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Metal casting
Manufacturing of a machine part by melting (heating a metal or alloy above its melting point )
and pouring the liquid metal/alloy in a cavity approximately of same shape and size as the
machine part is called casting process. After the liquid metal cools and solidifies, it acquires the
shape and size of the cavity and resembles the required finished product. The place, where
castings are made is called foundry.
The casting procedure:
(a) Preparation of a pattern,
(b) Preparation of a mould with the help of the pattern,
(c) Melting of metal or alloy in a furnace,
(d) Pouring of molten metal into mould cavity,
(e) Breaking the mould to retrieve the casting,
(f) Cleaning the casting and cutting off risers, runners etc., (this operation is called ‘fettling’),
(g) Inspection of casting.
MOULDING SAND AND ITS PROPERTIES
In foundries, river sand is used for making moulds. Sand is chemically SiO2 (silicon dioxide) in
granular form. Ordinary river sand contains some percentage of clay, moisture, non-metallic
impurities and traces of magnesium and calcium salts besides silica grains. This sand, after
suitable treatment, is used for mould making.
Good, well prepared moulding sand should have the following properties:

(i) Refractoriness : it should be able to with stand high temperatures.

(ii) Permeability : ability to allow gases, water vapour and air to pass through it.
(iii) Green sand strength : when a mould is made with moist sand, it should have sufficient
strength, otherwise mould will break.
(iv) Good flowability : when it is packed around a pattern in a moulding box, it should be able
to fill all nooks and corners, otherwise the impression of pattern in mould would not be sharp
and clear.
(v) Good collapsibility : it should collapse easily after the casting has cooled down and has been
extracted after breaking the mould. It is particularly important in case of core making.
(vi) Cohesiveness : ability of sand grains to stick together. Without cohesiveness, the moulds
will lack strength.
(vii) Adhesiveness : ability of sand to stick to other bodies. If the moulding sand does not stick
to the walls of moulding box, the whole mould will slip through the box.
Properties like permeability, cohesiveness and green strength are dependent upon size and
shape of sand grains, as also upon the binding material and moisture content present in sand.
Clay is a natural binder. Chemical binders like bentonite are sometimes added if clay content in
natural sand is not enough.
Generally fresh moulding sand prepared in the foundry has the following composition:
Silica 75% (approx.), Clay 10–15%, Bentonite 2–5% (as required), Coal dust 5–10% and
Moisture 6–8%
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CORE
Whenever a hole, recess or internal cavity is required in a casting, a core, which is usually made
up of a refractory material like sand is inserted at the required location in the mould cavity
before finally closing the mould. A core, being surrounded on all sides by molten metal, should
be able to withstand high temperature. It should also be adequately supported otherwise due
to buoyancy of molten metal, it will get displaced.
Cores are made with the help of core boxes. Core boxes are made of wood and have a cavity
cut in them, which is the shape and size of the core. The sand is mixed and filled in the core
boxes. It is then rammed. A core box is made in two halves, each half contains half impression
of core. Sometimes a core may need reinforcements to hold it together. The reinforcements are
in the shape of wire or nails, which can be extracted from the hole in the casting along with
core sand.
CASTING DEFECTS
Some of the common defects in the castings are described below:
1. Blow-holes: They appear as small holes in the casting. They may be open to surface or they
may be below the surface of the casting. They are caused due to entrapped bubbles of gases.
They may be caused by excessively hard ramming, improper venting, excessive moisture or lack
of permeability in the sand.
2. Shrinkage cavity: Sometimes due to faulty design of casting consisting of very thick and thin
sections, a shrinkage cavity may be caused at the junction of such sections. Shrinkage cavity is
totally internal.
It is caused due to shrinkage of molten metal. Remedy is to use either a chill or relocation of
risers.
3. Misrun: This denotes incomplete filling of mould cavity. It may be caused by bleeding of
molten metal at the parting of cope and drag, inadequate metal supply or improper design of
gating.
4. Cold shut: A cold shut is formed within a casting, when molten metal from two different
streams meets without complete fusion. Low pouring temperature may be the primary cause of
this defect.
5. Mismatch: This defect takes place when the mould impression in the cope and drag do not
sit exactly on one another but are shifted a little bit. This happens due to mismatch of the split
pattern (dowel pin may have become loose) or due to defective clamping of cope and drag
boxes.
6. Drop: This happens when a portion of the mould sand falls into the molten metal. Loose sand
inadequately rammed or lack of binder may cause this defect.
7. Scab: This defect occurs when a portion of the face of a mould lifts or breaks down and the
recess is filled up by molten metal.
8. Hot tear: These cracks are caused in thin long sections of the casting, if the part of the casting
cannot shrink freely on cooling due to intervening sand being too tightly packed, offers
resistance to such shrinking. The tear or crack usually takes place when the part is red hot and
has not developed full strength, hence the defect is called “hot tear”. Reason may be
excessively tight ramming of sand.
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9. Other defects include scars, blisters, sponginess (due to a mass of pin holes at one location)
and slag inclusions etc.
Advantages of casting
1. Parts of complex shape can be made easily.
2. Extremely large as well as extremely small objects can be made.
3. The only way to making parts from cast iron is casting
4. Casting parts having high strength to compressive forces.
Disadvantages
1. Melting of metal is required high energy.
2. Labour- intensive process
3. Time taking process. After finishing each step only we can start next step.(without
pattern mould cannot be made.)
DIE CASTING
A sand mould is usable for production of only one casting. Die is essentially a metal mould and
can be used repeatedly. A die is usually made in two portions. One portion is fixed and the
other is movable. Together, they contain the mould cavity in all its details. After clamping or
locking the two halves of the dies together molten metal is introduced into the dies. If the
molten metal is fed by gravity into the dies, the process is known as gravity die casting process.
On the other hand, if the metal is forced into the dies under pressure (e.g., a piston in a cylinder
pushes the material through cylinder nozzle), the process is called “pressure die casting”. The
material of which the dies are made, should have a melting point much higher than the melting
point of casting material. A great number of die castings are made of alloys of zinc, tin and lead,
and of alloys of aluminium, magnesium and copper. Hence dies are made out of low alloy
steels. The dies are usually water or air cooled.
Since most materials contract on cooling, extraction of castings from dies becomes important
otherwise they will get entangled in the die as they cool. Therefore, in the design of dies, some
arrangement for extraction of casting is incorporated.
STEPS IN DIE CASTING
1. Close and lock the two halves of a die after coating the mould cavity surfaces with a mould
wash, if specified:
2. Inject the molten metal under pressure into the die.
3. Maintain the pressure until metal solidifies.
4. Open die halves.
5. Eject the casting along with runner, riser etc.
6. The above cycle is repeated.
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Types of pressure die casting methods:

1. Hot chamber process: This uses pressures up to 35 MPa and is used for zinc, tin, lead, and
their alloys. In this process the chamber, in which molten metal is stored before being pressure
injected into the die, is kept heated.
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2. Cold chamber process: In this process, pressures as high as 150 MPa are used. The storing
chamber is not heated. This process is used mainly for metals and alloys having relatively higher
melting point e.g., aluminium, magnesium and their alloys.

Advantages and disadvantages of die casting:

1. It is used for mass production of castings of small and medium size. e.g., pistons of
motorcycle and scooter engines, valve bodies, carburetor housings etc.
2. The initial cost of manufacturing a die is very high. It is a disadvantage.
3. This process produces high quality, defect free castings.
4. The castings produced by this process are of good surface finish and have good dimensional
control and may not require much machining. All castings produced are identical.
5. Large size castings cannot be produced by this process. It is a disadvantage.
6. Castings with very complex shape or with many cores are difficult to produce by die casting.
7. In case of mass production, castings can be produced cheaply.
8. The process does not require use of sand and requires much less space as compared to a
conventional foundry using sand moulds.

Forging
Forging is the process in which, metal and alloys are deformed to the specified shapes by
application of repeated compressive force from a hammer. It is usually done hot (hot forging);
although sometimes forging is done at room temperature (cold forging). The raw material is
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usually a piece of a round or square cross-section slightly larger in volume than the volume of
the finished component.

Components produced by forging are bolts, spanners, crane hooks, crankshaft etc

Open-die forging
Open-die forging is also known as smith forging. In open-die forging, a hammer strikes and
deforms the work piece, which is placed on a stationary anvil.

Open-die forging gets its name from the fact that the dies do not enclose the work piece,
allowing it to flow except where contacted by the dies. Therefore the operator needs to orient
and position the work piece to get the desired shape.

The dies are usually flat in shape, but some have a specially shaped surface for specialized
operations. For example, a die may have a round, concave, or convex surface or be a tool to
form holes or be a cut-off tool.

Closed die forging

In closed-die forging metal is placed in a die resembling a mold, which is attached to the anvil.
Usually the hammer die is shaped as well. The hammer is then dropped on the work piece,
causing the metal to flow and fill the die cavities.

Depending on the size and complexity of the part the hammer may be dropped multiple times
in quick succession. Excess metal is squeezed out of the die cavities, forming what is referred to
as flash.

The flash cools more rapidly than the rest of the material; this cool metal is stronger than the
metal in the die so it helps prevent more flash from forming. This also forces the metal to
completely fill the die cavity. After forging the flash is removed
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Net-shape forging

This process is also known as precision forging. This process was developed to minimize cost
and waste associated with post forging operations. Therefore, the final product from a
precision forging not needed final machining.

