball and socket joint
thumb. Four fingers have three phalanges each with acetabulum cavity of coxal bone.
and thumb has two; thus making it fourteen The lower one third region of shaft
phalanges in each hand. is triangular flattened area called popliteal
surface. Distal end has two condyles that
articulate with tibia and fibula.
Carpals Greater trochanter Head

Metacarpals Neck
Lesser
Phalanx 1 trochanter
Phalanx 2
Shaft
Phalanx 3

Fig. 16.27 Carpals, Metacarpals Lateral Medial

and Phalanges condyle condyle

Pelvic girdle : Pelvic or hip girdle connects Fig. 16.29 Femur

hind limb skeleton with axial skeleton. It is Patella : Also called knee cap is a sesamoid
made up of two hip bones called coxal bones. bone. It is a flat rounded bone with a pointed
They unite posteriorly with sacrum. Each large lower end.
irregularly shaped bone, the coxal bone is made Base
up of three parts, ilium, ischium and pubis. At
the point of fusion of three bones, a cavity Apex
called acetabulum is present that forms ball and
socket joint with thigh bone. Fig. 16.30 Patella

207
Tibia and fibula : These are the two long bones Phalanges : These are the bones of the toes.
of shank or lower le.g. The two are connected Except the big toe which has two phalanges,
to each other at the extremities. In between the rest four toes have three phalanges each.
two bones interosseous membrane is present.
Medial condyle Can you tell?
Lateral condyle
1. Differentiate between skeleton of palm
Facet for and foot.
head of fibula
2. Explain the longest bone in human body.
Fibula
Tibia

Do you remember?
1. What are joints? What are their types?
2. What types of joint is present at knee?
Lateral Medial
malleolus malleolus
Imagine
Fig. 16.31 Tibia and Fibula If your elbow joint would be a fixed
Tibia : It is much thicker and stronger than type of joint and joint between teeth and gum
fibula. It’s broad and expanded upper end would be freely movable.
articulates with femur. Lower end articulates
16.10 Types of joints :
with talus, a tarsal bone.
You have studied about joints in
Fibula : It is a long slender bone on lateral side
previous standard. Without joints, various
of tibia. movements of the body wouldn’t be possible.
Tarsals : These are the bones of ankle. Seven A point where two or more bones get
tarsals are arranged in three row, two proximal,
articulated is called joint or articulation or
one intermediate and four distal. arthrosis. Study of joints is called arthrology.
Calcaneum Though bones are rigid, the ligaments
(heel bone) that cover the bones, forming a joint render
Talus slight flexibility to the bones.
Tarsals
Joints are classified based on degree of
flexibility or movement they permit into three
Metatarsals
Base types namely, fibrous joints, which are also
Shaft known as synarthroses or immovable joints,
Phalanx 1
Head cartilagenous or slightly movable joints also
Phalanx 2
Phalanx 1 called amphiarthroses and lastly synovial or
Phalanx 3
Phalanx 2 freely movable or diarthroses type of joints.
Big toe Degree of movement of joints in various
Fig. 16.32 Tarsals, Metatarsals and phalanges parts of your body is so apt! We must always
appreciate the design of our body.
Metatarsals : Five metatarsal bones support the Synarthroses : In this joint, the articulating
sole region of the foot. Proximally they attach bones are held together by means of fibrous
with distal row of tarsals. Distally metatarsals connective tissue. Bones do not exhibit
articulate with phalanges. movement. Hence it is immovable or fixed type
of joint.

208
 Fibrous tissue Type of suture Character Diagram Example
Butt joint Square edged Two nasal
bones
Scarf joint Tapering Various skull
Bone
bones
Lap joint Over lapping Temporal and
parietal bone
Serrate joint Irregular/Inter Various skull
locking bones

Table 16.34 Types of Sutures

Fig. 16.33 Structure of Sutures

Fibrous joints are further classified into

sutures, syndesmoses and gomphoses. Socket
Sutures : It is composed of thin layer of a
dense fibrous connective tissue. Sutures are Gomphosis
Root of
places of growth. They remain open till growth tooth
is complete. On completion of growth they tend Periodontal
to ossify. Sutures may permit some moulding ligament
during childhood. Sutures are further classified
into different types as shown in Table 16.34. Fig. 16.36 Gomphoses

Syndesmoses : It is present where there is

greater distance between articulating bones. A. Cartilagenous or slightly movable joints :
At such locations, fibrous connective tissue These are also called as amphiarthroses.
is arranged as a sheet or bundle. e.g. Distal These joints are neither fixed nor freely
tibiofibular ligament, inter osseous membrane movable. Articulating bones are held together
between tibia and fibula and that between by hyaline or fibrocartilages. They are further
radius and ulna. classified as
a. Synchondroses : The two bones are
Tibia
held together by hyaline cartilage. They
Fibula are meant for growth. On completion of
growth, the joint gets ossified. Example:
Epiphyseal plate found between epiphysis
Interosseous and diaphysis of a long bone, Rib – Sternum
ligament junction.
Ulna Epiphyseal plates
Epiphysis
Radius