Cost savings are gained from the use of less material, and thus less scrap, the overall decrease
in energy used, and the reduction or elimination of machining. The downside of this process is
its cost; therefore it is only implemented if significant cost reduction can be achieved

Rolling
In this process, metals and alloys are plastically deformed into semi finished or finished
products by being pressed between two rolls which are rotating.

The metal is initially pushed into the space between two rolls, thereafter once the roll
grips the edge of the material, the material gets pulled in by the friction between the surfaces
of the rolls and the material.

The material is subjected to high compressive force as it is squeezed (and pulled along)
by the rolls. This is a process to deal with material in bulk in which the cross-section of material
is reduced and its length increased

TWO ROLL PROCESS:

It comprises of two heavy rolls placed one over the other. The vertical gap between the rolls is
adjustable. The rolls rotate in opposite directions and are driven by powerful electrical motors.
Usually the direction of rotation of rolls cannot be altered, thus the work has to be fed into rolls
from one direction only.
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Since transporting material (which is in red hot condition) from one side to another is
difficult and time consuming (material may cool in the meantime), a ‘‘two high reversing mill’’
has been developed in which the direction of rotation of rolls can be changed.

Three high mills:

It consists of three rolls positioned directly over one another as shown. The direction of rotation
of the first and second rolls are opposite as in the case of two high mill. The direction of
rotation of second and third rolls are again opposite to each other.

The advantage of this mill is that the work material can be fed in one direction between the
first and second roll and the return pass can be provided in between the second and third rolls.
This obviates the transport of material from one side of rolls to the other after one pass is over.
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Extrusion
Extrusion is a process in which the metal is subjected to plastic flow by enclosing the metal in
a closed chamber in which the only opening provided is through a die. The material is usually
treated so that it can undergo plastic deformation at a sufficiently rapid rate and may be
squeezed out of the hole in the die. In the process the metal comes out as a long strip with the
same cross-section as the die-opening. The process of extrusion is most commonly used for the
manufacture of solid and hollow sections of nonferrous metals (Mg,Al,Cu,Ni etc)and polymers
etc . However, some steel products are also made by extrusion.

Extrusion processes can be classified as followed:

(A) Hot Extrusion
(i) Forward or Direct extrusion.
(ii) Backward or Indirect extrusion.
(B) Cold Extrusion
(i) Hooker extrusion.
(ii) Hydrostatic extrusion.
(iii) Impact extrusion.
(iv) Cold extrusion forging.
Forward or direct extrusion process:

The material to be extruded is in the form of a block. It is heated to requisite temperature and
then transferred to a chamber. This block kept between the ram and die. In the front portion of
the chamber, a die with an opening in the shape of the cross-section of the extruded product,
is fitted. The block of material is pressed from behind by means of a ram and a follower pad.
As the ram moves forward, pressure develops and metal plastically deforms. Since the chamber
is closed on all sides, the heated material is forced to squeeze through the die-opening in the
form of a long strip of the required cross-section.
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Backward or indirect extrusion:

The block of heated metal is inserted into the container/chamber. It is confined on all sides by
the container walls except in front, where a ram with the die presses upon the material. As the
ram presses backwards, the material has to flow forwards through the opening in the die. The
ram is made hollow so that the bar of extruded metal may pass through it unhindered. This
process is called backward extrusion process as the flow of material is in a direction opposite to
the movement of the ram. In the forward extrusion process the flow of material and ram
movement were both in the same direction.

Hydrostatic extrusion:
It is a type of cold extrusion process. In the hydrostatic extrusion process the billet is
completely surrounded by a pressurized liquid, except where the billet contacts the die. The
fluids commonly used are glycerin, ethyl glycol, mineral oils, castor oil mixed with alcohol
etc. these fluids are helpful in reducing the friction between metal block and chamber
surface. This is a direct extrusion process. Pressure is applied to the metal blank on all sides
through the fluid medium.
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The advantages of Hydrostatic extrusion process include:

• No friction between the container and the billet reduces force requirements. This
ultimately allows for faster speeds, higher reduction ratios, and lower billet
temperatures.

• Usually the ductility of the material increases when high pressures are applied.

• An even flow of material.

• Large billets and large cross-sections can be extruded.

• No billet residue is left on the container walls.

The disadvantages are

• The billets must be prepared by tapering one end to match the die entry angle. This is
needed to form a seal at the beginning of the cycle.

• Handling the fluid under high pressures can be difficult.

Welding
Welding means the process of joining two metal parts together to give strong joint . The
welding process is subdivided into two main classes.

1. Fusion welding: which involves heating the ends of metal pieces to be joined to a
temperature high enough to cause them to melt or fuse and then allowing the joint to
cool. The joint, after the fused metal has solidified will result in a strong joint.
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2. Pressure welding: which involves heating the ends of metal pieces to be joined to a high
temperature, but lower than their melting point and then keeping the metal pieces joined
together under pressure for some time. This results in the pieces welding together to produce a
strong joint

Based on the sources of heat, fusion welding is again classified to different type

Electric arc welding: electric arc is the source of heat

Gas welding: A burning gas is producing the heat. Normally acetylene is used.
Electric resistance welding: heat produced from the electric resistance of
material
Thermite welding: chemical reaction is the source of heat. Etc
Laser welding: heat produced using Laser.

SMAW (shielded metal arc welding)

it is a manual arc welding process that uses a consumable electrode coated with flux.
An electric current, welding power supply is used to form an electric arc between the electrode
and the metal to be joined. As the weld is laid, the flux coating of the electrode disintegrates,
giving off vapors that serve as a shielding gas and providing a layer of slag, both of which
protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination
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Oxy fuel welding

It is a welding process in which required heat is obtained by a combustion of a fuel gas. The
heat used to melt the ends of work pieces to be joined an also to melt the filler metal
rod(welding rod). Several gas mixtures are using but mainly acetylene is mostly used for
welding as it produces high temp. of order of 3200°c. Acetylene gas is obtained by mixing
calcium carbide with water

CaC₂+2H₂O=Ca(OH)₂+C₂H₂

C₂H₂+O₂=4CO+H₂

4CO+ 2H₂+3 O₂=4CO₂+2H₂O

Acetylene and oxygen are stored separately in different cylinders as shown in fig. and these
gases are mixed in the welding torch /blow pipe as shown below. Tube from oxygen cylinder
and acetylene cylinder are connected to respective valves. These gases are mixed in the mixing
chamber and mixture is sent out through the tip of head tube.
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Hydraulic turbines
Hydraulic turbines are the machines which use the energy of water and convert it into
mechanical energy. The mechanical energy developed by a turbine is used in running an an
electric generator which couple to the turbine.

According to the type of energy at the inlet or action of water flowing through the turbine
runners, turbines classified as

1. Impulse turbine
2. Reaction turbine

Also turbines are classified according to the direction of fluid flow or flow path

1. Radial flow turbine

2. Axial flow turbine
3. Mixed flow turbine

Impulse turbine

In the turbine all the available energy of water is converted into kinetic energy or velocity head
by passing it through a converging nozzle provided at the end of penstock. Penstock is the pipe
which carries water from the dam to power station.

The water coming out of the nozzle is forced into a free jet which impinges on a series of
buckets of the runner, thus causing it to revolve. The runner is a circular frame with series of
buckets. These buckets are shaped like a double hemispherical cup. The buckets are made up of
cast iron , steel or bronze. The term impulse means that the force that turns the turbine comes
from the impact of the jet on the blades.
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Working

The water from the reservoir enters the nozzle through penstock. Nozzle converts its pressure
energy into Kinetic energy. Water leaves the nozzle in the form of jet and impinges the buckets
of runner, thus causing it to revolve. Eg: Pelton turbine

Reaction turbine
In reaction turbine at the entrance to the runner, only a part of the available energy of water is
converted into kinetic energy and substantial part of pressure energy remains. As the water
flows through the runner the change from pressure energy to K.E. takes place gradually.

Francis Turbine is an Inward Flow Reaction Turbine having Radial Discharge at Outlet. . Modern
Francis Turbine is a mixed flow type turbine (i.e. Water enters the runner of the turbine in the
radial direction and leaves the runner in the axial direction).
Radial Flow Turbines are those turbines in which the water flows in the Radial Direction. In
Francis Turbine the water flows from outwards to inwards through the runner (Inward Flow
Radial Turbine). Reaction Turbine means that the water at the inlet of the Turbine possesses
Kinetic Energy as well as Pressure Energy.
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CONSTRUCTION: -
The main parts of Francis Turbine are:
CASING

The runner is completely enclosed in an air-tight spiral casing. The casing and runner are always
full of water.
GUIDE MECHANISM/GUIDE VANE

It consists of a circular wheel all round the runner of the turbine. The stationary guide vanes are
fixed on the guide wheel. The guide vanes allow the water to strike the vanes fixed on the
runner without shock at inlet. Also width between the two adjacent vanes can be altered so
that amount of water striking the runner can be varied.
RUNNER

It is a circular wheel on which a series of Radial Curved Vanes are fixed. The vanes are so
shaped that the water enters and leaves the runner without shock.
DRAFT TUBE

The pressure at the exit of the runner of Reaction Turbine is generally less than atmospheric
pressure. The water at exit cannot be directly discharged to the tail race. A tube or pipe of
gradually increasing area is used for discharging water from the exit of turbine to the tail race.
This tube of increasing area is called Draft Tube. One end of the tube is connected to the outlet
of runner while the other end is sub-merged below the level of water in the tail-race.
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Radial flow turbines

In this turbine water flows along the radial direction and remins mainly in the plane
normal to the axis of rotation, as it passes through the runner. A radial flow turbine may be
either inward radial flow or outward radial flow type. Old francis turbine is an example for the
inward radial flow turbine

Axial flow turbine

In this flow of water through the runner is wholly and mainly along the direction parallel to the
axis of rotation. Eg: propeller turbine, Kaplan Turbine

Mixed flow turbine

Water enters the runner at the outer periphery in radial direction and leaves the turbine at the
centre in the direction parallel to the axis of rotation. Eg: modern Francis turbine

Pumps
In general pumps may be defined as a mechanical device which when connected in a pipeline,
converts the mechanical energy supplied to it from some external sources(normally electric
motor) into hydraulic energy and transfer the same to the liquid through the pipeline. Thereby
increasing the energy of flowing fluid. Normally pumps are used to transfer liquid from one
place to another as well as lower level to higher level. Pumps broadly classified into two

1. Positive displacement pumps

2. Rotodynamic pumps

Positive displacement pumps are those pumps in which liquid is sucked and then it is pushed or
displaced due to the thrust exerted on it, by a moving member. Most common example is
reciprocating pumps

The rotodynamic pumps have a rotating element, called impeller through which liquid passes.
During this motion its angular momentum changes, due to which the pre. Energy of liquid is
increased . here pump does not push the liquid as in the case of positive displacement pump.
Eg: centrifugal pump

Reciprocating pump
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A reciprocating pump essentially consist of a piston or plunger which moves to and fro inside a
cylinder. The cylinder is connected to suction and delivery tube each of which provide with a
non return valve called suction valve and delivery valve. The piston connected to the crank by
means of a connecting rod. Crank rotated by an engine or motor. When the crank rotates θ=0˚
to θ=180˚ piston moves from extreme left position to extreme right position

Working

During the motion of piston from left to right(refer fig.) a partial vacuum created inside the
cylinder. Because of this low pressure water will rise from well through suction tube and fill the
cylinder by forcing to open the suction valve. This operation is known as suction stroke.(motion
of piston from left to right). In this stroke crank rotates θ=0˚ to θ=180˚. Also delivery valve will
be closed and suction valve will be open during this stroke.

When the crank rotates from θ=180˚ to θ=360˚ piston moves inwardly from position right to
left. Now piston exerts pressure on the liquid and due to which suction valve closes and
delivery valve opens.the liquid is then foced up through delivery pipe. This stroke is known as
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delivery stroke. Now the pump has completed one cycle. The same cycle repeated as the crank
rotates.

Work done by reciprocating pump

The volume of liquid pumped is known as discharge. Here discharge in one cycle equals the
volume of cylinder.

ALN
so Qth
60

A= area of cross section of piston

L= stroke length ( distance between P1 and P2)

N=no of revolutions per minute

Normally actual discharge found to be less than theoretical discharge.

Theoretical work done= w. Qth . ( H s Hd )

w =specific weight=ρ.g

Hs=suction head, Hd= delivery head

w( ALN)(H s Hd )
Power P
60
Actual disch arg e Qa
Coefficient of discharge =
theoretical dischrge Qt

Centrifugal pumps
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The basic principle on which a centrifugal pump work is that when a certain mass of liquid is
made to rotate by an external force. It is thrown away from the central axis of rotation and
a centrifugal head is developed which enables it to rise to higher levels may be ensured.
Since in these pumps the lifting of the liquid is due to the centrifugal action, these pumps
are called centrifugal pumps. In addition to centrifugal action, liquid passes through
revolving impeller, its angular momentum changes which also results in increasing the
pressure of the liquid

Components and construction

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Impeller: it is a wheel or rotor which is provided with a series of backward curved blades or
vanes. it is mounted on a shaft which is coupled to an external source of energy(electric
motor)

Suction pipe: it is a pipe connects its upper end to the inlet of pipe and lower end dips into
water

Delivery pipe: pipe which is connected at its lower end to the outlet of the pump and it
delivers liquid to required height

Working

The first step is priming. It is the operation in which suction pipe, casing of pump and
portion of delivery tube are completely filled with the liquid which is to be pumped, so that
all the air from this portion of the sump is driven out and no air pocket is left. If there is any
air pocket, it result in no delivery of liquid from pump. The necessity of priming a centrifugal
pump is due to the fact that the pressure generated in a centrifugal pump impeller is
directly proportional to the density of fluid.

After the pump is primed, electric motor started to rotate the impeller. Due to rotation
impeller rotation, produces a vortex which imparts a centrifugal head to liquid. Then the
liquid starts to flow in an outward radial direction therby leaving the vanes of impeller. At
the centr of impeller a partial vacuum is created , causes the liquid from sump or well to
rush through suction pipe to the eye of impeller.

wQ ( Hs Hd )
efficiency
power given to the shaft
q disch arg e
w specific weight g
Hs suction head
Hd delivery head

Multi stage pumps

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Normally a pump with a single impeller can be used to deliver the required discharge
against a maximunhead of about 100m. but ifthe liquid is required to be delivered against a
lrger head then it can be done by using two or more pums in series. This arrangement can
be replaced by a multi stage pump.

A multistage pump consist of two or more identical impellers mounted on the same shaft
and enclosed in the same casing. All impellers are connected in series so that liquid
discharged with increased pressure.

Total head developed H= n X Hm

Where n= no of stages and Hm= head developed in each stage

Advantages of centrifugal pumps over reciprocating pumps

Greater discharging capacity

Centrifugal pump can pump high viscous fluids but reciprocating pumps can handle
water or low viscous fluid

Operated at very high speed

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Speed of reciprocating engine is limited

Maintenance cost is low for centrifugal pump.

Vane pump

A rotary vane pump is a positive-displacement pump that consists of vanes mounted on

a rotor that rotates inside of a cavity. In vane pump, the vanes slide in and out of the rotor
during the operation of the device. This combination of actions creates a seal on the interior of
the cavity, and effectively forms a series of small chambers within the larger chamber. Liquid is
captured in each of these chambers and is forced through the system by the resulting pressure
of the rotation. Essentially, there is atmospheric pressure on the intake side of the pump that
helps to suck in the liquid, while the pressure created by the rotating action help to move and
discharge the collected liquid from the outtake or discharge side of the pump. The rotor helps
to keep the flow of the liquid uniform throughout the process.

Advantages

Handles thin liquids at relatively higher pressures

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Compensates for wear through vane extension

Sometimes preferred for solvents, LPG
Can run dry for short periods
Can have one seal or stuffing box
Develops good vacuum

Disadvantages

Can have two stuffing boxes

Complex housing and many parts
Not suitable for high pressures
Not suitable for high viscosity
Not good with abrasives

Applications

Aviation Service - Fuel Transfer

Auto Industry – pumping of Fuels, Lubes, Refrigeration Coolants
Bulk Transfer of LPG and NH3
LPG Cylinder Filling
Refrigeration – pumping of Freons, Ammonia
In distilleries and chemical industries

Gear pump
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External gear pumps are similar in pumping action to internal gear pumps in that two gears
come into and out of mesh to produce flow. However, the external gear pump uses two
identical gears rotating against each other -- one gear is driven by a motor and it in turn drives
the other gear. Each gear is supported by a shaft with bearings on both sides of the gear.

1. As the gears come out of mesh, they create expanding volume on the inlet side of the pump.
Liquid flows into the cavity and is trapped by the gear teeth as they rotate.

2. Liquid travels around the interior of the casing in the pockets between the teeth and the
casing -- it does not pass between the gears.

3. Finally, the meshing of the gears forces liquid through the outlet port under pressure.

Because the gears are supported on both sides, external gear pumps are quiet-running and are
routinely used for high-pressure applications such as hydraulic applications. With no overhung
bearing loads, the rotor shaft can't deflect and cause premature wear.

Advantages

High speed
High pressure
No overhung bearing loads
Relatively quiet operation
Design accommodates wide variety of materials

Disadvantages

Four bushings in liquid area

No solids allowed
Fixed End Clearances

Applications

Pumping of various fuel oils, kerosene and lube oils

Pumping of Chemicals and polymers
For Chemical mixing and blending
Industrial and mobile hydraulic applications
Pumping Acids and paints etc
For Low volume transfer
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Jet pump

A jet pump is a device that uses the venturi effect of a converging-diverging nozzle to convert
the pressure energy of a fluid to velocity energy which creates a low pressure zone that draws
in and entrains a suction fluid.

In a jet pump, pumping action is created as a fluid (water, steam, or air) passes at a high
pressure and velocity through a nozzle and into a chamber that has an inlet and outlet opening.

The operating principle of a jet pump is as follows: Upon starting up, the fluid is entering
through the suction tube and delivered through the delivery pipe. But part of fluid is pumped
back to the suction pipe from delivery pipe through another pipe. Refer fig. at the end of this
pipe a nozzle is connected where fluid pressure is decreased due to high velocity jet. Due to
this low pressure more fluid will enter to the suction pipe.
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Application

In thermal power stations, they are used for the removal of the boiler bottom ash, the
removal of fly ash the boiler flue gas, and for creating a vacuum pressure in steam
turbine exhaust condensers.