Epiphysis
Fig. 16.35 Syndesmoses

Gomphoses : In this type of joint a cone shaped

Diaphysis
bone fits into a socket provided by other bone.
e.g. Tooth and jow bones.
Fig. 16.37 Synchondroses

209
b. Symphysis : In this type of joint, broad flat If the joint is immobile for a while, the
disc of fibrocartilage connects two bones. synovial fluid becomes viscous and as joint
These occur in midline of the body. One movement starts, it becomes less viscous.
example of this type of joint is intervertebral The joint is provided with capsular ligament
discs. Can you write another example? and numerous accessory ligaments. The
B. Synovial joints or freely movable joints : fibrous capsule is attached to periosteum of
They are also called as diarthroses. articulating bones. The ligament helps in
It is characterized by presence of a space avoiding dislocation of joint. Let us study
called synovial cavity between articulating types of synovial joints. Note that any type
bones that renders free movement at the joint. of synovial joint will show above mentioned
Articulating surfaces of bones at a synovial components.
joint are covered by a layer of hyaline cartilage. Pivot joint : Here, the rounded or pointed
(Bones do not touch to each other). It reduces surface of one bone articulates with a ring
friction during movement and helps to absorb formed partly by another bone and partly
shock. Synovial cavity is lined by synovial by ligament. Rotation only around it’s own
membrane that forms synovial capsule. longitudinal axis is possible. Example : In joint
Synovial membrane secretes synovial fluid. between atlas and axis vertebrae, head turns
side ways to form ‘NO’ joint.

Ligament
Synovial cavity
Odoytoid
(contains synovial
process
fluid)
Transverse
Articular
ligament
(hyaline) cartilage
Atlas
Fibrous
layer Axis
Articular
capsule Fig. 16.39 Pivot joint
Synovial
membrane Ball and socket joint : Ball like surface of one
bone fits into cup like depression of another
bone forming a moveble joint. Multiaxial
Fig. 16.38 Synovial joint movements are possible. This type of joint
allows movements along all three axes and in
Synovial fluid is a clear, viscous, straw
all directions. Example : Shoulder and hip joint
coloured fluid similar to lymph. It is viscous
due to hyaluronic acid. Fluid also contains Neck of femur Pelvis
nutrients, mucous and phagocytic cells to Cartilage
remove microbes. Synovial fluid lubricates
the joint, absorbs shocks, nourishes the Head of
femur
hyaline cartilage and removes waste materials
from hyaline cartilage cells (as cartilage is
avascular) phagocytic cell destroy microbes
and cellular debris formed by wear and tear of
the joint.
Fig. 16.40 Ball and socket joint
Use your brain power Why are warming up rounds essential before regular exercise?

210
Hinge joint : In a hinge joint, convex surface Saddle joint : This joint is a characteristic of
of one bone fits into concave surface of another H omo sapiens. Here, articular surface of one
bone. In most hinge joints one bone remains bone is saddle-shaped and that of other bone
stationery and other moves. Angular, opening fits into such saddle as a sitting rider would sit.
and closing motion like that of a hinge is i.e. each bone has both concave and convex
possible. In this joint only monoaxial movement areas. It is a modified condyloid joint in which
takes place like flexion and extension. Example movement is somewhat more free. It is a biaxial
: Elbow and knee joint. joint that allows flexion, extension, abduction,
adduction and circumduction. Example :
Humerus Bicep Carpometacarpellar jont between trapezium
Tricep
carpal and metacarpal of thumb.
Joint capsule (with
synovial fluid)

Radius
Cartillage
Ulna

Fig. 16.41 Hinge joint Carpal (Trapezium)

Condyloid joint : It is an ellipsoid joint. The Metacarpal #1

convex oval shaped projection of one bone fits
into oval shaped depression in another bone. It
is a biaxial joint because it permits movement
along two axes viz. flexion, extension, Fig. 16.43 Saddle joint
abduction, adduction and circumduction is
possible. Example : Metacarpophalyngeal joint
Can you tell?
Radius Ulna 1. Classify various type of joints found in
human body. Present the information in
Articular Ligament the form of chart. Give examples of each
cartilage type.
2. Human beings can hold an object in a
Synovial Synovial
membrane cavity better manner than monkeys. Why?
3. What makes the synovial joint freely
moveable?
Carpals

Fig. 16.42 Condyloid joint between

radius and carpals Internet my friend

Gliding joint : A planar joint, where articulating Now a days we hear from many
surfaces of bones are flat or slightly curved. elderly people that they are undergoing knee
These joints are non-axial because motion they replacement surgery. Find out why one has to
allow does not occur along an axis or a plane. undergo knee replacement; how it is carried
Example : Intercarpal and intertarsal joints. out and how it can be prevented.