For use in producing a vacuum pressure in steam jet cooling systems.

For the bulk handling of grains or other granular or powdered materials.

The construction industry uses them for pumping turbid water and slurries.
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Power transmission systems

In mechanical industries, power from the engines or electric motor are transmitted to the
machines using the following drives

1.belt drive

2. chain drive

3. gear drive

Belt drives

A belt is a loop of flexible material used to link two or more rotating shafts mechanically. Belts
are looped over pulleys. In a two pulley system, the belt can either drive the pulleys in the same
direction, or the belt may be crossed, so that the direction of the shafts is opposite. The shaft
from which power is transmitted is called driver shaft and the shaft to which power is
transmitted is called driven shaft.

Types of belts

Based on arrangement of shafts and belt

Open belt drive: in this the direction of rotation is same for both driver and driven shaft. See
the fig. Above. The driver pulley pulls the belt from one side and delivers the same belt to the
other side . hence the tension on the former side will be greater than the later side. The side
where tension is more is called tight side and the other side is called slack side.

Cross belt drive: in this driver and driven pulley have different direction of rotation. At the
point where belt crosses, it rubs against itself and wears. In order to reduce this shaft should be
placed at a minimum distance of 20 d, where ‘d’ is the width of belt.
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Based on shape of cross section

Flat belt- it used to transmit moderate amount of power for a long distane between shafts(upto
10m). Flat belts are again classifie as open belt drive and cross belt drive

Vee/ V- belt- these are used to transmit large amout of power between two shafts for a short
distance

Circular belt/rope- these belts are used to transmit large amount of power for large
distance(>8m)

Flat-belt drives are simple and convenient. They permit the use of ordinary pulleys with smooth
surfaces, and they can be operated at speeds as high as 40–50 m/sec and more. However, they
are bulky in design and low in strength. V-belt drives provide improved attachment of the belt
to the pulleys, permit shortening of the centre distances, and allow a decrease in the size of the
drive. Round-belt drives are now rare and are used only in mechanisms of low power, such as
those in sewing machines.

The advantages of belt drives are their simplicity of design, relative low cost, capacity to
transmit power over significant distances (up to 10 m and more), and smooth and noiseless
operation. It can be used with very high speed drives. In addition, the elastic properties of the
belt and its ability to slip on the pulleys help prevent overload. The disadvantages include the
short lifetime of the belts, relatively large size, heavy stress on the shafts and bearings, and
variation in the tension ratio caused by the inevitable slipping of the belt.

Belts made of highly elastic, strong synthetic materials like leather, cotton and rubber. Belt
drives are widely used in agricultural machines, electric generators, certain machine tools, and
textile machines. They are ordinarily used for transmitting power up to 30–50 kilowatts.

Power transmitted by belt drive

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Here the driving pulley pulls the belt from the lower side to the upper side. Thus the tension in
the lower side will be greater than the tension in the upper side. The upper side is called the
slack side and lower side is the tight side.

T1 - tension in the tight side of the belt is Newton

T2 – Tension in the slack side of the belt is Newton

d1 – diameter of the driving pulley

d2 – diameter of the follower

v = linear velocity of the belt in m/sec

The driven pulley rotates because of the difference in tensions in the tight and slack side of the
belt. Therefore the force causing the rotation is the difference between the two tensions the
belt exerts a force on the pulley.

Let F is the net force acting on the belt

So F = (T1-T2)

work forceXdisplacement
power transmitted forceXvelocity
time time
P = F X V= (T1-T2) X V

P = (T1-T2) X rw=(T1-T2) XrX2.π.N/60.

Relation between belt tension and friction

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In the picture angle of contact between belt and pulley is θ. Let the tight side tension be T1 and
slack side tension T2. Consider a short length MN of belt, which subtends an angle δθ at pulley
centre. Let T be tension at M and (T + δT) be the tension at N. The frictional force depends
normal reaction R. Suppose the belt is in equilibrium. Then ∑X=0 and ∑Y=0. Here x direction is
horizontal(radial direction) and y direction is tangential at point P.

(T + δT) cos (δθ / 2)- T cos (δθ / 2) - µR =0

Since δθ is very small,

cos (δθ / 2) = 1

(T + δT) + T-µR = 0

µR = δT ........................................… (1)

and resolving the force is radial reaction.

T sin (δθ / 2) + (T + δT) sin (δθ/2)- R =0

Since, δθ is very small, sin (δθ/2)= (δθ/2)

T δθ/2 + (T + δT) δθ/2 R = 0 (δT. δθ / 2 is neglected)

T δθ=R................................................…(2)

From equations (1) and (2)

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µ(T δθ) = δT

δT / T = µ δθ

On integration, we get

∫T1T2 δT/T = ∫oθ µdθ

log T1 / T2 = µθ

T1 / T2 = (e)µθ

Gears and gear train

Toothed wheels are known as gears. A gear is a rotating machine part having cut teeth,
which mesh with another toothed part in order to transmit torque. Gears having high efficiency
and high accuracy. It is having less maintenance cost.

There are different types of gears. Gears may be classified according to the relative position of
the axis of revolution. The axis may be

1. spur,
2. helical
3. bevel gear
4. worm and worm wheel
5. Rack and pinion.

Spur Gears
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Spur gears are the most commonly used gear type. They are characterized by teeth
which are perpendicular to the face of the gear or teeth are parallel to the axis of rotation. Spur
gears are by far the most commonly available, and are generally the least expensive. The basic
descriptive geometry for a spur gear is shown in the figure.

Limitations: Spur gears generally cannot be used when a direction change between the two
shafts is required. Advantages: Spur gears are easy to find, inexpensive, and efficient.

Helical Gears

Helical gears are similar to the spur gear except that the teeth are at an angle to the
shaft/axis of rotation. The resulting teeth are longer than the teeth on a spur gear of equivalent
pitch diameter. The longer teeth cause helical gears to have the following differences from spur
gears of the same size :

1. Tooth strength is greater because the teeth are longer,

2. Greater surface contact on the teeth allows a helical gear to carry more load than a spur
gear
3. The longer surface of contact reduces the efficiency of a helical gear relative to a spur
gear

Helical gears may be used to mesh two shafts that are parallel.the angle between tooth and
axis of rotation is called helix angle.

Limitations: Helical gears have the major disadvantage that they are expensive . Helical gears
are also slightly less efficient than a spur gear of the same size

Advantages: Helical gears can be used on non parallel and even perpendicular shafts, and can
carry higher loads than spur gears.

Bevel Gears
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Bevel gears are primarily used to transfer power between intersecting shafts. The teeth
of these gears are formed on a conical surface. Standard bevel gears have teeth which are cut
straight and are all parallel to the line pointing the apex of the cone on which the teeth are
based. One of the most common applications of bevel gears is the automobile differential
system,

Limitations: Limited availability. Cannot be used for parallel shafts. Can become noisy at high
speeds.

Advantages: Excellent choice for intersecting shaft systems.

Worm Gears

Worm gears are special gears that resemble screws, and can be used to drive spur gears
or helical gears. Worm gears, like helical gears, allow two non-intersecting , non parallel shafts
to mesh. Normally, the two shafts are at right angles to each other. A worm gear is equivalent
to a V-type screw thread. Another way of looking at a worm gear is that it is a helical gear with
a very high helix angle. Worm gears are normally used when a high gear ratio is desired, or
again when the shafts are perpendicular to each other. One very important feature of worm
gear meshes that is often of use is their irreversibility: when a worm gear is turned, the meshing
spur gear will turn, but turning the spur gear will not turn the worm gear. The resulting mesh is
'self locking', and is useful in ratcheting mechanisms.

Limitations: Low efficiency. The worm drives the drive gear primarily with slipping motion, thus
there are high friction losses.

Advantages: Will tolerate large loads and high speed ratios. Meshes are self locking (which can
be either an advantage or a disadvantage).

Racks (straight gears)

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Racks are straight gears that are used to convert rotational motion to translational
motion by means of a gear mesh. (They are in theory a gear with an infinite pitch diameter). In
theory, the torque and angular velocity of the pinion gear are related to the Force and the
velocity of the rack by the radius of the pinion gear, as is shown below:

Perhaps the most well-known application of a rack is the rack and pinion steering system used
on many cars in the past.

Limitations: Limited usefulness. Difficult to find.

Advantages: The only gearing component that converts rotational motion to translational
motion. Efficiently transmits power. Generally offers better precision than other conversion
methods.

Gear terminology:

Pitch circle: it is an imaginary circle which by pure rolling action, would give the same
motion as the actual gear
Addendum circle: A circle drawn through the top of the teeth and is concentric with
pitch circle.
Root (or dedendum) circle: The circle drawn through the bottom of the teeth.
Addendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the addendum circle.
Dedendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the dedendum circle.
Clearance: The difference between the dedendum of one gear and the addendum of the
mating gear.
Face of a tooth: That part of the tooth surface lying outside the pitch surface.
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Flank of a tooth: The part of the tooth surface lying inside the pitch surface.
Circular thickness (also called the tooth thickness) : The thickness of the tooth
measured on the pitch circle. It is the length of an arc and not the length of a straight
line.
Tooth space: The distance between adjacent teeth measured on the pitch circle.
Backlash: The difference between the circle thickness of one gear and the tooth space
of the mating gear.
Circular pitch p: The width of a tooth and a space, measured on the pitch circle.

D
Pc
T

Diametral pitch P: The number of teeth of a gear per inch of its pitch diameter. A
toothed gear must have an integral number of teeth. The circular pitch, therefore,
equals the pitch circumference divided by the number of teeth. The diametral pitch is,
by definition, the number of teeth divided by the pitch diameter. That is,

T
Pd
D

Module m: Pitch diameter divided by number of teeth. The pitch diameter is usually
specified in inches or millimeters; in the former case the module is the inverse of
D
diametral pitch. m
T
Fillet : The small radius that connects the profile of a tooth to the root circle.
Velocity ratio: The ratio of the number of revolutions of the driving (or input) gear to
the number of revolutions of the driven (or output) gear, in a unit of time.
Pitch point: The point of tangency of the pitch circles of a pair of mating gears.
Line of action: A line normal to a pair of mating tooth profiles at their point of contact.
Path of contact: The path traced by the contact point of a pair of tooth profiles.
Pressure angle : The angle between the common normal at the point of tooth contact
and the common tangent to the pitch circles. It is also the angle between the line of
action and the common tangent.
Base circle :An imaginary circle used in involute gearing to generate the involutes that
form the tooth profiles.

Gear Trains

Gear trains consist of two or more gears for the purpose of transmitting motion and power
from one shaft to another. Figure a shows a simple ordinary gear train in which there is only
one gear for each axis. In Figure b a compound gear train is, in which two or more gears may
rotate about a single axis
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N1 T2
speed ratio of ordinary gear train
N2 T1
N1 N 2 T2 T3
x x
N2 N3 T1 T2
N1 T3
N3 T1
N no of revolution
T no of teeth
Compound gear train

N1 N 3 T 2 T 4
speed ratio of compound gear train X X
N 2 N 4 T1 T 3
N 2 and N 3 is same because both gear 2 and 3are on same shaft
N1 T 2 T 4
so speed ratio X
N 4 T1 T 3

Rack and pinion

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A rack and pinion is a pair of gears which convert rotational motion into linear motion. The
circular pinion engages teeth on a flat bar ( the rack). Rotational motion applied to the pinion
will cause the rack to move to the side, up to the limit of its travel.

The rack and pinion arrangement is commonly found in the steering mechanism of cars or other
wheeled, steered vehicles. This arrangement provides greater feedback, or steering "feel".

Slider crank mechanism

A slider crank mechanism(see fig.) is most widely used to convert reciprocating to rotary
motion (as in an engine) or to convert rotary to reciprocating motion (as in pumps), but it has
numerous other applications. Positions at which slider motion reverses are called dead centers.
(here Position H and J)When crank and connecting rod are extended in a straight line and the
slider is at its maximum distance from the axis of the crankshaft, the position is top dead center
(TDC)(position H); when the slider is at its minimum distance from the axis of the crankshaft,
the position is bottom dead center (BDC)(position J).
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The conventional internal combustion engine employs a piston arrangement in which the
piston becomes the slider of the slider-crank mechanism.. Another use of the slider crank is in
toggle mechanisms, also called knuckle joints. The driving force is applied at the crankpin so
that, at TDC, a much larger force is developed at the slider.

Eccentric mechanism

Eccentric sheave, with strap and eccentric rod fitted.

In mechanical engineering, an eccentric is a circular disk (eccentric sheave) solidly fixed to a

rotating axle with its centre offset from that of the axle/shaft (hence the word "eccentric", out
of the centre)

It is most often employed in steam engines and used to convert rotary into linear reciprocating
motion in order to drive a sliding valve or a pump ram. In order to do so an eccentric usually has
a groove at its circumference around which is closely fitted a circular collar (eccentric strap)
attached to a rod which in such a way that its other end can impart the required reciprocating
motion.

Internal combustion engines

Introduction

A device which transforms one form of energy into another form is called an engine. An engine
which converts thermal energy into mechanical energy is called heat engine. Heat engines can
be broadly classified into two categories

(i)External combustion engines (EC engines)eg: steam engine

(ii)Internal combustion engines (IC engines)eg: petrol and diesel engine

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The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel (normally
a fossil fuel) occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber inside the engine.

Working principle of Diesel engines (Compression Ignition engines)

Diesel engine is based on the work of Rudolph Diesel. It operates based on the theoretical air
cycle known as diesel cycle. These engines operate on four stroke or two stroke cycle.

Diesel cycle (Constant pressure cycle)

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Atmospheric air is drawn into the engine cylinder during the suction stroke and is
compressed by the piston during the compression stroke to high pressure and temperature.
The temperature of compressed air will be above the ignition temperature of fuel. Just before
the end of the compression stroke a metered quantity of fuel under pressure is injected in the
form of fine spray by means of a fuel injector. Due to very high pressure and temperature of the
air the fuel ignites and the gases expand displacing the piston. After doing work on the piston
the burnt gases escape from the engine cylinder

Two stroke diesel engine

In two stroke diesel engine, one cycle of operation is completed in two strokes of the
piston, (in one revolution of the crank shaft ) by eliminating separate suction and exhaust
strokes. Here ports are provided in place of valves.

Fig. shows the working of a two stroke diesel engine. The cylinder is connected to a closed
crankcase. During the upward stroke of the piston, the air in the cylinder is compressed. At the
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same time fresh air enters the crankcase through the air inlet port. Fig. (I)

Towards the end of this stroke fuel is introduced in the form of fine spray by the fuel injector
and due to the high pressure and temperature of the air, the fuel starts burning. The piston
then travels downwards due to the expansion of the gases ( fig II) and near the end of this
stroke the piston uncovers the exhaust port and burnt gases escape through this port. The
transfer port is then uncovered (fig.III) and the compressed air from the crankcase flows into
the cylinder. The incoming fresh air helps to move the burnt gases from the engine cylinder.

Four stroke diesel engine

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In four stroke cycle engine one cycle of operation is completed in four strokes of the piston (i.e.,
two revolutions of crank shaft).The various strokes of a four stroke diesel engine are detailed
below. Refer PV diagram.

1. Suction stroke
During this stroke the piston moves from top dead centre (TDC) to bottom dead
centre (BDE).The inlet valve opens and air at atmospheric pressure is drawn into the engine
cylinder. The exhaust valve remains closed. This operation is represented by the line 5-1 in
PV diagram.

2. Compression stroke
In this stroke the piston moves towards TDC and compresses the enclosed air to
high temperature and pressure. This operation is represented by line 1-2 in PV diagram.
Both the inlet and exhaust valves remain closed during this stroke.

3. Expansion or working stroke

Towards the end of compression stroke a metered quantity of fuel is injected into
the hot compressed air in the form of fine spray by means of a fuel injector. The fuel starts
burning, theoretically, at constant pressure and pushes the piston from TDC. This is shown
by line 2-3 in PV diagram. At point 3, fuel supply is cut off. The high pressure gas in the
cylinder expand up to point 4, doing work on the piston. The inlet and exhaust valves
remain closed during this stroke. At the end of this stroke the exhaust valve opens.

4. Exhaust stroke
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The piston moves from BDC to TDC and the burnt gases escape through the
exhaust valve. During this stroke the inlet valve remains closed. This stroke is represented
by the line 1-5 in PV diagram. During this stroke the exhaust valve remains opened and the
inlet valve remains closed. By this one cycle is completed.

2.5 Working principle of petrol engines (Spark Ignition Engines)

Petrol engines operate on the so called Otto cycle. These engines work based on either four
stroke or two stroke cycle.

Otto cycle (Constant volume cycle)

In this cycle, heat is supplied at constant volume.

A homogeneous mixture of air and petrol is supplied to
the engine cylinder during the suction stroke. A
carburettor provides a mixture of petrol and air in the
required proportion. The fuel air mixture (charge) gets
compressed during the compression stroke At the end
of this stroke, fuel is ignited and combustion occurs at
constant volume .The gas expands and moves the
piston downwards, during work.

Four stroke petrol engines

The various strokes of a four stroke petrol engine are detailed below. Refer PV diagram
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I Suction stroke II Compression stroke III Working stroke IV Exhaust stroke

1 Inlet valve 2 Exhaust valve 3 Fuel injector 4 Piston 5 connecting rod 6 Crank

Fig: Working of four stroke petrol engine

1) Suction stroke

During this stroke the piston moves from top dead centre (TDC) to bottom dead centre
(BDC). The inlet valve opens and the fuel air mixture is sucked into the engine cylinder. The
exhaust valve remains closed throughout this stroke. This is represented by the line 5-1 in PV
diagram.

2) Compression Stroke

The air fuel mixture is compressed as the piston moves from BDC to TDC. Just before the
end of this stroke, the spark plug initiates a spark which ignites the mixture and combustion
takes place at constant volume (line 2-3 in fig PV diagram). Both the inlet and exhaust valves
remain closed throughout this stroke.
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3) Expansion or working stroke

As the fuel air mixture burns, hot gases are produced which drive the piston towards BDC
and thus work is done. This expansion process is shown by the line 3-4 in PV diagram. Both the
valves remain closed during this stroke.

4) Exhaust stroke

The removal of the burnt gases is accomplished during this stroke. The piston moves from
BDC to TDC and the exhaust gases are driven out of the engine cylinder .This operation is
represented by the line 1-5 in PV diagram. During this stroke the exhaust valve remains opened
and the inlet valve remains closed. By this one cycle is completed.