211
16.11 Disorders related to muscles : iii. Rheumotoid arthritis : It is an autoimmune
Muscular dystrophy : It is a gradual wasting disorder where body’s immune system
disease affecting various groups of muscles. attacks it’s own tissues. In rheumatoid
These are genetically inherited in families. arthritis, synovial membrane swells up and
Usually voluntary skeletal muscles are starts secreting extra synovial fluid. This
weakened whereas internal muscles such as fluid exerts pressure on joint and makes it
diaphragm are not affected. Duchenne type painful. Membrane may develop abnormal
usually occurs in boys affecting lower limbs. granulation tissue called pannus. Pannus
Limb girdle muscular dystrophy affects the may erode cartilage. Fibrous tissue gets
muscles of shoulders or hips and it usually ossified and may lead to stiffness in joints.
starts in adults of 20-35 years. No treatment
appears to cure the disease.
Myasthenia gravis : It is a weakness of skeletal Find out
muscles. It is caused by an abnormality at the You must have heard of Sachin
neuromuscular junction that partially blocks Tendulkar suffering from 'tennis elbow', a
contraction. It is an autoimmune disorder cricketer suffering from a disorder named
caused by an excess of certain antibodies after another game. Can common people too
in the blood stream. Antibodies bind to suffer from this disorder?
accetylecholine receptors of neuromuscular Find out more information about this
junction. Thus transmission of nerve impulses disorder.
to the muscle fibres is blocked. This causes
progressive and extensive muscle weakness.
It may affect the eye and eyelid movements, Internet my friend
facial expression and swallowing. The degree of
muscle weakness varies form local to general. Find out information about types of
Example of symptoms are – Ptosis, (diplopia fractures and how they heal.
or double vision) difficulty in swallowing,
chewing and speech. Osteoporosis : In this disorder, bones become
16.12 Disorders related to bones : porous and hence brittle. It is primarily age
Arthritis : It is an inflammation of joints. It is related disease more common in women than
a painful disorder of bones, ligaments tendons men. As age advances, bone resorption outpaces
etc. In this disorder, joints become swollen, stiff bone formation hence bones loose mass and
and painful. It can lead to disability. Arthritis is become brittle. More calcium is lost in urine,
of three types. sweat etc. than it is gained through diet. Hence
i. Osteoarthritis : In this, joint cartilage is prevention of disease is better than treatment
degenerated. It is caused by various factors by consuming adequate amount of calcium
like aging, obesity, muscle weakness, etc. and exercise at young age. Osteoporosis may
This is most common type of arthritis that be caused due to decreasing estrogen secretion
affects hands, knees and spine. after menopause, deficiency of vitamin D,
ii. Gouty arthritis (Gout) : In this disorder low calcium diet, decreased secretion of sex
joint pain occurs due to deposition of uric hormones and thyrocalcitonin.
acid in joints. If uric acid is produced in Apart from fractures, osteoporosis may
excess or is not excreted, it accumulates lead to shrinkage of vertebrae, height loss,
in joints as sodium urate and degenerates hunched back and bone pain.
cartilage, causing inflammation and pain.
It generally affects joints of feet.

212
 Exercise
1. Choose the correct option
A. The functional unit of striated muscle is G. Hyper-secretion of parathormone can
.............. cause which of the following disorders?
a. cross bridges b. myofibril a. Gout b. Rheumatoid arthritis
c. sarcomere d. z-band c. Osteoporosis d. Gull's disease
B. A person slips from the staircase and H. Select correct option between two nasal
breaks his ankle bone. Which bones are bones
involved?
a. b.
a. Carpals b. Tarsal
c. Metacarpals d. Metatarsals
c. d.
C. Muscle fatigue is due to accumulation of
........
a. pyruvic acid b. lactic acid 2. Answer the following questions
c. malic acid d. succinic acid A. What kind of contraction occurs in your
neck muscles while you are reading your
D. Which one of the following is NOT
class assignment?
antagonistic muscle pair?
B. Observe the diagram and enlist
a. Flexo-extensor
importance of 'A', 'B' and 'C'.
b. Adductor-abductor
c. Levator-depressor
d. Sphinetro-suprinater
A
E. Swelling of sprained foot is reduced by
soaking in hot water containing a large B
C
amount of common salt,
a. due to osmosis
b. due to plasmolysis
c. due to electrolysis C. Raju intends to train biceps; while
d. due to photolysis exercising using dumbbells, which joints
should remain stationary and which
F. Role of calcium in muscle contraction
should move?
is ..........
a. to break the cross bridges as a D. In a road accident, Moses fractured his
cofactor in the hydrolysis of ATP leg. One of the passers by, tied a wodden
b. to bind with troponin, changing its plank to the fractured leg while Moses
shape so that the actin filament is was rushed to the hospital Was this
exposed essential? Why?
c. to transmit the action potential E. Sprain is more painful than fracture.
across the neuromuscular junction. Why?
d. to re-establish the polarisation of F. Why a red muscle can work for a
the plasma membrane following an prolonged period whereas white muscle
action potential fibre suffers from fatigue after a shorter
work? (Refer to chapter animal tissues.)