Two stroke petrol engine

In two stroke petrol engine, one cycle of operation is completed in two strokes of the
piston, (in one revolution of the crankshaft) by eliminating separate suction and exhaust
strokes. Here ports are provided in place of valves
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1 Cylinder 2 Crank case 3 Piston 4 Air inlet port 5 Transfer port 6 Exhaust port 7 Spark plug

Fig 2. Working principle of two stroke petrol engine

Fig 2.shows the working of a two stroke petrol engine. The cylinder is connected to a closed
crankcase. During the upward stroke of the piston, the air fuel mixture in the cylinder is
compressed. At the same time fresh air fuel mixture enters the crankcase through the inlet
port. (Fig. 2 I) Towards the end of this stroke, the air fuel mixture is ignited using an electric
spark from the spark plug.

The piston then travels downwards due to the expansion of the gases (fig. 2 II) and near
the end of this stroke the piston uncovers the exhaust port and the burnt gases escape through
this port. The transfer port is then uncovered (fig 2 III) and the compressed air fuel mixture
from the crankcase flow into the cylinder.

The incoming fresh air fuel mixture helps to move the burnt gases from the engine cylinder.
Refer fig. 6. In a two stroke petrol engine the operations are the same as that for a two stroke
diesel engine with some difference. In this engine, fuel air mixture is admitted into the crank
case and compressed. A carburettor is used for mixing the fuel and air in the correct
proportion. For the ignition of the fuel air mixture at the end of compression in the engine
cylinder, a spark plug is provided. In this case, combustion process is assumed to take place at
constant volume.

Comparison of SI and CI engines

1. Working cycle: The SI engine, in general, works based on Otto cycle, while the CI engine,
in general, works based on diesel cycle.
2. Fuel: A highly volatile fuel such as petrol is used in SI engine while non-volatile fuel such
as diesel is used in CI engines.
3. Method of fuel ignition: In most of SI engines, the fuel and air are introduced into the
engine cylinder as a gaseous mixture while in CI engines, the fuel is directly introduced into
the cylinder in the form of fine spray. Mixing of fuel and air takes place inside the cylinder.

4. Method of fuel ignition: The SI engine requires a spark to initiate combustion while CI
engine utilises the condition of high temperature and pressure, produced by the
compression of air in the cylinder, to initiate combustion when fuel is injected.

5. Fuel economy: CI engines have better fuel economy at all operating conditions.

6. Compression ratio: Compression ratio of SI engines range from 6 to 10, where as that of
CI engines range from 16 to 20. The higher compression ratio of CI engines result in higher
thermal efficiency and hence a greater power output for the same amount of fuel
consumed.
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7 . Weight: Because of the higher compression ratio and higher pressure, CI engines require
stronger engine parts and hence are heavier

8. Initial cost: Initial cost of a SI engine is less than a comparable CI machine.

9. Maintenance costs: The maintenance costs of the two types of engines are generally
about the same, with CI engine costs slightly higher.
Comparison of two stroke and four stroke cycle engines
1) In a two stroke engine, there is one working stroke for every revolution of the crank shaft
whereas in a four stroke engine there is only one power stroke for two revolutions of the crank
shaft. Hence, theoretically, the power developed in two stroke engine will be double that of a
four stroke engine of the same dimensions However in practice, only about 30 percent extra
power is developed .That is, in order to produce the same of power, a two stroke cycle engine
will be of less weight and occupies less space.
2) As there is one working stroke in every revolution of the crank shaft, the turning moment of
a two stroke engine will be more uniform.
3) As there is no valves in a two stroke engine the construction will be simple and hence low
initial cost. The maintenance of the engine will also be easy. The mechanical efficiency will be
higher.
4) As there is no separate exhaust stroke in a two stroke engine the scavenging will be poor.
Due to this, the fresh charge gets diluted with exhaust gases and the thermal efficiency
decreases. Also there is possibility of the fresh charge escaping with the exhaust. This will
increase the fuel consumption.
5)The separate exhaust and intake strokes of the four stroke cycle provide greater opportunity
for the dissipation of heat from critical parts like piston, and essentially permit the four stroke
cycle engine to run at higher speed than two stroke cycle engine.
6) In two stroke engine the power needed to operate suction and exhaust valves is saved.
7) The construction of combustion chamber is simple in a two stroke engine compared to four
stroke engine.

Carburation

Function of the fuel supply system is to store the fuel required for the engine in a tank and to
supply it to the cylinder for combustion.
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Carburetor is considered as the heart of the petrol engine. It is a device for atomizing and
vapourizing the volatile liquid fuel (petrol) and mixing it with air. It is attached to the intake
manifold connected with the engine cylinder. In the S.I. engine, combustible petrol – air mixture
is prepared outside the engine cylinder. The process of vapourizing the fuel (petrol) and mixing
it with air outside the cylinder in the S.I. engine is known as carburetion.

With less air, some portion of the fuel will remain unburnt due to the insufficient supply of
oxygen while with excess air, the rate of burning will be slower.

For running at higher speeds and for starting the engine, we need rich air – fuel mixture. For
this, the carburetor regulates the throttle valve using accelerator. Provision is made for easy
starting (choke) in cold weather.
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Carburetor is one chamber where petrol and air was mixed in a fixed ratio and then sent to
cylinders to burn it to produce power. This system is purely a mechanical machine with little or
no intelligence. It was not very efficient in burning petrol, it will burn more petrol than needed
at times and will produce more pollution.

CRDI Engine
CRDI Engine stands for Common Rail Direct Injection (CRDI) engine. It is the latest state-of-the-
art technology for diesel engines and suits passenger cars as well as commercial vehicles.
One of the main reasons for the increasing popularity of CRDI is its performance and fuel
economy. A CRDI engine is based on direct injection technology and has common rails i.e. tubes
which inject pressurised fuel directly into the engine. The common rail connects all the injectors
and supply fuel at a constant high pressure. The high pressure in the common rail ensures that
upon injection, the fuel atomises and mixes consistently with the air, thereby leaving minimal
unburnt fuel.

In a CRDI engine, fuel quantity, engine pressure and timing of fuel injection are controlled
electronically. The onboard computer makes sure that the fuel is injected at the precise
moment. This significantly improves engine efficiency and reduces noise and vibrations as
compared to the conventional diesel engines.
Common rail direct fuel injection is a modern variant of direct fuel injection system for petrol
and diesel engines. On diesel engines, it features a high-pressure (over 1,000 bar)
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Fuel injection is a system for mixing fuel with air in an internal combustion engine. Carburetors
were the predominant method used to mix fuel in petrol engines before the widespread use of
fuel injection.

The primary difference between carburetors and fuel injection is that fuel injection atomizes
the fuel by forcibly pumping it through a small nozzle under high pressure, while a carburetor
relies on low pressure created by intake air rushing through it to add the fuel to the airstream.

Multi-point fuel injection(MPFI)

Multi-point fuel injection injects fuel into the intake port just before the cylinder's intake valve,
in each cylinder, rather than a common point as in carburator. A Petrol car’s engine usually has
four or more cylinders. So in case of an MPFI engine, there is one fuel –injector installed near
each cylinder, that is why they call it Multi-point (more than one points) Fuel Injection.

MPFI emerged an Intelligent way to do what the Carburetor does. In MPFI system, each
cylinder has one injector (which makes it multi-point). Each of these Injectors are controlled by
one central computer. This computer is a small micro-processor, which keeps telling each
Injector about how much petrol and at what time it needs to inject near the cylinder so that
only the required amount of petrol goes into the cylinder at the right moment.

So the working of MPFI is similar to Carburetor, but in an improved way, because now each
cylinder is treated independently unlike Carburetor. But one major Key difference is that MPFI
is an intelligent system and Carburetor is not. MPFI systems are controlled by a computer which
does lots of calculations before deciding what amount of petrol will go into what cylinder at a
particular point in time. It makes that decision based on the inputs it reads.

For the Inputs, the microprocessor (or car’s computer) reads a number of sensors. Through
these sensors, the microprocessor knows the temperature of the Engine, the Speed of the
Engine, it knows the load on the Engine, it knows how hard you have pressed the accelerator, it
knows whether the Engine is idling at a traffic signal or it is actually running the car, it knows
the air-pressure near the cylinders, it knows the amount of oxygen coming out of the exhaust
pipe.

Based on all these inputs from the sensors, the computer in the MPFI system decides what
amount of fuel to inject. Thus it makes it fuel efficient as it knows what amount of petrol should
go in. To make things more interesting, the system also learns from the drivers driving habits.
Modern car’s computers have memory, which will remember your driving style and will behave
in a way so that you get the desired power output from engine based on your driving style

Power plants
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Power plant is the place where electricity produced using some conventional or
nonconventional energy sources. Based on the source of energy power plants are classified into
different types. See table

Sources of energy Power plant Prime mover

Coal (Fossil Fuel) Thermal power plant Steam turbine
Hydro energy Hydel power plant Hydraulic turbine
Nuclear Fuel (U215) nuclear power plant Steam turbine
Natural gas Gas turbine power plant Gas turbine
Diesel oil Diesel engine power plant I.C. Engine(C.I. Engine)

Thermal or steam power plants

The fuel used in thermal power plant is coal. By burning this coal steam produced in the boiler.
Steam is utilised to drive the steam turbine which are coupled directly to the electric
generator.

Fig below shows the layout of modern thermal power plant. Coal is stored in the coal storage
yard from which we are transferring coal to boiler for producing steam. Ash produced after
burning coal is transferred to ash storage yard. The steam from the boiler is passed through
turbine. At this stage steam will be at superheated stage(steam above 100˚c )the steam from
the turbine is then passed through the condenser. Here steam is condensed to water. This
condensed water again pumps back to the boiler using a pump. Cooling water is circulated
around the condenser for cooling

The flue gases(smoke and other gases) from the boiler is initially passed through an
economizer in which heat energy of flue gas utilised for preheat the water. Also this flue gas
passes through air pre heater for heating the supply air to the boiler (for combustion oxygen is
required). After that flue gas is going out through chimney. Initially this intake air from
atmosphere, is preheating to improve the efficiency of combustion process and intake water
also pre heating to improve the efficiency of boiler. Economiser is equipment used to
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pre heat intake water to boiler using flue gas.

Diesel engine power plant

The diesel burns inside the engine and the combustion process causes rotational mechanical
energy that turns the engine shaft and drives the alternator. The alternator in turn, converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy. Usually diesel plants in the range of 2 to 50 MW
capacities are used.

Components of diesel power plant

Engine: it is the main component of power plant this engine basically an IC engine directly
coupled with an alternator for producing electricity.

Air supply system: for providing the oxygen required for burning, atmospheric air is used. Air is
drawn through an air filter and supplied to the engine. Air filters required for removing dust
and impurities.
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A system provide for supplying compressed air which used to start the engine.

Exhaust system: this include silencer and exhaust manifold. After combustion smoke and
burned particles removed from engine through this exhaust system .silencer provided in order
to reduce the noise

Fuel system: diesel fuel stored in a storage tank. This tank mainly located outside the power
plant. fuel from this tank is pumped to an all day tank through a filter. the fuel from day tank
flows under gravity to the engine. Fuel injector is used to inject the required amount of fuel into
the cylinder.

Cooling and lubrication: proper cooling is required to extend the life of the plant. In small
engine air cooling is sufficient. But in large engine water or oil cooling system is employed.
Water the water is circulated through lubricating oil cooler and through water jackets is passes
through a heat exchanger and is re-circulated again

The function of this system is to reduce the friction between moving parts in order to reduce
wear and tear of engine parts. lubrication system includes oil pump, oil tank, filter, and
connecting tubes

Advantages and disadvantages of diesel power plant

It is more efficient than thermal power plant. Design and construction are easier and less
expensive. It can start quickly. Compared to other plants, it is having less maintenance. Here
fuel handling and waste removal is very simple. Space requirement is less. Also cooling water
requirement is less than thermal or nuclear plant

Disadvantages

Life of diesel plant is comparatively less. Heavy noise generated from diesel engine. Lubrication
cost is higher. It is not economical where fuel has to be imported.
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Gas turbine power plant

The three main sections of a Gas Turbine are the Compressor, Combustor/combustion chamber
and Turbine.

Air from atmosphere is enters into the compressor. During continuous operation the impurities
and dust in the air deposits on the compressor blades. This reduces the efficiency and output of
the plant . The Air Filter in the Air Intake system prevents this.

The compressor sucks in air form the atmosphere and compresses it to high pressures. This
compressed air is enters to the combustion chamber. The air from the compressor is the
Combustion air. Burners arranged circumferentially on the combustion chamber control the
fuel entry to the chamber. The fuel is mixed with compressed air and burns. The hot gases in
the range of 1400 to 1500 °C leave the chamber with high energy levels. The chamber and the
subsequent sections are made of special alloys and designs that can withstand this high
temperature.

The turbine does the main work of energy conversion. The kinetic energy of the hot gases
rotates the blades and the shaft. The exhaust gases then exit to atmosphere .The gas
temperature leaving the Turbine is in the range of 500 to 550 °C. The gas turbine shaft connects
to the generator to produce electric power
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Nuclear power plant

Nuclear power is produced by controlled nuclear reactions (nuclear fission). Commercial and
utility plants currently use nuclear fission reactions to heat water to produce steam, which is
then used to generate electricity. The fission process occurs in a vessel called reactor. The heat
produced in the reactor is transferred to boiler

Two types of reactor system commonly used for power generation. They are pressurized water
reactor and boiling water reactor.

In PWR (pressurized water reactor) heat from the reactor is transferred to pressurized fluid
which is passing through closed pipe line. And water in the boiler is boiled using the heat from
this pressurized water.

In BWR(boiling water reactor) the heat from the reactor is directly used to boil the water.
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pressurized water reactor boiling water reactor

Advantages:

Nuclear power plant is more economical compared with thermal plants where coal field is far
away. Manpower requirement is less. Therefore cost of operation reduced. Nuclear plant
occupies less space than thermal power plant, which reduces the cost of civil construction

Disadvantages

Handling should be very careful. There is a danger of nuclear radiation. Disposing the
radioactive waste is very difficult it has to be operated at full load throughout for good
efficiency.

Fuels and their properties

Fuels are chemical substances which may be burned in oxygen to generate heat. Energy stored
in the fuel as chemical energy. By burning the fuel this energy can extract in the form of heat.
The fuels mainly consist of carbon and hydrogen and sometimes a small amount of sulphur or
minerals.

Fuels broadly classified into

1. Solid fuel: coal, coke, wood etc

2. Liquid fuel: petrol, diesel, kerosene etc
3. Gaseous fuel: natural gas, producer gas, bio gas, methane etc
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Energy released from fuel by combustion, which is a redox reaction in which a combustible
substance releases energy after it ignites and reacts with the oxygen in the air.

Some Properties of fuels

Calorific value: The calorific value of a fuel is the quantity of heat produced by its combustion -
at constant pressure and under "normal" conditions. Its unit is KJ/Kg. Calorific value of some
fuels are given in the table below

coal Butane Charcoal Diesel Ethanol petrol Methane

17,000 - 49,510 29,600 44,800 29,700 47,300 55,530
23,250

Octane number is the measure of the ignition quality of petrol. An octane number is a number
which reflects a fuel's resistance to knocking. Knocking occurs when fuel combusts prematurely
or explodes in an engine, causing a distinctive noise which resembles knocking, rattling, or
pinging. Engine knock is undesired, as it can cause damage to the engine, and it indicates that
the engine is not running as efficiently as it could be.

Cetane number or CN is a measurement of the combustion quality of diesel fuel during

compression ignition. Cetane number or CN is actually a measure of a fuel's ignition delay; the
time period between the start of injection and start of combustion (ignition) of the fuel. In a
particular diesel engine, higher cetane fuels will have shorter ignition delay periods than lower
cetane fuels. Generally, diesel engines run well with a CN from 40 to 55.

The flash point of a volatile liquid is the lowest temperature at which it can vaporize to form an
ignitable mixture in air.

The auto ignition temperature or kindling point of a substance is the lowest temperature at
which it will spontaneously ignite in a normal atmosphere without an external source of
ignition, such as a flame or spark. This temperature is required to supply the activation
energy needed for combustion.

The pour point of a liquid is the lowest temperature at which it will pour or flow under
prescribed conditions. It is a rough indication of the lowest temperature at which oil/fuel is
readily pumpable. If the temperature is lower than pour point fuel will gets freeze.

Coal

Coal is our most abundant fossil fuel resource. Coal is a complex mixture of organic chemical
substances containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in chemical combination, together with
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smaller amounts of nitrogen and sulfur. Coal is a combustible black or brownish-

black sedimentary rock normally occurring in rock strata in layers.

Coal, a fossil fuel, is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide, as
well as one of the largest worldwide

Types of coal

 Peat, considered to be a precursor of coal, has industrial importance as a fuel in some

regions, Lignite, used almost exclusively as fuel for electric power generation.
 Sub-bituminous coal, whose properties range from those of lignite to those of bituminous
coal are used primarily as fuel for steam-electric power generation.
 Bituminous coal, dense sedimentary rock, black but sometimes dark brown, and dull
material, used primarily as fuel in steam-electric power generation, also used for
making coke
 Steam coal is a grade between bituminous coal and anthracite, once widely used as a fuel
for steam locomotives
 Anthracite, :a harder, glossy, black coal used primarily for residential and commercial space
heating
 Graphite : it is difficult to ignite and is not so commonly used as fuel: it is mostly used in
pencils and, when powdered, as a lubricant.

LSHS (Low sulphur Heavy Stock)

During distillation of petroleum, fuels are separated from the petroleum. Some of these fuels
are known as distilled fuels and some are known as residual fuel.
Low Sulphur Heavy Stock (LSHS) is a residual fuel processed from crude oil(petroleum). The
main property is in the form of higher calorific value and lower sulphur content in LSHS.

The main advantage in the use of LSHS lies in its low sulphur content. The life of equipment
used is extended, since the corrosion is reduced very much. Apart from that, it is also
advantageous from the environmental pollution point of view. Because it will emit lesser
quantity of sulphur dioxide.

Calorific Value - The gross calorific value of LSHS is more than that of Furnace oil. So, the
consumption of fuel oil will be reduced with the usage of LSHS.