213
3. Answer the following questions in detail 4. Write short notes on following points
A. How is the structure of sarcomere suitable A. Actin filament
for the contractility of the muscle? B. Myosin filament
Explain its function according to sliding
C. Role of calcium ions in contraction and
filament theory. (Refer to chapter animal
relaxation of muscles.
tissues.)
B. Ragini, a 50 year old office goer, suffered 5. Draw labelled diagrams
hair-line cracks in her right and left A. Synovial joint.
foot in short intervals of time. She was B. Different cartilagenous joints.
worried about minor jerks leading to hair
line cracks in bones. Doctor explained Practical / Project :
to her why it must be happening and Identify the following diagrams and
prescribed medicines. demonstrate the concepts in classroom.
What must be the cause of
Ragini's problem? Why has it occurred?
What precautions she should have taken
earlier? What care she should take in
future?
C. How does structure of actin and myosin
help muscle contraction?
D. Justify the structure of atlas and axis
A B C
vertebrae with respect to their position
and function.
E. Observe the blood report given below
and diagnose the possible disorder.

Report D
PERFECT PATHOLOGY Reg. No. :_______
Dr.________________________ Date:________
Patient Name :________________ Age:_____ M/F
Reference:
Examination of Blood
Test Result Normal value
Uric Acid 9.2 2.5 - 7.0 mg/l
Blood Urea 24 10 - 20 mg/dl
Nitrogen (Bun)

214
 Reference (Book list)
1. Textbook of Medical Physiology (11th edition, 2006) Guyton and Hall. - Elsevier Saunders.
2. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology (13th edition) Tortora and Derrickson. - John Wiley and
sons.
3. The Insects - Structure and Function (5th edition) R. F. Chapman- Cambridge University Press.
4. IMM's General Textbook of Entomology (Vol-I) (10th edition) Richard and Davies. - Chapman
and Hall, John Wiley and Sons.
5. Anatomy and Physiology in Health and Illness (9th edition, 2004) Waugh, A. and Grant, A.-
Churchill Livingstone.
6. Cell and Molecular Biology (1987) - E. D. P. DeRobertis and E.M.P. DeRobertis. - Lea and
Febiger, USA.
7. Cell Biology (3rd edition, 1983) - C. B. Powar, Himalaya Publisher.
8. Advanced Biology- Principles and Applications (2nd edition, 2008) C. J. Clegg, Hodder edition.
9. Basic Botany (1971) (1st edition) - Mridula Datta - Allied Publication.
10. Plant Physiology (3rd edition, 2002) Taiz and Zeiger, - Sinauer Associates.
11. Plant Physiology (4th edition) Pandey and Sinha, Vikas Publisher.
12. Plant Classification (2nd edition, 1976) Lyman Benson - Oxford and IBH Publisher.
13. Advanced Plant Taxonomy (2016), A. K. Mondal, New Central Book Age.
14. Plant Physiology (1986) Salisbury and Ross, CBS Publishers.
15. Biology for IB DIPLOMA (2007), C. S. CLEGG, HODDER Edition.
16. Biology for Cambridge International AS and A Level - C. J. Clegg - Cambridge.
17. Biology Course Book (3rd edition) Jones, Fosbery, et. al, (2013) - Cambridge.
18. Principles of Biochemistry (4th edition, 2004), Nelson and Cox W. H. Freeman and Co.
19. Harper's Illustrated Biochemistry (26th edition), Murray, et. al, - The McGraw - Hill Co.
20. Molecular Biology of the Cell (5th edition), Bruce Alberts, et. al, - Garland Science.
21. Plant Systematics - Michael G. Simpson, Elsevier Aca. Press.
22. A Modern Text book of Zoology - Invertebrates - (2009), R. L. Kotpal. - Rastogi Publications.
23. A Modern Text book of Zoology - Vertebrates - (2009), R. L. Kotpal. - Rastogi Publications.
24. Invertebrates (3rd edition), Richard Brusca, et. al, Sinaur Associates Inc.
25. Invertebrates - Britannica Illustrated Science Library.
26. Vertebrates - Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (5th edition), - Kenneth V. Kardong,
McGraw Hill.

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