Viscosity - LSHS is a low viscosity fuel oil at handling temperature when compared with Furnace
oil. It is measured at 100OC.
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FO(Fuel Oil)

Fuel oil is a derivative from petroleum. There are two basic types of fueloil: Distillate fueloil
(lighter, thinner, better for cold-start) and Residual fueloil (heavier, thicker, more powerful,
better lubrication). Often, some distillate is added to residual fuel oil to get a desired viscosity.
They are only used for industrial and marine applications because, although fuel oil is cheaper
than diesel oil, it is more difficult to handle (must be settled, pre-heated and filtered, and leave
a sludge at the bottom of the tanks). Distillate fuel oils are similar to diesel oil. Residual fuel oil
consists of semi-liquid phase with dispersed solid or semi-solid particles

LNG

Natural gas is a type of fossil fuel. It is found mainly in coal beds. During coal mining this gas
comes out. This gas collected and stored in liquid state is known as liquefied natural gas.

Liquefied natural gas or LNG is natural gas (predominantly methane, CH4) that has been
converted temporarily to liquid form for ease of storage or transport. Liquefied natural gas, or
LNG, is natural gas that has been super cooled to minus 162 degrees Celsius. At that
temperature, natural gas condenses into a liquid. When in liquid form, natural gas takes up to
600 times less space than in its gaseous state, which makes it feasible to transport over long
distances.LNG is odourless, colourless, non-corrosive and non-toxic. Its weight is less than one-
half that of water. Natural gas is the world’s cleanest burning fossil fuel and it has emerged as
the environmentally preferred fuel of choice.

Compressed natural gas (CNG) is often confused with liquefied natural gas (LNG). While both
are stored forms of natural gas, the key difference is that CNG is gas that is stored (as a gas) at
high pressure, while LNG is in uncompressed liquid form

HSD(High Speed Diesel)

HSD is normally used as a fuel for high speed diesel engines operating above 750 rpm i.e. buses,
lorries, generating sets, locomotives, pumping sets etc. Gas turbine requiring distillate fuels
normally make use of HSD as fuel.

Bio Fuel
fuels which are derived from biomass is known as bio fuel.bio mass energy is an indirect form of
solar energy. In this solar energy transformed in to chemical energy by photosynthesis. Wood
and agricultural residue etc are examples for biomass.

Bio diesel
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Bio-diesel is a fatty acid of ethyl or methyl ester made from virgin or used vegetable oils (both
edible and non-edible) and animal fats

Biodiesel is made from vegetable and animal oils and fats. Biodiesel cannot be made from any
other kinds of oil (such as used engine oil).

Chemically, oils consist of three long-chain fatty acid molecules joined by a glycerine molecule.
The biodiesel process uses a catalyst (KOH or NAOH) to break off the glycerine molecule and
combine each of the three fatty-acid chains with a molecule of methanol, creating mono-alkyl
esters, or Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAME) this FAME is the biodiesel. The glycerine sinks to the
bottom and is removed.

This process is called transesterification. Normally due to the cost benefit oil from seeds of
jetropha plants are used for making bio diesel.

Bio gas
Biogas typically refers to a gas produced by the biological breakdown of organic matter in the
absence of oxygen. Biogas is produced by anaerobic digestion or fermentation of biodegradable
materials such as biomass, manure, sewage, municipal waste, green waste, plant
material and energy crops. This type of biogas comprises primarily methane and carbon
dioxide.

The slurry(mixture of biomass, waste etc) is entering to the digester tank through the inlet
pipe.The anaerobic digestion takes place in the digester tank (see fig). a mixture of methane
and carbondioxide etc are produced and stored in the storage tank above the digester tank.
The remaining things containg nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium etc which can be used as
a fertiliser.
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composition of biogas

Compound methane CO2 Nitrogen hydrogen Hydrogen oxygen

sulphide
% 50–75 25–50 0–10 0–1 0–3 0

Bio gas mainly used for cooking and also used for electricity production. also used for domestic
lighting and power generation

Solar power plants

Solar power plants converting solar light into electricity. Based on the conversion method we
can classify solar power plants into solar photo voltaic and solar thermal power plants.

Solar photovoltaic power stations using the silicon photovoltaic cells for converting solar energy
into electricity. Solar thermal power plants using concentrators made by mirror to focus the
energy at a point.

Solar cells are made up of semi-coductors that generate elelctricity on absorbing light. These
cells made up of silicon.the electricity produced in the solar panel will be DC. The electricity
produced is stored in a battery. From this battery we will get DC out put . by using an inverter
we can convert DC into AC.
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Components of Solar photo voltaic Power Plant

1. Solar Panel: converting the sunlight into electricity.

2. Electric System:

Setting and controlling of transfer of electricity from the solar panel to the load
Storing electric current generated by the solar panel before used to drive the load.

Solar thermal power stations

In this power plant, solar collector is a highly polished metallic surface of parabolic
shape is used. The sun rays will be reflected towards the focal point of the parabola. At
the focal point a tube is kept so that when the fluid is passed through a temperature rise
from 250-500 degree Celsius is obtained. This hot fluid used to produce super heated
high pressure steam in steam generator, which is used to run the turbine.
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In many applications instead of parabolic collector, a flat plate collector is used. This is mainly
using in solar water heaters.

Wind power plant

wind turbine is a device that converts kinetic energy from the wind into mechanical energy. If
the mechanical energy is used to produce electricity, the device may be called a wind
generator or wind charger. If the mechanical energy is used to drive machinery, such as for
grinding grain or pumping water, the device is called a windmill or wind pump.

There are two type of wind power plant: HAWT and VAWT

Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the
top of a tower, and must be pointed into the wind.these rotors or blades having thin cross
section . the energy in the moving air is converting into mechanical energy due to the dynamic
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action of wind. This mechanical energy transferred to the generator through a gear box. Most
have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the blades into a quicker rotation that is more
suitable to drive an electrical generator

Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically. Key
advantages of this arrangement are that the turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind
to be effective. The key disadvantages include the low rotational speed with the consequential
higher torque and hence higher cost of the drive train. VAWT are of two type: Savonnius type
and Darrieus type. In the picture Darrrieus type wind mill is shown. In this 3 blades are curved
and attached to a hub on the vertical shaft.

Advantages of wind power plants are it freely available, non polluting . it avoids fuel and its
transportation. Unlike solar energy . it is available both during day and night. No operator is
required.

the disadvantages of wind energy is fluctuating and available in small quantity. Large areas are
needed for installation. The cost of installation is high. These systems are noisy in operation

Tidal power
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Tide is the periodic rise and fall of the sea water level due to the gravitation attraction of sun
and moon. When the water level of sea above the mean sea level it is called high tide. When
the water level of is below the mean sea level it is called low tide.

The difference in the levels of water during the high and low tide are utilized in operating
hydraulic turbine. A dam is constructed between sea and tidal basin( tidal basin is a body of
water in an area subject to tides whose water level is maintained at a desired level by artificial
means.) hydraulic turbine fixed in the dam as shown in fig.. the level of the turbine and mean
sea level will be same. During high tide water will flow through the turbine from sea to tidal
basin. So turbine will run and generator connected with this is generating the electricity.

During low tide period water will flow from tidal basin to sea through the same water
turbine. This time also the running generator produces the electricity.

The turbine used here is of reversible type means it can be rotated in both cock wise and anti
clockwise direction

Advantages

It is independent of rainfall. It is a non polluting type power plant. It has the capacity to meet
the peak power demand.

Disadvantages

Output is intermittent, due to sea water machineries corrode easily, cost is not favourable
compared to other power plants.
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OTEC
OTEC, or ocean thermal energy conversion, is an energy technology that converts solar
radiation to electric power. OTEC systems use the ocean's natural thermal gradient—the fact
that the ocean's layers of water have different temperatures

Ocean and sea constitute about 70% of earth and hence they act as large storage reservoir of
solar energy. In ocean surface water temperature is about 25 degree celcius and 1 km directly
below, the temperature is about 4 degree celcius. The concept of OTEC is based on this
temperature gradient.

There are 2 different types of OTEC. Open cycle OTEC and closed cycle OTEC. In open cycle, sea
water itself is used as working fluid. The warm sea water will enter into a low pressure
evaporator, and it would vapourise. using this low pressure steam a turbine runs, from which
power extracts.

In closed cycle instead of sea water , a working fluid such as ammonia or propane is used.see
the fig. the ammonia vapourises at 21 degree celcius. This ammonia vapour send to the turbine
for extracting energy from it. The vapour from turbine passsess through a condenser where it
gets condensed using the cold deep sea water.then it is pumped back to the vaporator
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Advantages of OTEC

Energy is freely available from the sea throughout the year.

Disadvantages

Efficiency is very low, about 2.5% as compared to 30-40% efficiency of conventional plants. Also
it required high initial investment

Geo thermal power plant

Geothermal energy is the energy from earth’s interior. Energy is present as heat in the earth’s
crust.

The geothermal fluid is nothing but water containg dissolved minerals and salt inside the earth.
This water gets heated by magma and become less dense. This fluid is present in the reservoir
rocks. This fluid can taken out through a vent or tube. The fluid coming out through these vent
is either in the form of steam or in the form of hot fluid. The system utilizing the steam is
known as vapou dominated system and system using the hot fluid is known as liquid dominated
system. These fluid passes through a turbine which runs a generator.
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Advantages : it is cheaper than other energies. It is a renewable energy source and hence non
polluting. Energy is available throughout the year.

Disadvantages: drilling operation is noisy. The steam and hot water coming out may contain
other poisonous gases like CO2, H2S, NH3 etc. so there is a chance for pollution. Overall
efficiency of geothermal power plant is low.